PHYS 436 Modern Physics - Assignment 2

February 4, 2018

Describe your reasoning for each answer using both words and equations. I strongly encourage
discussions with peers (and me) about the physics of these problems and how to approach them. However,
you must perform all calculations and write up your solutions on your own. You do not need to re-derive
results from this class, the book, other subjects (e.g. E & M), or previous assignments. Please do look this
kind of thing up (books, google, wiki, or ask me), but make sure to quote your source, because science.
No, the points do not add up to 100. Except by accident. Bonus points are of course optional!

Skills
• Generalize H-atom properties to a larger nuclear charge: single electron, 2 electron approximation.

• Quantize single-particle states in 2 dimensions.

• Create normalized, multidimensional, multiparticle wavefunctions from single-particle states with

appropriate overall symmetry for bosons and fermions.

• Create multiparticle wavefunctions from non-orthogonal basis states.

• Include spin in multiparticle wavefunction, and ensure the appropriate overall symmetry for bosons
and fermions.

Systems
• High-Z nucleus with one and 2 electrons: radius, energy levels.

• Photons in a 2D box with clamped boundary conditions: wavefunctions, k-vectors, energies.

• Generic single-particle orbitals having a non-zero overlap, multiple electrons (spin-1/2) with Coulomb
interactions.

Warmup
1. Uranium

(a) (10 points) Estimate the diameter aU of an almost fully-stripped uranium atom (i.e. containing
one electron) in its ground state. What is the ground state energy for this atom? In what size
cube (3D infinite square well) would one have to confine a free electron such that its ground
state kinetic energy is comparable to the binding energy of this atom? Consider why this length
scale is comparable to aU .
(b) (5 points) Roughly estimate the energy of the ground state with two electrons (maybe use
helium’s correction as a guide?). Is its radius larger or identical to the single electron case?
Why?

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Photons in a box (problem only seems long because it’s broken into small bites)
2. Consider a two-dimensional box of length L and width W with mirrored inner surfaces, such that the
electric field is zero unless 0 < x < L and 0 < y < W .

(a) (5 points) By separation of variables, show that the classical free space wave equation for the
electric field Ψ
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∇2 Ψ(x, y, t) − 2 ∂t2 Ψ(x, y, t) = 0
c
(where c is the speed of light) can be written as

∂x2 φ(x) = −kx2 φ(x)

∂y2 ψ(y) = −ky2 ψ(y)
∂t2 f (t) = −k 2 c2 f (t)

with k 2 = kx2 + ky2 and the linear (massless!) dispersion relation ω = c|k|. Quietly ponder how
very different this is from that of a free massive particle (ω ∝ |k|2 ).1
(b) (5 points) Let’s assume that this wave equation describes the location of a single, bosonic “par-
ticle” of light (i.e., a “photon”). Write down the normalized single-particle spatial wavefunctions
φm (x) and ψn (y) where m and n are integer quantum numbers.
(c) (5 points) Ignoring all but the ψ(y) equation, write down a normalized two-particle ground state
wavefunction Ya (y1 , y2 ) that is antisymmetric.
(d) (10 points) Keeping this antisymmetric dependence on y1 and y2 , write down the lowest-energy,
2-particle total wavefunction (normalized) having the form

Ψ(x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , t) = Ya (y1 , y2 )X(x1 , x2 )f (t).

and solve for the frequency ω. Hint: You should be able to just write down the wavefunction.
The frequency then comes from the 2-particle wave equation.
(e) (5 points) Fun begins: If the “extra” dimension (y) is somehow totally hidden from any available
measurement or modification apparatus, we might be inclined to think of this box as one-
dimensional. In this case, what would we conclude about particles having this hidden “internal”
state Ya ? Bosons? Fermions? Distinguishable? Why?
(f) (5 points) Similar to a massive particle, the momentum of an individual photon is p = ~k, and
its energy is ~ω. Recall thatp according to special relativity, the energy of a particle with mass
m and momentum p is E = p2 c2 + m2 c4 . With this in mind, if we are living in the universe
described in 2e and can only measure kx and ω of a single photon, what “mass” would we infer
for a photon in the state ψ1 (y)? What would W have to be in order for this particle to have the
same mass as an electron?2
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Does this ponderance help answer any of the open questions I may have asked in the early lectures? :)
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And if a similar argument applies to particles in our universe, why can’t you turn your head and “look” along the extra
dimension(s)? :)
Also note: a Taylor expansion for W  L reproduces the quantum mechanical relationship ~ω = ~2 kx2 /2m that you all
know and love.
Another note: a better boundary condition on y might be continuous (i.e. this dimension is “rolled up”), which would allow
ky = 0, and for photons to exist along x.
Final note: We routinely measure picometers with the interferometers in my laboratory.
Final final note: Return to this problem with periodic instead of clamped boundaries (i.e., a torus). In that case, you should
also recover left/right-moving states and the “usual” “massless” photons. :)

