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Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200

www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

Sedimentation, depositional environment and diagenesis of Eocene

biosiliceous deposits in Gafsa basin (southern Tunisia)
Mohsen Henchiri *

Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Tunis 1060, Tunisia

Received 6 April 2006; received in revised form 6 August 2007; accepted 14 September 2007
Available online 21 September 2007

Abstract

The sedimentary rocks of the Metlaoui Formation in the Gafsa basin (southern Tunisia), which may be grouped in three units: the
basal (Thèlja), middle (Chouabine) and upper unit (Kef Eddour), provide a record of preserved sedimentary, authigenic and biological
processes. This paper presents the findings of sedimentological investigations of the biosiliceous deposits of the middle unit. This unit
contains either well-preserved (Opal-A) or diagenetically altered (Opal-CT, clinoptilolite, quartz and even clays) diatom frustules. Such
diagenetic changes are commonly described in marine and lacustrine biosiliceous deposits. The fossil content of theses diatomaceous lay-
ers implies shallow-marine conditions.
The opal-rich sediments, and the associated facies record the transgressive transitions associated with high organic productivity, prob-
ably enhanced by seasonal input of nutrients, and high sea level stands, and a close association with stratified water column conditions.
The formation of bedded diatomaceous sediments is known to require either high organic productivity or anoxic conditions in bottom/
intermediate water, and eventually both processes. The initial organic content of the biogenic deposits was impoverished in early stages
of sedimentation and diagenesis. A large part of the organic matter could have been destroyed during early diagenetic processes and from
further oxidation in outcrops.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biosiliceous deposits; Diagenesis; Zeolitization; Dolomitization; Gafsa basin; Tunisia

1. Introduction lacustrine environments that are enriched in nutrients,

Gafsa basin is one of the most geologically investigated
areas in southern Tunisia, and the gross distribution of
lithofacies and the general paleogeography of the Eocene
in southern Tunisia are well known. Many studies have
focused on the Eocene phosphorite-bearing series (Choua-
bine member) (Flandrin, 1948; Castany, 1951; Burollet,
1956; Sassi, 1974; Chaabani, 1995, 1999) for their economic
aspects. The Eocene biosiliceous sediments in Gafsa basin,
their sedimentology, diagenesis and depositional environ-
ments have rarely been discussed. The formation of dia-
tom-rich deposits is well known in oceanic, marine or
*
Tel.: +216 98911157; fax: +216 71885408.
E-mail address: mohsenhenchiri@yahoo.fr
either by deep-water upwellings or by inputs of terrestrial
organic compounds supplied by rivers. Marine diatoma-
ceous sedimentation occurs usually in areas of oceanic
upwellings such as the coasts of West Africa (Hay and
Brock, 1992; Murray et al., 1998; Giraudeau et al., 1998;
Pufahl et al., 1998; Berger et al., 1998; DeMaster, 2002),
Peru (Henrichs and Farrington, 1984; Ten Haven et al.,
1990), the North Sea (Brit et al., 1999) and in marine to
low-salinity restricted environments, e.g. the Baltic Sea;
(Jonsson et al., 1990).
Although less well known, another environment of high
diatom productivity associated with confined settings is
reported from some lacustrine studies, modern coastal
lagoons and shallow seas (Ehrlich, 1975; Ehrlich and
Dor, 1985; Owen and Utha-aroon, 1999; Stamatakis and
Koukouzas, 2001; Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002; Bergner

