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Abstract
New cases of osteonecrosis of the femoral head in the United States number Some factors are believed to pro-
between 10,000 and 20,000 per year. This disease usually affects patients in duce direct damage to osteocytes;
their late 30s and early 40s. Although a number of authors have related specific others are thought to increase the
risk factors to this disease, its etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment remain a risk of osteonecrosis when associat-
source of considerable controversy. This disorder has been associated with corti- ed with an underlying disease
costeroid use, substance abuse, and various systemic medical conditions. Either process. Approximately 10% to
direct damage to osteocytes (e.g., by toxin production) or indirect damage (e.g., 20% of cases have no clearly identi-
due to disorders in fat metabolism or hypoxia) may lead to osteonecrosis. fiable risk factor and are classified
Patients at increased risk for osteonecrosis should be monitored closely. as idiopathic osteonecrosis.
Unfortunately, most cases are diagnosed in an advanced stage of disease, when Most etiologic factors in atrau-
minimally invasive surgical procedures are no longer helpful. Furthermore, matic osteonecrosis are related to
patients in the advanced stage of the disease must undergo total hip replacement underlying pathologic conditions
at a young age, which carries a poor long-term prognosis. that alter blood flow, leading to cel-
J Am Acad Orthop Surg 1999;7:250-261 lular necrosis and ultimately to col-
lapse of the femoral head. This
damage can occur in one of five
vascular areas around the femoral
Osteonecrosis of the femoral head femoral head is attributed to head, classified as arterial extraos-
is not a specific diagnostic entity, Freund. seous, arterial intraosseous, venous
but rather the final common path- In 1962, Mankin and Brower 5 intraosseous, venous extraosseous,
way of a series of derangements described 27 cases of osteonecrosis.
that produce a decrease in blood Since then, there has been a steady
flow, leading to cellular death increase in the number of cases of
within the femoral head.1 osteonecrosis reported annually. Dr. Lavernia is Associate Professor of
Necrosis of the femoral head is a Its incidence is estimated to be Orthopaedic Surgery and Biomedical
Engineering and Director, Division of Arthritis
progressively debilitating lesion, between 10,000 and 20,000 new
Surgery, University of Miami School of
which usually leads to the destruc- cases per year in the United States.1 Medicine. Dr. Sierra is Research Fellow,
tion of the hip joint in patients Division of Arthritis Surgery, University of
between 20 and 50 years of age Miami. Dr. Grieco is Research Fellow,
(mean age at presentation, 38 Etiology and Pathogenesis Division of Arthritis Surgery, University of
Miami.
years).1 In most cases, diagnosis is
made at advanced stages of the A number of clinical conditions,
One or more of the authors or the institution
disorder (Fig. 1), when femoral both traumatic and nontraumatic, with which they are affiliated has received
headÐconserving surgical treat- have been associated with osteone- something of value from a commercial or other
ment is no longer indicated.2-4 crosis of the femoral head (Table 1). party related directly or indirectly to the sub-
This condition was first de- A disruption of blood flow to the ject of this article.
scribed by Alexander Munro in femoral head secondary to an
injury, such as a femoral neck frac- Reprint requests: Dr. Lavernia, Suite 203,
1738. Between 1829 and 1842, Jean
West Building, 1321 NW 14th Street, Miami,
Cruvilhier described how the ture, has been clearly identified as FL 33125.
femoral head deformed secondary the leading pathologic factor in
to an interruption in its blood flow. posttraumatic osteonecrosis.1 The Copyright 1999 by the American Academy of
The first detailed description of exact mechanism leading to atrau- Orthopaedic Surgeons.
idiopathic osteonecrosis of the matic osteonecrosis is unclear.
