Mobile robotics is an extensive field of research whose main objective is to

displacement of a robot from a point of origin to a certain destination, in order to achieve

This is necessary to take into account the nature of the robot used, the environment in which

it will move and therefore the optimal route to reach the final position. Among the mobile

platforms traditionally used in mobile robotics tasks are the robots based on locomotion systems

using wheels or tracks, steals based on legs (both anthropomorphic and animal), aerial robots and

submarine robots. There is a last type of mobile platform whose locomotion system is based on

the deformation of their own structure, such as the snake, caterpillar and worm robots. The

control of this type of system presents great difficulty due to its high degree of redundancy, but

as counterpart makes them highly flexible and adaptable. The objective of the present text is the

study of the various options available at the time of control this type of robots, checking the

effectiveness of the algorithms to produce the and the design and manufacture of an autonomous

physical prototype of low cost where to implement them This work is structured in several

epigraphs: in the first one it is exposed the motivation of the use of snake robots, the following

specific mechanisms of locomotion are detailed the third section, the design considerations used

for prototype fabrication, and then enumerate the various control algorithms; at The fifth section

gives an example of the application, below in the following two the characteristics of the

developed control software and the simulation used for the validation of mechanical designs and

control algorithms, the eighth and last epigraph reflects the conclusions derived from the project.

1. MOTIVATION

If you study closely the nature of snakes in nature, you can that they successfully populate a

large number of ecosystems, successfully challenges its environment poses in terms of

locomotion and displacement.

Among these environments we can find deserts like Mojave (inhabited by the snake

Crotalus Cerastes "), tropical forests such as New Guinea (inhabited by

morelia pythons "Morelia Viridis"), or even the ones that inhabit marine ecosystems like the

"Laticauda Colubrina" or its own marine cobra of the Indian and Pacific oceans.

1 End-of-Career Project, led by Professor Vicente Feliu Batlle, in 2011, currently completed.

In addition it is necessary to emphasize that they show a great capacity of scalability, since they

can

to find specimens of almost all sizes from the "Leptotyphlops Carlae" which measures so

only 10 cm, to the "Eunectes Murinus" or anaconda capable of measuring up to 12 meters

length.

As indicated in (Dowling, 1997: 6) the advantages offered by serpentine locomotion versus

other classic platforms consisting of wheels or legs are the following:

 Ability to travel through narrow spaces.

 very low center of gravity location.

 high static and dynamic stability.

 Great traction.

 Adaptability to a variety of terrains.

 High redundancy.

 Possibility of fully sealed mechanisms.

All these characteristics make this type of robot perfect candidates to perform

tasks ranging from space exploration to endoscopic surgery, through

industrial applications such as pipe system inspection.

2. LOCOMOTION MECHANISM.

Based on the fact that the main source of inspiration for the design of robots based on

serpentine locomotion are the animals that move using ripples

body as snakes or caterpillars, it is necessary to unravel how they manage to move

These animals.

The first studies on the serpentine movement were carried out by the doctor

Shigeo Hirose of the Tokyo Institute of Technology, whose results are compiled in

(Hirose, 1993).

The most important contribution of this work is the discovery and analysis of the curve

serpentine, which is exactly the form snakes take in their displacement. By

definition the serpentine curve is one whose angle of curvature varies sinusoidally with the

distance along the curve.

Therefore the curvature is given by the equation:

-2πk 2πk

K (s) = αsin s

ll

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

1.

Where:

l: Curve length

s: Distance along the curve, s Є [0,1]

k: Number of undulations, k> 0

α: Winding angle, α Є [0º, 121º]

The parameter α or meandering angle is defined as the angle that forms the tangent to the curve

which passes through the point s = 0 and determines the shape of the curve. The effect of this

angle

can be seen in figure 1

Graph 1. EFFECT OF α IN THE FORM OF THE CURVE

Source: self made

Also an alternative definition for the curvature of the curve is the rate of change of the vector

unit tangent to the curve o:

dα

K (s) = ds

2.

Where the parameter αs is defined by:

2πk

α = αcos s

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.
3.