1464-343X/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2007.09.001
188 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200
Fig. 1. Location and geological map of the study area, in the western part of the Gafsa basin, showing the upper Cretaceous to Quaternary sedimentary
rocks.
and Trauth, 2004). Nevertheless, the spatial and strati-
graphic relations between diatomites, phosphates and
evaporites are poorly documented in ancient phosphoritic
basins, except for some south Tethyan Cretaceous and
Messinian basins in the Mediterranean sea and also in
the Pacific Ocean (Hein and Obradovic, 1988). In the Mes-
sinian basins, the main marine diatomite-bearing forma-
tion predates the evaporite deposition and is not
interbedded with evaporites except for some thinner depos-
its reported in Spain, Cyprus and Sicily (Cita et al., 1978;
Gersonde and Schrader, 1984; Mansour, 1991; Riding
et al., 1998; Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002).
The situation is quite different in the southwestern part
of the Gafsa basin (Fig. 1) where marine diatomites predate
thick phosphorite deposits that outcrop along the Metla-
oui, Redeyef, Moularès and Midès highs. The thick phos-
phorite beds are, themselves, interbedded with
marlstones, claystones and siltstones containing various
amounts of biogenic silica. The purpose of this study is
to examine the sedimentological facies, the depositional
environment and the diagenetic aspects of opal-rich sedi-
ments formed in the Gafsa basin.
2. Methods
A Phillips XL20 SEM was used to examine many freshly
broken rock samples to study the texture and petrography
and to obtain additional information on compositional
trends (electron microprobe) and the petrographic types
developed. Chemical analyses were undertaken qualita-
tively with a CAMECA SX51 electron microprobe with
15 kV acceleration potential, 20 nA current intensity and
10-lm-beam diameter, and quantitatively by an ICP-MS.
The samples were checked by X-ray diffraction (Siemens
D500, Cu Ka radiation, 45 kV, 40 mA diffractometer) to
confirm the mineral identity and the crystallinity of the
mineral phases. The d29Si MAS NMR (nuclear magnetic
resonance) spectra were recorded on a Bruker 300 MHz
PM Ultra shield spectrometer at an operation frequency
of 79.5 MHz, with 5-min delay between the pulses in order
to assure complete relaxation. A rotor with a diameter of
7 mm was used. The spinning rate was 3 kHz. Chemical
shifts were measured relative to the d29 Si resonance of tet-
ramethylsilane (Juillet-Leclerc, 1984). Half-width, peak
height, peak area and chemical shift of the signals were
determined by least squares curve-fitting using Lorentzian
functions.
3. Geological and stratigraphic setting
The study areas are Metlaoui, Moularès, Redeyef and
Midès located in the central to southwestern parts of the
Gafsa basin. The sedimentary record of the Gafsa basin
is composed of various lithologically distinctive strati-
graphic successions (Fig. 2). The outcropping sedimentary
rocks range in age from Cretaceous (Jurassic in places) to
Quaternary (Fig. 3). The studied sedimentary rocks belong
to the Metlaoui Formation (Burollet, 1956) and specifically
to the Chouabine Member (Chaabani, 1995). The Choua-
bine Member is overlain by the Kef Eddour carbonates
 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200 189

Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic section of the study area.

Fig. 3. Photographs of the biosilica-bearing Eocene Metlaoui Formation in Gafsa Basin.

190 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200
(Eocene). According to Guasti et al. (2005), the Metlaoui
Formation (Chouabine Member) is of Ypresian age. Other
workers refer to the Metlaoui Group as being early Eocene
(e.g. Beavington-Penney et al., 2005). There is clearly some
controversy about the stratigraphy.
The Eocene Metlaoui Formation (Fig. 4) lies above the
Paleocene series of the El Haria Formation (Burollet,
1956), which consists mainly of olive-green shales interbed-
ded with thin carbonate and moldic limestone beds. The
Metlaoui Fm. is overlain by the upper Eocene Jebs Fm.,
consisting of bedded gypsum/anhydrite with large twinned
selenite crystals (decimetres long) arranged in domal or
palisadic structures, finely and regularly laminated facies
(with planar or undulating lamination) (Henchiri and
Slim-Shimi, 2006).
3.1. The lower unit of Metlaoui Fm.: Thelja Member
This Member is composed of alternations of marl, dolo-
mite, gypsum and shelly and bioclastic carbonate strata
showing oyster buildups and fragmented oyster coquina
Fig. 4. Detailed cross-section of the Eocene Metlaoui Formation.
rudstones and framestones with, in most cases, highly silic-
ified levels. From bottom to top, the series shows at most
10 m of hard-silicified carbonate lenticular beds containing
various amounts of dissolved oyster shells. Upwards, the
series continues with alternating dolomitic and gypsum
beds topped with marl and shale strata. This Member
ranges in thickness from 10 to 20 m.
3.2. The middle unit of the Metlaoui Fm.: Chouabine
Member
This unit, which is 30–50-m thick, is made up of various
facies (shales, marls, bioclastic limestone, phosphate and
diatom-rich facies). The most important facies categories
are the phosphatic and the diatom-rich biosiliceous ones.
Two kinds of phosphate are recognized within the study
area: biodetrital and peloidal phosphorites. Three kinds
of diatomite facies were described: structureless facies, lam-
inated facies and bedded diatomite facies. The general
attributes of the diatomaceous facies class are given in
Table 1.
 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200 191

