Accepted Manuscript

Experimental Investigation on Knocking Combustion Characteristics of Gasoline

Compression Ignition Engine

Haiqiao Wei, Jianxiong Hua, Mingzhang Pan, Dengquan Feng, Lei Zhou, Jiaying
Pan

PII: S0360-5442(17)31870-4

DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.020

Reference: EGY 11808

To appear in: Energy

Received Date: 30 March 2017

Revised Date: 03 September 2017

Accepted Date: 05 November 2017

Please cite this article as: Haiqiao Wei, Jianxiong Hua, Mingzhang Pan, Dengquan Feng, Lei Zhou,
Jiaying Pan, Experimental Investigation on Knocking Combustion Characteristics of Gasoline
Compression Ignition Engine, Energy (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.020

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

HIGHLIGHTS

1. Tendency and characteristics of GCI knock with different injection strategies were studied.

2. Statistical analysis was adopted to study MAPO distributions of both GCI knock and SI
knock.

3. Compared with GCI knock and SI knock, the macro behavior as well as combustion process
are quite different.

4. Engine performance of GCI can be improved to work in light knock regions with
appropriate split injection strategy.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 Experimental Investigation on Knocking Combustion Characteristics of

2 Gasoline Compression Ignition Engine

3 Haiqiao Weia,*, Jianxiong Huaa, Mingzhang Panb, Dengquan Fenga, Lei Zhoua, Jiaying Pana

4 a State Key Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

5 b College of Mechanical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China

7 *Corresponding author: Haiqiao Wei

8 Address: 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, P. R. China

9 Tel.: +86-22-27402609

10 Email: whq@tju.edu.cn

11 Abstract

12 Gasoline compression ignition (GCI) is one of the most promising combustion concepts

13 to maintain low pollutant emissions and high efficiency. However, knock phenomenon is an

14 obstacle to GCI combustion. In this paper, experimental investigation is conducted to study

15 GCI knocking characteristics. Firstly, analysis of engine performance and knocking trends

16 was conducted, which shows an increasing trend of both brake mean effective pressure

17 (BMEP) and knock intensity as injection timing advances. Secondly, comparison of knocking

18 characteristics between the modes of spark-ignition (SI) and GCI was performed. The results

19 of statistical and heat release analysis show that the combustion process of the two

20 combustion modes are quite different. Knock in SI engine is a random phenomenon caused by

21 auto-ignition of end gas. On the contrast, knock in GCI engine is ascribed to local rapid
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22 burning rate, which doesn’t happens randomly. Finally, double-injection strategy is applied to

23 obtain different mixture in premixed degree. With more fuel pilot injecting into cylinder,

24 higher BMEP and knock intensity can be observed. The results shall give insights into the

25 possibilities of getting better engine performance while controlling cycle-to-cycle variations

26 and knock intensity in acceptable regions.

27 Key words: Gasoline compression ignition; knocking combustion; MAPO; oscillation

28 frequency; fuel distribution

29 Nomenclature

GCI gasoline compression ignition

LTC low temperature combustion

homogeneous charge compression

HCCI
ignition

PM particulate matter

PRR pressure rise rate

EGR exhaust gas recirculation

CoVIMEP coefficient of cyclic IMEP variation

IMEP indicated mean effective pressure

HRR heat release rate

maximum amplitude of pressure

MAPO
oscillation

SI spark ignited

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VVA variable valve actuation

RPM revolutions per minute

SOI_1 start of first injection

SOI_2 start of second injection

obTDC degree before top dead center

CAD crank angle degree

IVC intake valve close

IVO intake valve open

EVC exhaust valve close

EVO exhaust valve open

BSFC brake specific fuel consumption

BMEP brake mean effective pressure

RSD relative standard deviation

FFT fast Fourier transform

30 1. Introduction

31 With severe energy and environment problems currently, requests for higher efficiency

32 and lower pollutant emissions of internal combustion engines has become extremely urgent.

33 Strict regulations have been enacted to restrict pollutant gas and CO2 emissions. Much effort

34 has been made to improve the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines and decrease

35 pollutant emissions. During the past decades, low temperature combustion (LTC) has

36 received interest worldwide due to its potential of achieving both high thermal efficiency and

37 low pollutant emissions [1-4].

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38 The most famous method of realizing LTC is homogeneous charge compression ignition

39 (HCCI), which was initially demonstrated in a 4-stroke engine by Foster and Najt [5]. The

40 combustion mode has the characteristics of short combustion duration, highly concentrated

41 heat release and low heat dissipation, which lead to high thermal efficiency. Besides, totally

42 well premixed fuel-air mixture and low combustion temperature realize extremely less

43 formation of PM and NOx in HCCI. However, the multi-point spontaneous combustion event

44 and very short combustion duration of HCCI generate high pressure rise rate (PRR), which

45 causes serious engine vibration and combustion noise. Moreover, it is difficult to directly

46 control the combustion phase of HCCI, since the ignition time of fuel-air mixture is controlled

47 by chemical reaction kinetics [6]. Therefore, the working condition regions of HCCI are

48 limited, and misfire and knock will occur respectively under light and heavy load conditions.

