Composed by: Dr. U.S.

Mirdha MITS, Jadan Page 1 of 11

Experiment No – _ _

Object:
To determine the ferromagnetic constants; retentivity, permeability and susceptibility by tracing J-H curve using CRO

Apparatus required:
Setup hysteresis loop measurement and CRO

To Y plate

Differentiator
B 
B 
B

Saturation nobe

1 Ohm 20k R3
R1
Phase
R2 Shifter
47k R4
To X plate
5k R5
AC 220

2µF C1 1µF C2

Rh

Formula used:
The specimen is put inside the solenoid and is subjected to a varying magnetic field H. the magnetic field H is produced
by passing a.c. current in the solenoid is given by

4𝜋𝑛√2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐻= cos 𝜔𝑡
10

Where Irms is the current in ampere and n is the number of turns per cm. B
in primary coil of solenoid. a a
b
Ly
The potential difference developed across 1 ohm resistor R1 is fed to
c f
XX plate of CRO and consequently, X-deflection will be proportional o H
to H.
e
d
The emf (e) across the secondary coil is measured of dB/dt and not of Lx
magnetic flux density B. hence, an integrating circuit (using 47k B-H Curve
resistance and 2µF capacitor) is used. Then, the potential difference
across 2µF condenser at any instance is
𝑡 𝑡
𝑄 𝑖𝑝 𝑒
𝑉 = = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅𝐶
0 0
𝐵
∝
𝑅𝐶
Provided R > > reactance of the circuit. This potential difference proportional to B, is applied to Y-deflection plate of CRO. Thus,
we obtain a hysteresis (B-H) curve on CRO screen, by displaying H on X- and B on Y- deflection plates.
1
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan Page 2 of 11

Arrangements and procedure :

1. Make a circuit as shown in figure and put the CRO on DC time base Ext. H. Balance, Phase and Dc Balance
2. Place the sample inside the secondary coil.
3. Switch on AC supply and adjust the rheostat RH to maximum current in the primary circuit.
4. Adjust X and Y amplifiers of CRO to get a
pattern within the screen.
5. Usually, the pattern gobatined is not of the
correct shape, as shown in figures (a-c).
6. If shape of figure (a) appears, then interchange
the secondary leads to CRO, which will bring
the curve in proper quadrants.
7. If shape like (b) is obtained 5K potentiometer Fig (a)
Fig (b)
is to be adjusted to remove the loops or flat at
the tips pof the pattern.
8. If shape like (c – in which ends of the
pattern overlap indicating the magnetic
saturation but they are not parallel to H axis
due to distribution of flux in the air core)
then adjust 20k to make ends of the
pattern horizontal.
9. In an increase in the resistance of 20K
Fig (c) Fig (d)
increase the slop at the ends of the curve
instead of reducing it. Then connections to Y plate must be interchanged.
10. After getting a curve of suitable shape, first set the Y amplifier to Zero to get a straight line which marks the H –axis
and then set X amplifier (Y amplifier is not zero) to zero to get a vertical straight line which marks B axis.
11. A tracing paper (Butter paper) is put on the screen with the axis considering with H ad B axes. Now adjust X and Y
amplifiers to get a curve of suitable shape (Fig D) and trace it on paper.
12. Calibration of H-axis:- Measure the length Lx of the curve on the tracing paper. This correspondence to Hmax.
2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥
Therefore calibration constant for H axis is 𝐶 = oersted/cm
𝐿𝑥