From this curve it is immediate to define the serpentine wave as an extension of the

serpentine curve, but dependent in addition to the temporal variable, obtaining the following

equation:

2πk 2πk

K (s, t) = - αsin t + s

ll

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

Four.

The Cartesian coordinates of the points of the wave will be obtained as follows:

2πk

x (s, t) = cos αcos t + s ds

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.
(I.e.

5.

2πk

y (s, t) = sin αcos t + s ds

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

(I.e.

6.

The integrals of equations [5] and [6] have no analytical solution and must be solved

numerically, (to be discussed later).

So far the serpentine wave has been defined, but using a single wave only

you can perform forward and reverse shifts in a single direction, similar to

as the caterpillars move. It will be seen later that this type of displacement results

very effective for the inspection of conduits that do not have elbow sections.

To achieve displacements in three dimensions it is necessary to combine two serpentine waves

transversely, one of them contained in the XY plane and another contained in the XZ plane,

through this wave overlap, the four main modes of

displacement of snakes: in concertina, lateral movement, serpentine movement and

rectilineal movement

3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.

As a consequence of the previous results to realize the design of the prototype they had

different factors:

• Need for joints with two degrees of freedom or reconfigurable modules.

• Need for ratio number of joints / long length

• Use of commercial devices for rapid development

• Decrease of budget to the minimum necessary

At the time of making the robot was chosen the choice of a modular architecture, as it results

less complex to design than a system composed of motorized joints of two

degrees of freedom, and also allows the use of modes of displacement based on both

in one as in two serpentine waves

With respect to the ratio of joints / length, this is important in design since

the more closely the behavior of the robot (discrete model) will approach the waves

serpentines presented as continuous functions

The remaining two design criteria were considered in order to optimize the cost both in time

as in money used in the robot

Figure 1 shows a photograph of the prototype developed

Figure 1. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE PROTOTYPE

Source: self made

5

As can be seen in the photograph the prototype consists of a total of 8 joints, has a

total length of 68 cm and a cross-section of 7.2 x 7.2 cm. In addition the modular design of the

robot allows the joints to be aligned in the same plane or rotated 90º

respect to others (pitch - yaw)

3.1 Performance system

The actuators in charge of the movement of the robot are 8 servomotors model Futaba s3003,

this type of servomotors are usually used in aeromodelismo and represent an alternative

more economical than other variants of exclusive use in robotics, its technical characteristics

more

relevant are:

• Power supply voltage between 4.8 and 6.0 V

• Torque: 3.2 kg / cm at 4.8 V and 4.1 kg / cm at 6.0 V

• Turning speed: 0.23 sec / 60 ° to 4.8 V and 0.19 sec / 60 ° to 6.0 V

• Dimensions: 40 x 20 x 36 mm

• Weight: 37 g

3.2 Feed system

For the feeding system of the robot we opted for the use of commercial alkaline batteries model

AAA, since they can be found easily in any mall and allow a quick

replacement of spent batteries. Its main characteristics are:

• Rated voltage: 1.5 V

• Electrical charge: 1200 mAh

• Typical volume 3.8 cm3

• Typical weight: 11.5 g

3.3 Sensory system

For robot sensing a wireless camera powered by a battery is used

commercial 9 V alkaline, technical details of the camera are:

• 1/3 CMOS Color Sensor

• TV System: PAL

• Resolution: 380 TV lines.

• Scanning frequency: 50 Hz

• Minimum illumination: 3 lux

• Output power: 50 mw

• Output Frequency: 900MHz-1200MHz

• Approximate weight (camera plus battery): 70g

3.4 Electronics used

For the control of the servomotors it is necessary a device capable of transforming the

angular positions calculated by the control computer on the PWM signals used

to control the position of the servomotors, for this task was used a controller card

of servos "Pololu Micro Serial Servo Controller" that presents / displays the following

characteristics:

• Supports up to 8 servomotors

• Dimensions 23.11 x 23.11 x 13 mm

• Resolution 0.5 μs (about 0.05 °)

• Range: 250 - 2750º μs

• Logic power supply voltage: 5 / 16V

• Data line voltage: 0/5 V

• Pulse frequency: 50 Hz

• Supported speeds: 1200/38400 baud (detected automatically)

• Current consumption 5 mA (Average value)

These characteristics, especially its small size and its capacity of communication by port

series make it the ideal controller card to be used in the prototype.

