Signals in expository prose: Effects on reading comprehension JAN H. SPYRIDAKIS TIMOTHY C. STANDAL University of Washungton THE AUTHORS examine the effects of three signal types on relatively sophisticated readers and their comprehension of technical expository prose. A signal is generally described as a word, phrase, or statement that preannounces content and/or reveals relationships in content. Pre- vious studies have failed to show consistent effects for signals with good comprehenders. Approximately 300 college-level subjects (pre-engineering majors) read one of four passages and then answered questions examining detail information, superordinate information, and implicit relationships. The passages were of different lengths and reading levels and covered four technical topics (nitrates, corrosion, algae, and biomedical research). Fight versions of each passage were constructed through addition, deletion, and combination of the three signal types: (2) headings, (b) previews, and (c) logical connectives. The authors conclude from the Fesults that all three signal types can enhance comprehension, but that such facilitation de- pends on passage length and difficulty. In this study, the passage that was most appropriately challenging for the readers, neither too easy nor too difficult, produced the clearest effect for signals. Signaux retrouvés dans Vexposé: Effets sur la compréhension en lecture LES AUTEURS examinent les effets de trois types de signaux sur la compréhension d'un exposé technique chez des lecteurs relativement perfectionnés. Un signal est habituellement con- stitué d'un mot, d'un syntagme ou d'une phrase qui laisse présager le contenu et/ou révéie les relations au niveau du contenu. Les recherches précédentes n'ont pu démontrer aucun effet valable des signaux sur ceux qui comprennent facilement. Environ 300 sujets de niveau un- iversitaire (spécialisés en pré-génie) ont Iu l'un des quatre passages; ils ont ensuite répondu a des questions portant sur l'information détaillée, information supraordinale et les relations implicites. Les passages étaient de longueurs et de niveaux de lecture différents et portaient sur quatre sujets techniques (les nitrates, la corrosion, les algues et la recherche en bioméde- cine). On a élaboré huit versions de chaque passage & partir de l'addition, omission et Ia combinaison des trois types de signaux: (a) titres, (b) préambules, et (c) conjonctions logi- ques. Les résultats ont permis de conclure que les trois types de signaux peuvent améliorer la compréhension, mais que cette amélioration dépend de la longueur et de la difficulté du pas- sage. On a remarqué également que le passage ni trop facile ni trop difficile offrant la meil- Jeure stimulation aux lecteurs. produisait effet le plus évident des signaux. Seales en prosa expositoria: Efectos en la comprension de lectura LOS AUTORES examinan los efectos de tres tipos de sefiales en lectores relativamemte sofistica- dos y su comprensién de prosa expositoria técnica, Una sefial consiste generalmente de una palabra, frase o aseveracién que avisa ef contenido y/o revela relaciones en el contenido. Estudios previos han fallado en demostrar efectos consistentes de sefales en los buenos com- prendedotes. Aproximadamente 300 sujetos a nivel universitario (pre-engineering majors) leyeron un pasaje de cuatro posibles, y luego contestaron preguntas que examinaban informa- cin detallada, informacion superordinada y relaciones implicitas. Los pasajes eran de di- ferentes tamaiios y niveles de lectura y eran sobre cuatro temas técnicos (nitratos, corrosidn, algas, ¢ investigacin biomédica). Se construyeron ocho versiones de cada pasaje por adi- 285cién, substraccién, y una combinacién de tres tipos de sefiales: (a) encabezados, (b) avances, ¥y (c) conecciones légicas. Los autores concluyen de los resultados que todos los tres tipos de sefiales pueden aumentar la comprensiGn, pero que tal facilitacién depende de la longitud del pasaje y su dificultad. En este estudio, el pasaje que fue més apropiadamente retador para los lectores, ni muy facil ni muy dificil, produjo el efecto mas claro para las sefiales. Signale in erkldrender Prosa: Einflug auf Leseverstandnis DIE AUTOREN priifen die Einflisse von drei Signaltypen auf verhalthnismaBig erfahrene Leser und deren Verstiindnis von technischer erklarender Prosa. Ein Signal besteht gewdhnlich entweder aus einem Wort, einem Satz oder einer Aussage, die Inhalt vorhersagen oder/und Inhaltsverbindungen klarlegen. Bisherige Studien haben cs versaumt, kontinuierliche Einflisse fiir Signale mit guten Erfassern aufauzeigen. Ungefihr 300 College-Stufe~ Priiflinge (Vor-Ingenieur-Studenten) lasen einen von vier Absitzen und beantworteten dann Fragen, die Binzelheiten-Information, Superordinate-Information und unbeschrankte Verhaltnisse untersuchten. Die Abséitze waren verschieden lang und Leser-gestuft und hatten vier technische Themen (Nitrate, Rostbildung, Algen und biochemische Forschung). Acht Versionen jedes Absatzes wurden aufgebaut mit Hilfe von Hinzufiigung, Ausklammerong und Kombination von den drei Signaltypen: (a) Titel, (b) Vorschau und (c) logische Verbin- dungen. Aufgrund der Resultate schlieBen die Autoren, da alle drei Signaltypen dem Ver- standnis dienen, daB jedoch eine solche Erleichterung von der Absatziinge und Schwierigkeit abhiingt. In dieser Studie erwies sich derjenige Absatz als am besten geeignet, der weder zu einfach noch zu schwierig war, und so die Klarsten Einflissse fiir Signale produzierte. Signaling, or adding a word or statement that announces content or relationships in con- tent before the actual content is encountered, at- tempts to emphasize and preview content relationships and help a reader identify superor- dinate content and make inferences from it. In theory, signals should aid a reader in instantiat- ing the appropriate schema, in forming a hierar- chical framework in which to store textual information, in deciding what information is important, and in checking the correctness of his or her integration and storage of information in memory. Note that this view of signals differs slightly from Meyer's (1975), in that she defines signals as appearing both before and after the relevant content, whereas our focus is on sig- nals that precede content, The purpose of this study was to provide more information on the effects of signaling on readers’ comprehension of expository prose. Numerous studies suggest that good compre- hension is predicated on hierarchical retention of superordinate content (Meyer, 1975; Miller, Perry, & Cunningham, 1977; Walker & Meyer, 1980). Other studies herald the necessity of in- tegration of content and formation of