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 Bonus question: If the state of such a universe is in an N -particle antisymmetric state along ŷ,
Ya (y1 , ..., yN ), what effective mass would we infer when paying attention only to one of the particles?
Bonus question: Find an extra dimension or set of dimensions, a differential equation, and / or
“hidden” states (analogous to Ya ) that produce (i) Coulomb repulsion, (ii) spin, or (iii) both, in
addition to mass. $50.

Ferromagnetism from exchange and Coulomb repulsion

3. In a solid, the outermost electron orbitals of each atom overlap with those of neighboring atoms.
Suppose the outermost single-particle (spatial) orbital of an isolated atom3 , φ(x) has energy E0 . If
two such atoms (labeled “L” and “R”) are brought near one another, these orbitals φL and φR will
overlap and some craziness may ensue:

(a) (5 points) If the single particle orbitals φL,R (x1,2 ) are normalized, what is the normalization
constant |A± |2 for the symmetric and antisymmetric two-particle wavefunctions
ψ± = A± (φL (x1 )φR (x2 ) ± φR (x1 )φL (x2 ))?
Please write your answer in terms of the spatial overlap integral α defined as
ˆ 2
α ≡  φL (x)φR (x)dx = |hφL |φR i|2
∗
 


´
(i.e. there should be no signs in your final solution; you’ll thank me for this!).
(b) (10 points) Assuming the Hamiltonian for the system comprises only the atomic potentials ĤAi
for electrons i = 1 and 2 (i.e., the part responsible for the “isolated” atomic orbitals)
Ĥ = ĤA1 + ĤA2
what is hĤi± for the states ψ± ? How different is hĤi± from the case where the atoms are
well-separated?
(c) (10 points) Assuming the Hamiltonian for the system also includes a Coulomb repulsion term
ĤC
Ĥ = ĤA1 + ĤA2 + ĤC
what is hĤi± ? Please write your answer in terms of the overlap α, the “distinguishable particle
Coulomb energy” V defined as
ˆ ˆ
V ≡ dx1 dx2 φ∗L (x1 )φ∗R (x2 )ĤC φL (x1 )φR (x2 )

and the “symmetry correction” or “eXchange term” X defined as

ˆ ˆ
X ≡ dx1 dx2 φ∗L (x1 )φ∗R (x2 )ĤC φR (x1 )φL (x2 ).

Again, identifying these terms early will save a lot of writing. You’ll thank me.
(d) (10 points) The punchline: For electrons, the full wavefunction (including spin) must of course
be antisymmetric. What relationship between E0 , α, V , and X ensures that the electron spins
will be aligned in the ground state? Quietly ponder that, arising entirely from Coulomb repulsion
and this “exchange” business, it may actually sometimes be energetically favorable for spins to
align with each other – at no point did we introduce angular momentum or a magnetic field to
the Hamiltonian!
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Note: I am using one dimension (x) just to reduce the number of integral signs and bookkeeping for this problem. It
does not change the conclusion, and the generalization to 3D is not difficult (except when it comes time to actually solve the
integrals, but that’s just turning a math crank). If this generalization does not seem obvious, come pester me or a TA!

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 (e) (0 points) Can you find a situation, e.g. a particular wavefunction and atomic separation in
which this is satisfied? Do you believe in this?
(f) (0 points) It actually doesn’t matter if you do or not. Because iron.4

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Note because of this effect, it’s the conduction (outermost) electrons that are responsible for ferromagnetism in metals
like iron, cobalt, nickel... This means if you run electrical current through this material, it will naturally be spin polarized. So
what then happens if this spin polarized current leaves the ferromagnet and then promptly enters a second ferromagnet that
is magnetized along a different direction? (Answer: 10 years of my scientific career.)