With regard to the communication system between the control computer from which the

robot and the robot itself, a small network composed of two Xbee modules was used, one

connected to the PC and another included in the robot, some of the characteristics of the modules

employees don the following:

• Support ZigBee protocol

• Transmission rate: 20/250 Kbps

• Range 10-75 m

• 2.4 GHz frequency band

• Supply voltage: 2.8 / 3.4 V

• Current consumption: 45 mA

3.5 Mechanical description

For the design of the mechanical part of the robot, the strategy used was the following:

Well known the dimensions of the actuators and the power system were tried to design

those modules guaranteeing interchangeability between them would occupy the least volume

possible to be able to include the largest number of them in a robot with a certain length,

an example of the virtual model developed can be seen in Figure 2

Design, construction and control of a robotic snake (PDF Download Available). Available from:

4. CONTROL ALGORITHMS

As discussed at the end of the section on locomotion mechanisms, solutions to

the equations discovered by Professor Hirose do not present analytical solutions, this

absence of solutions entails the existence of the various alternatives available to control

snake robots.

To coordinate the position of the joints of the robot so that it reproduces the waves

serpentines that guarantee its movement there are several methods, as indicated in (González,

2008: 44-49):

4.1 Manual solution

This method consists in the creation of a table in which they can be grouped by

pairs values of angular positions and temporary instants, so that at every instant

time to know what position the robot joints should adopt, it is simply

uses the table created for this purpose.

The main drawback of this method is time used in calculating the table of positions and

the great difficulty that it presents to make changes in the form of displacement.

4.2 Reverse kinematics

In this case it is a question of applying the same techniques that are used to calculate the angles

must adopt the joints of the manipulator robots to reach the position and

orientation.

In this case instead of taking as reference the base of the robot is taken as reference
module of the end and it moves according to a sinusoidal function.

Although snake robots can be considered as manipulators with a high degree of

redundancy, and with this algorithm the angle tables are automatically generated,

inefficient way of solving the problem due to the high computational cost

Iterative resolution algorithms.

4.3 Sinusoidal Oscillators

This solution has a bio-inspired origin. The existence of patterns-generating centers,

or CGP was first documented by Wilson in his study on lobster flight

(Wilson, 1961: 471-490):

Basically the mode of operation of the CGP consists of "autonomous control modules"

existing in all animals, these modules are responsible for generating the movements

rhythms characteristic of locomotion. In this configuration the stimuli of the brain are not

they would deal directly with the movement, but with the modulation of the CGPs

Although an accurate mathematical model of CGPs in animals carries a large

complexity, a first approximation can be adopted as a function

simple sinusoidal.

In fact the method used to control the robot consists precisely in this, each

module oscillates according to a sinusoidal function and the control of its parameters (amplitude,

frequency and phase shift) is carried out by the user acting as a "brain".

This control system based on sinusoidal oscillators produces a more accurate solution of

which might at first glance be expected, and if one compares the shape of a serpentine wave with

a
simulation obtained for a discrete robot model in which the joints follow this

can be found to produce identical results as shown in

graphic 2.

Graph 2. SERPENTINOID SIMULATION / WAVE COMPARISON

Source: self made

The reason for this coincidence is precisely the fact that the joints obey

a sinusoidal rule fits with the definitions provided by equations [2] and [3]

5. SIMULATIONS DONE

The control algorithm used for locomotion of the robot is based on the oscillators

sinusoidal, specifically in the propagation of two transverse waves along the body

of the robot.