inferences 286 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY * Summer 1987 (Glover, Plake, Roberts, Zimmer, & Palmere, 1981; Masson & Miller, 1983; Wilson & Ham- mill, 1982). It also seems apparent that readers have readily accessible schemata for processing narrative prose, yet frequently do not possess adequate schemata for expository prose (Finley, 1983; Graesser, Hauft-Smith, Cohen, & Pyles, 1980}. Few agree, however, about whether sig- nals facilitate this process for all readers: Some studies have found significant effects, whereas others have not. In previous studies, researchers have iden- tified various types of signals: headings or pre- views announcing content before the reader encounters the actual content; logical connec- tives revealing relationships between ideas, such as first, second, or the problem is; pointer words revealing a writer's view of the content, such as fortunately or more importantly; and summary statements (Britton, Glynn, Meyer, & Penland, 1982; Loman & Mayer, 1983; Mayer, 1984; Meyer, 1975, 1984a, 1984b, 1985; Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980; Meyer & Rice, 1982; Spyridakis & Standal, 1986). Meyer, in her 1975 study of signal types (structural cues, previews, summary statements, and pointer XXIV3words), found signals to be of no significant aid to college readers in free immediate and free and cued delayed recall. Britton et al. (1982), assessing the comprehension of college students (average and low SAT verbal scores), reexam- ined the same signals using two texts from Meyer (1975) and again found no recall effects for signals, however, they did find faster reac- tion times on a secondary task with the signaled passages. In both these studies, signals were added in such a way as to alter significantly the syntax of the signaled sentences. Further, be- cause all signals were presented together, there is no way to know if any one signal type might have helped or hindered comprehension. Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth (1980) tested the ef- fects of structural cues on ninth-grade good and underachieving readers and found that the sig- naled condition helped only the underachievers. Loman and Mayer (1983) questioned whether recall and recognition are the best test of retention of superordinate content. They ar- gued for tests that measure the quality of the content recalled, not just the quantity, In their study of three signal types in combination (pre- views, headings, and logical connectives), used with 10th-grade good and poor comprehenders, they found significant effects with both groups in a problem-solving test. They used free recall and recognition tests to document detailed re- call, a factor the signals were not designed to affect. Loman and Mayer maintained that sig- nals helped the good comprehenders use their meaningful reading strategy more effectively than usual, and helped poor comprehenders use a meaningful strategy instead of a rote reading strategy. In a similar study, Kintsch and ‘Yarbrough (1982) found significant effects for signals (structural cues and pointer words) and for good rhetorical form with college readers: however, because they varied both form and signals simultaneously, it is impossible to know whether the form or the signals created the ef- fect. Differences in processing strategies be- tween good and poor comprehenders have been documented (Loman & Mayer, 1983; Meyer, 1975; Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980; Vipond, 1980; Walker & Meyer, 1980). Good compre- Signals in expository prose SPYRIDAKIS & STANDAL henders tend to use a structure strategy. They identify superordinate content and form hierar- chical frameworks in memory. Poor compre- henders tend to use a listing strategy. They perceive all content as equally important and place superordinate and subordinate content in memory in a list-like fashion (Meyer, 1984b; Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980; Meyer & Rice, 1982). Meyer (1984a) examined the use of sig- nals at both the superordinate and subordinate levels with expert and nonexpert older adults. She found that expert readers in signaled condi- tions recalled more top-level information than nonexpert readers. It would seem logical, how- ever, that even a good comprehender could be- come a poor comprehender if the text were sufficiently difficult; in that case, signals should help both good and poor comprehen- ders, although probably differentially. The studies discussed above have not dem- onstrated conclusively the effects of signals, ei- ther in general or for individual signal types. The current study is predicated on the assump- tion that signal types must be isolated and tested individually with tests that measure qualita- tively both superordinate and subordinate con- tent. Also, signals must be added so as not to alter the syntactic complexity of the original or control passage. Finally, signals should be tested in texts of differing difficulty. In the stud- ies presented here, three signal types that pre- cede the relevant content are examined: headings, logical connectives, and previews. These three signals were investigated because they were thought to be most likely to help a reader form a hierarchical framework before he or she encounters the related content. Method in the experiment presented here, we used four different expository passages: the passages differed in content, structure, and reading diffi- culty. For each passage, we examined three sig- nal types (headings, previews, and logical connectives) to test the hypothesis that one sig- nal type or a combination of signals would en- 287hance reading comprehension. Eight versions of each passage were constructed so that main effects and interactions could be examined. Comprehension was measured by tests designed to assess subjects’ ability to recall superordinate and subordinate information, and to make infer- ences from that information. Subjects In all four studies the subjects were fresh- men and sophomores from pre-engineering In- troduction to Technical Writing courses at the University of Washington. Students were drawn from five to six sections of the course for four quarters to acquire a sufficient number of sub- jects. These subjects were competent readers; their average verbal composite score on the Washington Pre-College Test was 55.5 (70th percentile); the average for the general Univer- sity population was 53.8, Furthermore, because these subjects were pre-engineering majors, they were thought to be more likely than liberal arts students to possess ready-made schemata for prose on technical topics and to be more comfortable with such topics Materials The