49 One of effective ways to control ignition timing [7] and restrict knocking combustion [8]

50 of HCCI is to organize stratified air-fuel mixture in combustion chamber before combustion,

51 which is the concept of gasoline compression ignition (GCI) combustion. In GCI combustion

52 mode, relatively high resistance to auto-ignition and good volatility of gasoline help lengthen

53 ignition delay and air-fuel mixing time, which helps to maintain very less NOx and PM

54 formations with very low exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) ratio [9, 10]. And low use of EGR

55 shows potential to extend working load. Furthermore, with high compression ratio and low

56 heat transfer in GCI engine, thermal efficiency is as high as that of diesel engine. Researchers

57 in Tsinghua University, Delphi Powertrain and Oak Ridge National Laboratory achieved over

58 44% indicated thermal efficiency in GCI engine with very low NOx and PM formations [11-

59 13].

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60 However, there have still been challenges remained to be solved for GCI engines. When

61 working under low-load conditions, very long ignition delay causes retarded combustion

62 phase and unsteady combustion process (CoVIMEP>5%). To optimize unsteady combustion,

63 spark assistance [14, 15], proper injection parameters [16], inlet preheating and boost [17],

64 hot EGR [18, 19] and high-reactivity gasoline [20, 21] are effective methods for GCI under

65 light duty conditions. When working indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) gets higher,

66 combustion temperature and heat release rate (HRR) increase, which lead to high PRR,

67 combustion noise, and even knocking combustion. Simulation and experimental investigation

68 by Broatch showed that the combustion noise of GCI engines was higher than that of

69 conventional diesel combustion engines due to higher PRR [22]. Researchers in the Nissan

70 Research Center [8] and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology [23] studied the relation

71 between PRR and knock intensity, and found high PRR always occurrs together with pressure

72 oscillations. Park [24] and Azimov [25] used optical methods to figure out that the knocking

73 combustion in LTC is caused by fast inhomogeneous combustion process. Adhikary in the

74 Univ. of Wisconsin provided a design of double injections under high-load conditions by

75 genetic algorithm. In the design, late main injection after TDC was adopted to moderate PRR,

76 but it sacrificed high thermal efficiency [26]. However, knocking combustion of GCI occurs

77 not only under high-load conditions, but also under part-load conditions. It is still the main

78 limit to improve thermal efficiency and expand engine load. In the light-medium load

79 experiments (4-7 bar IMEP) by Paul Loeper, the limit of peak PRR was set as 8 bar/deg [17].

80 And in the researches by Adam Dempsey, the IMEP was between 5.18-5.35 bar, while the

81 peak PRR reached 9.6-11.4 bar/deg [13]. From the researches, it was clear that very high peak

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82 PRR, causing knocking combustion, exists even under part-load conditions. But there were

83 few researches further conducting quantitative analysis of intensities and frequencies as well

84 as the influence of GCI knock. Detailed in-cylinder combustion process when knock happens,

85 the factors which influences knock intensities require a deep and comprehensive

86 investigation.

87 In the present work, a comprehensive experimental investigation on GCI knock is

88 conducted with RON 92 gasoline. Quantitative analysis of GCI knock characteristics is

89 performed, including engine performance under knocking conditions, maximum amplitude of

90 pressure oscillation (MAPO) distribution and pressure oscillation frequency. In addition,

91 comparison between GCI knock and spark-ignition (SI) knock is performed, and MAPO

92 distributions are quite different. HRR analysis is conducted to further understand the

93 combustion process. Finally, double injections with different amount of pilot injection fuel

94 are applied to organize various stratified air-fuel gas, in order to investigate the influence of

95 fuel distributions on GCI performance and knock. This paper is organized as follows: the

96 engine setup, operation conditions and procedures are discussed in Section 2, GCI

97 performance and occurrence of knock are discussed in Section 3.1, comparison between GCI

98 knock and SI knock is conducted in Section 3.2, the influence of pilot injection ratio is

99 studied in Section 3.3, and some major conclusions of this work are listed in Section 4.

100 2. Experimental apparatus and procedure

101 2.1 Engine setup

102 A single-cylinder, four-stroke Ricardo E6 engine was used to conduct the experiments.

103 The engine was modified to achieve GCI combustion with a top-surface-heightening piston to

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104 reach high compression ratio. With the modified piston, compression ratio can be altered from

105 8:1 to 17.5:1 by adjusting the volume of combustion chamber. To achieve GCI combustion, a

106 high compression ratio of 17.5 was chosen. Some key specifications of test engine are given

107 in Table 1. The engine has a geometrical specification of 80mm bore, 100mm stroke and 0.5L

108 sweep volume. The injector used in the experiment was Siemens VDO piezoelectric injector

109 for BMW. Direct injection system was independently developed, and the injection timing,

110 injection duration and injection pressure were controlled by an electronic control unit. Fig. 1

111 is the schematic view of the experimental setup. The Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) system

112 was hydraulically powered to get variable valve timing and lift. The basic mechanism of the

113 system is as follows: in Fig. 1, when the valve is about to open, oil pipe A is connected to

