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BEGINNING ALGEBRA
A. SETS
- Finite or infinite collection of objects where order are not significant
Symbols used:
(element) - members of a set
(subset) - set that is a part of a larger set
(union) - contains all the elements that belong to either sets or both
( intersection) - contains only elements that belong to both sets
‘ (complement) – a set which contains all the elements not included in a certain set
{} or ø(empty or null set or void set) – does not contain any elements
B. NUMBERS
Any mathematical object used to represent a count, label and measure
Complex Numbers
Complex numbers
- Numbers which have a real and imaginary part
- It is of the form
C. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS
The sum of any number and zero is the The product of any number and one is
The sum of any number and zero is the The product of any number and one is
number itself. the number itself.
number itself. the number itself.
a+0=a ax1=a
a+0=a ax1=a
Addition and Subtraction- to add or subtract two complex numbers, you add or subtract the
real parts and imaginary parts separately
F. DIVISIBILITY RULE
G. RULES OF EXPONENTS
For a quantity an, a is called the base and n is called the exponent or index.
Negative Exponents
When the exponent of a number is negative we rewrite it using the following rule:
Fractional Exponents
Zero Exponents
Any number (except 0) raised to the zero power equals 1, for example:
3220= 1
H. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHM
I.SEQUENCES
Arithmetic Sequence -a sequence for which any element, except the first, can be obtained by adding
a constant to the preceding element,
Geometric Sequence - a sequence such that any element after the first can be obtained by
multiplying the preceding element by a constant.
ADVANCED ALGEBRA
A. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
- a variable, a number or a collection of variables and numbers related by at least a fundamental
operation or grouping symbol
- ex: , ,
- Evaluating algebraic expressions: simply substitute the points to the given expression
B. EQUATIONS
- Statement that two algebraic expressions are equal
Linear Equations
- Equations whose variables are of degree one
- ex:
Standard form:
Slope-intercept form:
Where m – slope of the line
b – y-intercept
rise changeiny y 2 y1
slope
run changeinx x 2 x1
Quadratic Equations
- second degree equations
- it is of the form , where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0
2 2
- ex: x + 5x +3, 7x + 4x + 8
o
Difference of Two Cubes: x 3 y 3 ( x y )( x 2 xy y 2 )
ex: x 3 8 y 3 ( x 2 y )( x 2 2 xy 2 y 2 )
o
Perfect Square Trinomial: x 2 2 xy y 2 ( x y ) 2
ex: 144 x 2 120 xy 25 y 2 (12 x 5 y ) 2
Completing the Square
- main task is to produce a perfect square trinomial on the left side of the quadratic
equation then, use the square root property
- to make an expression of the form x2 + bx a perfect square trinomial, add ( )2.
EXAMPLE:
What should be added to the expression x2 - x ?
b= To complete the square, the expression )2 =
x = ; x = -2 and x = -7
C. RADICAL EXPRESSIONS
- Extensions of expressions involving exponents
Fractional Exponents
Let a be any real number, and n be a positive integer greater than 1. Then
= =
Notation of Functions
The equation y = x + b can also be thought of as a function, where the value of y depends
on the value of x.
Each value of x yields only one value of y.
y=x+bà f ( x ) x b
Example:
Given f(x) = x2 + 2x, find the value of f(3)
Solution:
f(3) = (3)2 + 2(3) = 9 + 6 = 15
Composite Functions
- A composite function is a composition of 2 or more functions into a single function.
Example:
Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 – 2, find: gf (5)
Solution:
gf (5) = g( f(5))
= g(2(5) + 1)
= g(11)
= 112 – 2
= 119
Linear Functions
- functions defined by linear equations
- functions whose graph is a line
Quadratic Functions
Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms and are represented by log 10 or
log.
Examples:
log 3 9 2 à 32 9 , log 2 32 5 à 2 5 32
GEOMETRY
A. BASIC GEOMETRIC TERMS
Line
- A line extends forever in both directions
- A line passing through two different points A and B can be written as ‘line AB’ or as ,
the two-headed arrow over AB signifying a line passing through points A and B
Point
- Exact location in plane or surface
- Usually represented by a dot and a corresponding capital letter
- Does not have any length or width
Plane
- A flat two dimensional surface
- Usually refers to a whole space
Rays
- Part of a line that begins at a particular point and extends endlessly in one direction
- Also called a half-line
- Named with its endpoint in the first place, followed by the direction in which it is moving
- Written as
B. ANGLES
- Two rays that share the same endpoint
- The point where the rays intersect is called the vertex of the angle. The two rays are
called the sides of the angle.
