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Abtt
AMERICANASSOCIATION
SOCIOLOGICAL
Theory
Sociological
30(3)167-186
Theory Construction in ©American
Sociological 2012
Association
DOI:10.1177/07352751
12457914
Qualitative Research: http://stx.sagepub.com
ilSAGE
From Grounded Theory
to Abductive Analysis
Abstract
A critical
pathway forconceptualinnovationinthesocialis theconstructionoftheoreticalideasbased
on empirical data.Grounded theoryhasbecomea leading approachpromisingtheconstruction ofnovel
theories.Yet grounded theory-basedtheoreticalinnovationhas been scarce in partbecause of its
commitment to lettheoriesemergeinductivelyratherthanimposing frameworks
analytic a priori.
We
note,alongwitha longphilosophical thatinduction
tradition, doesnotlogically
leadto noveltheoretical
insights.
Drawing fromthetheory ofinference,meaning,andactionofpragmatist philosopherCharles
S. Peirce,
we arguethatabduction, ratherthaninduction,shouldbe theguiding of
principle empirically
basedtheory construction.Abductionrefersto a creative
inferential
processaimedat producing new
hypotheses andtheoriesbasedon surprising researchevidence.We proposethatabductive analysis
arisesfrom actors'socialandintellectual
positionsbutcanbefurtheraidedbycareful data
methodological
We outline
analysis. howformal methodologicalstepsenrichabductiveanalysis
throughtheprocesses of
and
defamiliarization,
revisiting, alternative
casing.
Keywords
theorization,
abduction, ofinquiry
community
A crucial
pathway forconceptual inthesocialsciences
innovation is theconstruction
oftheoreticalideas
onthebasisofempirical data.Tryingtomakesenseofempirical phenomena, often
sociologists findthem-
selves"constructing - engaging
theory" increative
attemptstogeneralize mechanisms, cases,or
particular
linksbetween causalstatements(Abend2008:177-79; Gross2009a)inwaysthatprovide bettertraction
forunderstandingobservationstheyworkwithandpossibly anticipate observations
inothercases.Theory
construction
is thusan ongoing processof"puzzling
pragmatic out"andproblem solvingthatdrawson
waysofunderstanding
existing whatthephenomenon "isa caseof' (Ragin1992;Tavory andTimmermans
2009;Winship 2006).Thecommon groundinsuchgeneralizations is thedialectic
betweendataandgen-
eralization
as a waytoaccount forempirical
findings.1
ofCalifornia,
'University LosAngeles,
CA,USA
2The
NewSchoolforSocial NewYork,
Research, NY,USA
Author:
Corresponding
Stefan
Timmermans, ofCalifornia,
University ofSociology,
Department 266Haines LosAngeles,
Hall,
CA90095-1551,
USA
Email:
stefan@soc.ucla.edu
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168 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
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Timmermans
andJavory 169
To maketheoretical
senseofso muchdiversity
inhisdata,theanalystis forced
todevelopideason
a levelofgenerality inconceptual
higher abstraction
thanthequalitative
materialbeinganalyzed....
Iftheanalyststarts
withrawdata,hewillendupinitially
witha substantivetheory.... Ifhestarts
withthefindingsdrawnfrom manystudies toanabstract
pertaining sociological
category, hewill
endupwitha formal theory toa conceptual
pertaining area.(GlaserandStrauss1967:115)
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170 Sociological 30(3)
Theory
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Timmermans
andTavory 17 1
AllA areB.
C is A.
Thus,C is B.
incontrast,
Induction, starts
witha collection
ofgivencasesandproceeds their
byexamining implied
todevelopaninference
results thatsomeuniversalruleis operative:
Allobserved
A areC.
Thus,allA areC.
Theinductive
rulegainscertainty
withthemultiplication
ofcases,although,
as wenotedabove,thevery
ofA andC andtheconnection
definitions between
themcannot themselves
be explained
byinduction.
Last,abduction with
starts and
consequences then reasons:
constructs
factC is observed.
Thesurprising
ButifA weretrue,
C wouldbe a matter
ofcourse.