Table 1
Characteristics and interpretation of the diatomitic lithofacies of the Chouabine Member in the Gafsa basin
Facies Facies Description Trace fossiles Interpretation
category
Diatomite Structureless Whitish low-density sediments and poorly preserved diatom frustules that Unbioturbated Deposition in a storm-
diatomite underwent sever diagenetic transformations; well-crystallized and preserved weather wave base
dolomite rhombs are frequent condition
Laminated The diatomitic-rich laminites aspect is poorly recognizable due to alteration; Unbioturbated Rainout of nannofossils in
diatomite thin and regular lamination as well as the presence of thin layers and nodules highly productive waters
of phosphorites; sharp lower and upper contacts; lamination is locally
discontinuous
Bedded Thickly and bedded, massive diatomitic-rich bed showing dewatering cracks Firmground Deposition between fair-
diatomite and grey to whitish color; the thick beds display superposed sequences some Coscinodiscus; and storm-weather wave
decimetres in thickness composed of laminated diatom-rich sediments grading ghosts and conditions
upwards into green, grey to black marlstones and siltstones that contain lesser borings
amounts of biogenic silica; preserved assemblages of non-keeled, biserial
trochospiral planktic foraminifera

3.3. The upper unit of the Metlaoui Fm.: Kef Eddour
Member
The upper unit is marked by two thick carbonate units,
made up of massive bioclastic dolomitic limestone with
concretionary and travertinic textures. These limestones
contain thin beds with chert nodules and quartz geodes,
which are in turn interbedded with grained phosphate
and micrite concretions. The ultimate phosphate-poor thin
beds are named by miners as ‘‘phosphate of the roof’’. The
total Unit ranges in thickness in the study area from 15 to
25 m.
4. Results and interpretations
of phosphorites. The thicker intercalations display super-
posed sequences some decimetres in thickness, composed
of massive diatom-rich sediments grading upwards into
green, beige to brown marlstones and siltstones that con-
tain lesser amounts of biogenic silica, with the presence
of poorly organized hummocky cross-stratified laminae
(Fig. 5c).
Bedded diatomites (Fig. 5d) appear typically as whitish
low-density sediments, which may be either massive or
indistinctly stratified beds. The bedded diatomites are
either directly in contact with the base of phosphorite beds
or separated from them by beige opal-rich and dolomite-
rich siltstones and marlstones and micrite concretionary
horizons.

4.1. Diatomitic lithofacies 4.2. Fossil content

The biosiliceous deposits can be observed in many
places along the preserved Gafsa basin system, with the
diatomaceous sediments being confined to the middle and
inner shelf facies, whereas the thicker phosphorites units
are located along the Redeyef and Moularess structures
where the diatomite/phosphorite succession unconform-
ably overlies the upper Paleocene. The biosiliceous deposits
form more or less continuous layers and lenses along the
western side of the basin, from Moularès in the North to
Midès at the western end.
The pre-phosphatic and intercalated biosiliceous depos-
its, whose thickness ranges from a few decimetres to more
than 10 m, usually consist of siltstones, claystones and
marlstones containing various amounts of biogenic silica,
and sometimes of relatively pure diatomites. The structure-
less diatomites (Fig. 5a) are whitish low-density sediments
and poorly preserved diatom frustules that underwent
severe diagenetic transformations; they are well-crystallized
and preserved dolomite rhombs are frequently observed
under SEM. The diatomite-rich laminites (Fig. 5b) are
poorly recognizable due to alteration; they display thin
and regular lamination as well as the presence of thin layers
Although the floral composition has not been studied in
detail, the diatom assemblages appear poorly diversified. A
few beds are made up of centric diatoms (Thalassiosira sp.,
Coscinodiscu sp. (Fig. 6a and b). Other beds are made up of
pennate diatoms (Thassionema sp. (Fig. 6c) associated with
other species of this group. The biosiliceous fraction is
dominated by diatoms accessorily associated with silicofla-
gellates, sponge spicules and a few shallow water faunas
(Textularia sp.; Fig. 6d). A comparable alternation of taxa
was observed in thinly laminated diatomites such as in the
Mishash Formation (Soudry et al., 1981). Some layers con-
tain great quantities of Orbulinidae, while calcareous nan-
noplankton and various leaves of marine phanergams
occur locally. In the northern and southern parts of Midès,
the laminated diatom-rich sediments contain some poorly
preserved fish remains belonging to species living in normal
marine conditions under tropical to subtropical climates.
4.3. Mineralogical composition
Bulk mineralogy has been estimated by semi-quantita-
tive X-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 7) and by visual means
192 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200

