Phe Notes

FCE 581: Public Health Engineering 1B
PART I: INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL
1. WATER POLLUTION
1.1 WATER POLLUTANTS
Water constituents of interest in pollution studies are as follows:
1) Toxic compounds which result in destruction or inhibition of biological activity in the
water such as heavy metals, phenols, pesticides and radio isotopes.
2) Pathogens - disease causing microorganisms
3) Substances that consume dissolved oxygen (DO). The substances may be organic
matter, which exert a biological oxygen demand, or inorganic reducing agents.
4) Substances which hinder re-oxygenation e.g. oils, greases and detergents that form a
protective film on the water surface.
5) Heated discharges - the saturation concentration of DO reduces with increasing
temperature.
6) High concentrations of inert suspended or dissolved solids which can blanket the
bed of a stream preventing the growth of certain organisms. E.g. china clay washing.
1.2 BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

Many of the problems associated with water quality control are due to presence of organic
matter from natural sources or in the form of wastewater discharges. These matter comprise
of (1) Carbohydrates (CHO); (2) Nitrogenous compounds (CHONS) and (3) Lipids and fats
(CHO - contain comparatively little oxygen). In the environment, organic matter is unstable
and it is normally degraded by microorganisms aerobically or anaerobically.
(i) Aerobic oxidation New cells

Organic matter + Bacteria + O2
CO2, NH3, H2O
(ii) Anaerobic oxidation New cells

Organic matter + Bacteria New cells
Alcohols + Bacteria
and acids CH4, CO2, H2O (Biogas),
H2S, NH3
In (i) oxygen is consumed and may be depleted while in (ii) oxygen is already depleted; both
cases may lead to (1) death of aquatic life and (2) septic conditions with accompanied
release of odour
1.3 OXYGEN DEMAND IN AEROBIC OXIDATION

In water quality control, it is important to know the amount of organic matter present in a
system to determine the quantity of oxygen required for its stabilization. In case of simple
compound like glucose, it is possible to write down its equation for complete oxidation.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
1.1
Because of the variety of organic matter, it is not practical to compute and sum up the oxygen
demand for each organic compound in a waste. Instead, the quantity of organic matter in
a waste is commonly defined by the collective biochemical oxygen demand, (BOD), the
amount of oxygen required by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable matter under
aerobic conditions.
Theoretically, the amount of oxygen required to convert a definite amount of organic

compound into CO2, H2O and NH3 can be represented by the following generalized equation.
CnHaObNc + (n + a/4-b/2-3c/4)O2 → nCO2 + (a/2-3c/2)H2O + cNH3
Biochemical oxidation is a slow process and theoretically, takes an infinite time to go to

completion. However, within a 20-day period, the oxidation is 95 to 99% complete and in
the 5 day period used for BOD test, oxidation is about 60 – 70% complete. The Five days
period was chosen for the test because it was supposedly the longest time that river water
takes to travel from source to estuary in the U.K. Nevertheless, microbial population shifts
to nitrifying bacteria limit test reproducibility for periods greater than 5 days. The 5-day test
protocol with acceptably reproducible results emphasizing carbonaceous BOD has therefore
been widely accepted.
The BOD Test is carried out in 300 ml sample bottles. The bottle are filled with dilution water,
saturated with oxygen and enriched with nutrients required for biological growth. Several
dilutions are used depending on sample strength. The measured oxygen consumption after
5 day incubation at 20oC corrected for dilution is the BOD5. Seeding with bacteria may be
required unless the waste contains a population of microorganisms, e,g. untreated
wastewater.
The 20oC temperature used is the average value for slow moving streams in temperate
climates and is easily duplicated in an incubator.
1.4 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

The COD test is used to measure the concentration of organic matter in wastewater and
natural water.
The O2 equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized is measured by using a strong
oxidizing agent in acidic reaction. Potassium dichromate has been found excellent for this
purpose. The test is performed at elevated temperature and a catalyst (silver sulphate) is
added to aid oxidation. The principal reaction may be rpresented by the following
unbalanced equation.
catalyst
Organic matter (CaHbOc) + Cr2O72- + H+ → Cr3+ + CO2 + H2O
heat
The COD is generally higher than BOD because more compounds can be chemically oxidized
than can be biologically oxidized. For many wastes, it is possible to correlate BOD with COD,
for example, BOD is approximately 67% COD for domestic waste.
1.2
1.5 THE RATE OF BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION

Studies of the kinetics of BOD reaction have established that for the most practical purposes,
the rate of reaction is proportional to the amount of oxidizable organic matter remaining at
any time.
Changes in Organic Matter during Biological Oxidation of Wastewater under Aerobic

Conditions
The rate of reaction can be expressed as follows:
Where C = Concentration of organic matter at time t.

K’ = rate constant for the reaction
This expression means that the rate of reaction decreases as the concentration of organic
matter decreases.
In BOD computations, it is customary to use L in place of C where L represents the ultimate

demand. From the equation above,
1.3
For polluted water and wastewater, a typical value of K (base 10, 20 oC) is 0.10 day-1. The
value of K varies significantly with the type of waste and ranges from 0.05 to 0.3 day-1.
The rate constant at any other temperature may be determined from the Van’t Hoff-
Arrhenius equation
Values of θ vary as 20 - 30 oC θ = 1.036

4 - 20 oC θ = 1.135
Non-carbonaceous matter such as ammonia is produced during the hydrolysis of proteins.

Some of the autotrophic bacteria are capable of using oxygen to oxidize the ammonia to
nitrate and nitrates. The nitrogenous oxygen demand caused by autrophic bacteria is called
second stage BOD. The normal progression of each stage for domestic wastewater is shown
below.
The effects of nitrification become significant only after 8 – 10 days. Nitrification can be
inhibited in BOD samples by addition of inhibitory agents such as methylene blue or
thiorea.
1.6 SELF-PURIFICATION
Any body of fresh water can assimilate a certain amount of pollution without serious effects
because of a biological cycle which adjusts itself to the supply of food or other changed
conditions.
Self-purification cycle
1.4
The process may be illustrated as follows:
1.7 ABSORPTION AND DESORPTION OF GASES

An understanding of the basic gas laws is important in the study of reaeration in water.
1. Boyles Law – The volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure at constant
temperature i.e. P1V1 = P2V2.
2. Charles Law – The volume of a gas at constant pressure is in direct proportion to
the absolute temperature
3. Generalized Gas Law. PV = nRT
Where P, V, T are air pressure, volume and absolute temperature
N = Number of moles of gas in sample
R = Universal gas constant (8.319 N.M/(mol.K)
4. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures - The partial pressure in a mixture of gases is the
product of the volume proportion of a gas in the mixture and the total pressure.
Example: Compute the density of air at 20 oC and one atmospheric pressure.
1.5
How do these laws relate to oxygen in water?