Hence,there
is a reasontosuspect
thatA is true.(Peirce1934:117)
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172 Sociological 30(3)
Theory
beforedreamedofputting
together beforeourcontemplation.
thenewsuggestion
whichflashes
(Peirce1934:181)
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Timmermans
andTavory 173
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174 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
whether
To determine thiscasewasanexampleofmisconduct ornot,I haddecided onthefollowing
Ruleviolations
strategy: wereessential as I wasdefining
tomisconduct, it.... I chosethethree
most
controversial forin-depth
[ruleviolations] I discovered
analysis. thatwhatI thought wereruleviola-
tionswereactions
completely withNASArules!"(Vaughan
inaccordance 2004:320)
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Timmermans
andTavory 175
Thetheoretical
analysis
Vaughanconstructed
thusemerged outofempirical
contradictions
generated
by
herin-depth withexisting
familiarity Within
theories. thistheoretical "another
context, technical
mistake,
a misunderstood anunforeseen
procedure, actionoractor"(Vaughan
contingency, 1996:335)abductively
pushedtheanalysis
along.
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176 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
develophowgrounded methods
theory helpinabductive wedeepen
analysis, thequestion in
ofperception
theresearch
process.
Remainingwithwhatwe seeas themostgenerative ofPeirce'swaysofexplicating
we focuson therelationship
abduction, between theoretically waysof seeingtheworldand
cultivated
abductive Where
reasoning. theories toseethephenomenon
allowus initially insociologically
interesting
ways,methodsaredesigned
tocompel ustorevisit againandagain,defamiliarize
thesameobservation the
known world, casingstoourobservations.
andapplyalternative
Defamiliarization
Marion's(2002)notionofsaturation byanother
is complemented ofgrounded
effect methodology:
theory
defamiliarization.
Althoughthequestion wasdealtwithinthepragmatist
ofdefamiliarization on
writings
itseffect
habit, wasbestcapturedintheliterary movement
criticism oftheearlytwentieth known
century
In a classicessay,thefounder
as Russianformalism. ofthemovement,VictorShklovsky
([1917]1965),
arguedthatpoeticlanguagegainsitspotency from ofthelanguage
thedefamiliarization of
andexperience
everydaylife.Either
through minute theuseofmetaphor,
description, orsimply linebreaksin
unnatural
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Timmermans
andJavory 177
wefindourselves
poetry, confrontingoureverydayexperience as unfamiliar,gaining a deeper appreciation
foritorthinking itanew.Objectsthatwererelegated tothebackground ofourexperience, as theywere
tootakenforgranted tobe givena secondthought, suddenly becomepossiblefocalpoints. Thislineof
waslatertaken
reasoning onbyothers, becoming thetechnique of"alienation" employed byBrecht (1974)
andfindingitswayas theobjectofsociology intheworkofPeterBerger (1963),whoargued thatoneof
thewaysinwhichsociology enrichesourunderstanding ofsociallifeis byestranging thefamiliar.
Theactofinscription throughoutthemethodological sequence functions as such a techniqueofdefa-
miliarization.
As anthropologist JackGoody(1977)notedmorebroadly, we actually thinkdifferentlyin
thaninatextual
textual modesofengagement. Theinscribed textbothproblematizes andcrystallizes things
thatwe wouldglossoverin atextual accounts.Certain similarities,
logicalfallacies, lists,anddetailed
comparisonsbecomepossibleas technologies oftheintellect.Rather thanlamenting theinscriptionof
experienceas a loss of immediacy, abductive analysis createsa -
different -
defamiliarized object that
providesus withopportunities andmodesofthought thatwe glossoverin ourimmediate experience.
Defamiliarization
thusaugments theresearcher's
abilitytorevisitthedatainwaysthatincrease thefecun-
dityofabductive reasoning.Whereas revisits
are analytically on
dependent shifting relevancies over time,
theartificiality
ofinscription allowstheresearchertocreatesemantic distance from thetakenforgranted.