114 high-pressure circuit and oil pipe B to low-pressure circuit by the control of a solenoid valve.,

115 and thus the high pressure pushes the valve to open. When the valve lift reaches maximum

116 value, the circuits are cut off to maintain the pressure in hydraulic cylinder. And when the

117 valve closes, the solenoid valve connects to oil pipe B to high-pressure circuit and the oil pipe

118 A to low-pressure circuit in order to push the valve back to close.

119 The equivalence ratio of air-fuel mixture was measured by a wideband lambda sensor

120 with resolution of 0.001, uncertainty of ±0.8% and response time within 0.15s. The in-

121 cylinder pressure signal was measured by a Kistler 6118B spark plug type pressure

122 transducer, which was mounted on the top of the combustion chamber. A Kistler 5018 charge

123 amplifier was used to amplify signal. The analog signals were sent to combustion analyzer,

124 and the pressure signals were collected with resolution of 0.1 CAD with the use of a

125 photoelectric encoder. Engine speed was adjusted by a DZC-20 direct-current dynamometer

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126 with accuracy of ±0.2%. Fuel mass was measured by a fuel consumption meter ranging from

127 0 kg/h to 125 kg/h with accuracy of ±0.2%. The temperature of coolant and lubricating oil

128 was controlled by a SIEMENCE proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller with

129 uncertainty of ±3oC. A Toceil LFE060 flow meter was chosen to measure inlet mass flow rate

130 with uncertainty of ±1%.

131 Tab. 1 Engine Specifications

Engine type Single cylinder, 4-stroke

Bore×stroke 80×100mm

Sweep volume 0.5L

Compression ratio 17.5:1

Valve mechanism VVA, 2-valve

Combustion system Direct injection, compression ignition

Injection pressure 130bar

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132

133 Fig. 1 Schematic of Experimental Setup

134 2.2 Operation conditions

135 In the present work, the engine speed was kept constant at 1500 RPM, and all the

136 measurements were conducted in the environment with room temperature of 30 oC, pressure

137 of 1bar, and O2 mass concentration of 21%. In GCI combustion mode, high compression ratio

138 of 17.5:1 and slightly negative valve overlap were performed to ensure stable combustion

139 with intake temperature of 30 oC. Strategies of both single injection and double injection were

140 conducted, and the mass for every cycle was kept the same, which was 18mg/cycle. The first

141 injection occured in intake stroke to get well premixed air-fuel gas, and in the second

142 injection event, most of the fuel was injected into cylinder during compression stroke to make

143 fuel stratification in combustion chamber. With double injection, several ratios of fuel mass in

144 the first injection were tested. The temperature of the coolant and the lubricating oil was

145 maintained at 75 oC ± 3 oC and 85 oC ± 3 oC respectively. The fuel used in this work was the
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146 commercial RON 92 Shell petrol. Tab. 2 lists some more details of the operation conditions.

147 To improve the accuracy and repeatability of the experiments, the data of 200 cycles were

148 recorded for every working condition, and the test for every condition was repeated twice.

149 Tab. 2 Engine Operation Conditions

Engine speed 1500 RPM

Load 3.5 - 6.5 bar BMEP

Fuel mass 18mg/cycle

IVO/IVC -360 CAD/-130 CAD

EVO/EVC 150 CAD/320 CAD

SOI_1 240 obTDC

SOI_2 10 – 34 obTDC

%Fuel mass in SOI_1 0, 10, 20, 30

Inlet pressure 1 bar

Inlet O2 21%

Intake temperature 30 oC

Coolant temperature 75 oC

Oil temperature 85 oC

150 2.3 Knock detection and heat release rate calculation

151 High frequency pressure oscillations exist in combustion chamber when knocking

152 combustion occurs. Many researches pointed out that knock frequencies were observed within

153 the range of 4 – 20 kHz [27, 28]. Therefore, a band pass filter of 4 – 20 kHz is used to extract

154 the pressure oscillations from the original in-cylinder pressure signals. In the present work,

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155 the in-cylinder pressure sampling interval was 0.1 CAD, which is equal to a 90 kHz sampling

156 frequency when the engine speed is set as 1500 RPM. According to the Nyquist sampling

157 theorem, the highest frequency component that can be analyzed is half of the sampling

158 frequency, thus the sampling frequency of 90 kHz is sufficient to capture the knocking signal

159 in the region of 4-20 kHz.

160 There are many practical indexes to estimate knock intensity. One of the most widely

161 used indexes is MAPO, which is defined as the absolute peak value of band-pass filtered

162 pressure trace. In this paper, MAPO is selected to be the knock index, and the mean MAPO of

163 200 cycles is denoted as MAPOmean.

164 For further investigation of the combustion process during knocking, the calculation of

165 HRR is required. A single-zone model based on the first law of thermodynamics was used in

166 this work, and the average results of 200 cycles’ in-cylinder pressure were used to calculate

167 the HRR, using the equation following as below [29]:

dQ  dV 1 dp
168  p  V (1)
d   1 d   1 d

169 Where  is the ratio of specific heats, V and p are the instantaneous volume of combustion

170 chamber and in-cylinder pressure respectively, and  is the crank angle degree.

