Reinforced Soil

By

Brabante, Alecsa Nicole C.

Canonce, Wilson C.
Capisonda, Maria Patricia Ann A.
Del Rosario, Odessa Flor D.V.
Parco, Celyn A.
Rafanan, Ma. Ranea S.
Reyes, Rohmere Joseph B.

4CE – E
 What is Reinforced Soil?

Reinforced soil is a combination of earth and various reinforcing materials. It is attained

by the friction between the earth and the reinforcement. The tension in the earth mass is
transferred to the reinforcement by means of friction and the soil acts as if it has cohesion. With
this, the bearing capacity of soil can be improved extensively.

The principle of earth reinforcement was already used in the early part of history such as
the construction of Great Wall of China and Babylonian temples wherein they used tree branches,
tree trunks, roots of vegetation, etc. Modern applications of reinforced soil were invented by a
French architect engineer, the late Henri Vidal in 1957 in which he used metal strips as
reinforcements. This he termed as “Reinforced Earth”. By 1967, reinforced earth structures, those
with heights 50-65 feet, was constructed in Europe using several types of reinforced soil systems
and materials. In early 1970s, reinforced earth was already used in more than 30 countries.

Following Vidal’s invention, materials such as granular piles, lime-cement mixed soil, glass
planks and fibers, synthetic sheet, grids, cells, etc. are used as modern reinforcements in different
geotechnical engineering practices. It is generally used in retaining walls, embankments, quay
walls, railways, and different underground structures.

The principle behind reinforced soil is not different from that of reinforced concrete.
Cement and soil are high in compressive strength but not in tensile strength. To compensate for
it, reinforcements are used. Reinforced soil involves three (3) components. These are the soil,
reinforcement and the skin, also known as the facing element.

Principle Behind Soil Reinforcing

Reinforced Soil is working under the concept that combining two materials with different
strengths can produce one composite substance with even greater resistance. Soil, having a
weak tensile strength and high compressive strength, is incorporated with reinforcements to
absorb the applied tensile loads and shear stresses experienced by the soil element. The basic
principle of soil reinforcement is that when a vertical stress (σ1 ) is applied to an unreinforced soil,
it will undergo compressive deformation 𝛿v and lateral deformation 𝛿h. Meanwhile, when
reinforcement is added in the horizontal layers, the soil elements are restrained against excessive
deformations as the reinforcements counteract the lateral movement (Fig. 1)

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 Figure 13. Unreinforced and reinforced soil

For the interaction of the soil and the reinforcement to be effective, the reinforcement is
expected to absorb all the strains caused by the loadings. Factors that affect the bonding of the
reinforcement and the soil include, roughness of the reinforcement, and cohesiveness of the soil.
Failure or collapse may result when the stress exceeds the bonding capacity of the materials.

Slope Stability of Reinforced Soil

Figure 14. Slope with reinforcements

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 Engineers are often faced with the challenge of maximizing usable spaces. Illustrations in
figure 2 indicates that it is more economical to add a slope to increase the road space. Steepened
slopes involves the use of reinforced soil when the desired surface inclination is greater than what
is natural for the soil. By incorporating reinforcements, slopes that are prone to collapse can be
rendered stable. Soil in slopes comprises two distinct zones, active zone, and resistant zone.
When unreinforced, the soil elements on the surface of the active zone are subject to lateral and
outward movements. Soil reinforcement is therefore installed at the active zone and extends up
to the resistant zone where it will be embedded to channel its tensile strength. With effective
reinforcement, the length embedded on the resistant zone will be enough to stabilize the slope
and resist disturbances caused by the active zone.

Figure 15. Active and resistant zone

Basic Components of Reinforced Soil

The three basic components of any reinforced soil structure are:

a. Soil backfill
b. Reinforcement
c. Facing element

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 Figure 16. Components of reinforced earth structure

I. Soil or fill matrix

The fill material for reinforced earth structures shall preferably be cohesive-frictional
soil as it can be a convenient compromise between the technical benefits of cohesionless soil
and economic advantages of cohesive soil. The minimum specifications of a soil to be in
reinforced soil construction is shown in Table II. A wide variety of fill types can be used
including crushed rock, gravel, and waste materials such as fly ash and industrial slag. In
using cohesive-frictional fill, it should correspond to the grading and plasticity characteristics
shown in Table III.