AlternativeCasing
Although there canbe no standardized protocol fortheory thecomplementary
construction, processes of
and
revisiting defamiliarizing maximize the possibilitiesof abduction.Defamiliarizationensures thatwe
mulloveraspects wetookforgranted, andrevisiting allowsustoreturn tothesameobservation transsitu-
ationally.When these take
processes place in a contextofexisting theories,we can"case"ourdatain
differenttheoretical waysas we go along(RaginandBecker1992;TavoryandTimmermans 2009).
Practically,researchers should thinkthrough different conceptual andtheoretical frameworks inbothcod-
ingandmemowriting. Theyshouldforcethemselves to takea relativelysmalldataexcerpt andwork
through itindetailinlight oftheir theoreticalexpertise,trying tofindas many possiblewaystounderstand
thedataas can be found.How do thedatalookfromAbbott's(1988) system theoryof professions,
Heimer's (Heimer andStaffen 1998)organizational theory ofresponsibility,
orSuchman's (2007)theory
ofsituated action? Eachcasingabstracts andhighlights differentaspectsofthephenomenon, rendering it
comparable todifferent phenomena andturning itintoa generalizationthatthencanbe linkedto other
fieldsandtheories.
As ourperception ofthephenomenon is colored bytheoreticalformulations, someofthosecasings will
easilyfallwithin therealmofexisting theories. Others, however, maybemoredifficult tofitin.Although
theliteraturesinwhich wearesteeped guidetheanalytical process, andmakerevisiting anddefamiliariza-
tionworthwhile, thereality is thatcarefulcodingusually meansitis notthatobvioustoimposetheory on
data.As Winship (2006)notedinthecontext ofpublicpolicydecisions, decisions oftenemerge inthe
processof fiddling with,andpuzzlingout,aspectsof thesituation. Carefulcodingalmostinevitably
requiresfurther definitionandoperationalization ofconcepts, processes,andtheoreticallinks,adding sur-
prisingpiecesto thepuzzleat hand.7 Fieldnotesandcodingarethusprocesses designedto maximize
abductive analysis, where weforce ourselvestoremain withthephenomenon andtrytoform as many links
andhypotheses as possibleinlightofourtheoretically positioned knowledge, evenafterwe feelwehave
noother possible casings toprovide. Thetrick is tocontinue analyzing thedatawordbyword, linebyline,
paragraph byparagraph, to "turnoverourrecollection of observed facts"(Peirce1934:183,1958:36).
Often,theprocess ofpuzzling through thedatanotonlywillcreate a newpuzzlebutmayactually construct
a newgamewithnewrulesforthinking abouttherelationship between differentpieces.
Theswitch from induction to abduction thusrequires a gestalt switchinwhichthetheoretical back-
ground is foregrounded as a waytosetupempirical puzzles(AdlerandAdler2009).Heuristics forsuch
alternativecasingthatstimulate abductive reasoning arecentral togrounded theorymethodology andto
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178 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
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Timmermans
andTavory 179
oninstitutional
factorstoananalysis centered onprofessionalpowerandinformed a broadertheory ofthe
socialrationinginmedical care(Timmermans 1999a).
Timmermans' s studyalso provides insight intotheprocessof methodological defamiliarization by
contrasting observations of resuscitative effortswithofficialaccounts of resuscitating.
The rationale
behind is a last-resort
resuscitation effort tosavelives.On a case-by-casebasisintheemergency depart-
ments, fewlivesweresaved.Atbest,thestaff succeeded instabilizing
somepatients andtransferring them
totheintensivecareunit.Thestaff, however, didnotseembothered by their
lackof official
success. They
congratulatedthemselves whenrunning a smooth resuscitative
effort
orwhenthey wereattentive tofamily
needs.In fieldnotes,Timmermans observed thatin almosteverysituation in whicha patient failedto
survive,thestaffconsidered theiractions and
medically morally sound inspiteofa deceased patient.Tim-
mermans thendecidedtowritedowntheexactconversations during theresuscitativeefforts
and noted
muchcasualjoking,banter aboutTV shows,discussions ofstaffingandsupplies, weekend planning or
catch-up and
talk, teasing of staff.