5. Henry’s Law - The weight of any gas that will dissolve in a give volume of liquid at
constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the pressure that a
gas exerts above the liquid.
6. Ficks Law - The rate of molecular diffusion M t  across an area A is proportional to
the concentration gradient C Z  of the diffusing substance which diffuses from a
point of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.
Where M = Mass transfer in time t

A = Cross-section area across which, the transfer occur
C = Concentration
Z = Distance in the direction of transfer
Kd = coefficient of diffusion L3T-1
A solution for the above partial differential equation is
Where Co = Concentration at time = 0

Ct = Concentration at time t
Cs = Saturation concentration
The value of Kd for oxygen in water at 20 oC is 1.86 x 10-3 mm2/s.
1.8 REAERATION
The combination of the above theories show that the solution of atmospheric oxygen in
moving water is proportional to the saturation deficit.
where D = oxygen deficit below saturation = Cs-C

Do = value of D at t =0
K2 = Overall reaeration rate
1.6
In terms of oxygen concentration, the equation becomes
Rather than using the re-aeration constant K2, it is preferable to adopt a parameter which
measures the re-aeration rate per unit area. D.O. deficit – this is the exchange rate
coefficient f
Where V = Volume below interface

A = Area of air-water interface
Typical Values of Exchange Rate Coefficient f
Situation f (mm/hr)
1. Stagnation 4–6
2. Water in channel at 0.6 m/min 10
3. Sluggish polluted river 20
4. Water in channel at 10 m/min 75
5. Open Sea 130
6 Water in channel at 15 m/min 300
Field determination of the re-aeration characteristics of a stream can be accomplished by a

method which involves partial de-oxygenation of the stream with a reducing agent (e.g.
sodium sulphite + catalyst) and measuring D.O. oxygen uptake at two stations downstream.
Assuming there is no significant BOD or photosynthesis in the reach.
where C1 and C2 are D.O. concentration at the two stations with a time flow between them
of t (V/t = Q).
A qualitative picture of oxygen transfer in a stream is illustrated below.
1.7
Example: Recovery Time of a Stream Devoid of Oxygen

The time required for a stream to recover from a hypothetical state of no dissolved oxygen
to some final degree of saturation gives indication of the speed of reaeration.
a. Calculate the time in seconds required for the stream devoid of oxygen to reach a state
of 50 % saturation. Compute the distance downstream (km) and the oxygen
concentration in (mg/l).
b. Calculate the time (s) required to reach 95 % saturation. This time (i.e t95%)is a
realistic measure of the recovery time. Compute also the distance and distance
concentration. Stream Data: Average velocity – 0.21 m/s, Average depth – 1.8 m,
Average temperature – 30 oC and O2 saturation at 30 oC = 7.50 mg/l (from tables)
2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF THE OXYGEN – SAG MODEL
The classical work of the Streeter and Phelps in 1925 presented a mathematical analysis of
the organic waste and oxygen content in a water known as the dissolved oxygen sag.
Consider an idealized stream shown with a volume element V and organic concentration C.
qw, Cw rR
dV
Qr, Cr A
Q, C Q,
C + δC/δx
δx X
It is assumed that the river water and the waste are mixed completely at the point of
discharge, then the concentration of a constituent in the river-waste mixture at X = 0 is
given by
Where Co = initial concentration of constituents at the point of discharge

Qr = river flow rate (m3/S)
Cr = concentration in the river before mixing (mg/l).
qw = wastewater flow rate (m3/s)
Cw = concentration of constituents in wastewater (mg/l).
1.8
The change in oxygen resources of a river can be modelled by assuming that the river is
essentially a plug-flow reactor (as opposed to complete mix). Over any incremental volume
dV, the following mass balance can be written as:
Accumulation = Inflow – outflow + de-oxygenation + re-oxygenation
1.9
Tutorial on Oxygen Sag
1. A city discharges 1.33 m3/s of wastewater to a stream whose minimum rate of flow is
8.5 m3/s. The velocity of the stream is about 3.2 km/hr. The temperature of the
wastewater is 20 oC and that of the stream is 15 oC. The 20 oC BOD5 of the wastewater is
200 mg/l and that of the stream is 1.0 mg/L. The wastewater contains no dissolved
oxygen but the stream is 90% saturated upstream of the discharge. At 20 oC, k’ is
estimated to be 0.30 day-1 and k2’ 0.7 day-1. Determine the critical oxygen deficit and its
location. Also, estimate the BOD5 of the sample taken at the critical point. Use
temperature coefficient of 1.135 for k’ and 1.024 for k2’. Also plot the dissolved oxygen
sag curve Cs = 10.2 mg/l at 15oC.
Dissolved oxygen solubility (mg O2/L; at 1 atm)
Temperature oC 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Oxygen Concentration (mg/L) 14.81 12.79 11.25 10.04 9.07 8.27 7.50
2. A stream with a flow of 4 m3/s, BOD 1 mg/L and saturated with oxygen (D.O. 9.1 mg/L)
receives at A, a sewage effluent discharge of 2 m3/s with BOD 20 mg/L and DO 4 mg/L.
At point B, 20 km downstream of A, a tributary with a flow 2 m3/s, BOD 1 mg/L and DO
8 mg/L joins the main stream. A further distance 20 km, downstream at C the stream
receives another effluent of 2 m3/s with BOD 15 mg/L and DO 6 mg/L.
Determine the DO deficit at Point D, 20 km downstream of C assuming constant
temperature of 20 oC for which saturation DO is 9.1 mg/L. For all reaches of the stream
K’1 = 0.23 day-1 and K’2 = 0.81 day-1. Velocity of flow = 0.3 m/s. (Ans – 2.23 mg/L)
3.0 DISPOSAL INTO LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

