TUGAS KELOMPOK

MATA KULIAH BIOLOGI UMUM

PERTUMBUHAN DAN PERKEMBANGAN MENCAKUP: PEMBELAHAN SEL
MITOSIS, AMITOSIS, DAN MEIOSIS; PERTUMBUHAN HEWAN DAN
TUMBUHAN, PERKEMBANGAN JANIN, DAN FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG
MEMPENGARUHINYA.

Dosen Pengampu: Hadi Suwono

Vivi Novianti

Oleh:

1. M. Anang Dwi Cahyo (160341606102)

2. Firdaus (160341606021)
3. Dewi Safitri (160341606086)
4. Mamik Rizkiatul Laili (160341606051)
Kelas A

JURUSAN BIOLOGI
FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MALANG
MALANG
2016
 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

The story of development encompasses all those things that happens to us

from the moment of conception (which most of us hardly remember) to that final
indignity that mocks us all. In its broadest sense, then, it includes not only the
event of the womb, but our birth, growth, aging and perhaps even our death.

A. Early stages of the embryo

The development begins with fertilization, the fusion of the nuclei off
the egg and the sperm. Fertilization is important because it creates a new
cell, called the zygote, which has two copies of each chromosome. In
addition, it triggers a number of a new metabolic reaction and begins a
reorganization of the contents of the egg cytoplasm.
Next, there is rapid series of mitotic cell divisions called cleavage.
Cleavage divides the zygote into many smaller cells of various sizes while
causing no increase in the overall size of the embryo. Cleavage results in the
contents of the zygote being unequelly distributed among the cells, so the
newly created cells differ in their contents. This is important because gene
activity may be altered by the cytoplasmic environment, thereby giving the
cell a push along a particular developmental path.
During gastrulation, certain groups of the embryo’s cell migrate,
forming three distinct types off cell called germ layers (germ : beginning).
They are the ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. Each will contribute to
specific structures of the body slowly forms. The ectoderm lies on the
outside, an inner endoderm is formed from cells of the yolky vegetal area,
and the mesoderm is derived from the cells that rolled under from the outer
layer. The mesoderm now lies between the ectoderm and endoderm.
Soon after gastrulation some of the newly formed mesodermal cells
form the notochord, a rodlike structure along the length of developing
embryo. The notochord will prompt the development of the brain and spinal
cord (the central nervous system). Under the influence of the notochord, the
overlying ectodermbegins to thicken, forming a neural plate. Soon tissue
starts to build up along each of the long, thickened plaque. After a periode of
enlargement, these two ridges, called the neural folds, lying along either side
of the neural groove, begin to grow toward each other. The margins of the
 folds grow together until their tips touch and finally join and fuse. The result
is a hollow tube lying along the dorsal surface of the embryo. This is early
central nervous system, and it is soon overgrown by ectodermal cells from
the surrounding area so that it comes to lie beneath the skin.
Early Stages of Development
STAGE DESCRIPTION RESULT
Fertilization Fusion of nuclei of egg Creates a cell (zygote) with two
and sperm copies of each chromosome;
activates reaction in the egg
Cleavage Repid series of mitotic Divides the zygote into smaller
divisions cells of varying size, shape, and
activity
Gastrulation Migration of cells Forms three primary green layers
(ectoderm, enddodrem and
mesoderm), each of which will
give rise to specivic tissues

Structures Produced by the Three Germ Layers

GERM LAYER DERIVATIVES
Ectoderm All nervous tissue; epidermis of skin; part of eyes and
ears; hair; feathers; pituitary gland; adrenal medulla
Endoderm Most epithelium of digestive system, of respiratory
system, of ducts of reproductive system, of uretra and
urinary bladder; thyroid, parathyroid and thymus glands;
glands in liver and pancreas
Mesoderm Muscle (all skeletal, most smooth, and all cardiac);
cartilage; bone;blood; kidneys and gonads

EARLY DEVELOPMENT IN THE FROG

1. The First Cell Divisions

In frogs, as in other animals, egg begin drastic changes as soon as it id
fertilized. First, the egg becomes unresponsive to other sperm, even as the
two sets of chromosomes draw together for the first cauntless mitotic
divisions. The genetic material doubles, and virtually identical chromosome
move to opposite poles. Then the cell divides, forming two daughter cell.
The embrio is on its way.
 The first cell divisions are usually at right angles to each other, along
the same vertical axis; the third line divisions is perpendicular to these. In
the case of frog, the third cleavage is somewhat closer to one pole. The third
divisions takes place closer to the more pigmented animal pole because the
relatively large supply of yolk at the other, vegetal pole, resist dividing. The
body axis is determined by the point at which the sperm penetrated at the
egg at fertilization.
As the cells of the embryo continue to divide, they form a cluster, or
ball, of cells called morula. A cavity, the blastocoel, appears within the ball,
which is now called blastula. Because of the unequal distribution of yolk, the
cells are smaller at the animal pole.
2. Gastrulation
Early on the second day after fertilization, another important chance
occurs. At this time, certains cell migrate towards an area in the vegetal
hemisphere. Here, they converge and then begin to roll under the survace of
the embryo, marking the stage called gastrulation, during which the three
germ layers form. Gastrulation, forms a cavity called archenteron, which
will become the digestive tract. The archenteron opens to the outside
through the blastopore. The blastopore forma a curved line an eventually a
circle over the yolky area at what will be the back, or posterior, side of the
embryo. The involution continues, extending its margins, until the crescent
finally becomes a circle. The vegetal area inside this circle is called the yolk
plug and will eventually be enclosed by the expanding layer of the surface
cells around it.
3. Embryonic Regulation
It must be admitted that at this stage of development, its is hard to see
just how this peculiar ball is going to became a frog, but stranger things have
happened. Interestingly, even at this early stage the fate of some cells has
been sealed for hours. In other word they are firmly set on particular paths
that lead to the formation of specific cell types.
However, other cells in the embryo have not yet specialized, and these
can presumably take any of a number of developmental routes. They are so
‘flexible’ thet if they are transplanted to other parts of the embryo, they will
form whatever types of cells their new neighbors happen tobe and become
something entirely different from what they would have formed they not
 been moved. As each hour goes by, through, more and more cells become
committed as their changes take them past the point of no return. This
spelization is known as the differentiation of cells. It is just the
differentiation that gradually, cell by cell, results in the emergence of a new
individual.