materials consisted of four expository passages on technical topics; for each passage we used the original passage as the nonsignaled version and constructed seven signaled ver- sions. For each passage we also constructed a 10-question multiple-choice test consisting of 5 detail and 5 superordinate and inference ques- tions. ‘The four passages were taken from existing expository texts (see Appendix for sample pas- sages). “Nitrates and Nitrites” was excerpted from a Federal Drug Administration Consumer Memo (undated). “Controlling Corrosion” was taken from a Seattle Water Department publica- tion (1982). “Algae Control in Raw Water Sup- plies” was excerpted from a U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare publication (Palmer, 1962). “Guinea Pigs in Biomedical Re- search” was excerpted from a U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine publication (Obeck, 1974). The passages varied in structure, length, depth of information, and difficulty (see Table 288 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY © Summer 1987 1), The passages were written in four different expository structures. The “Nitrates” passage had the rhetorical structure of advantages/dis- advantages, and the tradeoff between advan- tages and disadvantages, the “Corrosion” passage had a cause/effect/solution steucture; the “Algae” passage had a problem/solution structure; and the “Biomedical” passage had a classification structure. The nonsignaled ver- sions were shorter than the signaled versions; the “Corrosion” passage was the shortest, and the “Biomedical” passage the longest. We deter- mined the depth of information by first con- structing an outline of each nonsignaled passage (see Table 1). The numerical level (1-5) indi- cates the position in a formal hierarchical out- line: The number 1 corresponds to the uppercase roman numerals in a formal outline, 2 to the uppercase letters, 3 to the arabic nu- merals, 4 to the lowercase letters, and 5 to the lowercase roman numerals. Some passages had greater amounts of higher level content, whereas some others had greater amounts of de- tail content. Difficulty level, presented as a function of grade level. was ascertained through the use of the Berta-Max Reading Level Analy- sis Program (1981). For each nonsignaled version, we con- structed seven signaled versions without signifi- cantly changing the syntactic complexity of the nonsignaled texts. The following signals were added: (a) headings, (b) previews, (c) logical connectives, (d) headings and logical connec- tives, (€) headings and previews, (£) previews and logical connectives, and (g) headings, pre- views, and logical connectives. Versions () through (g) were constructed by combining the single-signal versions. The functions of the three signal types were similar across the passages. Headings were used to help reveal overall structure. For exam- ple, the three headings added to the “Corrosion” passage were “Causes of Corrosion,” “Problems of Corrosion,” and “Corrosion Control.” For the “Nitrates” passage, the headings were “Benefits and Use of Nitrates and Nitrites,” “The Risks.” and “The Tradeoff.” Previews were used to re- veal relationships between superordinate ideas and between subordinate ideas; previews relat- ing superordinate ideas tended to be either at XXxIV3Juble 1 Characteristics of experimental passages Length Depth of information Difficulty Passage Structure Words Para 1203 4 S$ — Ggradey graphs Nitrates Advantage! 562-679 8 5) BB = 9 Disadvantage Corrosion Cause /Effect 362-444 6 308 3 4 3 ul Algae Problemy 405-487 8 4 8B 7 = 12 Solution Biomedical Classification 600-166 8 477 8 1 16 Number of topics each level first number given is for nonsignaled version: second nurcber is for al signaled version, the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. whereas previews relating subordinate relation- ships were embedded in the paragraph. For ex- ample, the last sentence of the first paragraph of the “Biomedical” passage was as follows: In 1981 there were 646,322 guinea pigs used in research To the signaled version, a preview of the content of the ensuing paragraph was added: In 1981 there were 646,322 guinea pigs used in immunological, nutritional, hearing, anatomi- cal, and disease research. An example of a preview connecting subordi- nate pieces is a sentence added to the “Nitrates” passage: “Two questions are still unanswered” Logical connectives generally linked subordi- nate pieces either with other subordinate pieces or with superordinate pieces. Words and phrases such as for example, therefore, also, additionally, and in the meantime were inserted throughout the passages. The numbers of sig- nals added to the signaled versions are listed in Table 2, The multi-signaled versions are addi- tive from the single-signaled versions. A 10-question multiple-choice test was constructed for each passage. Each of the 10 questions had four possible answers in all tests except the “Biomedical” test, where there were five choices per question. Five questions exam- ined detail information, and five questions ex- amined superordinate ideas and ideas that would have to be inferred from superordinate Signals in expository prose SPYRIDAKIS & STANDAL ideas. For example, the correct answer to the inference question “If waters are highly alkaline then . . ” was “more copper sulfate should be used.” Although this answer is available to read- ers of all passage versions, the reader of the pre- views version might have an easier time: He or she would have encountered the sentence “How- ever, in some waters copper sulfate is not ex- tremely effective” right before the information about problems with copper sulfate in alkaline waters. Thus, this reader would have had a su- perordinate signal to help him or her infer the telationship of copper sulfate’s common use to problems with it in alkaline waters. Procedure The experiments were run as follows. For four university quarters, students enrolled in all sections of a pre-engineering Introduction to Technical Writing course participated and were randomly assigned to experimental conditions. The students’ instructor read a typed set of in- structions to the students instructing them to read the passage at their own speed, then turn Table 2. Numbers of signals added to passages Passage Head- Pre- Lc ings views Nitrates 3 9 "1 Corrosion 3 7 9 Algae 4 8 9 Biomedical 4 9 7 Note. LC = Logical Connectives. 