Lakes and reservoirs are subject to significant mixing due to wind-induced currents and
therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the water body is completely mixed. To simplify
the calculation, it is assumed that the flow are constant and that the decay of pollutants can
be described with a first order reaction(rr = -K’C).
1.10
Writing a mass balance around the lake, we get
Accumulation = Inflow – Outflow +Generation + Utilization
Where V = Lake volume

dC/dt = Change of pollutants concentration in lake
Qr = River flow rate (m3/S) into lake
Cr = Concentration in the river before mixing
qw = wastewater flow rate into lake (m3/s)
Cw = concentration of constituents in wastewater (mg/l)
K’ = First order decay constant
Let the total inflow of constituents be W
CHAPTER 4: WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

There are two approaches.
1) Receiving Water Standards

Depending on the beneficial use of a river, standards are set for the quality of the surface
water; for example, grade one standard i.e.
i. DO > 4.0 mg/l
ii. Toxic compounds less than WHO standards for drinking water
iii. No effects on fisheries
The law states that no discharge shall create conditions that violate set standards. Where
there are a series of effluent discharges, the one downstream will be forced to discharge
less. The approach is therefore not fair to everyone.
2) Effluent Standards
These stipulates the quality of the effluent which can be discharged into a particular
receiving water body taking into account the self-purification capacity and beneficial use of
the water.
As an example, discharge from sewage works treating sewage should be
BOD < 20 mg/L
SS < 30 mg/L (Suspended solids)
These standards are commonly referred to as 20/30 standards
The basic information that are necessary to set standards include
1.11
i. Amount of dilution available

ii. Subsequent downstream use of water
iii. Self-purification of the receiving stream
Effluent Standards for Discharge into Natural Water Courses (The Environmental
Management & Co-ordination Water Quality Regulations, 2006)
Parameter Maximum allowable (Limit)

pH 6.5-8.5
BOD (5days at 200c) not to exceed 30mg/l
COD not to exceed 50mg/l
Temperature not to exceed oc ±3 of ambient temperature of the
water body
Total Coliform Count /100ml 1000
E. coli (Counts/100ml) Nil
Colour 15 Hazen units (H.U.)
Total dissolved solids 1200mg/l
Total suspended solids 30mg/l
Oil and Grease (mg/l)- where conventional treatment Nil
shall be used
Ammonia, ammonium compounds, NO3, compounds 100mg/l
and NO2 compound (Sum total of ammonia –N times 4
plus –N- and Nitrite-N)
Arsenic 0.02mg/l
Arsenic and its compounds 0.1mg/l
Benzene 0.1mg/l
Boron 1.0mg/l
Boron and its compound-non marine 30mg/l
Mercury (mg/l) 0.05
Cadmium not to exceed 0.01 mg/l
Cadmium and its compound 0. 02 mg/l
Carbon tetrachloride 0. 1 mg/l
Lead 0.01mg/l
Lead and its compound 0.1mg/l
Chromium VI 0.05 mg/l
Cis-1,2-dichloro ethylene 0.4 mg/l
Copper 1.0 mg/l
Zinc 0.5 mg/l
Dichloromethene 0.2 mg/l
Dissolved iron 10 mg/l
Dissolved manganese 10 mg/l
Fluoride 1.5mg/l
Fluoride & its compound (Marine and non marine) 8mg/l
Selenium 0.01 mg/l
Selenium and its compound 0. 1 mg/l
n-Hexane extracts (animal and vegetable fats) 30 mg/l
n-Hexane extracts (mineral oil) 5 mg/l
Nickel 3.0 mg/l
Oil and Grease 5 mg/l
Nitrate 20 mg/l
Phosphates 30 mg/l
Cyanide 2 mg/l
1.12
Sulphide 0.1mg/l
Hexavalent chromium VI compounds 0.5mg/l
Phenols 0.001mg/l
Simazine 0.03mg/l
Detergents nil
Tetrachloroethylene 0.1mg/l
Thiobencarb 0.1mg/l
Thiram 0.06mg/l
Total Cyanogen Nd
Mercury 0.005
Trichloroethylene 0.3mg/l
Whole effluent toxicity Nil
Total Phosphorous 2mg/l
Total Nitrogen 2mg/l
Note:- The standard adopted for Coliform count is that of ministry of water and irrigation
since that of 30m/100ml suggested by EMCA is not achievable.
Parameter Standard
pH 6.0-9.0
BOD (5days at 200c) not to exceed 500mg/l
COD not to exceed 1000mg/l
0
Temperature not to exceed c 20-35
Oil and Grease (mg/l)- where conventional 5
treatment shall be used
Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/l) not to exceed 20
Substance with an obnoxious smell Shall not be discharged into the sewers
Arsenic (mg/l) 0.02
Mercury (mg/l) 0.05
Cadmium not to exceed 0.5 mg/l
Lead 1.0mg/l
Chromium (Total) 2.0 mg/l
Copper 1.0 mg/l
Zinc 5.0 mg/l
Selenium 3.0 mg/l
Nickel 3.0 mg/l
Nitrate 20 mg/l
Phosphates 30 mg/l
Cyanide 2 mg/l
Sulphide 2mg/l
Phenols 10mg/l
Detergents 15mg/l
Colour Less than 40 Hazen Unit
Alkyl Mercury Not Detectable
Free and Saline Ammonia as N 4.0mg/l
Calcium Carbide Nil
Chloroform Nil
Inflammable solvents Nil
Radioactive residues Nil
1.13
Degreasing solvents of mono-di- Nil

trichloroethylene type
4.0 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

The average daily domestic wastewater generation is estimated by several procedures
depending on the code of practice in use (e.g., WHO, Ministry of Water – Sewerage Design
Manual, Nairobi City Council).
1) Water Consumption Basis e.g. for average urban area, domestic wastewater is
approximately 80% of water consumption, based on the land carrying capacity (e.g.
NCC, density high, 200 - 300; medium, 100 – 250; low, 100 per ha).
2) Fixtures Basis (American Practice). The type of fixtures in a house are checked e.g.
a. Showers
b. Bath tub
c. Water basin
d. Water closet
e. Urinal
f. Washing machines
3) Actual Measurements of Existing Sewered Areas similar to the proposed
development area
Peak Flow
Wastewater flow is not uniform throughout the day; rather it varies with the nature and
level of activities generating the flow. Typical variations are as follows
In Kenya, the ratio between daily peak and average flow rate of domestic sewage is in the
order 2½. However, because of storage in the sewer line and lag time in the flow of sewage
to the large sewers, smaller peak factors are used for the larger sewers. The WHO Report
No. 9 adopts the peak factors recommended by Babbitt – Sewerage and Sewage Treatment.
1.14
Other peak factor equations are the Gritt Equation and Duncan Mara. See table below for
population P in 1000’s.
Peak Factor (Pf)
WHO Report No. 9 Grit Equation Duncan Mara