BIRDS AND THEIR MEMBRANES

Although the bird’s egg is very large, the aerly embryo is very small; in fact,
the zygote is at first only a disklike germinal spot. Because a bird embryo rest on
the bulky and inactive yolk, cell divisions is limited to the tissue comprising the
germinal spot. Cleavage divides the germinal spot into a two layered embryo called
blastodisc. The blastocoel forms as cavity between the outer cell layer (the
ectoderm) and the lower cell layer (the endoderm). The blastopore, in the chicken
embryo called the primitive streak, does not develop as a crescent, but as a slit
along what will be the body axis. As a result, gastrulation in the birds is somewhat
different than in species with less yolk. The mesoderm is formed as cells from the
upper ectodermal layer roll along the midline of the embryo, forming a new layer
of cells within the former blastocoel.

After the spinal cord is formed, the developing head and tail areas grow so
rapidly that they overlap the tissue below. Each area is composed of an outer layer
of the ectoderm and an inner layer of endoderm. The two layers than form pockets,
one at the head and one at the tail end. These thinned area then rupture and form
the mouth and anus. The characteristic tube within the tube structure of vertebrates
is now complete.

In the meantime, the membrane called the yolk sac, which is composed of
endoderm and mesoderm, grows outward from the embryo over the yolk. Blood
vessels develop in the membrane and will soon be able to carry food from the yolk
to the embryo. Another membrane, called the allantois, begins to grow out of hind
area of the developing gut, forming a receptacle for nitrogenous wastes. The waste
lasen allantois will be left behind when the chick hatches.

As other extra-embryonic membranes develop, they are upward over the

back of the embryo and grow toward each other, finally fusing and enclosing the
embryo in a new, four-walled membrane. The inner two layers will become the
amnion and the outer two the chorion, each consisting of both a layer of mesoderm
and a layer of ectoderm.

The amnion fills with a slippery fluid that acts as a protective shock absorber
and as a lubricant preventing the appendages of the embryo from fusing to the
body. The mesoderm on the outside of the allantoic membrane later fuses with the
mesoderm on the inside of chorion, forming a three-layered chorioallantoic
membrane. This membrane will come to surround the albumen, the egg-white that
lies just under the porous shell. This membrane is then in a position to pick up
oxygen diffusing in through the porous shell and transpot it to the embryo. Carbon
dioxide from the respiring embryo can leave the egg through the same membrane.
As the embryo can leave the egg through the same membrane.

As the embryo continues to develop, it eventually is connected to the yolk

only by a thin stalk through which food passes. In time, the anterior or head, part of
the spinal cord begins to bulge, forming the large lobes of the brain. The mesoderm
on either side of the embryo blocks of somites that will soon form the vertebrae
and large trunk muscles. The mesodermal membranes, in fact, were formed froam
broad, lateral extensions of these somites.

About this time, a large blood vassel underneath the embryo begins to twitch
irregulary and then to pulsate more and more rhythmically. Later, it will loop and
fuse its self, forming the heart. Tiny burges are now forming that will become the
limbs. The brain has continued its rapid growth and now outpockets on either side
to form the great orbs that will be the eyes. Meanwhile, the endoderm begins to
form pockets here and there that will become the highly complex glands and
organs associated with digestion.

A crucial change occurs on the eleventh day. This is the time of rapid
transition, marked by a great eruption of enzymes. Many embryos whose systems
are not quite functioning properly die at this time. After this, if all goes well, the
various systems of the organism will coordinate their activities and begin to
function in even greater harmony.

After about three weeks, the chick will begin the first feeble pecks that will
eventually enable it to break free of its protective shell. When it finally emerges, it
will begin to react to strange and fascinating new experiences. Some respon will be
innate, others will develop as the result of experience. As it grows, it will
constantly adjust to the wonders of its world, adapting, changing, and learning.
Then someone will eat it.

KESIMPULAN

The story of development encompasses all those things that happens to us

from the moment of conception (which most of us hardly remember) to that final
indignity that mocks us all. In its broadest sense, then, it includes not only the
event of the womb, but our birth, growth, aging and perhaps even our death.

Development starts with fertilization which is important because it creates a

new cell, called the zygote, which has two copies of each chromosome. Next, there
is rapid series of mitotic cell divisions called cleavage. Cleavage divides the zygote
into many smaller cells of various sizes while causing no increase in the overall
size of the embryo. During gastrulation, certain groups of the embryo’s cell
migrate, forming three distinct types off cell called germ layers (germ : beginning).
They are the ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. Every kind of animal have their
own way to develop their self.