171 In the present work, online and offline computation of MAPO and HRR is done by self-

172 developed combustion analyzer.

173 3. Results and discussions

174 3.1 GCI performance and knock occurrence

175 For compression ignition combustion mode, injection strategy has significant effect on

176 GCI engine performance and combustion process. Fig. 2 shows brake specific fuel

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177 consumption (BSFC), CoVIMEP and brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) with sweeping of

178 injection timing. As injection timing being advanced, BSFC decreases and BMEP increases,

179 which indicate that longer fuel atomization time, realized by earlier injection event, improves

180 thermal efficiency and power capability of GCI to some extent. In addition, earlier fuel

181 injection mitigates cycle-to-cycle variation and improves combustion stability.

182 The advancement of injection timing results in an increase of premix degree and a

183 decrease of local fuel-rich regions, hence improves combustion process. As shown in Fig. 3, a

184 rising trend of combustion efficiency is observed with advanced injection timing. Combustion

185 efficiency signifies the degree of fuel burning to CO2, the formation of CO and HC can be

186 reduced as combustion efficiency gets higher. Furthermore, in Fig. 4, higher in-cylinder

187 pressure, more advanced combustion phase and more concentrated heat release are obtained

188 as injection timing is advanced. This is because chemistry reactions start earlier as fuel

189 contacts with hot in-cylinder charge earlier. In addition, Fig. 4 shows longer ignition delay

190 with advancing injection timing, which further verifies the view that early fuel injection

191 lengthens fuel-air mixing time.

192 From the discussion above, advancing fuel injection timing has two main effects on GCI

193 combustion under the conditions of present work: 1) increase of fuel-air mixing time reduces

194 local fuel-rich zone and incomplete combustion, which leads to improvement of combustion

195 efficiency; 2) advanced combustion phase and accelerated burning rate result in concentrated

196 heat release and higher output power. The two factors are the main reason for engine

197 performance improvement when fuel injection advances.

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16 6.0
375
BSFC
BMEP 14 5.5
350
CoVIMEP
12
5.0

CoVIMEP (%)
BSFC (g/kWh) 325

BMEP (bar)
CoV 5%
limit 10
300 4.5
8
275 4.0
6
250 3.5
4
225
2 3.0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Injection Timing (deg bTDC)
198

199 Fig. 2 BSFC, BMEP and CoVIMEP with injection timing sweeping

200

94 40 200
Combustion Efficiency
BSCO 35 175
Combustion Efficiency (%)

92 BSHC
30 BSHC (g/kWh)
150

BSCO (g/kWh)
90 25 125

20 100
88
15 75

10 50
86
5
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Injection Timing (deg bTDC)
201

202 Fig. 3 Combustion efficiency, BMEP and CoVIMEP with injection timing sweeping

203

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Ignition delay time (deg)

Inj. Timing-18
34
Inj. Timing-22 32 160
Inj. Timing-26
6 Inj. Timing-30
30
28
Inj. Timing-34 26

Pressure (MPa)
5 24 120

HRR (J/deg)
22
18 22 26 30 34
4 Inj. timing (deg bTDC)

3 80

2
40
1
0
0
-20 0 20 40 60
Crank Angle (deg)
204

205 Fig. 4 In-cylinder pressure and HRR with injection timing sweeps

206

207 However, as fuel injection advances, a severe problem occurs, which is knocking

208 combustion. In Fig. 5, when advancing injection timing from 20 oCA bTDC, in-cylinder

209 pressure and PRR increase apparently, and clear knocking noise can be heard. From the trace

210 of in-cylinder pressure and band-pass filtered signal, it is clear that intensive pressure

211 oscillation occurs at very advanced fuel injection. This type of pressure oscillation is similar

212 to that of conventional SI knock. One of the difference is that the pressure oscillation of SI

213 knock usually starts between 10-30 oCA aTDC [30-32], while GCI knock starts near the TDC.

214 When considering both engine performance and knock, another difference can be observed

215 that with more intensive knock, better engine performance can be obtained in GCI engine,

216 whilst the performance declines when severe knock occurs in conventional SI engine.

217 Therefore, GCI knock is quite different from traditional SI knock. To better understand the

218 characteristics of GCI knock, further comparing investigations between GCI and SI knock are

219 conducted in next sections of this paper.

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10 Max. PRR
Max. Pressure 7
8 Knock Zone
Max. PRR (bar/deg)

Max.Pressure(MPa)
6 6

4
5

4
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Injection Timing (deg bTDC)
220
221 Fig. 5 Discovery of knocking combustion with injection timing sweeps

222 3.2 Comparison between GCI knock and SI knock

223 In this section, to further investigate the combustion process of GCI knock, comparison

224 analysis between GCI knock and SI knock is conducted. In both GCI and SI engines, the

225 same fuel, RON 92 gasoline, was used. Although the combustion ways of GCI are similar to

226 conventional diesel combustion to some extent, sound pressure level, cylinder pressure level

227 and PRR [22, 33] are usually used to quantify diesel engine knock intensity, instead of

228 pressure oscillations. In addition, the engine used in the experiment was modified from a GDI

229 engine. Therefore, comparison between GCI knock and SI knock was carried out in the

230 present work.