Fig. 5. Field aspects of the diatomitic-rich deposits. (a) Structureless diatomites; sediments are whitish, low-density and poorly preserved; they underwent
severe diagenetic transformations. (b) Laminated diatomitic rich deposits; the laminated aspect is relatively recognizable due to alteration, laminae can
exposed some cross-stratified structures. (c) Presence of poorly organized hummocky cross-stratified laminae and (d) Bedded diatomites; the whitish grey
diatomitic bed appears cracked and the presence of micrite concretions (MC) indicates the end of diatomite sedimentation; the concretions appear
flattened after the post-depositional compaction and the interstitial dewatering.

under the microscope, essentially for the amorphous silica.
The distinction and the diagnosis of biosilica diagenetic
transitions (opal-A, opal-CT and quartz) have been evalu-
ated using the d29Si MAS NMR. SEM examination has
permitted both the identification of the microfossil content
and the characterisation of the diagenetic changes in silica
composition. Moreover, the SEM observations show that
the percentage of diatoms is commonly higher than that
estimated by the amount of opal-CT in X-ray diffraction.
The amount of opal is highly variable, ranging from a
few percent to layers composed almost exclusively of
opal-A and (or) opal-CT. The clay fraction, which may
reach 5% of the bulk sediment in the silty or marly clay-
stones, is always rich in smectite, associated with minor
and variable amounts of illite and kaolinite. The carbonate
fraction is mainly composed of disseminated dolomite crys-
tals occurring as pore-filling cement (Fig. 8). Different
types of opal-rich deposits can be recognized by macro-
scopic observation, by SEM examination of freshly broken
surfaces and by XRD analysis.
A massive, pure diatomite exclusively composed of opal-
A is observed in the Midès section (Fig. 9a). SEM observa-
 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200 193

Fig. 6. Light microscopy and SEM pictures of biogenic silica-rich sediments. (a) Light microscopy picture of centric diatoms (Thalassiosira sp.). (b) SEM
photograph of centric diatom; frustule assemblage is composed of opal-A. The opal-CT (black arrows) obliterates the majority of frustule pores. (c) SEM
photograph of penate diatoms (Thassionema sp.) and (d) Example of shallow water fauna (Textularia sp.) associated with the biosiliceous sediments;
secondary electron image.

Fig. 7. X-ray diffraction spectrum of representative sample composed of

amorphous silica, opal-CT, tridymite, quartz and dolomite (sample from Fig. 8. Well-crystallized euhedral dolomite crystal occurring as dissemi-
Redeyef). nated rhombs. Electron microprobe analysis (white arrow) shows that
dolomite is near-stoichiometric (with Mg content slightly higher than Ca).

tions show that the diatom frustules underwent neither

strong mechanical breaking, nor strong diagenetic ments resemble diatomites with their whitish colour
transformation. (Fig. 9b), their low density and their massive texture. They
A second type of opal-rich deposits corresponds to sam- contain opal-CT, sometimes with abundant clinoptilolite
ples collected in the Redeyef sections. Usually, the sedi- (Fig. 9c). Previous SEM observations described the succes-
194 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200

Fig. 9. Diagenetic aspects of biogenic silica-rich sediments. (a) Massive, pure diatomite exclusively composed of opal-A, observed in Midès section.
Diatom frustules suffered neither strong mechanical breaking nor strong diagenetic transformations. (b) Opal-rich deposits corresponding to samples
collected in Redeyef sections; severe alteration of diatom frustules with precipitation of opal-CT in frustule pores. The biogenic origin of the sediment
became relatively unrecognizable. (c) Diagenetic dissolution of diatom frustules leading to more hydrated silica gel (black arrow) and the development of
clinoptilolite crystals (microprobe analysis) as diagenetic by-product (white arrow) and (d) Transformation of diatomite into aggregates of spheroids.