Table II. Minimum specification for select fill

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 Table III. Grading limits of cohesive-frictional fill

II. Reinforcement

In selecting a suitable type and material for reinforcement, it is important to consider

durability, stability, case of handling, a high coefficient of friction, adherence with the soil, and
economy of the structure. Some materials that have been successfully used as reinforcement
in reinforced soil structures are steel, aluminum, rubber, concrete, glass, fiber, wood, and
thermoplastics.

a. Strips

These are flexible linear elements having their breadth greater than their thickness.
The most common strips are metals but when using metal strips as reinforcement,
provisions should be made for loss of thickness due to corrosion. The strips can either be
plain or having several protrusions such as ribs or grooves to increase the friction between
the reinforcement and soil. Strips can also be formed from bamboo, polymers, and glass
fiber reinforced plastics.

b. Planks

Similar to strips except that their form of construction makes them stiff. It can be
formed from timber, reinforced concrete, or prestressed concrete.

c. Grids and Geogrids

Reinforcing elements formed from transverse and longitudinal members, in which

the transverse members run parallel to the face or free edge of the structure and behave
as abutments or anchors. The main purpose is to retain the transverse members in
position. Since the transverse members act as an abutment or anchor, they need to be
stiff relative to their length. The longitudinal members may be flexible having a high
modulus of elasticity not susceptible to creep. Grids can be formed from steel in the form
of plain or galvanized weldmesh, or from expanded metal. Geogrids are grids formed from
polymers and are normally in the form of an expanded propriety plastic product. The most

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 important properties of geogrids are its tensile strength, tensile modulus, and interface
shear strength.

Figure 17. Common forms of grids, bi-axial grid and uniaxial grid

d. Sheet reinforcement

These may be formed from metal such as galvanized steel sheet, fabric (textile) or
expanded not meeting the criteria for a grid. Geofabrics are very common sheet type
reinforcement. These are porous fabrics manufactured from synthetic materials such as
polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, polyamide, and glass fibers.

e. Nailing

Installing of passive reinforcement in existing ground by installing closely spaced

steel bars or sections and placing a front face support.

f. Anchors

Flexible linear elements having one or more pronounced protrusions or distortions

which act as abutments or anchors in the fill or soil. They may be made from materials like
steel, rope, plastic (textile) or combinations of materials such as webbing and tyres, steel
and tyres, or steel and concrete. Usually, they are either “Z” type anchors or triangular
type anchors.

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 Figure 18. Types of anchor

g. Composite Reinforcement

Formed by combining different materials and material forms such as sheets and
strips, grids and strips or strips and anchors, depending on the field problem requirement

III. Facing Elements

Facing is required for vertical structures. Their purpose is to support the backfill
and keep the reinforcement at a desired elevation in the reinforced soil wall and also
protect the granular at the edge of falling off. The most commonly used facing are made
of either metal units or precast concrete because of their easy handling and assembling.

a. Metal Facing

This type of facing was the first to be used in reinforced earth construction. Metal
facing elements are manufactured from mild or galvanized steel or aluminum and have
the same properties as the reinforcing strips. Because of the shape in profile and the
thinness in cross-section of this type of facing, it can adapt itself to significant deformation.

b. Concrete Panel Facing

The precast concrete panels are cruciform-shaped, weigh about one ton, and are
separated by a substantial joint. Vertical dowels set into the panels assist in the assembly,
and ensure the interaction between panels which makes the entire facing behave as a
flexible unit. Each panel is rigid, but in combination, since the dowel allows rotation of the
panels, the elements become a facing whose flexibility is equivalent to that obtained with
metal facing elements.

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Figure 19. Metallic facing elements

Figure 20. A precast concrete skin panel

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 Uses and Applications of Reinforced Soil
Reinforced soil can be used to construct bridges, highway & roads, railway structures,
industrial and mining, waterways and dams, protective structures, and commercial facilities.
Structures can be dismantled and materials can be re-used, thereby providing a good solution.