231 SI combustion was realized by adjusting compression ratio to 10:1 and changing the

232 valve timing. The timing of IVO, IVC, EVO and EVC was -370 oaTDC, -130 oaTDC, 150

233 oaTDC and 380 oaTDC respectively. Typical knocking condition with wide open throttle was

234 chosen. SI knock can be realized by advancing spark timing when clear knock sound is heard,

235 and the BMEP for SI combustion is between 10-11bar with various spark timings. SI mode
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236 with advanced spark timing and GCI mode with advanced injection timing are representative

237 knocking conditions of the two combustion modes respectively in spite of engine speed and

238 load.

239 For the phenomenon of knocking combustion, one of important methods to describe

240 knock characteristic is statistical analysis based on large quantities of combustion cycles [30,

241 34]. Therefore, statistical method is used to investigate the MAPO distribution of

242 200combustion cycles in this work. Fig. 6 is the probability distributions of GCI and SI

243 combustion modes from knock-free to knock conditions.

244 In GCI mode, advancing injection timing from 20 to 30 oCA bTDC only results in

245 slightly higher MAPOmean. However, further advancing injection timing from 30 to 34 oCA

246 bTDC, dramatically increase in MAPOmean can be observed. Therefore, the MAPO value at

247 injection timing of 30 oCA bTDC was selected to be the knock borderline value (0.2 MPa) of

248 GCI in present work. For SI combustion, knock and knock-free conditions are obviously

249 distinguished by a certain point (ignition timing of 22 oCA bTDC), which has knock

250 borderline value of 0.1MPa. In addition, the probability distribution of MAPO for the two

251 combustion modes are quite different. Within knock limit, the peaks of the probability

252 distribution traces in GCI (Fig. 6(a)) moves towards the higher MAPO direction as injection

253 timing advances, while the peaks of SI (Fig. 6(b)) remains unchanged when advancing spark

254 timing. Under severe knock conditions, the probability distributions of MAPO in SI mode

255 spreads out wider range compared with those in GCI combustion mode, which indicates the

256 knock intensity of SI mode distributes more randomly.

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257
258 Fig. 6 Probability distributions of GCI and SI from knock-free to knock conditions

259

260 To further compare knock characteristics of GCI and SI, MAPO distributions of knock-

261 free, critical knock and knock conditions of the two combustion modes are displayed in Fig.

262 7. In this figure, three statistics terms, mean (  ), standard deviation (  ) and relative

263 standard deviation (RSD), are used to describe the MAPO distributions. In statistics, standard

264 deviation (  ) is a measure used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of

265 data values [35]. A low  value indicates that the sample points tend to be close to the mean

266 value of the set, while a high  value indicates that the sample points are spread out over a

267 wider range. However, when the means are different or with different units for sets of
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268 samples, standard deviation requires to be non-dimensionalized for further comparison. The

269 dimensionless value RSD, also known as coefficient of variance (CV), is defined as the ratio

270 of  to  [36].

271 In a1 to a3 of Fig. 7, advancing injection timing from 24 to 34 oCA bTDC leads to an

272 increase of mean value (from 0.1 to 0.54 MPa) and standard deviation (from 0.05 to 0.23

273 MPa) of MAPO, and the knocking sound can be clearly heard. The increased knock intensity

274 and MAPO standard deviation raise the thermal load and mechanical load of engine, which

275 might cause serious damage to engine. It is worth to mention non-dimensionalized number

276 RSD remains almost unchanged from knock-free to knock conditions, which signifies that the

277 increase of knock intensity in GCI mode doesn’t change the MAPO distribution pattern

278 fundamentally. Furthermore, the results indicate in-cylinder pressure oscillations have

279 negligible effects on combustion mode, only burning rate, HRR and the amplitude of pressure

280 oscillations are changed as a consequence of fast combustion.

281 On the other side, b1 to b3 in Fig. 7 are the MAPO distributions of SI combustion mode.

282 Great variations of MAPO distribution can be seen when knock happens. RSD value is only

283 0.49 for knock-free condition, which rises to approximately 1.5 when knocking combustion

284 occurs. And occasionally, extremely high pressure oscillation can be observed. The reason for

285 the distribution difference between the two combustion modes is supposed to be the nature of

286 random end gas auto-ignition under SI knocking conditions.