sive steps of diagenetic transformation and demonstrated
that the formation of opal-CT is closely related to the ori-
ginal morphology of diatom frustules (Crawford et al.,
2001). Pillars and flanges of cristobalite–tridymite devel-
oped first on and around the areolae of the centric diatom
frustules, leading finally to the complete replacement and
the formation of aggregates of lepispheres (Fig. 9d). The
biogenic origin of the sediment then becomes difficult to
recognize. In contrast, some sediments did not retain the
powdery consistency of an untransformed diatomite, being
slightly indurated. Under SEM, we observed a massive fab-
ric comprising coalescent and imbricated lepispheres of
opal-CT. At an early stage of diagenesis, the centric diatom
frustule surface was coated by fibrillae of Si–Al-dominant
composition (microprobe analysis), which suggest clay
minerals. Stronger diagenetic effects greatly transformed
the frustules, which became almost unrecognisable.
4.4. Diagenetic aspects
In contrast to certain modern shallow environments
where diatom frustules are abundant in waters but not pre-
served in the sediments (Rickert et al., 2002), the series
studied offer examples in which large quantities of diatoms
are fossilised. SEM observations and XRD analysis
showed that the diatom frustules have been subjected to
strong diagenetic transformations similar to those
described in numerous oceanic areas (Inglethorpe and
Morgan, 1992; Barker et al., 1994; Inglethorpe et al.,
1997; Bertaux et al., 1998; Stamatakis and Koukouzas,
2001). It has already been shown that the original morphol-
ogy of the frustules controlled the diagenetic pathways.
Diagenesis started with dissolution of diatom frustules
and proceeded by precipitation of opal-CT within pore
spaces, using the structure of the frustules as support for
the recrystallisation products, and ended in the complete
replacement of biogenic sediment by massive aggregates
of opal-CT lepispheres (Nelson et al., 1995). Generally, it
is thought that physical and chemical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, time and composition of the intersti-
tial fluids (fluids with a pH of marginally >7 will corrode
the diatom frustules), controlled the transformation of
opal-A to opal-CT (Kastner et al., 1977; Riech and von
Rad, 1979; Monty et al., 1991). In most oceanic biosili-
ceous deposits, the transformation is reported in sediments
of various ages that have been submitted to a moderate
 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200
burial depth of several hundred meters and heated to tem-
peratures between 18 and 56 °C (Williams and Crerar,
1985).
4.5. d29Si NMR diagenetic transition diagnosis of biogenic
silica (dissolution–precipitation)
Some mineral phases (with short-range order) are some-
times difficult to detect or to diagnose using conventional
techniques such as powder X-ray diffraction (applicable
to phases with long-range order) due to their relative scar-
city and their short-range order. These mineral phases are
mostly in trace amounts, below the detection limits of this
apparatus. In our case, and according to X-ray analysis,
the monitoring of biogenic silica transitions (opal-A to
opal-CT to quartz) does not reveal much and we cannot
take the resultant data further. We used MAS NMR spec-
troscopy to evaluate the rate of biogenic silica transition
via the process of dissolution-precipitation mechanism by
studying silicon coordinations Qn using d29Si MAS NMR
spectra (Gehlin et al., 2002). The d29Si MAS (magic angle
spinning) NMR spectrum, shown in Fig. 10, is character-
ized by three broad resonances assigned to silanol sites,
with three bridging oxygen atoms at 102.52 ppm reso-
nance Q3 (–(O)3Si(OH)), silanol sites with two bridging
oxygen sites at 94.03 ppm, resonance Q2 (–(O)2Si(OH)2),
and siloxane sites with four bridging oxygen atoms at
111.24 ppm Q4(–O3SiO–). The (Si–O–Si/Si–OH) ratios
(i.e. Q4/(Q3 + Q2)) are lowered due to the pH-controlled
(Schmidt et al., 2001) abundance of hydroxylated Q2 and
Q3 sites. This fact is displayed in resonance intensities
Fig. 10. d29Si NMR spectrum of biogenic silica sample. The three peaks
are from left to right: silanol sites with three bridging oxygen atoms at
102.52 ppm resonance Q3 (–(O)3Si(OH)), silanol sites with two bridging
oxygen sites at 94.03 ppm, resonance Q2 (–(O)2Si(OH)2), siloxane sites
with four bridging oxygen atoms at 111.24 ppm Q4 (–O3SiO–). The
abundance of hydroxylated Q2 and Q3 sites indicates the clear tendency
towards dissolution of diatomaceous and amorphous silica that precedes
the precipitation of new more ordered crystalline mineral phases (i.e. opal-
CT).
195
and reflects a clear tendency towards dissolution of diato-
maceous amorphous silica and the occurrence of hydrated
diatomaceous silica, which is the main component that
ensures the diagenetic transition (Xiao and Kirkpatrick,
1993) via the mechanism of dissolution-precipitation to
other more crystalline silica phases, after the loss of its
hydroxyl groups (water) by heating (burial) (Carroll
et al., 1998, 2002; Schmidt et al., 2001; DeMaster, 2004).
Opal in all its forms lacks sufficient order to be considered
crystalline (Smith, 1998), and modern studies have shown
that opal-A is disordered, but opal-CT contains ordered
domains that mimic stacked sequences of cristobalite and
tridymite sheets such that X-ray patterns show features
similar to crystalline cristobalite and tridymite (Xiao and
Kirkpatrick, 1993; Graetsch and Topalovic-Dierdorf,
1996; Smith, 1998). There is debate on whether the ordered
regions have lost the water that characterizes the opals. In
fact, heating studies have shown that all opals show
changes on heating, characteristic of materials that lose
water in the process (De Jong et al., 1987; Smith, 1998).
The opal-CT phase reflects the first stage of arrangement
of amorphous silica and the tendency toward more ordered
crystalline structure. Moreover, this phase is commonly the
most predominant as suggested by the hydroxylated silicon
sites in the opal matrix. Also, the production of the more
ordered crystalline state of opal-CT is thought to be asso-
ciated with small amounts of dissolved organic matter
(Hinman, 1990), which can affect the silica recrystallisation
reactions and rates and reduce the silica transitions (opal-A
to opal-CT). The distinction between opal phases is some-
how under the detection limits of X-ray apparatus. Never-
theless, these X-ray analyses were complemented by d29Si
MAS NMR investigations (more diagnostic), (Stebbins,
1988), which provides a viable alternative to X-ray diffrac-
tion for mineralogical identification (Stebbins and Farnan,
1989); this method is used to detect the biogenic silica vari-
eties and their diagenetic by-products by checking the d29Si
MAS NMR spectrum of biogenic silica samples.
5. Discussion
5.1. Basin configuration
The depositional environment of adjacent seas is largely
determined by the mechanism controlling the connection
with the neighbouring ocean. In the Gafsa basin, as
revealed by the paleogeographic reconstructions, the open-
ing was not too wide or deep, and was characterized by the
narrow Shemsi sill which was uplifted during strike-slip
motions when the Gafsa major faults were reactivated in
close association with Gafsa basin subsidence. The Shemsi
sill protected the adjacent basins from the direct influence
of the open sea. The consequence is a significant variation
of facies in these basins.
The eastern open sea was a shallow basin (platform)
with average depth of about 100 m; its water mass was lar-
gely unstratified and well oxygenated. The salinity was not
196 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200