289the passage over, and answer the multiple- choice test without looking back. Four class sections received a test-only condition (no pas- sage) to test for passage dependency. Students were told that they could choose not to partici- pate and that participation would not affect their course grade. The whole procedure took 10 to 15 minutes. After all tests were collected, non-native speakers’ tests were deleted; then some addi- tional tests were randomly deleted to obtain equal cell sizes for each passage. After all dele- tions were made, a total of 371 subjects were included in the data analysis. In the test-only conditions, there were 16 subjects for the “Ni- trates” test, 23 for the “Corrosion” test, 19 for the “Algae” test, and 17 for the “Biomedical” test. In the passage conditions, there were 10 subjects per cell in the “Nitrates” and “Algae” passages (total of 80 for each study), 8 subjects per ceil in the “Corrosion” passage (total of 64), and 9 subjects per cell in the “Biomedical” pas- sage (total of 72). Fach test was assigned a detail question score, a superordinate/inference question score, and a total score. Twelve three-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to analyze these data with SPSS statistical software. using head- ings as the first factor, previews as the second, and logical connectives as the third. For each passage, the three-way ANOVAs were run on total test score, detail question score, and super- ordinate/inference question score. In addition, four r tests were run on the total test scores from the test-only condition versus the total test scores from the nonsignaled passage condition. Results All tests proved to be passage-dependent. The means for the test-only condition and the nonsignaled passage condition are displayed in Table 3 with the f-test results, ali of which are significant (p < .05). When the cight versions of each passage were scored, means and standard deviations were calculated (see Table 4). If one examines 290 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY ® Summer 1987 Table 3 Passage dependency results Passage ‘Test-only —_Nonsignaled ' M M Nitrates 431 6.80 4.08" Corrosion 4.22 8.75 6.36" Algae 4.16 5.90 2.82% Biomedical 2.31 378 2.56" ‘Significant atp < 0S. the means, one can detect a general trend to- ward higher scores with the addition of signals. This trend is particularly evident in results for the “Algae” passage. This passage was neither the easiest nor the most difficult by the read- ability measure, and neither the longest nor the shortest. A distinct increase is also apparent be- tween the nonsignaled and all-signaled versions for the “Biomedical” passage. As can be seen in the first part of the table, which presents total score means, the low mean for the “Nitrates” passage occurred in the head- ings-only condition (6.60), and the high mean in the headings/logical connectives condition (7.90); these extremes created a spread of 1.30. In the “Corrosion” passage, the low mean occurred in the previews-only condition (7.00), and the high means in the nonsignaled and in the headings/previews conditions (8.75); the spread between these extremes was 1.75. On this passage, the high mean was found in the nonsignaled condition on the detail score (M = 4.25) and the inference score (M = 4.50) as well. Because these means are so close to the total possible scores of 10 for the total score and 5 for the breakdown scores, a ceiling effect may be present, and one must be cautious with the ANOVA results that follow. In the “Algae” passage, the low mean for total score was in the headings-only condition (4.70), and the high mean in the headings/pre- views/logical connectives condition (8.10); these extremes created a spread of 3.40, For the detail and inference scores, only the headings- only condition means were slightly below the nonsignaled condition means. In the “Biomedical” passage, the low mean for total score occurred in the nonsignaled con- XXIITable 4 Means (and standard deviations) for four passages Signals Passage None Head- Pre- Le Head/ Head! Prev.) Head. ings views Prev. Le LO Prev/LC ‘Total Score Nitrates 6.80 6.60 7.10 7.50 7.50 7.90 7.40 7.00 (1.75) @.84) (1.52) 7) (1.43) 0.74) 1.69) Corrosion 8.75 8.38 7.00 8.62 8.75 8.50 8.50 8.38 (139) (1.30) 1.60) a3) 7 053) 4p 19) Algae 5.90 4.70 6.80 770 7.30 7.10 8.00 8.10 a7 @ty aan 6.83) (1.49) 2.13) 49) 56) Biomedical 3.78 4.56 4.55 4.67 5.89 478 5.44 5.56 (1.98) (2,06) 1.50) 22) 1.75) 20) 13) 1.33) Detail Score Nitrates 3.70 3.40 3.50 4.00 4.00 4.20 3.80 3.50 (0.82) @.84) (0.85) 0.67) = 1.05) (0.42) (14) 08) Corrosion 4.25 3.88 3.13 4.50 3.87 4.25 4.00 413 71) (0.83) G12 0.76) 0.83) 71) (07) (0.64) Algae 2.40 2.00 3.10 3.50 3.20 3.10 3.70 3.70 (0.84) (1,33) G19 27) 1.03) 1.52) as) 0.16) Biomedical 1.89 1.56 1.55 1.89 2.00 2.33 2.22 2.12 1.27) (13) aon 093) @7 87) 20) 1.27) Inference Score Nitrates 3.10 3.20 3.60 3.50 3.50 3.70 3.60 3.50 (1.29) (0.42) 097) = 053) 7.48) (0.70) 1.08) Corrosion 4.50 4.50 3.87 4.12 4.88 4.28 4.50 4.25 (0.76) (0.76) (0.64) @.64) 35) (0.46) (0.53) (0.46) Algae 3.50 2.70 3.70 4.20 4.10 4.00 4.30 4.40 27) (1.16) (0.95) 1.03) 0.74), 0.81) (1.06) (0.70) Biomedical 1.89 3.00 3.00 2.78 3.89 2.45 3.22 3.44 (0.78) (1.32) 7) 83) 4.27) 0.72) 0.67) (1.23) Note. Head. = Headings: Prev. = Previews, LC = Logical Comnectives. dition (3.78), and the high mean in the head- ings/previews condition (5.89), these extremes created a spread of 2.11. In the nonsignaled condition of the “Biomedical” passage, again we found the low means in the detail and inference scores. These means will be further discussed after the ANOVA results are presented. ‘Twelve 2 (headings) x 2 (previews) x 2 (logical connectives) ANOVAs were run, four for the dependent measure of total score, four for detail score, and four for inference score (see Table 5), Although some significant effects were found for the “Corrosion” passage, as mentioned above, we believe the results are sus- pect due to a ceiling effect. Headings were found significantly to in- crease superordinate/inferential comprehension in the “Biomedical” passage: inference score, Signals in expository prose SPYRIDAKIS & STANDAL with headings, M = 3.19; without headings, M = 2.72; FU, 64) =4.19,p < .05. The presence of previews also proved sig- nificantly helpful with superordinate/inferential comprehension in the “Biomedical” passage: with previews, M = 3.39; without previews, M = 2.53; F(1, 64) = 13.93, p < .05. This com- prehension increase was reflected in the total score as well: with previews, M = 5.36; with- ‘out previews, M = 4.44; FU, 64) = 6.17, p < .05. Previews also were found significantly to aid comprehension in the “Algae” passage: on the overall score, with previews, M = 7.55; without previews, M = 6.35; F(1, 72) = 7.72, p< .05; on the detail score, with previews, M 3.42; without previews, M = 2.75; F(1, 72) 5.73, p < .05; and on the inference score, with previews, M = 4.13; without