4𝜋𝑛√2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Where 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = oersted
10
13. Calibration of B-axis:-
i. Put the X and Y amplifiers to their previous settings.
ii. Now, put X amplifier to zero, so that vertical straight line of length L y to the height of curve is achieved (20k
potentiometer is made zero in order to avoid any resistance being introduced in the secondary coil/circuit by
it).
iii. Now slowly move the magnetic material out of the solenoid, till the length of vertical line on screen reduced to
(1/2) Ly. Then keeping the material in this position, change Y amplifier to increase the line to its previous
length Ly. Thus Y amplifier is now doubled of the original value.
iv. Now move the specimen (magnetic material) further out till the line is reduced to ½ Ly length. Keeping
specimen in this position, change Y amplifier to increase the line to Ly length (again). Thus Y amplifier is now
four times of the original value.
2
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan Page 3 of 11
v. Repeat the procedure (iii) and (iv), and making Y amplifier 8 or 16 times provided the specimen is not totally
out of the solenoid. Thus the amplification factor F will be 2, 4, 8, 16 ….. depending on the steps taken to
increase it and length of material.
vi. Finally take the specimen out of solenoid and measure the length of vertical line on CRO screen. Let it be h.
then with the original amplification (at which the B-H curve was traced on paper). This length would have been
h/F. This vertical deflection corresponds to twice the maximum magnetic flux due to air-core, given by
2(∅𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑟 2
where r is the mean radius of the primary coil of solenoid. So calibration constant for flux measurement is
2(∅𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴= (ℎ ⁄𝐹)
= (ℎ ⁄𝐹 )
maxwell /cm

If B is the magnetic induction in the specimen iron wires and S their area of cross section, then
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐵=
𝑆
Therefore the calibration constant of B is
𝐴 2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴′ = = (ℎ ⁄𝐹 )𝑆
guass/cm
𝑆

Observations:
A. Constants for calibration of H axis:
1. Current in primary coil Irms = …………………… amp
2. No of turns/cm in primary coil n = …………………… turns/cm
B. Constants for calibration of B axis:
1. Mean radius of primary coil r = …………………… cm
2. Mean radius of one specimen wires used r = …………………… cm
3. Number of specimen wires used n = ……………………
4. Area of cross section of specimen wires (𝑆 = 𝑛′ × 𝜋𝑟 2 ) S = …………………… cm2
5. Amplification factor of Y amplifier F = ……………………
6. Height of vertical line on CRO with air-core h = …………………… cm
C. From B-H curve
1. Breadth of curve Lx = …………………… cm
2. Height of curve Ly = …………………… cm
Calculations:
1. Maximum applied field
4𝜋𝑛√2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = oersted
10
2. Calibration constant for H-axis
2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶= oersted/cm
𝐿𝑥

3. Calibration constant for B-axis

𝐴 2𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴′ = = (ℎ ⁄𝐹 )𝑆
guass/cm
𝑆

4. From B-H curve

a. Retentivity corresponding to Y, if Ob = ………………… cm on the trace,
then retentivity = Ob × A = …………….. gauss
b. Saturation corresponding to Y, if Oa = ………………… cm on the trace,
then Saturation Bmax= Oa × A = ……………….. gauss

3
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha MITS, Jadan Page 4 of 11
c. Coercivity corresponding to X, if Of = ………………… cm on the trace,
then Coercivity = Of × C = ……………….. Oersted
d. Area of B-H Curve on the trace, S = …………………. cm2
Therefore, Hystersis loss per cycle per unit volume
1
= (Area of B − H Curve)
4𝜋
1 ′
= 𝑆 × 𝐶 × 𝐴′ = ⋯ … … … … … … … … 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚3
4𝜋
Result:
The ferromagnetic constants for the given material are found to be
Coercivity = __________ oersted
Saturation = __________ gauss
Retentivity =__________ gauss
Hystersis loss per cycle per unit volume =__________ ergs/cycle/cm3

Viva –
1. What do you mean by hystersis?
2. What do you mean by hystersis loss?
3. What are units of magnetic saturation, coercivity and retentively?
4. What do you mean by magnetic saturation?
5. What do you mean by coercivity?
6. What do you mean by retentively?
7. What is use of radio frequency ac single in this experiment?
8. How soft and hard iron determine by the hystersis loss?
9. What is unit of magnetic field?
10.