Population Pf = 5/P 0.2 Pf = 5/P 0.167 Pf = 14P(-1/6)
100,000 1.99
200,000 1.73
400,000 1.51
In practice, it is usual to relate peak factors to the sewer diameters as follows.
Size and Type of Sewer Peak factor

A) 300 mm diameter or less (Property sewer lines 2½
and small laterals)
B) 300 – 600 mm diameter sewers (branch sewers) 2
1.15
C) More than 600 mm diameter (trunk sewers) 1½
Note: This approach, however, requires that the sewer diameter is assumed before the peak
flow can be computed more convenient to link peak flows to pipe sizes. The Nairobi City
County uses peak factor based on dry weather flow (DWF).
In general, sewers are designed for the peak domestic sewage when running half full.
If it is a partially separate system, the capacity should be the sum of the following.
i. Maximum domestic sewage computed as shown
ii. Maximum industrial and commercial flow expected
iii. Maximum rate of storm water (Q = CAI - rational formula)
iv. Maximum rate of inflow of groundwater (infiltration) through cracks and defective
mortar joints
Pipe Flow Formula

1) Manning’s Equation
2) Colebrook-White equation
Charts are available, for example, Hydraulic Research, Wallingford. The Nairobi City Council specifies
a roughness coefficient of 1.5 mm.
Self-Cleansing Velocity
If the flow in a gravity sewer is too low, solids contained in the sewage tend to settle out. A
minimum velocity of 0.75 m/s or self-cleansing velocity is required to prevent the settling
of solids. It is customary to design the sewer so that this velocity is achieved at least once a
day.
1) If a there is a problem of hydrogen sulphide generation, then minimum velocity of 1
m/s is used to avoid accumulation of the gas and acid which could cause corrosion.
2) During commissioning of a new sewer, a minimum of 0.6 m/s may be permitted.
3) Maximum velocity of 3 m/s to avoid scour.
Minimum Size of Sewer

To reduce the risk of blockage and to simplify maintenance, it is recommended that all
trunk and branch sewers should have at least 225 mm diameter. . Property drains should
be either 100 mm or 150 mm in diameter depending upon the flow, which they will carry.
Minimum slopes
1.16
Slope to achieve flow velocity of 0.6 m/s

Pipe Types
1) Rigid joint concrete – require concrete bedding, small sizes are expensive
2) Flexible joint concrete (spigot and socket with rubber rings)
3) Plastic – larger sizes are expensive
Pipe Sizes (mm)
Concrete (in steps of 75)–150, 225, 300, 375, 450, 525, 600, 675, 750, 825, 900, 1050
Plastic (ND) – 110, 125, 140, 160, 200, 225, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400, 500, 560, 630
Glass Reinforced Pipes - May not be available locally but have many advantages
GRP pipes are corrosion resistant composite pipes that meet demanding needs of transport of
corrosive and non-corrosive fluids. These pipes are manufactured with polyester, vinylester
and epoxy resins using either the dual helical filament winding (discontinuous) or the
continuous advancing mandrel filament winding technique for diameter of up to 3000 mm in
diameter. The pipes provide superior corrosion resistance, high mechanical and physical
properties as well as the ease of handling, transportation and installation when compared to
traditional materials. Special features of these pipes include:
1. Are durable and corrosion resistant
2. Are low in weight (25% the weight of ductile iron and 10% weight of concrete pipe)
3. Require no cathodic protection
4. Require no internal or external coatings
5. Have a design life of 50 years
6. Have no maintenance costs
7. Have easy and reliable jointing mechanisms
8. Are suitable for underground and above ground applications
Procedure Outline for the Design of a Domestic Wastewater Collection System

a) Prepare a contour map of the area to be served and draw a line to represent the
pipeline in each street.
b) Locate and number all manholes. Place manholes at all
i. Changes of direction
ii. Changes of slope
iii. Changes in size
iv. At junctions
v. Upper end of all collector lines for flushing
vi. Throughout the sewerage systems at intervals sufficiently close to simplify
sewer cleaning.
1.17
225 to 450 mm – 60 m
525 to 825 mm – 90 m
900 mm and above – 100 m
c) From a contour map or levels taken in the field, prepare a surface profile for each street
along the centre line of the proposed sewer
d) Sketch on the map the limits of each area tributary to each manhole i.e. area covered by
each collector line between manholes. Plannimeter or otherwise measure and record
the incremental area.
e) Estimate future population density in each area to be served; preferably, this should be
the land carrying capacity as sewers are expensive to duplicate.
f) Estimate peak daily rate of domestic wastewater flow.
g) Estimate rate of groundwater infiltration. U.K. code of practice states that when testing
with 1.2 m head, a sewer should not lose during one hour, more than 0.4 litres per meter
length per metre of nominal diameter of sewer. An infiltration rate of 0.5 L/s/km may be
adopted for design.
h) Adopt a minimum size of pipe
i) Adopt minimum velocity – 0.75 m/s
or - 0.60 m/s if ground is too flat

j) Adopt a sufficient depth of cover - 1.2 m under roads, 0.9 m elsewhere.
k) Starting at the upper end of the system, deign the system from manhole to manhole.
Provide drop manholes where there are excessive differences in levels to avoid
excessive sewer depths. Except at drop manholes, the crown of all pipes should be at
1.18
the same elevation. A pipe should never discharge into another with a smaller
diameter.
1.19
Design Computation Table
For a medium Density area with a water consumption of 120 l/p/d

Ground Ground
From Level To Level Drop Length Increm. Density Incremental
MH m MH m m m Area ha Per/ha Population
T5 1862.600 T4 1860.500 2.100 71.0 500 MD
T4 1860.500 T3 1860.200 0.300 71.0 300 MD
Increm. Try pipe Peak Q