Reinforced soil is used for the innovative and economical design of abutments of a bridge.
In direct support, it is applied by abutment resting on a spread footing atop a Mechanically
Stabilized Earth (MSE) structure. While indirect support is applied by abutment on piles with the
MSE structure supporting the fill of bridge superstructures. Reinforced soil's flexibility makes it
possible to develop connect projections on delicate soils. In these circumstances, special
foundations are not required, despite the fact that at times basic soil improvement techniques are
recommended. Moreover, traditional abutments often require deep foundations, reinforced soil
abutments are typically founded at a shallow depth. This enables construction to occur outside
the area influenced by the highway or railway, and without disruption of service.

Figure 21. Liberty Road over I-75, OH

Applications on highways and roads are predominantly approach ramps supporting

roadways, underpasses and overpasses, cut-and-cover tunnels, and noise walls. With a design
life of 75 to 100 years, structures can be designed for use in permanent applications. Reinforced
soil projects require shorter construction time versus more traditional construction methods.
Construction does not require any scaffolding permitting minimum encroachment to right-of-way.
Thus, requirements for detour and disruption to traffic can be considerably reduced.

In the event of a derailment, reinforced soil is applied to protect bridge piers from impact.
It is ideally suited for support of track bed, bridge and trestle abutments, earth retention
structures adjacent to right of ways, and for deflector walls. Due to its high load-carrying
capacity and resistance to both vibration and stray currents make them a preferred solution for
use on light rail, freight train, and high speed railway projects. Structures made for railways do
not differ greatly from those designed for highway except for those requirements specified by

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rail companies. In addition, a reinforced soil wall is built entirely from the backfill side, without
scaffolding and without the necessity of any structure or equipment in front of the wall. The
structure can be placed without any disruption of rail service due to its height not meeting the
clearance line.

Figure 22. Prado Dam, CA

Reinforced soil walls are a proven and effective construction material for structures in fresh
water and marine environments such as retaining walls to support coastal highways and
riverbanks, bridge abutments along waterways, dock walls, sea walls, earth dams and spillways.
The inherent performance characteristics of Reinforced Earth are well suited for the complex
situations relating to waterway and dam structures.

Due to its ability to withstand vibrations, explosions and extreme temperature of -160
celsius for liquid natural gas, reinforced soil barrier products are a proven and cost-effective
solution for protective structures used in civil and military applications. It is applied to protect
explosive magazines, buried bunkers, and storage igloos. The function of these protective walls
is to lessen the impact of explosions and accidental spillages and overflows on humans, buildings,
or sensitive items stored nearby.

Reinforced soil is also suited for a variety of uses in commercial and public markets. It
offers limitless aesthetic and architectural possibilities. It is used in hospitals, apartment buildings,
hotels, commercial manufacturing facilities and department stores.

In addition, reinforced soil also used in industrial mining due to its inherent capabilities to
withstand heavy loadings, vibrations, impact, explosions, flooding, and fire.

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 Figure 11. Reinforced earth inverted mineral silo slots

How to Install Soil Reinforcements

Soil Nailing

Soil nailing is a construction technique used to reinforce soil to make it more stable. It is
used for slopes, excavations, retaining walls etc. to make it more stable. Soil nailing is a
construction remedial measure to treat unstable natural soil slopes or as a construction technique
that allows the safe over-steepening of new or existing soil slopes. The technique involves the
insertion of relatively slender reinforcing elements into the slope – often general purpose
reinforcing bars (rebar) although proprietary solid or hollow-system bars are also available. Solid
bars are usually installed into pre-drilled holes and then grouted into place using a separate grout
line, whereas hollow bars may be drilled and grouted simultaneously by the use of a sacrificial
drill bit and by pumping grout down the hollow bar as drilling progresses. Kinetic methods of firing
relatively short bars into soil slopes have also been developed. Bars installed using drilling
techniques are usually fully grouted and installed at a slight downward inclination with bars
installed at regularly spaced points across the slope face. A rigid facing (often pneumatically
applied concrete, otherwise known as shotcrete) or isolated soil nail head plates may be used at
the surface.

In this technique,

1. Soil is reinforced with slender elements such as reinforcing bars which are called as nails.
2. These reinforcing bars are installed into pre-drilled holes and then grouted.
3. These nails are installed at an inclination of 10 to 20 degrees with vertical.