previews, M 291= 3.60; FU, 72) = 5.69, p < .05. Logical connectives were found to have significant effects with all scores in the “Algae” passage: on the total score, with logical connec- tives, M = 7.72; without logical connectives, M = 6.17; F(L, 72) = 12.88, p < .05; on the detail score, with logical connectives, M = 3.50; without logical connectives, M = 2.65; F(, 72) = 8.56, p <_.05; and on the inference score, with logical connectives, M = 4.3 without logical connectives, M = 3.50; F(1 72) = 10.86, p < .05. One two-way interaction arose with the “Biomedical” passage for effects of headings and logical connectives on the inference score, FL, 64) = 5.23, p < 05. Discussion Signals, particularly previews and logical connectives, appear to influence comprehen- sion of fairly technical prose. Previews had a positive influence on the superordinate/infer- ence scores of readers of the “Algae” and “Biomedical” passages, as well as on the detail scores of readers of the “Algae” passage. Logi- cal connectives influenced both detail and su- perordinate/inference scores of readers of the “Algae” passage. It appears that both previews and logical connectives can help a reader retain more subordinate and superordinate content and make inferences from that content. ‘One must examine the differences between the passages to determine further when these signals will help a reader. Table 6 presents the passage lengths, content loads, reading diffi- culty levels, and significant effects obtained in the ANOVA analyses. One immediately notices that the “Biomedi- cal” condition was longest and had the highest reading level (600-766 words, with grade level of 16), The lack of significance at the detail level may have been caused by the length and complexity of the passage. Furthermore, al- though there were 43 subordinate idea units in the passage (obtained by adding the four subor- dinate levels), only 5 questions were asked about the detail information—that is, only 12% of the detail information was questioned in the test. Main effects for previews and headings Table $ ANOVA results (F ratios) for four passages Main Effects Interaction Effects Head- Pre- Le Head./ Head./ Previ Head./ Measure ings views Prev, Le Prev./LC Nitrates Total 0.030 0,030 2.406. 0.030 0.030 3.594 4455 Dewil 0.016 0.397 1.286 0.143 0.143 2.683 1.050 Inference 0.018 0.902, 1491 0.460 0.018 1.491 0.018 Corrosion Total 0.838 1.747 0.838 2.988 1.747 0.838 2.988 Detail 0.086, 4.235* 4.235* 3.1L 0.346 0.346 0.778 Inference 1.983 0.040 41.012 1.012 3277 1.012 4.896* Algac Total 0.483 7.720% 12.880" 1.930 0.013 6.050, 0.335 Detail 0.385 5.730 8.560" 0.637 0.008 O.951 2.326 Inference 0.323 $.694* 10.859 2.905 0.116 1.562 1.046 Biomedical ‘Total 2.499 6.170" 1.275 0.142 1.637 0.142 0.142 Detail 0.196 0,049 2.398 0.049 0.049 0.000 1.761 Inference. 4.188" 13.928 0.014 0.130 $.232* 0.362 0.710 ‘Naw, Head ~ Headings, Prev. = Previews: LC = Logical Connectves. *Sigificancatp <5 292 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY * Summer 1987 XXIV/3Table 6 Characteristics of experimental passages and significant results Length Depth of Informations Difficulty Significant effects Passage (words)? 12 3 4 ~«5 (grade) Total Detail Inter. Nitrates. 562-679 Ss 10 13 g - 9 = - - Corrosion 362-404 3 8 3 4 3 n = 5 ~ Algae 405-487 4 iW 8 7 - 12 LC Lc Le Prev, Prev. Prev Biomedical 600-766 47 7 8 1 6 Prev, = Prev. ~ = Head. = = Head.iLc Note. Infer. = Inferential; Head. = Headings; Prev. = Previews; LC = Logical Connectives. »Number of topics at each level. *First number given is for nonsignaled version; second number is for all-signaled version. and a two-way interaction effect for headings and logical connectives were found to be signif- icant for inference scores; perhaps when detail content load is difficult and heavy these signals will help a reader most with superordinate con- tent and inferences. More research is needed to ascertain whether these effects are due to diffi- culty or length. The “Algae” passage produced significant results at all comprehension levels; although the “Algae” passage had a relatively high reading level (Grade 12 as compared to Grade 16 for the “Biomedica’" passage and Grade 9 for the “Ni- trates” passage), it was shorter than the “Bio- medical” passage (405-487 words for “Algae” and 600-766 words for “Biomedical”). Further- more, its content appears to be spread among, all levels of the outline rather evenly. In this case, the 5 detail questions represented 20% of the detail information. It may be due to these factors (medium difficulty and length) that logi- cal connectives and previews aided recall of de- tail content as well as superordinate content and the inferences to be made from it. It appears that a reduction in grade level and passage length contributed to the significant effects on detail and inference scores of logical connec- tives and previews. The “Nitrates” passage produced no signifi- cant results; the reading level (Grade 9) by itself may explain this fact. However, one must notice that it is longer than the “Algae” passage (562- 679 words vs. 405-487 words). It appears that the grade level of the passage had quite an ef- Signals in expository prose SPVRIDAKIS & STANDAL fect; if a passage is easy enough for its readers, then signals may be of little value. Another issue that arises is that of content familiarity. The topics of corrosion and nitrates may be more familiar to the average college- level reader than are biomedical research and algicide use. Content familiarity might also be a possible explanation for the ceiling effect with the “Corrosion” passage. The model proposed by Meyer (1984b) contributes some understand ing to these findings. She suggests that where material is easy for the reader, signals, at least at the superordinate level, are unlikely to influ- ence comprehension, The results obtained in these studies align with those of Loman and Mayer. It appears that qualitative questioning elicits the effects of nals in a way that counting detail units alone in recall] situations may not. This is true whether one uses a problem-solving test or multiple- choice questions that demand inferencing as the qualitative measure. Furthermore, maintaining similar syntax across conditions appears to be a critical factor. Conclusions The issue of the influence of signals on read- ing comprehension is difficult to resolve. It ap- pears to us that the likelihood of demonstrating strong and consistent results increases when one uses passages of some length and difficulty on un- familiar topics. Previews, headings, and logical connectives ail appear to aid readers in their com- prehension of expository prose. And of