necrosis is not known. When com- ing, is necessary to rule out these and more than 60% had osteonecro-
pared with nondrinkers, patients conditions. sis of the hip. The authors reported
who consume less than 400 mL of The mechanism underlying this a 14-fold increase in risk associated
alcohol per week have a three times disorder is unclear, but multiple risk with receiving steroids but no vari-
greater risk of osteonecrosis. The factors are usually involved. Some ance in risk according to duration of
risk increases to 11 times if the investigators believe that prolonged steroid use. They also reported no
patient consumes more than 400 mL treatment with corticosteroids and relationship between cyclosporine
of alcohol per week.1,7,8 other immunosuppressive agents is therapy and the incidence of
The pathophysiologic process of responsible for the production of osteonecrosis, after adjusting for
alcohol-induced osteonecrosis is osteonecrosis. Case-control studies steroid use and other possible con-
not completely understood. Excess suggest that renal transplant recipi- founding variables.
alcohol changes fat metabolism sig- ents in whom osteonecrosis devel-
nificantly. Small fat emboli from oped had received higher doses than Thrombophilia and
the liver can occlude the vascula- other patients matched for age, sex, Hypofibrinolysis
ture of the femoral head, decreas- and time and type of transplant.20 Hereditary thrombophilia and
ing blood flow and leading to Since immunosuppressive agents hypofibrinolysis have an autosomal
osteonecrosis. Some investigators other than steroids have been used, dominant inheritance pattern.
suggest that alcohol consumption the incidence of transplantation- These disorders have been reported
produces an accumulation of lipids associated osteonecrosis has de- to be the major pathophysiologic
inside the osteocytes of the femoral creased dramatically. Landmann et causes of osteonecrosis of the jaw
head. 17 These cells hypertrophy al21 reported an incidence of 8.6% and of Legg-Perthes disease in chil-
and compress the nuclei of the before the use of cyclosporine, com- dren and have recently been impli-
osteocytes, resulting in cell death. pared with 1.04% after the use of cated in osteonecrosis of the hip.23
Other proposed mechanisms are cyclosporine. Predisposing factors The coagulation pathways de-
related to the direct toxic effects of prior to transplantation (steroid use, scribed include (1) decreased levels
alcohol. Continued exposure of trauma, rheumatologic or hemato- of tissue plasminogen activator (the
osteocytes to high blood levels of logic disorders) may also play an major stimulator for fibrinolysis)
alcohol can cause chronic cellular important role in predicting osteo- and high levels of plasminogen
lesions that are unable to heal, necrosis in transplant recipients. activator inhibitor (the major in-
which can lead to cell death and A direct detrimental effect of the hibitor of fibrinolysis); (2) high lev-
eventual collapse of the femoral transplanted organ has also been els of the hypofibrinolytic lipopro-
head.16,18 demonstrated. Renal transplanta- tein Lp(a); and (3) activated protein
tion induces osteocyte necrosis due C resistance, which results in pro-
Transplantation to the production of toxins by the duction of abnormal factor Va in
The incidence of osteonecrosis in kidney. This has been shown in the coagulation cascade, which in
organ transplantation patients has autopsy specimens from renal turn leads to thrombophilia.
been reported to range from 5% to transplant recipients, which dis- Venous occlusion by fibrin clots
29%.19,20 The time of presentation play histologic evidence of de- due to thrombophilia (increased
of osteonecrosis after transplanta- creased numbers of osteocytes in tendency toward intravascular
tion appears to be variable, with subchondral bone.17 thrombosis) and hypofibrinolysis
some researchers reporting that Patients with solid organ trans- (reduced ability to lyse thrombi) can
osteonecrosis (manifested by joint plants are not the only population lead to venous hypertension and
pain) may start early after trans- at risk for osteonecrosis. An in- higher intramedullary pressures,
plantation (<3 months), and others creased incidence of the disease has which will reduce arterial blood
reporting that it occurs later. also been demonstrated in bone flow to the femoral head and cause
Certain bone disorders, such as marrow transplant patients. In a hypoxic death of bone. Glueck et
benign bone edema and bone pain recent study by Fink et al, 22 al23 reported that some of their cases
secondary to the use of cyclospor- osteonecrosis developed in 96 of of osteonecrosis of the hip that had
ine, should always be included in 1,939 patients who received a bone been thought to be idiopathic were