high (normal to hyposaline settings), but stagnant stratified
waters could form in some deep depressions in the central
part of the basin where organic matter was probably high
and was preserved in the sediments. During the biosiliceous
sedimentation, the Gafsa basin was characterized by an
estuarine circulation with distinctly stratified water masses,
and the Shemsi sill was about 50 m deep (Fig. 11a). The
limited inflow of sea water contributed to filling the basin
with moderate to lower salinity water that tolerated (Bao
et al., 1999) the accumulation of the biosiliceous deposits
described above (bottom and intermediate water salinity
130& but much denser than the surface water). Mixing
between these two water masses was hampered by the pro-
nounced pycnocline, which acted as a stable chemocline
separating well-oxygenated, nutrient-rich surface water
from stagnant, oxygen-deficient deeper water. The phyto-
plankton (diatoms) productivity, which led to accumula-
tion on the sea floor, was strongly enhanced in the
surface water (Fig. 11b).
5.2. Biosiliceous accumulation and depositional processes
The diatom production lasted as long as the salinity was
not too high. Previous workers (Ehrlich and Dor, 1985;
Noel, 1986; Howell et al., 1988; Kohly, 1998; Owen and
Utha-aroon, 1999; Dezileau et al., 2003) studying modern
Mediterranean sediments stated that diatoms do not sur-
vive salinities of 130&, the value at which gypsum starts
to precipitate. In many modern environments diatom pro-
duction frequently occurs beneath sites of active upwelling
along the western coasts of South America, southern
Africa, and India (Ten Haven et al., 1990; Berger et al.,
1998; Pufahl et al., 1998). In these regions, intense coastal
upwelling provides a supply of nutrients to surface waters,