The tone shifted however,
dramatically, when relativesentered to pay
their
respects tothedeceased. Remaining staffaccompanied relatives
respectfully,
encouraging touchand
farewells.Thesetranscribed conversations notonlydefamiliarizedbutalsoruptured theofficial
purpose of
Timmermans
resuscitating. proposed a reversal:In resuscitative
practice, efforts
are notabout saving lives
butabout"saving" sudden death.Resuscitative efforts thesuddenness
disrupt ofanunexpected deathand
provide familiessome consolation that everything medicallypossible hadbeen done to savea relative.
Defamiliarizationledto a deeperengagement withthedeathanddying, medicaltechnologies, science
and
studies, sociology of work literatures(Timmermans 1999b).
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180 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
CONCLUSION
Abductive analysis is a qualitativedataanalysis approach aimedatgenerating creativeandnoveltheoreti-
cal insights through a dialecticof cultivated theoreticalsensitivityand methodological heuristics.
Abductive analysis emphasizes thatratherthansetting allpreconceived theoreticalideasasideduring the
researchproject,researchers shouldenter thefieldwiththedeepest andbroadest basepossible
theoretical
anddevelop theirtheoretical repertoiresthroughout theresearchprocess. Theoretical relevancyis notlim-
itedto analogy butflourishes withtheory-close and-farwritings thatinspire novelinsights.Insteadof
theoriesemerging from data,newconcepts aredeveloped toaccount forpuzzling empiricalmaterials.The
methodological precepts ofgrounded theory canstimulate abductivereasoning through a processofrevis-
iting,defamiliarizing, andalternative casingin lightoftheoretical knowledge. Thesurprise, puzzle,or
anomaly thatmaytrigger a noveltheory thenemerges methodologically through careful dataanalysis
againsta background ofcultivated theoreticalexpertise.
We anticipate diverging reactionsfrom thosewithin andwithout thegrounded theoryresearch com-
munity. Fromoutsiders, we expectthefollowing reaction:"Ofcourse, all qualitativeresearchis theory
driven,andtheory construction cannot occurwithout a strong base.Thatis precisely what'nongrounded'
theorists
havebeenstating alltheseyears."Whileweindeed arguefora strong theoreticalfoundationguid-
ingqualitativeresearch, ourfocusonpreexisting theories from
differs thewaytheories areusedinalterna-
tiveforms of qualitative dataanalysis in twoways.First,suchapproaches - forexample, institutional
ethnography orextended -
casemethodpurposefully eschewmethodological "cookbooks," worried that
theywouldresult ina fetishization ofmethods andcrassempiricism. Instead, theydirect researchersto
privilegedtheoreticaldatapoints ortospecific heuristics andamending
forspecifying theory.Theattraction
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Timmermans
andTavory 18 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
WethankRichard NeilGross,
Bernstein, RobJansen, Colin
KayJenkins, Nahoko
Jerolmack, Jack
Kameo, Debi
Katz,
SaraShostak,
Osnowitz, andDianeVaughan;
theethnography
working atNorthwestern
groups theNew
University,
andUCLA;andanonymous
School, reviewers
forcomments
onmany,
manyearlier
versions.
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182 Sociological
Theory
30(3)
NOTES
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BIOS
Timmermans
Stefan isProfessor
andChairattheDepartment atUCLA.Heistheauthor
ofSociology ofSudden
Death
andtheMyth : TheChallenge
ofCPR(1999),TheGoldStandard ofEvidence-Based andStandardization
Medicine in
Health
Care(with
MarcBerg, 2003),Postmortem:
HowMedical Examiners
Explain Deaths
Suspicious (2005),and
TheConsequences
Babies?
Saving ofGenetic
Newborn MaraBuchbinder,
(with
Screening 2012).
IddoTavoryisanassistant atTheNewSchool
professor forSocialResearch.
Hehaswritten
oncondom-use,
sexwork,
inMalawi,
andrelationship-formation inthelivesofOrthodox
andexperience
morality JewsinLosAngeles,
aswellas
other
pieces
inspired Hisprevious
andpragmatism.
byphenomenology workhasbeenpublished, other
among in
places,
theAmerican Review,
Sociological TheoryandSociety
,andSociological
Theory.
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