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Knock free Critical knock Knock

2.0
(a1) Injection timing-24 (a2) Injection timing-30 (a3) Injection timing-34

 = 0.102MPa  = 0.194MPa  = 0.547MPa

1.5 0.3
 = 0.049MPa  = 0.092MPa  = 0.226MPa

GCI mode
MAPO (MPa)

0.2 RSD = 0.480 RSD = 0.474 RSD = 0.413

1.0
0.1

0.0
0.5 20 40 60 80

0.0
(b1) Ignition timing-18
(b2) Ignition timing-22
(b3) Ignition timing-24

1.5 0.10  = 0.024MPa  = 0.113MPa  = 0.516MPa

 = 0.012MPa  = 0.173MPa  = 0.824MPa
MAPO (MPa)

SI mode
RSD = 0.491 RSD = 1.531 RSD = 1.598
1.0 0.05

0.5 0.00 20 40 60 80

0.0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Cycle Number Cycle Number Cycle Number
287

288 Fig. 7 Detailed MAPO distributions of GCI (a1 to a3) and SI (b1 to b3) combustion from

289 knock-free to knock conditions

290

291 To further understand the obvious differences between GCI knock and SI knock, in-

292 cylinder combustion process needs to be analyzed. In Fig. 8, four representative combustion

293 cycles including knock and knock-free of GCI and SI modes are displayed. The two knock-

294 free cycles belong to a1 and b1 of Fig.7, and the two knock cycles, with knock intensity

295 (MPAO) of approximate 0.5 MPa, belong to a3 and b3, respectively. The BMEP for the two

296 GCI cycles are 4.5 bar and 5.1 bar respectively, and that for the two SI cycles are 10.5 bar and

297 10.7 bar respectively. It is obvious that very rapid heat release is the common feature of GCI

298 and SI knocking combustions, which leads to following pressure oscillations in combustion

299 chamber. Comparing the knock and knock-free combustion process of GCI, more

300 concentrated heat release and advanced combustion phase are gained under knocking

301 conditions. In GCI knock, early start of combustion with smaller combustion chamber leads

302 to quick increases of in-cylinder pressure and temperature. And high thermal ambient

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303 (pressure and temperature) promotes combustion process at the same time, which causes more

304 intensive pressure oscillations and higher PRR. When comparing SI knock and knock-free

305 conditions, it can be seen that knock occurs at 18 CAD when more than half fuel is burned,

306 and a rapid increase of HRR is observed, which indicates the auto-ignition of end gas.

307 Therefore, it can be concluded that pressure oscillations in SI mode are caused by auto-

308 ignition of end gas, while pressure oscillations of GCI mode are the results of local fast

309 burning rate and advancing combustion phase.

310 In addition, slightly two stage HRR can be obtained in Fig. 8. This is probably due to the

311 multi-stage combustion process, which is the feature of partially premixed combustion using

312 gasoline fuel. In the optical research conducted by Qinglong Tang [37], the combustion

313 process can be basically divided into four stages: 1) multiple auto-ignition kernels emerging

314 in the fuel-rich regions, 2) flame front propagation of the auto-ignition kernels towards fuel-

315 lean regions, 3) auto-ignition in the end-gas of fuel-lean regions, and 4) a “burnout” stage in

316 the whole combustion chamber after the main heat release process ends. This might explain

317 the two-stage HRR pattern for GCI combustion, but further investigations are required to

318 study the details of GCI combustion process.

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8 3

Pressure Oscillation (MPa)

GCI knock

Pressure (MPa)
SI knock
6
GCI normal
2
SI normal
4

1
2

0 0

-2
HRR (J/deg)

80 -1
60
18 CAD
40 0.5 CAD
20
0
-20 0 20 40 60
Crank Angle (deg)
319

320 Fig.8 In-cylinder pressure, pressure oscillations and HRR of GCI and SI combustion

321 (including knock and knock-free conditions).

322

323 Besides statistics and combustion analysis, frequency analysis of in-cylinder pressure

324 oscillations is as well essential for knocking phenomenon. When knocking combustion

325 occurs, there are intensive pressure waves propagating and reflecting in the cylinder, which

326 might excite the combustion chamber to resonate. The resonance modes can be both

327 circumferential and radial, while axial mode is negligible in a squat cylindrical combustion

328 chamber near TDC [30]. Frequencies can be estimated by analytical solution of wave

329 equation. Assuming that knocking pressure waves propagate at local acoustic velocity and

330 knock occurs near the wall, the bore and the circumference of the combustion chamber is

331 used as characteristic lengths for the calculation of radial and circumferential modes. The

332 wave equation can be simplified as[30]:

c
333 f m ,n   m ,n (2)
B

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334 where fm,n is the knocking resonant frequency; m, n are the numbers of radial and

335 circumferential pressures nodes respectively; c is the velocity of local sound in combustion

336 chamber; B is the cylinder bore and ρm,n is the corresponding resonance mode factor number,

337 and the first three ρm,n are represented in Fig. 9.

338 Fig. 9 is the fast Fourier transformation (FFT) amplitude result of the two knocking

339 cycles displayed in Fig. 8. For GCI knock, two distinct peaks can be seen at the frequencies of

340 5.3 kHz and 7.9 kHz respectively. However, for SI knock, three peaks with corresponding

341 frequency of 7.5 kHz, 12 kHz and 15.8 kHz are observed. The frequency difference between

342 GCI and SI is mainly due to the different combustion temperature. Lower combustion

343 temperature leads to slower local sound speed, which results in lower oscillation frequencies.