course, 293that is the point—the answer to the question, ‘When we have complex and unfamiliar informa- tion to communicate, what is the best way to structure that communication? Because there is ample reason to believe signals help and no reason to believe they hinder, it seems reasonable to sug- gest that a reader may best be served through the thoughtful inclusion of signals. This topic is not closed, however. More research is needed on con- siderably longer passages; other types of testing should be attempted, with consideration given to delay testing: and content familiarity and diffi- culty should be further assessed. Only with more research will we gain a clearer understanding of the effects of signals on reading comprehension. REFERENCES BERTA-MAX READING LEVEL ANALYSIS PROGRAM. (1981), Micro School Progeam. Seattle, WA: Berta-Max. BRITTON, B.K., GLYNN, S.M., MEYER, B.J.R, & PENLAND, M.1. (1982). Effects of text structure on use of cognitive capacity during reading. Journal of Educational Psy- chology, 74, 51-61. FEDERAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION. (no date). Nitrates and ni trites. Consumer memo (FDA Publication No, 73- 2034). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. FINLEY, EN. (1983). Students! recall from science text. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 247-259. GLOVER, J.A., PLAKE. B.S., ROBERTS, B., ZIMMER, J.W., & PALMERE, M, (1981), Distinctiveness of encoding: The effects of paraphrasing and drawing inferences on mem- oty from prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 736-744, GRAESSER, A.C., HAUFT-SMITH, K., COHEN. A.D., & PYLES, 1b. (1980). Advanced outlines, familiarity, and text {genre on retention of prose. Journal of Experimental Education, 48, 281-290. KINTSCH, W., & YARBROUGH, J.C. (1982), Role of rhetorical structure in text comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 828-834. LOMAN, Nut, & MAYER, RE, (1983). Signaling techniques that increase the understandability of expository prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 402-412. MASSON, £.J., & MILLER, J.a, (1983), Working memory and individval differences in comprehension and memory of text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 314-317, 294 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY ® Summer 1987 MAYER, RE, (1984). Aids to text comprehension, Faduca- tional Psychologist, 19, 30-42. MEYER, B.J-R (1975). The organization of prose and its ef {fects on memory. Amsterdam: North-Holland, MEYER, B.J.8 (1984a). Text dimensions and cognitive proc- ‘essing. In H. Mandl, N.L. Stein, & T. Trabasso (Eds.),, Learning and comprehension of text (pp. 3-51). Hills- dale, NJ: Erlbaum. MEYER, B.J.E (19846). Organizational aspects of text: Ef- fects on reading comprehension and applications for the classroom. In J. Flood (Ed.), Promoting reading com prehension (pp. 113-138). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. MEYER, B.J.F (1985). Signaling the structure of text. In DJ. Jonassen (Ed.). The technology of text (Vol. 2, pp. 64 89). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. MEYER, B. BRANDT, D.M., & BLUTH, G.J. (1980). Use of top-level structure in text: Key for reading comprehen- sion of ninth-grade students. Reading Research Quar- terly, 16, 72-103. MEYER, B.1.R, & RICE, E. (1982). The interaction of reader strategies and the organization of text, Text, 2(1-3), 155+ 192. MILLER, R.B., PERRY, RL., & CUNNINGHAM, DJ. (1977) Differential forgetting of superordinate information ac- quired from prose material. Journal of Educational Psy- chology, 8, 730-735. OBECK, D.K. (1974). Selected topics in laboratory animal medicine: Vol. 22. The guinea pig. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: United States Air Force, School of Aero- space Medicine. PALMER, C.M. (1962). Control of algae. Algae in water sup- plies. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. SEATTLE WATER DEPARTMENT, (1982). Controlling corro- sion (Consumer publication). Seattle, WA: Author. SPYRIDAKIS, J.H., & STANDAL. T.C. (1986). Headings. previews, logical connectives: Effects on reading compre- hension. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 16, 343-354. VIPOND, D. (1980). Micro- and macroprocesses in text com- prehension, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Be- havior, 19, 276-296. WALKER, C.H., & MEYER, B.J.£ (1980). Integrating different types of information in text. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 263-275. WILSON, C.R., & HAMMILL, C. (1982). Inferencing and com- prehension in ninth graders reading geography text- books. Jounal of Reading, 25, 424-428. XXIV3APPENDIXES, Appendix A Algae Control in Raw Water Supplies Algicides are added to lake waters to control algae growth. The application of an algicide frequently is carried out to prevent or destroy the excessive growths of algae which occur as blooms, mats, or as high concentrations of plankton. On the other hand, algicides [Algicides] are sometimes applied to control relatively low concentrations of certain algae, such as ‘Synura and Uroglenopsis, which may cause trouble even in small numbers. Algicide Uses Many algicides exist, but copper [Copper] sulfate is the only algicide in common use in water supplies at present, although chlorine {. Chlorine] may serve as an algicide besides as a bactericide or an oxidizing agent. The “blue stone,” of copper sulfate, is effective for three reasons. It is toxic to many algae at comparatively low concentrations. Further, it (It) is ordinarily nonlethal to fish at the strengths recommended, and it is relatively inexpensive. However, in some waters copper sulfate is not extremely effective. In alkaline waters, it precipitates quickly as copper carbonate and more stowly as, copper hydrate; hence, it is considered to be effective as an algicide only for a short time following its application. Algicide Dosage Proper algicide dosage must be determined through careful alkalinity measurements. Rescarchers emphasize that the dosage should depend on the alkalinity of the water and claim that the following rule has been used successfully in various midwestern lakes: if the methy! orange alkalinity is less than 50 p.p.m,, the blue stone is effective at the rate of 0.9 pounds per acre-foot; while if{. If] the methyl orange alkalinity is greater than 50 p.p.m.. the rate should be 5.4 pounds per acre. Ip must be remembered though that in (In] waters with a high alkalinity the dosage is not dependent upon depth however, since precipitation would make it ineffective below the surface. Species Susceptibility Various genera and species of algae are not all alike in their reaction to coppet