the differential diagnosis when marrow transplant between 1976 actually due to these inherited dis-
evaluating bone pain in transplant and 1993. The mean time to diag- orders of coagulation. Furthermore,
recipients. 19 A complete clinical nosis was 26.3 months after trans- of 13 patients with secondary dis-
and radiologic evaluation, includ- plantation. More than one site was ease thought to be due to underly-
ing magnetic resonance (MR) imag- involved in over half of the patients, ing diseases or corticosteroid use, 8
also had an associated heritable dis- Although most reported cases of phages and other reticuloendothe-
order of coagulation. dysbaric osteonecrosis have been a lial cells and can affect bone as well
The association of these disor- result of continuous exposure, such as other solid organs. Compression
ders with superimposed factors as occurs in caisson workers, avia- of the cellular and vascular ele-
(e.g., corticosteroid use, rheumato- tors, astronauts, and divers, single- ments and increased pressure with-
logic or hematologic disease, trans- exposure induction of dysbaric in the rigid cortical bone of the
plantation, sickle cell disease, alco- osteonecrosis has also been docu- femoral head decrease blood flow,
holism) may increase the risk of mented. Therefore, orthopaedic leading to osteonecrosis.29
developing osteonecrosis. Glueck surgeons should consider this enti- Arterial disorders have also been
et al23 proposed that assessing for ty when assessing hip pain of ap- associated with osteocyte and bone
these coagulation defects with spe- parently idiopathic origin. marrow necrosis. The specific
cific laboratory testsÑresistance to Sickle cell anemia has been mechanism that results in damage to
activated protein C, lipoprotein reported to be an important risk the tunica intima and tunica media
Lp(a), antigens to proteins C and S, factor for the development of os- is unknown. However, investiga-
tissue plasminogen activator and teonecrosis. The prevalence of tors have noted pathologic changes
inhibitor, and antiphospholipid osteonecrosis in patients with sickle in arteries in hemorrhagic zones sur-
antibodiesÑmay help in predicting cell anemia has been estimated to rounding areas of necrosis.30,31
which patients are at risk for devel- range from 3% to 41%.25,26 Patients Many etiologic factors and clini-
opment of this disease. with sickle cell trait can also be af- cal conditions have been proposed
fected, and higher prevalence rates as causes of osteonecrosis. For this
Other Factors are encountered when asympto- reason, this entity should not be
Caisson disease, or dysbaric os- matic patients with radiographic considered a simple lesion, but
teonecrosis, is a form of osteone- evidence of disease are included in rather a multifactorial disease
crosis that occurs in deep-sea the cohort. Intravascular sickling process that can be produced by a
divers and miners who have been within sinusoids associated with a diverse group of disorders leading
exposed to hyperbaric conditions. hyperviscosity syndrome produced to a common finding: necrosis and
This disorder is thought to be pro- by high hemoglobin concentrations the inevitable collapse of the fe-
duced by occlusion of blood vessels produces short, temporary occlu- moral head.
by circulating nitrogen bubbles that sions of blood flow to the femoral
are induced in response to a reduc- head, which leads to osteonecrosis
tion in ambient pressure during and eventually to collapse of the Pathologic Findings
decompression.24 femoral head.26 The distinctive his-
An animal model for dysbaric tologic pattern is characterized by Although there are many causes and
osteonecrosis was recently report- rows of necrotic bone separated by risk factors that can lead to osteo-
ed. 24 Six sheep were exposed to fibroadipose tissue. necrosis of the femoral head, the
compressed air for 24 hours at a Fat emboli that arise as a result resulting pathologic findings are
time 12 or 13 times within a 2- of an alteration in lipid metabolism similar in all patients. In early
month period, with a 1- to 8-day can also be responsible for micro- stages of the disease, histologic
recovery period between expo- vascular obstruction. Furthermore, examination of the diseased femoral
sures. All six animals had clinical investigators have proposed that head shows bone marrow necrosis.
evidence of limb bends (limb lifting hypercholesterolemia can also play This can be due to a single insult,
for periods of time) immediately an important role in the pathogene- but most probably results from mul-
after the exposure. In the five sur- sis of osteonecrosis.27 Disorders in tiple instances of minor damage
viving sheep, radiographic evi- fat metabolism may also lead to over a period of weeks to months.