Flow Cumulative Diameter Peak Flow Infiltration actual Slope Q full
l/s Flow l/s (mm) Factor l/s l/s l/s % l/sec
0.6<V< Invert
V full Qactl/ V actual 3.0 from Level
m/s Qfull d/D V/ Vfull m/sec m/sec MH (m) cover m
bCHAPTER 6 SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS
There are two types of sewerage pumping stations

(i) Lift stations – sewage is merely raised to a higher level for subsequent gravity
flow.
(ii) Stations which discharge into pumping mains i.e. long distances
The function of a particular station may be to:
a. Pump sewage from low lying parts of a drainage area
b. Avoid excessive depth of a sewer by periodically raising the sewage in flat areas.
c. Overcome some obstacles which make gravity flow impractical e.g. a hill.
d. Cater for the new building development in an area too low to allow gravitational
discharge into existing sewage system.
e. Lift sewage to the head of a treatment works i.e. head required for the process e.g.
coarse screening.
Pumps
(1) Rotodynamic Pumps e.g. - Centrifugal Pumps
- Mixed flow pumps
- Axial ‘’ ‘’
The latter two are non-clog made specifically for pumping liquids with large suspended
solids.
1.20
(2) Screw Pumps – These operate on the principle of Archimedean screw and comprise an
inclined screw which rotates relatively slowly within a trough. The rotation of the screw
slowly raises the sewage between the open threads which are made of sheet metal and
the trough floor.
- Capacity 10 – 1300 l/min
- Maximum lift (limitation)- 6 m – Used in series for larger lifts
- Can operate at zero flow
(3) Pneumatic Ejection – An ejector comprises of a closed tank into which sewage flows by
gravity. When certain depth is reached, an automatic control introduces compressed air
which forces sewage up the pumping main. When the tank is emptied, the valve on the
compressed air inlet is closed and the cycle is repeated.
Note : - No clogging
- No continuous pumping - only when the tank is full and so economical
- Capacity less than 360 l/min, Head about 12 m
-
(4) Air Lift Pumps
Head – about 6 m
Capacity – depends on amount of compressed air forced into the system.
1.21
PUMPING STATIONS
1) Dry Well station
The substructure of such station comprises two compartments, (i) a dry well to house
the pumps and (ii) a sewerage sump.
2) Wet well stations

In such stations, the pumps are suspended in the wet well. This ensures that the pumps
are always primed. In wet well installation, pump maintenance and removal of blockages
is a constant problem. Several manufactures are producing water-tight submersible
portable pumping sets which can easily be installed in a manhole and are easy to
maintain.
Pump Control
Pump controls are normally activated as the level of sewage fluctuates I the sump. The
usual types are:
1. Float operated system
2. Pneumatic system – the pressure of the air in the pipework is proportional to the
depth in the sump.
3. Electrical system which usually comprises of insulated probes which are
activated as they become submerged.
Standby Units
In the smallest sewerage pumping stations, the pumping equipment should be
duplicated and sized that either of the two pumps working alone should be able to deal
1.22
with the peak flow i.e. 100% standby. In large stations, the standby should not be less
than 33%.
Capacity of wet wells sewage sumps
General recommendation is to have capacity equivalent to about 30 min of dry weather
flow i.e. minimum flow.
E
2169
D
B
600
25
1040
990
895
845
A A
25
2169
D
E
B
1.23
Chapter 7 INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT

4.1 Purpose Of Wastewater Treatment
Sewage is treated so as to reduce undesirable characteristics, usually, its BOD and

suspended solids concentrated to the degree necessary to ensure it does not pollute or
contaminate to unacceptable degree, any water resource into which it is discharged.
4.2 Overview of Sewage Treatment Methods

1) Primary Treatment
A. Removal of floating solids and coarse suspended solid
1. Bar racks
2. Medium screens
3. Grit chambers
4. Skimming tanks with or without floatation
B. Removal of fine suspended solids
1. Fine screens
2. Sedimentation
a. Plain sedimentation tanks with or without mechanical sludge
removal
b. Septic tanks
c. Imhoff tanks
d. Chemical precipitation
2) Secondary Treatment
A. Biological Oxidation
1. Filters
a. Intermittent sand filters
b. Contact filters – rock medium
2. Aeration
a. Activated sludge process
b. Aerated ponds – mechanical or induced air

c. Oxidation ditches
3. Waste stabilization ponds
a. Facultative ponds
b. Maturation ponds
B. Disinfection
1. Chlorination
2. Ozonation
3) Advanced – Tertiary Treatment
1.24
1. Rapid sand filtration
2. Slow sand filtration
3. Upward flow filtration
4. Microstraining – very fine mesh to remove all suspended matter
5. Application on land, e.g. irrigation
6. Chemical precipitation
7. Nitrification – denitrification
8. Reverse osmosis
4) Methods of Treating Sewage Solids
A. Screenings
1. Shredding followed by sludge digestion
2. Incineration followed by disposal of ash
3. Burial of untreated screening
B. Settled Sludge
1. Digestion in sludge digester
2. Conditioning with chemicals
3. Vacuum filtration
4. Pressure filtration or cake filtration
5. Drying on beds or kiln
6. Dumping into the sea
4.3 Elements of Plant Analysis and Design

1. FLOW SHEET – Graphical representation of unit processes and operations
2. PROCESS LOADING CRITERIA – The basis of sizing various treatment units
3. MASS BALANCE – Quantities entering, leaving, consumed and generated in the
treatment units
4. HYDRAULIC PROFILE – Elevation of water surface in treatment units
5. PLANT LAY0UT – Spatial arrangement of physical facilities on site
Typical Flowsheet of a Conventional Treatment Plant