Fig. 11. Depositional and paleogeographic models and current regime during the deposition of the Chouabine Member biosiliceous sediments.
 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200
resulting in high primary productivities. The phytoplank-
ton (diatom) accumulation within these settings is stimu-
lated by the production of dissolved pore water Silicon
(Si(OH)4) and, hence, the cell Silicon metabolism (Rague-
neau et al., 2002) and the production of biomineralized sili-
ceous frustules are enhanced. Si input in Gafsa basin
during the Eocene is ascribed principally to a volcanic
provenance, as evidenced by Clocchiatti and Sassi (1972)
andBeji-Sassi et al. (2001). The volcanic supply of dissolved
silicon is inferred from most previous studies, such as, for
example, Steinberg et al. (1977).
The biosiliceous sedimentation described above
occurred under permanent marine conditions. The episodic
confined settings were derived mainly from marine waters
and the fossil content confirms this fact. High diatom pro-
ductivity implies an elevated availability of nutrients, for
which a hydrological process can be considered: upwelling
systems or inflow of cool oxygenated marine waters from
adjacent seas. According to literature, a high abundance
of biosilica in sediments may indicate significant upwellings
(Hay and Brock, 1992; Ten Haven et al., 1990; Berger
et al., 1998; Pufahl et al., 1998; Brit et al., 1999; James
and Bone, 2000). In restricted environments, cyanobacte-
rial activity is generally considered as the main cause of
organic production. However, siliceous micro-organisms
are known to be important producers both in nearly nor-
mal marine conditions and confined waters and provide
periodically large quantities of organic carbon for the sea
bottom.
Anoxic conditions, in either intermediate or bottom
waters, have long been considered as the most favourable
mechanism for the preservation of organic matter. Bottom
stagnation was more efficient in the Gafsa basin which was
characterized by accumulation of dense waters. The post-
depositional bacterial activity can explain the absence of
organic matter in the diatomitic sediments, which usually
appear as whitish deposits, a large part of the organic mat-
ter having been destroyed by both early diagenetic pro-
cesses and later oxidation at outcrops.
The intimate association of the biosiliceous sediments
with micrite concretionary horizons suggests that accu-
mulation of the opal-rich sediments was associated with
periods of stratigraphic condensation and low net sedi-
mentation. These concretions precipitated near the sedi-
ment–water interface within the zone of high alkalinity
generated by microbial respiration of the sedimented
organic matter. As shown by Grimm (2000), these con-
cretionary horizons are genetically linked to sediment
starvation associated with a rise or highstand in relative
sea level.
The occurrence of the diatom-rich deposits in the middle
and inner basin explains the absence of tidally generated
sedimentary structures, and suggests that the tidal currents
played a minimal role in biosiliceous sediment redistribu-
tion. The presence of hummocky cross-stratification
(HCS) and the occurrence of shallow water faunas indicate
clearly episodes of storm activity derived from strong west-
197
directed storm winds, and the resulting bottom return flow
and water surge would have participated sufficiently in sed-
iment redistribution.
5.3. Post-depositional processes
5.3.1. Zeolitization
The diagenesis of the biogenic silica is evidenced by clin-
optilolite formation. Clinoptilolites in amounts ranging
between 2& and 19& of the bulk sediment were commonly
observed in opal-CT-rich layers, associated either with
dense clusters of opal-CT spherulites or dissolved frustules
(active silica). It occurs in close association with opal-CT in
cavities and moulds. Clinoptilolites described above are
pervasive among diatomaceous sediments, and occur as
replacements of siliceous frustules and as pore-fillings,
commonly in close association with opal-CT. The close
association of the clinoptilolite with the opal-CT-rich lay-
ers shows that the formation of the two components was
closely related, as also suggested by Berger and von Rad
(1972) who argued that clinoptilolite precipitates in pore
waters with Si/Al ratios lowered by the precipitation of
opal-CT. Clinoptilolite, a zeolite with a high Si/Al ratio,
occurs abundantly together with opal-CT in diagenetically
altered diatom and radiolarian oozes (e.g. Riech and von
Rad, 1979; Bohrmann et al., 1989) and, less often, in
altered cineritic material (Sassi and Jacob, 1972; Mezzetti
et al., 1991).
5.3.2. Dolomitization
Dolomite in the studied samples is present as dis-
seminated rhombs. Crystals are not detrital but indicate
in situ growth during diagenesis of a predominantly biosi-