- We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle below
may be specified as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you may also see this written as ABC
or as CBA. Note how the vertex point is always given in the middle.
Types of Angles
Acute angle
- an angle which measures between 0 to 90 degrees (fig. a)
Right angle
- an angle which measures exactly 90 degrees (fig. b)
Obtuse angle
- an angle which measures between 90 and 180 degrees (fig. c)
Pairs of Angles
Supplementary angle
- two angles having a sum of 180 degrees
Complementary angle
- two angles having a sum of 90 degrees
Bisector of an Angle
- a line which cuts the angle into two equal angles
Kinds of triangles
- Equilateral triangle
- A triangle having all three sides of equal length
- The angles of an equilateral triangle all measure 60 degrees
- Scalene triangle
- A triangle having three sides of different lengths
- Right triangle
- A triangle having a right angle.
- One of the angles of the triangle measures 90 degrees.
- The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
- The two sides that form the right angle are called the legs.
- A right triangle has the special property that the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the legs equals the square of the length of the hypotenuse.
- This is known as the Pythagorean Theorem. A2 + B2 = C2
- Acute triangle
- A triangle having three acute angles
- Obtuse triangle
- A triangle having an obtuse angle
- One of the angles of the triangle measures more than 90 degrees
D. Polygons
The sum of angles of a polygon can be computed using the formula (n-2)* 180, where n is
the number of sides.
.
E. Circles
A circle is the collection of points in a plane that are all the same distance from a fixed point
Parts of a circle:
a. Center – point inside the circle that has equal distance from any point on its
circumference
b. Radius / Radii - A line from the center of a circle to a point on the circle and the distance
from the center of a circle to a point on the circle
f. Tangent Line – a line which touches the circle in only one point
Angles in a Circle
∠ABC in the diagram below is known as an angle at the circumference.. The angle
is also said to be subtended by (i.e. opposite to) arc ADC or chord AC
The angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal.
An angle at the centre has its vertex at the centre of the circle.
Inscribed Angle
An inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex on the circle.
Arc Of A Circle
An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle.
The arc length is then a fraction of the circumference it covers. This length is
proportional to the size of an angle at the centre subtended (i.e. opposite to) by the
arc. For convenience we call this angle the angle of the arc.
The angle at the centre is 360˚ and is proportional to the circumference. Using
proportionality, we have
Area Of A Sector
F. Area
The area of a figure measures the size of the region enclosed by the figure.
This is usually expressed in terms of some square unit.
Circle Pi × r2
Triangle 1/2 × b × h
Parallelogram b×h
Trapezoid 1/2 × h × (a + b)
G. Volume
Volume is a measure of how much space a space figure takes up.
Pyramid T= L + B
L= Pl V= Bh
Where l is the slant
height
Cylinder L= 2 h T= L + V= h
Cone L= l T= L + V= h
Sphere -------- T= V=
Lateral Area, L –the sum of all the faces connecting the bases (in square units)
Total Surface Area, T - the sum of the lateral area and the area of the base/s (in square units)
Volume, V – the amount of space contained in a solid (in cubic units)
TRIGONOMETRY
A. THE 30◦- 60◦ – 90◦ TRIANGLE
the side PQ, which is opposite to the right angle PRQ is called the hypotenuse. (The hypotenuse is
the longest side of the right triangle.)
the side RQ is called the adjacent side of angle θ .
the side PR is called the opposite side of angle θ .
Identities:
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
1
sin x
csc x
1
cos x
SOH-CAH-TOA CHO-SHA-CAO sec x
1
opposite hypotenuse tan x
sin csc cot x
hypotenuse opposite
adjacent hypotenuse
cos sec
hypotenuse adjacent
opposite adjacent
tan cot
adjacent opposite
The law of sines can be used to compute the remaining sides of a triangle when two angles and a
side are known. It can also be used when two sides and one of the non-enclosed angles are known. In some
such cases, the formula gives two possible values for the enclosed angle, leading to an ambiguous case.
The law of cosines is useful for computing the third side of a triangle when two sides and
their enclosed angle are known, and in computing the angles of a triangle if all three sides are known.
Conversion of rad to
degree
180
rad deg rees
deg rees rad
180
Identities:
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
1
sin x
csc x
1
cos x
sec x
1
tan x
cot x