CHAPTER 8 PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY TREATMENT UNITS
8.1 Preliminary Treatment units
To ensure efficient and reliable sewage treatment, it is necessary to remove large floating
and suspended solids e.g. rags and other debris. This is achieved by the following methods.
5) Bar racks
1.25
Space between bars is 25 mm or more. The racks may be cleaned manually or

mechanically.
6) Screens – Opennings 6 mm or less
7) Comminutor
1.26
A comminutor is a self-cleansing shredding machine which cuts up sewage solids as

they are pulled through a fine screen which forms the outer cover of its vertical axis, by
an electric motor. The drum is in fact a screen with 6.8 mm horizontal slots on which
cutter bars and large number of projecting teeth are fixed, the bars and teeth engage
with stationer steel combs.
8) Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are designed to remove grit consisting of sand, gravel or other heavy solid
materials that have subsiding velocity higher than that of organic solids in wastewater to
prevent (i) wearing of machinery and (ii) settling at the entrance.
Types
(A) Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers
These are designed to maintain a velocity as close to 0.3 m/s as practical, by one of the
following methods.
3. A parallel of channels which are cut in and out of service to control
velocity as flow varies
2) Channels with parabolic cross-section followed by a rectangular control like a

section like a Parshall.
1.27
The typical design information for horizontal flow grit chamber with Parshall flume
control
- Detention time (s) – 45 – 90
- Horizontal velocity - 0.25 – 0.4 m/s
- Settling velocity for removal - 0.21 mm dia – 1.0 -.1.3
- - 0.15 mm dia - 0.6 – 0.9
- Headloss in control section
as percent of channel depth - 30 - 40
- Allowance for inlet turbulence = 2Dm – 0.5L
Where Dm = maximum depth, L = length of chamber
Tutorial Problem
Design a grit chamber with three channels with a flow-through velocity of 0.3 m/s for a
plant with a maximum design flow of 1.32 m3/s, an average flow of 0.66 m3/s and a
minimum flow of 0.264 m3/s. Assume that the maximum width of each channel is 1.8 m
and design each channel for a maximum emergency flow of 0.66 m3/s, a normal
maximum flow of 0.44 m3/s, an average flow of 0.22 m3/s and a minimum flow of 0.088
m3/s. Use a fixed-width control section with vertical sides and a well rounded and
smooth approach, so that the head loss may be assumed equal to 10% of the velocity
head. The flow at the control section will be at critical depth and the critical depth
equation will apply.
3) A rectangular channel with a sutro or proportional weir. This is a combination of a weir

and an orifice designed to maintain a nearly constant velocity by varying the cross-
section area of flow through the weir.
(B) Aerated Types

These consist of spiral flow aerated tank. The spiral velocity is controlled by dimensions of
channel and quantity of air supplied to the unit; the ability to vary the flow of air
introduces flexibility.
(C) Square – Grit Chamber

The solids are raked by a rotating mechanism
to a sump at the side of the tank from
which they are moved up an incline
1.28
8.2 Primary Treatment Units – Sedimentation Tanks

The purpose of sedimentation of sewage is to separate the settleable solids so that the
settled sewage if discharged into water does not affirm sludge banks. Sedimentation of
solids also reduces the organic load on the secondary treatment units. Primary
sedimentation tanks are located after screen and grit chambers. Secondary sedimentation
tanks treat effluents from biological treatment operations such as trickling filters or
activated sludge units.
Sedimentation tanks for sewage treatment are now most commonly radial flow tanks.
They are circular in plan with floor slopes (2½ -7½o). The initial baffle (to minimize
turbulence) and flows outwards to the overflow weir . Mechanical scrappers are provided
for sludge collection and surface scum removal.
Overflow rates Average – 2 – 30 m3/m2/day

Peak 50 – 60
Depth 3.0 – 3.5 - 4.5 m
Detention time
Primary sedimentation tanks 2 to 2½ hr
Secondary sedimentation tanks 1½ to 2 hr
1.29
Weir Loading Rate

 Should not exceed 100 m3/m length of weir /day
 It is preferable to use 50 mm deep notches placed 150 to 300 mm c/c for even weir
loading.
Performance
Primary sedimentation of domestic sewage may be expected to accomplish 30 to 45%
removal of BOD and 40 to 60% removal of suspended solids.
CHAPTER 9 CONVENTIONAL SECONDARY TREATMENT PROCESSES
9.1 Trickling Filter (Also Percolating or Biofilter)

The trickling filter is a rock filed circular or rectangular bed of coarse aggregate (30 to 60
mm) usually 1.8 m deep. Settled sewage is distributes over the bed and trickles over the
surface of the aggregate.
On the surface, there develops a microbial film and the bacteria which constitutes most of
this film oxidize the sewage as it flows downwards.
Schematic Diagram of BOD Removal in a Biofilter
1.30
Design Criteria
A) Distributors
(1) Rotary distributor (reaction type)
The arms are rotated by the reaction of discharge from orifices. NB: A minimum
pressure and flow are required for operation
(2) Motor driven – rotation independent of pressure
(3) Longitudinal travelling distributor
1.31
(NB – filter media may dry out while the distributor is travelling thus interfering
with metabolism).
B) Organic loading 0.1 kg BOD/m3/day

C) hydraulic loading – 0.5 m3/m2/day
D) Recirculation – Objectives
1. Dilute settled sewage
2. Increase hydraulic striping of microbial film
3. Maintain a uniform hydraulic distribution across the filter
4. Keep rotary reaction type distributor in motion at low flows.
1.32
9.2 Activated Sludge

Settled sewage is led to an aeration tank where oxygen is supplied by either mechanical
agitation or diffused aeration. After the liquid is separated from the solids, the sludge is
recycled into aeration tank.
Microorganisms
Organic matter + O2 + nutrients CO2 + H2O + microorganisms
Mechanism of Removal
1) Removal by entanglement of suspended solids with gross sludge matrix.
2) Slow progressive stabilization of the organic matter by bacteria
Flow Diagrams
a) Conventional – As above
b) Tapered Aeration
1.33
9.3 Aerated Ponds
CHAPTER 10 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
10.1 Purpose of Sludge Treatment

1) To destroy pathogenic bacteria
2) Reduce volume the volume of sludge so that it can be disposed of easily
3) Obtain combustible gases
4) Obtain manure
5) Reduce moisture content so to facilitate handling and transporting
Partial stabilization of sludge from primary and secondary settling tanks is achieved by
anaerobic digestion also referred to as sludge digestion. The process is described below.
10.2 Sludge Digestion

Sludge digestion is the decomposition of complex organic matter in sludge by biochemical
reaction created by anaerobic bacteria. Two steps are involved:
(1) Facultative anaerobic acid producers that convert carbohydrate proteins and fats
into inorganic acids and alcohols.
(2) Anaerobic methane formers that convert the acids and alcohols into methane and
carbon dioxide.
Sludge digestion may be carried out using either (i) sludge digestion tanks or (ii) Imhoff
tank.
(i) Sludge Digestion Tank