dence of disease was present with- immune-complex deposition, which Resorption of dead osteocytes re-
in 5 months in the long bones, can result in hemorrhage and death sults in the appearance of empty
specifically, in the metaphyseal and of bone.16,17 lacunae within bone. Pluripotential
diaphyseal, but not the periarticu- Type I GaucherÕs disease is an cells within the femoral head are
lar, regions. However, histologic autosomal recessive genetic disease recruited in the repair process.
evidence of bone marrow necrosis that affects primarily Ashkenazi Osteoclasts are stimulated to resorb
was present in all regions. The his- Jews and is caused by an enzymatic dead bone, and osteoblasts lay
tologic and radiographic findings deficiency of glucocerebroside down new bone over necrotic areas,
were found to be very similar to hydrolase.28 It results in accumula- creating the characteristic appear-
those reported in humans. tion of sphingolipids within macro- ance termed Òcreeping substitution.Ó
Early histologic examination in a the femoral head, abnormal stresses risk factors. A complete evaluation
canine model has shown that the on the acetabular cartilage and sub- of the contralateral hip should
process of osteonecrosis may begin chondral bone lead to sclerosis, cyst always be undertaken, as a 40% to
approximately 3 days after vascular formation, and marginal osteophyte 80% incidence of bilaterality has
damage. In this model, surgical formation. Advancing degenera- been reported.1,32
devascularization of the femoral tion of the acetabulum and femoral
head was performed in 25 dogs, and head leads to obliteration of the
dislocation of the hip was main- joint space. Diagnosis and
tained for 9 hours to study the initial Classification
histologic changes. The dogs were
sacrificed 3 days or 1, 2, or 4 weeks Clinical Presentation Successful treatment of osteonecro-
after the procedure. In the 4 dogs sis is directly related to its stage at
studied at 3 days, edema with a Osteonecrosis can be clinically diagnosis. The earlier the diagno-
decreased cell population and bleed- silent or can present with any of a sis, the greater the chance of influ-
ing within the bone marrow were number of clinical manifestations. encing the natural history of the
observed, but no histologic findings The chief complaint of a patient disease. Clinical symptoms usually
of necrosis were noted. Of the 7 with osteonecrosis is pain, usually precede radiographic changes;
dogs studied 1 week after surgery, 3 localized to the groin area but occa- therefore, a high index of suspicion
showed histologic changes consis- sionally to the ipsilateral buttock is important to make the correct
tent with necrosis of the femoral and knee. It has been described as diagnosis in a timely fashion.
head, but no evidence of creeping a deep, intermittent, throbbing
substitution was observed. Of the 7 pain, with an insidious onset that Radiography
dogs sacrificed at 2 weeks, 6 showed can be sudden. Physical examina- Plain radiography should be the
histologic changes of necrosis of the tion reveals pain with both active next step after the history and phys-
femoral head, with 4 showing appo- and passive range of motion, espe- ical examination. Anteroposterior
sitional bone. Osteonecrosis was cially with passive internal rotation. and frog-leg lateral views should
observed in all 7 dogs studied at 4 Initially, the plain-radiographic always be obtained.
weeks. These changes included appearance may be normal. There- Various systems have been pro-
empty lacunae and appositional fore, the physician should always posed for the radiographic staging
bone in trabecular bone and mature suspect osteonecrosis of the fe- of this disease. The first was the
fibrous tissue in the bone marrow.13 moral head in patients who present Arlet-Ficat staging system (Fig. 2),33
When the affected site is small, with hip pain and any associated which is based on radiographic
reparative processes are initiated
rapidly, replacing dead bone with
normal new bone. However, as the
necrotic area enlarges, the histologic
appearance changes. At the peri-
phery of the lesion, a zone of vascu-
lar ingrowth is produced, with
replacement of bone and bone mar-
row, leading to marked thickening
and increased density of its borders.