Therefore the mode of movement of the robot will be determined completely by the

choice of the parameters of these waves, some of the possible combinations, and their effects

can be seen in figure 3:

Graph 3. MODES OF DISPLACEMENT

Straight line

Lateral displacement

TO

= 0, ω

= 0, Φ
h

= 0 ΔΦ

=0

Av = 20, ωv = 1, Φv = 60, ΔΦv = 0

TO

= 45, ω

= 1, Φ

= 60, ΔΦ

=0

Av = 45, ωv = 1, Φv = 60, ΔΦv = 0

Circle

Rotation

TO

= 180 / M = 0, Φ

= 0, ΔΦ

h
= 90

Av = 20, ωv = 1, Φv = 60, ΔΦv = 0

TO

= 45, ω

= 1, Φ

= 30, ΔΦ

=0

Av = 20, ωv = -1, Φv = 30, ΔΦv = 90

Source: self made

In the first place the simulation of the mode of displacement in straight line was realized, being

the most

suitable for the movement of the robot into pipes of a diameter similar to that of the robot,

The following results were obtained for a 50 second simulation of

duration:

10

Figure 4. TRAJECTORY TRAVELED FOR STRAIGHTLINE DISPLACEMENT

Source:

own elaboration

Then the lateral displacement simulation was performed for 25 seconds of

where it was found that the efficiency of this mode of

greatest of all possible. This result is not surprising since in nature

snakes move in this way when they have to travel long distances.

eleven In the last place, the modes of displacement corresponding to "circle" and

"Rotation" for 50 seconds of operation, these modes allow the robot to make turns

in the plane, by means of the displacement in circle turns are made with a radius of curvature

controllable but ineffective, and by rotating

a radius of curvature equal to zero but very quickly and effectively.

TRAVELING TRAIL FOR CIRCLE DISPLACEMENT

The simulations were performed using the student version of the V-REP commercial program

(Virtual Robot Experimentation Platform).

V-REP is a simulator that can be used to test and evaluate any type of platform

robotics, both by way of example, and others developed by the user. This is the

case of the robot presented in this article, which was included as part of the test models

offered with the program.

Figure 3 PRINCIAPL SCREEN OF THE V-REP PROGRAM

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION

As already seen, a sinusoidal oscillator based control

serpentine waves, and it is through the combination of these as the serpents move in

nature. It has been achieved through this prototype and its corresponding control system that

the robot executes displacements similar to the way snakes do in their environment

natural. The lateral displacement has been implemented both in the simulators used to

validate the various algorithms as in the prototype of the robot, as can be seen in figure 3
where this type of locomotion is shown in the simulator. This displacement could also be

observed in the demonstration performed with the real prototype

during the days of the first week of robotics in the ETSII of Ciudad Real held in

October 2010.

SIDE DISPLACEMENT

Likewise, the orientation of the modules has been achieved by moving the robot from

analogous to the way caterpillars do; this type of displacement has been applied to the

as shown in Figure 4 showing the operation of the prototype in reality and in the virtual

environment.

CONTROL SOFTWARE

The program developed for a user to control the robot in a simple way has been

created in Visual Basic due mainly to the ease that this language offers.

programming for the elaboration of graphical interfaces, as well as for its simplicity in the

control communication via serial port. The aspect that presents the control interface that sees the

end user is the one that can be observed in

CONTROL INTERFACE

The program automatically handles the choice of wave parameters

serpentines that will follow the joints from the mode of displacement that the

choose from among the options proposed using an intuitive icon system.

Once the scroll mode is chosen, the only parameter that the user must choose is the

speed of movement, being able to stop the robot, to advance or to return as it agrees.

The images captured by the robot camera are shown in the lower right of
the screen and serve as feedback system in the control scheme, as they allow

that the user makes the right decisions. Finally, the program also allows the user to configure all

the parameters of the manual waves, (in case the robot encountered an insurmountable scenario

with the algorithms and preprogrammed), as well as the individual control of each joint; (this

function is very useful for precisely targeting the camera).

CONCLUSIONS

This article has presented the main characteristics of the design and development of a

robot snake, as well as the different existing alternatives for the control of its locomotion.

In addition, it has been possible to manufacture a fully functional prototype using a

budget of less than € 200, where the effectiveness of the control algorithm has been verified

based on sinusoidal oscillations to ensure the movement of the robot