Conventional anaerobic digestion is carried out in a two way stage process. In the first
stage, the sludge is heated to desired temperature (35oC) and produces most of the gas.
The second stage is one of quiescent settlement and solids separation. Te supernatant
liquor which is high in soluble organics (up to 10,000 mg/l BOD5) is drawn-off for aerobic
1.34
treatment in the main plant. The settled solids are withdrawn as sludge for dewatering and
ultimate disposal.
Sludge Drying Beds
(ii) Imhoff Tank

The tank consists of a two storey tank in which sedimentation is accomplished in the upper
compartment and digestion in the lower compartment. Settling solids pass through the
slots into the lower compartment for digestion. Digestion process in the lower
compartment escapes through the vents on the sides An Imhoff tank is easy to operate and
there is no mechanical equipment to maintain. However, it is expensive, very deep and
may require heating
1.35
CHAPTER 11 WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS
11.1Introdution
Waste stabilization ponds are largely shallow basins in which raw wastewater is treated by
entirely natural processes involving both algae and bacteria. Because these processes are
unaided by man, the rate of oxidation is slow. As a result, they have long hydraulic retention
times that require large tracts of land compared to conventional wastewater treatment
methods (e.g. activated sludge process). WSP are the preferred method of water treatment
in developing countries where sufficient land in normally available and where temperature
is most favorable for their operation. There are three principal types of ponds; namely,
(i) Anaerobic
(ii) Facultative
(iii) Maturation
Advantage of WSP
1. Simple to construct (mainly earth moving), operate and maintain (cutting grass on
embankments and removing scum and floating objects).
2. Low cost in comparison with other wastewater treatment options especially no
mechanical equipment.
3. High efficiency – over 90% removal of BOD, and SS. Especially efficient in removing
feacal pathogens.
4. Robustness – due to long hydraulic retention time, they can absorb shockwave.
5. Unskilled labor
6. Low energy requirements – mainly sunlight
Disadvantages
1. Odour release – All overloaded microbiological wastewater treatment methods have
odor problems. Proper design, operation and maintenance reduce odour problems.
2. Land – require much more land; cf. one time capital outlay and recurrent power costs.
11.2 Anaerobic Ponds

The primary function is BOD removal which is achieved by the sedimentation of settleable
solids and their subsequent anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge layer. Anaerobic
digestion releases gasses (Equation 1) which make makes some material float on the
surface as scum. Scum on the surface cuts off entry of oxygen into the ponds and helps to
keep the ponds anaerobic.
C6H12O6 3CO2 + 3CH4
180 g 48 g
Design criteria
Design at the moment is purely empirical
1.36
11.3 Facultative Ponds

In facultative ponds BOD is removed by the normal process of aerobic biological oxidation
Waste + oxygen bacteria Oxidized waste + New bacteria cells
The basic difference between facultative ponds and other biological treatment processes
(such as the biofilter is that O2 supply for bacteria metabolism comes not from the
atmosphere but from photosynthetic activity of algae. To grow and so produce oxygen,
algae needs carbon dioxide and this is supplied as an end product of bacteria metabolism.
Thus, there is a cycle of interdependence or symbiosis between ponds bacteria and algae.
Algae Bacteria Symbiosis
BOD Removal in a Facultative Pond
Design
The best way to design a facultative pond is to assume that it is a completely mixed
biological reactor in which BOD removal can be reasonably represented by a simple first
order kinetic model. The governing equation can be derived as follows.
Rate of accumulation = Inflow – outflow + Consumption
For steady state conditions:
1.37
11.4 Maturation Ponds

Usually for polishing effluent from facultative ponds. Recall the design standards.
 BOD < 20 mg/L

 SS < 30 mg/L (Suspended solids)
 Faecal coliforms count less than 5,000 per 100 ml
Field experience show two (2) maturation ponds in series with a retention time of 7 days
are necessary to reduce the BOD from 50 – 60 mg/l to below 25 mg/l
Design
Removal of faecal bacteria in a pond is given by the following equation.
1.38
11.5 Pond Construction, Operation and Maintenance

https://www.google.co.ke/search?q=waste+stabilization+ponds&tbm=isch&tbo=u&sourc
e=univ&sa=X&ei=mOIuUreHFsON0AW5yYH4Bg&sqi=2&ved=0CC4QsAQ&biw=1366&bih=
651
CHAPTER 12 ONSITE TREATMENT METHODS
Where there is no sewerage system, wastewater requires to be treated on-site. Selection of

treatment method is based on the source of the wastewater; whether industrial,
institutional or residential, rate of discharge, suitability of ground to receive treated
effluent and initial and operating and maintenance costs.
12.1 Oxidation Ditch
 Shape – Large continuous oval channel 1.5 to 2.0 m deep

 Aeration - horizontal cage rotors placed across channel
 Velocity - 0.3 to 0.4 m/s which keep floc in suspension
 Retention – 0.1 to 1.5 days
 Sludge – excess sludge is small in volume and highly mineralized
 Design - Present design procedure are based sludge loading rate
1.39
To control the rate of solids accumulation in the ditch, a proportion of the ditch solids must
be wasted each day. For a solids retention rate, SRT, 100/SRT percent of the solids must be
wasted. If the sludge wasting is through the recycle line the percent of sludge wasted must
be corrected for change in concentration due to sedimentation. Sludge concentration is
expressed as a weight percentage. For example
4% = 4/100 x 1 kg/l = 40,000 mg/l
(Compare with 4,000 mg/l MLVSS in the ditch)
1.40
12.2 Septic Tanks

Septic tanks are small rectangular chambers with a retention time of 1 – 3 days that are
used for treatment and disposal of liquid water from individual dwellings, small groups of
houses or institutional located in areas where there is no access to a sewerage system. A
septic tank system usually comprises two major components:
i. Septic tank itself
ii. A final disposal system which is usually subsoil percolation system.
Functions of a septic Tank
a) Settling of suspended solids

b) Biological action – Microorganisms mostly anaerobic bacteria decompose soluble
and organic matter in the wastewater into simpler compounds and gases such as
methane and CO2.
c) Storage of sludge and scum – The accumulation of sludge and scum necessitates
provision of storage of materials in the septic tank between cleaning.
L B D (for 2 years Disludging