Because vascular structures cannot
penetrate deep inside the avascular
lesion, repair is interrupted. The
dead bone then fractures, although
the superior articular surface does
not collapse, owing to the strength Stage II Stage III Stage IV
of the subchondral bone. The radio- Fig. 2 The Arlet-Ficat staging system is based on the radiographic appearance of the
lucent space produced under the femoral head.33 In stage I (not shown), there are no changes on x-ray films, but clinical
subchondral bone is called the symptoms are suspicious. In stage II, there is radiographic evidence of bone remodeling
without changes in the shape of the femoral head; subchondral sclerosis and cysts are pres-
Òcrescent sign.Ó In time, this fragile ent. Stage III is characterized by the crescent sign. Stage IV is characterized by narrowing,
structure collapses, and the femoral osteophyte development, and deformation of the femoral head.
head flattens. After deformation of
occur until 5 days after arterial extent of the necrotic area in the an index of necrosis with the fol-
interruption. 40 Therefore, before weight-bearing portion of the lowing formula: (A/180) × (B/180)
this period, osteonecrosis may not femoral head was measured on × 100, where A represents the arc
be represented by any distinctive midcoronal and midsagittal sec- (in degrees) of the necrotic portion
abnormalities on MR imaging. To tions. The authors then calculated on the midcoronal image and B
increase the early sensitivity of MR
imaging, some investigators have
suggested the use of gadolinium;
Table 4
however, there is no conclusive evi-
International Classification of Osteonecrosis of the Femoral Head1
dence supporting this practice.
Sakamoto et al 39 reported that
Stage Characteristics*
the relationship of the location of
the necrotic area to the weight- 0 Bone biopsy results consistent with osteonecrosis; other tests normal
bearing area of the femoral head
and the extent of the necrotic area I Positive bone scan or MR study or both
could be used as predictors of col- IA: <15% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
lapse (Fig. 5). In their system, the IB: 15% to 30% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
IC: >30% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
weight-bearing area is divided into
thirds. Lesions that extend across II Mottled appearance of femoral head, osteosclerosis, cyst formation,
less than one third of the medial and osteopenia on radiographs; no signs of collapse of femoral head
area are designated grade A; those on radiographic or CT study; positive bone scan and MR study; no
that extend across more than one changes in acetabulum
third but less than two thirds, IIA: <15% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
IIB: 15% to 30% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
grade B; those that extend across
IIC: >30% involvement of the femoral head (MR)
two thirds or more, grade C; those
that extend beyond the acetabular III Presence of crescent sign lesions classified on basis of appearance on
edge, grade D. Shimizu et al 41 anteroposterior and lateral radiographs
added to this classification a third IIIA: <15% crescent sign or <2-mm depression of femoral head
criterion for determining progno- IIIB: 15% to 30% crescent sign or 2- to 4-mm depression of
femoral head
sis: the image intensity of the
IIIC: >30% crescent sign or >4-mm depression of femoral head
necrotic area.
With the objective of identifying IV Articular surface flattened; joint space shows narrowing; changes in
a predictor of future collapse, Koo acetabulum with evidence of osteosclerosis, cyst formation, and
and Kim 42 used MR imaging to marginal osteophytes
quantify the extent of osteonecrosis
of the femoral head in 37 hips with * Lesions can also be subdivided according to location (medial, central, or lateral).
early-stage osteonecrosis. The
were disappointing when com- sis, diagnosis, and treatment of treatments for the early stages of
pared with those in older patients, osteonecrosis continues to grow, osteonecrosis are being evaluated.
with failure rates of up to 26%.1,49 important questions remain unan- Although the benefits of core de-
However, recent studies suggest swered. Differences in study re- compression in the treatment of
otherwise. Garino and Steinberg35 sults, the complexity of data collec- osteonecrosis of the femoral head
followed up 123 patients for 2 to 10 tion, and the low incidence of the continue to be controversial within
years. Only 4% required revision, disease have hindered investiga- the orthopaedic community, in the
and 2% showed radiographic evi- tors from reaching consensus on authorsÕ opinion, this procedure
dence of loosening. many issues. Multicenter studies provides a reasonable solution for
are necessary to provide the larger the treatment of early-stage osteo-
patient numbers that will allow a necrosis. For the symptomatic
Summary clearer understanding of this con- patient with severe disruption of
dition. the joint architecture, total hip
Although the body of knowledge Appropriate pharmacologic and arthroplasty remains the treatment
regarding the etiology, pathogene- femoral headÐsparing surgical of choice.
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