344 It is reasonable to consider these frequencies as the combustion chamber resonance

345 frequencies, which are excited by knocking oscillations. In present work, the local sound

346 speed of SI and GCI in combustion chamber is estimated at 1000 m/s and 750 m/s

347 respectively. For SI knock, the calculated resonant frequencies of the first three modes (1, 0),

348 (2, 0) and (0, 1) are 7.22 kHz, 12.15 kHz and 15.33 kHz, which are within 5% differences

349 between the experimental results. However, for GCI knock, the frequency calculation of the

350 resonant modes (1, 0) and (2, 0) are 5.49 kHz and 9.11 kHz, respectively, while the

351 experiment results are 5.3 kHz and 7.9 kHz. The difference of the second radial mode (2, 0)

352 between the calculation and experiment results reaches up to 15.3%, which indicates the

353 inappropriateness of using Eq. (2) to predict the resonant frequencies of GCI knock. It is

354 probably because the auto-ignition, which causes the pressure oscillations, doesn’t occur near

355 the cylinder wall like it does in SI mode. Besides it is also possible that the multipoint auto-

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356 ignition in GCI mode eventually influences the resonant frequency. Future work is expected

357 to reveal the detailed combustion process and pressure oscillations by utilization of optical

358 engine and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation.

0.010
SI Knock
GCI Knock
0.008
FFT Amplitude (MPa)

5.3kHz
0.006
7.5kHz

0.004
7.9kHz
12.0kHz
0.002
15.8kHz

0.000
0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
Frequency (HZ)
359
360 Fig. 9 Frequency analysis: amplitude of FFT with different knock intensities

361

362 3.3 Influence of premixed degree on GCI knock

363 In the discussions of the preceding text, it is clear that fuel distribution, which is

364 influenced mainly by injection strategies, plays an important role in GCI combustion and

365 knock characteristics. In this section, double-injection strategy is adopted to investigate the

366 influence of premixed degree on GCI knock and to optimize engine performance while

367 controlling knock intensities. The pilot injection ratios were 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% mass

368 percentage respectively. The rest control parameters maintained the same as listed in Tab. 2.

369 The results of BMEP, CoVIMEP and BSFC are shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen that with

370 higher pilot injection ratio, the engine performs better, which results in higher BMEP, lower

371 BSFC and wider stable working region (CoVIMEP<5%). It is mainly due to superior

372 combustion with double injection strategy as shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. 11, with higher pilot

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373 injection ratio, higher combustion efficiency and lower CO emissions are observed. The HC

374 emission of 30% pilot injection is higher than that of 20% pilot, which is due to “over-

375 premixed” for some fuel being unburned in crevice area.

376 In conclusion, with relatively more fuel to be premixed by pilot injection, better engine

377 performance and superior combustion process can be obtained. However, when considering

378 engine knock, the results are different.

7
30% pilot
(a) 20% pilot
10% pilot
BMEP (bar)

6 0 % pilot

14
(b)
CoVIMEP(%)

12
10
8
6
4
(c)
320
BSFC (g/kWh)

280

240

200
12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Main Injectioin Timing (deg bTDC)
379

380 Fig. 10 BMEP, CoVIMEP and BSFC of various pilot injection ratios at different main injection

381 timings in GCI engine

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94 (a)
92

efficiency (%)
Combustion
90
88 30% pilot
20% pilot
86 10% pilot
0 % pilot
175
(b)
150
BSCO (g/kWh)
125
100
75
50
25

(c)
40
BSHC (g/kWh)

35
30
25
20
15
12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Main Injectioin Timing (deg bTDC)
382

383 Fig. 11 Combustion efficiency, BSCO and BSHC of various pilot injection ratios under

384 different main injection timing in GCI engine

385

386 Higher premixed degree and advanced main injection timing can improve engine

387 performance, but knock intensity and PRR must be considered to avoid possible engine

388 damage. Fig. 12 shows the knock intensity, MAPO, and max. PRR tendency with different

389 pilot injection ratios and main injection timings. It is apparently that knock intensity, with

390 30% pilot injection, cannot be controlled within critical value of 0.2 MPa. For the rest of pilot

391 injection conditions, two-stage increase of knock intensity, firstly slow and then sharp, is

392 obtained with advancing main injection timings. However, except for single injection

393 strategy, there is nearly a liner relationship between max. PRR and main injection timing,

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394 which is different from the increasing trend of knock intensity.

395 In the present work, the limits of MAPO and max. PRR are 0.2MPa and 0.7 bar/deg

396 respectively. The knock limit main injection timing for pilot injection ratios of 0%, 10% and

397 20% are 30, 28 and 24 obTDC respectively, which are denoted as ITKL-0%, ITKL-10% and

398 ITKL-20% in this paper. The knock intensities of ITKL-0%, ITKL-10% and ITKL-20% are 0.197

399 MPa, 0.226 MPa and 0.201 MPa, while the max. PRRs are 4.4 bar/deg, 6.3 bar/deg and 6.4

400 bar/deg respectively. The results indicate that double injection strategy causes higher PRR

401 when maintaining similar knock intensity. This phenomenon is mainly due to the burning rate

402 and combustion phase. In Fig. 13, the in-cylinder pressure and HRR of the three critical

403 knock conditions are shown. Comparing the HRR between ITKL-0% and ITKL-20%, higher

404 HRR is caused by more advanced heat release. If combustion process starts earlier, in-

405 cylinder pressure and temperature will increase faster because of smaller volume of

406 combustion chamber, which generates higher PRR. It can be concluded that there is not direct

407 relationship between MAPO and PRR in GCI combustion, both of which are influenced by

408 combustion process. MAPO is mainly caused by inhomogeneous fast heat release, while PRR

409 is influenced by not only HRR, but also combustion phase. Hence, it is proper to consider

410 both MAPO and PRR for GCI knock to estimate the damage to engines.