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 Figure 23. Soil nailing procedure

These points must be noted for installation of soil nails:

1. Soil nails must penetrate beyond the slip plane into the passive zone typically for 4 to
5m.
2. The spacing of soil nails in horizontal or vertical direction must be related to strength of
the soil. Extra soil nails should be installed at the edge of any surface being stabilized.
3. Soil nailing should start immediately after excavation. Any delay may lead to collapse of
soil slope.

Reinforced Earth Wall

Reinforced Earth is a composite material formed by the association of a frictional soil and
reinforcement strips. In concept, it is like reinforcing concrete; that is, it is an economical means
of improving the mechanical properties of a basic material, earth, by reinforcing that material with
another, steel.

Reinforced Earth is a composite material formed by cohesion less soil and flexible metal
reinforcing strips. The earth and the reinforcement are combined through friction. The result is a
monolithic mass that acts cohesively, supporting its own weight and applied loads.

Stresses produced within the soil mass are resisted by the strips. The stresses are
transferred to the strips by friction. A Reinforced Earth structure constructed using this material is
shown as the “reinforced volume” in figure below. Concrete facing panels are used at the face of
the reinforced volume to prevent erosion of the backfill and to provide an attractive, finished
appearance.

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 Figure 24. Reinforced earth wall cross-section

Reinforced earth walls basic construction procedure:

1. Pour levelling pad

2. Set and brace first course of panels
3. Spread and compact backfill up to lowest level of tie strips
4. Bolt reinforcement strips to panels
5. Backfill to top of half panels
6. Set to second course of panels
7. Repeat cycle of backfilling, connecting, strips, setting panels
8. Set top panels
9. Remove all wedges and clamps

Advantages of Reinforced Soil

Reinforced soil has economical and technical advantages.

Economical

§ The only machineries required for reinforced soil structures are a backhoe/excavator and a
compactor.
§ Reinforced soil structures require less construction time which helps cut down costs.
§ Materials are available locally.
§ Reinforced soil structures are cost effective. They require simple and repetitive construction
techniques which make it cost effective. Also, its thin wall element known as skin is enough
to retain the backfill which results to economic savings.

Technical

§ It is flexible and is capable of absorbing deformations due to poor subsoil conditions in the
foundation therefore, rigid and unyielding foundation support is not needed.
§ Reinforced Soil structures have a higher resistance to seismic loadings.

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§ Reinforced Soil structures are capable of supporting large loading. Moreover, reinforced soil
walls are used as a working platform to support the loading and the dead loads.
§ Reinforced Soil can be constructed up to any height. Regardless of the wall height, the details
and techniques used will remain the same.
§ Reinforced Soil structures can be easily modified to for aesthetic purposes.
§ Reinforced Soil structures can last up to 100 years or even more.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Soil

Reinforced soil and structures made out if it also has some disadvantages.

§ Reinforced soil used for structures needs a relatively large space behind on its wall face to
obtain the required wall width that is enough for the walls’ internal and external stability.

§ Soil nailing is needed to protect the existing project from the landfill that is present and higher
to it. This method is limited for structures because it requires permanent underground
easements that extends beneath the other existing structures.

§ Drainage system is required for soil nailing and usually it is difficult to construct and maintain.

§ Granular fill is needed for some sites that are lacking of granular soils, the fills are being
imported from other place and thus it can make the costs higher.

§ Chemical reactions may happen to exposed to soil reinforcing materials that may weaken the
structures.

Summary
The internal and external stability are the main criteria for designing structures.
Fortunately, reinforced soil is relatively strong in both areas. The internal stability comprises of
the internal mechanism (tension and failure) within the structure. Reinforced soil has low tensile
strength and high compressive strength. When an axial load is applied to the reinforced soil, it
causes an axial compressive strength and lateral tensile strain. The strain within the reinforced
soil is comparatively less than the strain within unreinforced soil for the same amount of stress.
The external stability considers the stability of structure as a whole. Reinforced soil is known for
its versatility. It is stable enough to resist sliding, overturning, and slipping.

Reinforced soil has contributed to improve different structures. It is one of the best options
mainly due to its practicality. It is cost-effective, versatile, and has simple and effortless
construction techniques.

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