4
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 5 of 11
Experiment No – _ _

Object:
To determine dielectric constant of a substance by resonance method.
Apparatus required:
Variable frequency RF oscillator, PN Junction diode, Test capacitor, (with a facility to fill it with dielectric), gang
capacitor, microammeter (0-50µA), coupling coil and standard calibrated variable air capacitor (0 -1000 pF)

RF

P N Diode
oscillator

Coupling coils

µ Ammeter
Variable Test air
air Capacitor
Capacitor

34pF
Formula used:
The dielectric constant is given by
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝜖𝑟 = 1 +
𝐶0
Where
C0 = Capacity of test capacitor without dialectic = …………….. pf
C1 = Capacity of variable air capacitor for maximum deflection in microammeter, when test capacitor is without
dielectric
C2 = Capacity of variable air capacitor for maximum deflection in microammeter, when test capacitor is with dielectric
Procedure:
1) Make the electric connection as shown in figure.
2) The frequency of oscillator is adjusted to some suitable value and is kept constant through the experiment.
3) Keep test capacitor without dielectric and vary the capacity of variable air capacitor, so that deflection in
microammeter is maximum. Let this value of capacitor of variable air capacitor be C 1.
4) Now fill the test capacitor with delectric. Again vary the capacitor of variable air capacitor, so that deflection in
microammeter is maximum. Let this value of capacitor of variable air capacitor be C2.
Observations:
C0 = Capacity of test capacitor without dialectic = …………….. µf

Table for dielectric constant

Capacity of Air capacitor without Capacity of Air capacitor with Dielectric Mean
Thickness of
dielectric in test capacitor for dielectric in test capacitor for constant Dielectric
S.No. dielectric plate
maximum deflection in current maximum deflection in current r constant
(mm)
C1 (µF) C2 (µF) r
1
2
3
4
5
6

5
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 6 of 11
Calculations:
The dielectric constant r is calculated by
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝜖𝑟 = 1 +
𝐶0

Dielectric Constant
Plot the graph between thickness of dielectric material and dielectric
constant. It would found to be horizontal line.

Result: Thickness of dielectric

The dielectric constant of given substance is found to be r _______________ by resonance method.

The percentage error is found to be

  r exp   r act 
% error =    100 = _______%
 r act 
Viva –
1. What is the meaning of dielectric and dielectric constant?
2. What is the value of dielectric constant of air?
3. What is the unit of dielectric constant?
4. How dielectric affects the capacitor?
5. Explain resonance method used in determination of dielectric constant.

6
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 7 of 11
Experiment No – _ _

Object:
To study characteristics of G. M. counting system and draw the plateau.

Apparatus required:
Geiger-Muller tube, instrument containing count recording device, power supply and voltage meter, radioactive sources
(Gamma Source Cs-127 OR Beta Source Tl-204), and connection wires.

Principle:
Plateau characteristics of GM counter is a curve drawn between the
applied voltage and the number of counts per second for the GM
region. The rate of count depends on applied voltage. The variation
gives a plateau in which the count rate is independent of voltage, i.e.

Counts / minute
the region for which the number of counts per minute remains
constant is called plateau (part BC in figure) of the characteristic B C
curve. The lower voltage end, B, of the horizontal part of the curve is
called threshold knee voltage denoted by Vt. the higher voltage end,
C, is known as racing voltage denoted by Vr. The difference (Vr – Vt)
is the GM counter region. Vt
Applied voltage in volts

Outer box

G M Counter

GM tube

Tube window

Absorber Foil

Radio active source

Procedure:
1) Place the radioactive source (Gamma Source Cs-127 OR Beta Source Tl-204) in a cabinet provided for it.
2) Clamp the GM tube in a vertical position with its entry window facing the source.
3) Make the circuit connection as shown in figure.
4) Now apply the voltage. Increase voltage so that counter shows response.
5) Note down the operating voltage at which counter shows response.
6) Also note down counts by every 10 sec interval using preset time adjusting nobe.
7
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 8 of 11
7) Reset the counts to zero after every reading.
8) Increase the voltage in steps of 50 volts and note counts per 10 sec
9) The process is continued until sudden increase starts.
10) Now remove the source and record the number of counts for the same voltage values for a particular time indterval
9say 10 sec). This is rate of background counts.

Observations:
Radioactive Source = _________________
Counts time interval = _________________ sec.