411 The performance results of the three critical knock conditions, ITKL-0%, ITKL-10% and

412 ITKL-20%, are listed in Tab. 3. BSFC of the three conditions are 267.2, 255.4 and 231.2

413 g/kWh respectively, while knock intensities remains similar around 0.2 MPa. Fuel

414 consumption reduces about 13.5% from 267.2 to 231.2 g/kWh when adopting double-

415 injection strategy. It can be conclude that adopting proper injection strategy provides the

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416 possibility to reduce fuel consumption while controlling the knock intensities.

0.8 30%-pilot injection

20%-pilot injection
10%-pilot injection

MAPOmean(MPa)
0.6 0%-pilot injection

0.4

0.2

0.0

10
Max. PRR (bar/deg)

12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Main Injection Timing (deg bTDC)
417

418 Fig. 12 MAPO and max. PRR with different pilot injection ratios and main injection timings

419

ITKL-0%
Heat Release Rate (J/deg)

ITKL-10% 120
6
ITKL-20%
Pressure (MPa)

4 80

2
40

0
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Crank Angle (deg)
420

421 Fig. 13 Pressure and HRR of three critical knock conditions (ITKL-0%, ITKL-10% and ITKL-

422 20%)

423

424 Tab. 3 Performance results of critical knock conditions

Case ITKL-0% ITKL-10% ITKL-20%

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%Fuel mass in SOI_1 0 10 20

SOI_1/obTDC 220 220 220

SOI_2 30 28 24

Fuel mass per

18 18 18
cycle/mg

BMEP/bar 4.8 5.0 5.6

BSFC/g/kWh 267.2 255.4 231.2

MAPO/MPa 0.197 0.226 0.201

Max. PRR/bar/deg 4.4 6.3 6.4

425

426 4. Conclusions

427 The characteristics of GCI knocking combustion, as well as comparisons with SI knock,

428 were investigated experimentally in the present work. The effect of premixed degree on GCI

429 knock was also analyzed. The fuel used in the experiments were 92 RON commercial

430 gasoline, and all the tests were carried out with constant engine speed of 1500 RPM and

431 constant fuel supply mass of 18mg/cycle. The knock characteristics discussed in this paper

432 include engine performance on knocking conditions, knock intensity distributions, oscillation

433 frequency and HRR. The key conclusions are listed as follows:

434 1. As injection timing advances, better engine performance with higher BMEP and

435 lower BSFC is obtained, which is due to superior combustion and higher combustion

436 efficiency. However, advancing injection timing increases knock intensity and peak

437 pressure of GCI, which indicates that injection timing must be properly controlled to

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438 balance the engine performance and knock intensity.

439 2. From comparison analysis, MAPO distribution patterns of GCI knock present to be

440 quite different from that of SI knock. SI knocking combustion, caused by auto-

441 ignition of end gas, will lead to very high RSD of MAPO distribution and

442 occasionally much greater pressure oscillations. In GCI mode, RSD value remains

443 almost static from knock-free to knock condition, which means that fundamental

444 combustion process is unchanged.

445 3. By analyzing HRR curves, it is found that pressure oscillations for both GCI and SI

446 knock are caused by sharp HRR rising, indicating that the occurrence of pressure

447 oscillations is caused by locally extremely fast burning rate. The burning rate of GCI

448 is influenced by in-cylinder fuel distribution and combustion phase, while the fast

449 burning rate of SI combustion is caused by auto-ignition of end gas.

450 4. By FFT analysis, two peak magnitudes of GCI knock oscillation frequencies can be

451 observed, and the frequency corresponding to the radial mode (1, 0) between 5-6

452 kHz is most obvious. Whilst the frequency of mode (1, 0) for SI knock is between 7-

453 8 kHz, which is due to faster local sound speed caused by higher combustion

454 temperature.

455 5. The results of different premixed degrees on GCI combustion shows that with more

456 fuel pilot injected into cylinder, better engine performance and higher knock

457 intensity are obtained. Knock intensity can be controlled by adjusting main injection

458 timing, except for “over-premixed” conditions. Therefore, it is possible for GCI

459 engines being applied to work in light knock regions to improve engine performance

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460 and thermal efficiency with appropriate pilot injection ratio and main injection

461 timing.

462 6. Compared with single injection strategy, higher PRR of split injection is observed

463 when similar knock intensities are maintained, which is mainly due to the advancing

464 combustion phase. Therefore, when quantifying GCI knock, both PRR and knock

465 intensity should be considered. And lower BSFC of split injection strategy indicates

466 that proper injection strategy is an effective way to reduce fuel consumption while

467 maintaining acceptable knock intensity.

468 Acknowledgments

469 The work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.

470 91641203, 51476114, 51606133)

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