sulfate. Some species are more resistant to algicides than others; moreaver, this {. This] factor has frequently been neglected in determining the concentration of the algicide to be applied. A number of very minute planktonic green algae are very resistant to the toxic effects of blue stone. The stonewarts, Chara and Nitella, are also considered to be resistant as are a few of the green flagellates and some of the filamentous blue-green algae. fn contrast, diatoms (Diatoms] as a group are relatively susceptible but they have often developed in large numbers following the destruction of other algae throngh treatment sith copper sulfate. Other Factors Affecting Algicides Many other factors affect proper algicide application. The lowest concentration of copper sulfate which is toxic for a particular alga also varies according to the abundance of the alga, the temperature of the water, the alkalinity of the water, the amount of organic material in the water, and other factors. The listing of a specific concentration of an algicide as the minimum effective dosage is not reliable unless these other factors have first been taken into consideration. ‘Nore: Headings sppear in underlined type (not underlined in actual test conditions). Previews appear in boldface type (normal face type in test conditions). Logical Connectives appear in italicized type (normal face type in test conditions). Original text that was adjusted for signal addition appears in brackets Appendix B Guinea Pigs in Biomedical Research The guinea pig has a wide spectrum of uses in biomedical research. Although the number of guinca pigs used in research does not approach the numbers of rats and mice used, the cavy plays an important role in biomedical research. In 1981. there were 646,322 guinea pigs used{.] in immunological, nutritional, hearing, anatomical, and disease re~ search, Immunological Research Many guinea pigs are used for studies in immunology, specifically investigations of allergic reactions and correct serum dosages. Guinea pigs are uscd for the production of complement, a substance found in normal blood serum that destroys pathogenic bacteria, which in turn is used for [and] a multitude of other immunological tests and investigations. Signals in expository prose SPYRIDAKIS & STANDAL 295guinea [Guinea] pigs are used in studies on anaphylaxis and other allergic manifestations, Catty (10) used the guinea pig to study the immunology of trichinosis. He found that resistunce was dose-dependent, long-lasting, and acquired only by infection, His evidence indicated a [A] strong anaphylactic involvement in che immune mechanism [was indicated). ‘A long-term. sensitizing antibody with biological and physiochemical properties analogous to reagin of humans was dem- onstrated in the serum of animals infected with the parasite but not in those immunized with worm extracts. Seositized ‘guinea pig uterus is frequently used to measure reaction to foreign protein by smooth muscle contraction due to histamine release. Guinea pigs are particularly useful where information is needed on delayed contact sensitization. Briccetti et al. (2) ‘and Cohen and Sherahama (3) have used guinea pigs in studying both spontaneous and induced amyloidosis Nutritional Research ‘The guinea pig is frequently used in nutritional research. Before the advent of chemical analysis for vitamin C, the guinea pig was one of the major tools in research in that area. Since they [They] are extremely sensitive to low levels of vitamin C, [and] when used as a bioassay too! they can show deficiency symptoms in 14 to 18 days (4). Additionally unusually [Unusually] high dietary requirements for folic acid, thiamine, arginine. and potassium have prompted their use in these areas of investigation. Anatomical Research The guinea pig has been used extensively for anatomical research involving the ear, jaw, and circulatory system. Much work has been done utifizing the cochtea of the inner ear and the external ear as an experimental model of studies of otitis externa in humans because the [. The] clinical appearance of the diseased canal is very similar to that in man. Guinea pigs have also had vast applications in anatomical research, An added benefit for many types of studies is to have an animal that delivers such precocious young. The young are more completely developed than any other commonly used laboratory animal, and they may be weaned as early as 4 or 5 days of age. Oberg (5) stated that the mandibular joint can be the seat of most pathological conditions seen in articulations in general and that the guinea pig mandibular joint was ‘anatomically larger, histologically more differemiated, and more accessible than those of the mouse. rat and hamster. Guinea pigs’ deviation from normal mammal patterns have also provided insight about the circulatory system. Specifically, studies [Studies] on the systemic arterial pattern of the guinea pig versus that of mammals showed five such deviations: a) the origin of the vertebral artery has two rami; b) there is a large dorsoscapular artery asa fifth branch of the subclavian artery; ¢) the bronchoesophageal artery arises from the right internal thoracic artery or the costocervical teunk instead of from the aorta; d) there is a celiomesenteric trunk instead of separate celine and cranial mesenteric arteries: and e) the renal arteries frequently have a double origin Disease Research ‘The guinea pig has been useful in studying tuberculosis, cancer and other diseases. The guinea pig is very suscepti- ble to mycobacterium tuberculosis, both the human and bovine strains. The course of infection generally resembles that of a primary progressive infection in man although the rapidity with which characteristic lesions develop may vary with the strains used. It is the chief animal used for the study of brucellosis, diphtheria, glanders, endemic typhus. and Rocky Mountain spotted tever. Since the finding of a leukemia virus in the guinea pig, interest has heen revived in the use of guinea pigs for cancer research. Opler’s (6) studies indicated a remarkable similarity in the evolution of the acute leukemia in his colony to that observed in humans. The leukemia seen in the guinea pigs is an acute lymphatic leukemia and resembles the striking, rapidly fatal disease of children and young adults. Recently much research has been conducted in the toxicity of aflatoxins. The guinea pig, with the dog and rabbit, has been shown to be almost as susceptible as ducklings to aflatoxin B. Nate: Headings appear in underlined type (nec underlined in actual test conditions}. Previews appear in boldface type (normal fave (ype in test conditions). Logical Connectives appear in italicized type !normal face type in fest congitions). Original text that was adjusted for signal addition appears in brackets Appendix C Nitrates and Nitrites Recently there have been several items in the newspapers about the use of nitrites in processed foods. Some of the reports have been confusing. Nitrates and aitrites are aot man-made substances, but natural compounds that are found in many foods, primarily in vegetables. They also occur in drinking water and human saliva. Federal Drinking Water Standards limit the amount of nitrate in water to 45 parts per million, while the [. The] normal nitrite level in human saliva is about 6 parts per million. This report will discuss the benefits and possible dangers associated with nitrates and nitrites. 