No of Users
(m) (m) interval) (m)
5 1.50 0.75 1.05
10 2.00 0.90 1.40
15 2.00 0.90 2.00
20 2.30 1.10 1.80
50 4.00 1.40 2.00
1.41
Soil Percolation System

Septic tank effluent contains pathogenic bacteria cysts and worms egg which have passed
through the tank unharmed (short detention time). It is therefore potentially dangerous to
health and should be disposed of in a safe and offensive manner.
Location – More than 18 m from wells
” ” 6 m from buildings to avoid damage of foundations
Construction – seepage pit (soak pit) or percolation trenches.
1.42
12.3 Proprietary Systems

Residential estates, apartments, institutions and commercial establishment and industries,
which are not on a sewerline may not have sufficient soakage for septic tank effluents.
Several proprietary systems that treat the effluent to standards that allow reuse in
landscaping or release to stormwater drains are available. The systems can be grouped
into the key biological processes applied; mainly, aeration and proprietary bacterial
enzymes. Examples are presented in the table below:
Facility Description Technology Remarks

KAPA Food Conventional industrial effluent Demonstrated efficacy of
Oil industry treatment process supplemented enzymes
Refineries with bacterial enzymes to quicken
treatment process - greatly
improved performance (including
eliminating odour)
Athi Duplex BioBiox – Uses septic tank Effective- clear effluent,
River Residential followed by effluent treatment by large foot plant Maintenance
Houses membranes for bacteria team on site during tour,
attachment. Pumps for septic tank Power - Kshs 50,000 for 50
and aeration houses/mth
Institution Health Large septic tank supplemented by Clear effluent used for
in Karen Centre, and Ecotreat® enzymes treatment landscaping. Neatly
Housing plant to prevent discharge of constructed & arranged over
odorous effluent. Equipped by ground equipment house
Davis and Shirtlif
NGO Office Biobox as for Graceland above but Improved aesthetics
Karen Complex with entire system underground compared Graceland
above, Under construction
Shopping Shopping Conventional oxidation ditch Require to be placed
Mall at Mall and substantially far from served
Gigili Hotel area
Gachie Apartments Riflo System – separate sewers Untreated kitchen effluent
Blocks Five for black and grey water, a septic taken to soakage,
tank for each block to receive toilet
effluent only, grey water taken to
soakage directly.
Karen Eco-maji Aeration of waste to allow release Large P of upto power costs
Homes to environment, Aerator pumps Kshs 200,000 /mth
The above systems may incorporate filtration and chlorination of the effluents
1.43
CHAPTER 13 SANITATION ALTERNATIVES FOR LOW-INCOME COMMUNITIES
Factors to be considered for evaluation of alternative technologies include:
1) Cost – Low construction cost

– Low operation and maintenance cost
1.44
2) Health – Flies have no access

3) Safety – Users especially children are safe from falling into pit
4) Aesthetics – Facility should be easy to clean and odourless
Examples
1. Ventilated Impound Pit Latrine (VIP) is a hygienic low-cost sanitation technology.
2. Pour Flush Toilets

3. Mobile Site Toilet
1.45

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FCE 581: Public Health Engineering 1B

PART I: INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL

1.2 BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

(i) Aerobic oxidation New cells

(ii) Anaerobic oxidation New cells

1.3 OXYGEN DEMAND IN AEROBIC OXIDATION

Theoretically, the amount of oxygen required to convert a definite amount of organic

CnHaObNc + (n + a/4-b/2-3c/4)O2 → nCO2 + (a/2-3c/2)H2O + cNH3

Biochemical oxidation is a slow process and theoretically, takes an infinite time to go to

1.4 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

1.5 THE RATE OF BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION

Changes in Organic Matter during Biological Oxidation of Wastewater under Aerobic

Where C = Concentration of organic matter at time t.

In BOD computations, it is customary to use L in place of C where L represents the ultimate

Values of θ vary as 20 - 30 oC θ = 1.036

Non-carbonaceous matter such as ammonia is produced during the hydrolysis of proteins.

The process may be illustrated as follows:

1.7 ABSORPTION AND DESORPTION OF GASES

Example: Compute the density of air at 20 oC and one atmospheric pressure.

How do these laws relate to oxygen in water?

Where M = Mass transfer in time t

A solution for the above partial differential equation is

Where Co = Concentration at time = 0

The value of Kd for oxygen in water at 20 oC is 1.86 x 10-3 mm2/s.

where D = oxygen deficit below saturation = Cs-C

In terms of oxygen concentration, the equation becomes

Where V = Volume below interface

Field determination of the re-aeration characteristics of a stream can be accomplished by a

A qualitative picture of oxygen transfer in a stream is illustrated below.

Example: Recovery Time of a Stream Devoid of Oxygen

Where Co = initial concentration of constituents at the point of discharge

Accumulation = Inflow – outflow + de-oxygenation + re-oxygenation

Tutorial on Oxygen Sag

Dissolved oxygen solubility (mg O2/L; at 1 atm)

3.0 DISPOSAL INTO LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

Writing a mass balance around the lake, we get

Accumulation = Inflow – Outflow +Generation + Utilization

Where V = Lake volume

Let the total inflow of constituents be W

CHAPTER 4: WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

1) Receiving Water Standards

i. Amount of dilution available

Parameter Maximum allowable (Limit)

Degreasing solvents of mono-di- Nil

4.0 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

Peak Factor (Pf)

WHO Report No. 9 Grit Equation Duncan Mara

In practice, it is usual to relate peak factors to the sewer diameters as follows.

Size and Type of Sewer Peak factor

C) More than 600 mm diameter (trunk sewers) 1½

Pipe Flow Formula

Minimum Size of Sewer

Slope to achieve flow velocity of 0.6 m/s

1. Are durable and corrosion resistant

3. Require no cathodic protection

4. Require no internal or external coatings

5. Have a design life of 50 years

6. Have no maintenance costs

7. Have easy and reliable jointing mechanisms

8. Are suitable for underground and above ground applications

Procedure Outline for the Design of a Domestic Wastewater Collection System

f) Estimate peak daily rate of domestic wastewater flow.

h) Adopt a minimum size of pipe