liceous sediment as displayed by their well-developed crys-
tal faces. Dolomitization is very commonly associated with
biosiliceous sediments. It can be earlier (Dapples, 1979),
concomitant (Jacka, 1974) or later than silicification (Ber-
noulli and Gunzenhauser, 2001). A carbonate precursor
phase is ruled out in this case except for rare planktic
foraminifera. However, the original sediment seems to
have consisted of diatoms, as the rock appears to be
packed with the moulds of their frustules; hence, an addi-
tional external source of calcium and magnesium must
have existed.
The dolomite rhombohedra grew as disseminated rhom-
bs during or locally outlasting biogenic silica dissolution.
Dissolution of silica and precipitation of dolomite could
have been enhanced by high alkalinity of the pore waters,
generated by the microbial respiration of sedimentary
organic matter (Bidle and Azam, 1999), and dolomite pre-
cipitation within these organic-rich sediments is thought to
be enhanced in low-sulphate or sulphate-free (zones of sul-
phate reduction) diagenetic environments (Baker and Kast-
ner, 1981). Dolomitization by sulphate-reducing bacteria is
currently a matter of discussion and may be more impor-
tant than previously thought (Tribble et al., 1995; Cros
et al., 1997; Burns et al., 2000; Mazzullo, 2000; Pufahl
198 M. Henchiri / Journal of African Earth Sciences 49 (2007) 187–200
and Wefer, 2001; Rogers et al., 2004). In this process, two
moles of 2HCO3 are released for each mole of SO42
reduced. Sulphate reduction may promote dolomitization
by (a) removal of SO42 , which may act as an inhibitor of
dolomitization; (b) production of alkalinity; and (c) pro-
duction of NH4þ , which may release adsorbed Mg2+
(Baker and Kastner, 1981).
The absence of significant compaction in the originally
very porous diatomite layer can enhance the shallow sub-
surface dolomite formation, and we may expect that dolo-
mitization was completed at a rather shallow burial depth
(Bernoulli and Gunzenhauser, 2001). The depth of dolomi-
tization in these settings (described above) seems to be con-
strained by two factors: (1) the absence of a significant
carbonate precursor; (2) the diffusion-limited sea-water
source of calcium and magnesium (Baker and Burns,
1985). In fact, the residence time of the sediment near the
surface is crucial when a sea-water source of calcium and
magnesium limits dolomite precipitation, and carbonates
formed in the zone of sulphate reduction and methane oxi-
dation are typically associated with low sedimentation
rates.
6. Conclusion
Detailed sedimentological and geochemical study of the
biosiliceous sediments of the Eocene Chouabine Member
near Metlaoui and Moularès in southern Tunisia has led
to the following conclusions:
(1) The Chouabine biosiliceous Member forms the lower
portion of a transgressive systems tract (TST) that
was deposited over tidal carbonates of the Thèlja
Member. These biosiliceous sediments were deposited
in hydrological systems that were characterized by
both high organic productivity and by stratified
waters with stagnant bottom conditions.
(2) The opal-rich sediments were deposited partially on a
storm-dominated setting in an adjacent sea basin con-
figuration and the depositional environment was lar-
gely determined by the mechanism controlling the
connection with the neighbouring open sea. The pres-
ence of shallow water faunas and hummocky cross-
stratified diatomitic mudstones indicates episodes of
intense storm activity.
(3) The diagenesis of the biosiliceous sediments reflects
strong alteration (loss of original morphology of dia-
tom frustules) due to diagenetic changes of amor-
phous diatomaceous silica to opal-CT and quartz,
leading to more compact, ordered and crystalline sili-
ceous fabrics as reflected by X-ray diffraction and
NMR experiments.
(4) Precipitation of dolomite, as pore-filling cement
during or locally outlasting biogenic silica dissolu-
tion, could have been enhanced by high alkalinity
of the pore waters generated by the microbial respira-
tion of sedimentary organic matter. Dolomite
precipitation within organic-rich sediments is thought
to be enhanced in low-sulphate or sulphate-free
environments.
(5) The paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the biosili-
ceous and associated facies in the Gafsa basin provide
a stratigraphic and genetic foundation for other stud-
ies in the same area. What is needed is a further refin-
ing and understanding of the depositional settings.
Acknowledgements
I thank all of the Gafsa Phosphate Company geologists
who assisted with this study. Helpful comments on the
MAS NMR results were provided by Jonathan F. Steb-
bins. Special thanks to Dr. Emmanuelle Arnaud (Guelph
University Canada) for her fruitful revisions.
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