Table for Plateau curve

Applied Voltage Counting time No of Counts Background Counts Net Counts Net Counts
S.No.
(Volts) interval (sec.) X Y (X-Y) per 10 sec (X-Y) per minute

1 1000 V 10 sec

2 1050 V 10 sec

3 1100 V 10 sec

-- ---- 10 sec

N 3000 V 10 sec

Calculations:
Plot the curve between applied voltage and resultant number of counts per minute.
From graph
Threshold voltage (Vt) = _________________________ Volts
Racing voltage (Vr) = _________________________ Volts
The GM region (Vr – Vt) = _________________________ Volts

Result:
A graph is characteristic graph of GM region is plotted and GM region is found to be ________________ Volts for the
sources __________________.

Precautions:
 Do not touch the radioactive source. Keep it covered if not required.
 Do not touch GM counter window.
 Do not try to play with applied voltage probe, as it is high DC voltage.
Viva –
1. What do you mean by radio-active source?
2. Explain the working of ionization chamber.
3. Explain the working of GM counter chamber.
4. What do you mean by self quenching used in GM counter?
5. What do you mean by plateau region in GM counter?

8
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 9 of 11

Experiment No – _ _

Object:
To Determine the absorption coefficient of given material (Lead/Copper sheets) by using G.M. Counting System.

Apparatus required:
G M counter setup, radioactive source, different thickness aluminum plates and ammeter and connection wires.

Formula used:
The intensity of gamma ray in thick plate at x distance is given by –

I  I 0 e x ,
Where
 = absorption coefficient of thick plate
The value of intensity is proportional to the number of counts recorded by GM counter. Therefore

N  N 0 e x

ln N  ln N0  x

Outer box

G M Counter

Tube window

Absorber Foil

Tapping key

Thus, a graph between N and x is straight line with its slope equal to absorption coefficient with a negative sign.
Therefore
log e N
Slope   
x
Or
2.3026  log10 N

x
Procedure:
11) Make the circuit connection as shown in figure and fix the high input operating voltage.

9
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 10 of 11
12) Note down the operating voltage.
13) Place the source in GM tube and determine the counting rate N 0 for various time intervals (say 10, 20 and 30 sec.)
without placing any aluminum foil piece, i.e. zero thickness of the absorbing material
14) Now place the aluminum foil having minimum mass per unit area in between the source and G M tube. And note
down the counting rate for the same time intervals (say 10, 20 and 30 sec.).
15) Repeat the sr. no. (4) with aluminum foils of different thicknesses.
16) Note down the background counting rate at the end.
Observations:
Operating voltage of G M Tube = ___________ volts
Source = ______________________

Table for absorption coefficient

Corrected counting
Counting rate
Thickness of foil Counting time Mean counting rate

Log10 N
S.No. Counts Counts / time interval
x (mg/cm2) interval (sec.) rate N = N’ – (Nb1 +
(sec-1)
Nb2)/2
Background count 10 sec
Nb, observe 20 sec
1 without source Nb1
and foils before 30 sec
experiment
10 sec
2 0.05 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
3 0.1 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
4 0.15 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
5 1.5 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
6 1.55 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
7 1.60 mm 20 sec N
30 sec
10 sec
8 1.65 mm 20 sec N
30 sec

10
Composed by: Dr. U.S. Mirdha CLGIET Page 11 of 11

Background count 10 sec

Nb, observe 20 sec
9 without source Nb2
and foils after 30 sec
experiment

Calculations:
Plot the cure between thickness (along x axis) ad log10 and
determine the slop of curve.

log e N
Slope    (cm2/mg)
x

Result: d
-2
The absorption coefficient of given material is found to be ________________.cm /mg.

Precautions:
 Do not touch the radioactive source. Keep it covered if not required.
 Do not touch GM counter window.
 Do not try to play with applied voltage probe, as it is high DC voltage.
 Keep the operating voltage of GM counter in plateau region and do to change it during experiment.
 Place all the sheets at the fixed distance from counter window of which absorption coefficient is to be determine.

Viva –
1. Describe construction of GM counter
2. What are the applications of GM counter?
3. What do you mean by absorption coefficient in respect of GM counter experiment?
4. What do you mean by Geiger region?
5. What is a nuclear detector? Write few names of nuclear detector
6. What is plateau region or Geiger Region?
7. How G M counter differ from other counters like ionization chamber, scintillation counter and proportional counters?

11