296 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY ® Summer 1987 = XXIL/3Benefits and Uses of Nitrates and Nitrites Nitrates and nitrites have been used widely in the curing and processing of foods. They improve the quality and ap- pearance of various meat products. For example, nitrites (Nitrites} prevent red meat from turning brown and give the familiar red color to such meats as ham, bacon, sausage, and hot dogs. Without nitrite, bacon is salt pork, frankfurters are bratwurst, and ham is tough roast pork. Besides changing the appearance of foods. nitrates and nitrites are also beneficial in that they serve as preserva tives in many meat and fish products. They are added to foods to prevent botulism, a form of food poisoning which is often fatal. There have been no outbreaks of botulism that were known to be caused by processed foods that were treated with nitrates/nitrites, Bur a [A] number of deaths have been caused by foods not treated with nitrates/nitrites. The Food and Drag Administration (FDA) therefore believes itis necessary for manufacturers to use these additives to prevent the growth of poisonous substances in canned meat products. The Risks Nitrates and nitrites have risks as well as benefits. Under certain conditions, nitrites and amines, which are the natural breakdown products of proteins, can combine to form chemicals called nitrosamines. Experiments have shown that nitro- ‘amines can cause cancer in animals. There is no evidence, however, to indicate what effects nitrosamines have in humans. ‘Two questions are still unanswered, Specifically, we [We] do not know at the present time, whether the low amount of nitrates and nitrites now permitted by regulations actually combine with amines in the stomach to form nitrosamines, nor do ‘we [. We do not} know to what extent nitrosamines are formed in cured meat and fish. ‘Two government agencies have studied and are continuing to study the actual presence of nitrosamines in foods. ‘The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) investigated 48 samples of processed meats, and found that 45 showed no nitrosamines. The USDA also sampled cooked sausage which had been purchased at retail stores. Of 50 samples, 3 showed trace amounts of nitrosamines; the other 47 showed no nitrosamines. In tests by the FDA, nitrosamines were found in one ‘out of 60 hams tested. Additionally, the {The] FDA found that the process of cooking bacon resulted in the formulation of nitrosamines in the bacon. The levels of nitrosamines found in these samplings were much lower than the levels that would have to be present to cause cancer in experimental animals. However, extensive [Extensive] studies are being conducted to determine how nitrates and nitrites can be used to preserve meats and yet pose no problem for human consumption. ‘The Tradeoff ‘The tradeoff between benefits and risks is being further investigated. Further, research [Research] being conducted by the meat industry in cooperation with FDA is aimed at determining the lowest levels of nitrite and/or nitrate needed in foods to prevent the growth of organisms which cause poisoning, and to determine whether nitrosamines are formed when these low levels are used in processed foods. Consumers do have some protection though. Jn the meantime, afier [After} studies revealed that nitrites were being used in some products only to fix color. the FDA initiated formal action to ban such unnecessary use. This action, when final, will stop the use of sodium nitrate in smoked cured sable-fish. and shad; sodium nitrite in smoked tunafish products; and potassium nitrate in cod roe. Also, the [The] Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act requires food products which use nitrates and nitrites to show this information on the label Note: Headings appear in underlined type (not underlined in actual test conditions). Previews appear in boldface type normal face type in test conditions). Logical Connectives appear in italicized type (normal face type in test conditions). Original text that was adjusted for sigaal addition appears in brackets Appendix D Controlling Corrosion The Seattle Water Department will soon begin implementing a two part program to reduce problems caused by our highly corrosive water supply. The causes, resulting problems, and solutions to these problems will be discussed here. Causes of Corrosion ‘The causes of corrosion are multifaceted. Seattle residents enjoy an unusually pure source of mountain water. On the other hand, its {Its} corrosive nature comes from high oxygen content and a lack of many natural minerals common to most water supplies. in addition, present [Present] treatment processes to disinfect the water and improve dental health increase the acidity and hus the possibility of corrosion problems. Signals in expository prose. SPYRIDAKIS & STANDAL 297Problems of Corrosion ‘These corrosion problems can cause damage. Although our water normally meets the federal requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the quality of water which has been standing overnight in home plumbing systems is affected by corrosion. This deterioration frequently results in three problems: rusty water and fixture-staining, leaks, premature pipe failure and loss of pressure. Furthermore, the {The} addition of the Tolt water supply in 1964, and health measures required in the late 1960s, led to a dramatic increase in corrosion complaints and problems, and consequently to a harder look at the situation. Although these problems are basically economic and aesthetic in nature, they do present a potential health con- cern. Corrosion Control Corrosion can be controlled and the problems can be solved, Because of the compiexity of the problem and the public concern for any addition to the water supply, the Seattle Water Department, working with an engineering consultant and citizens’ advisory committee, undertook a three-year study of corrosion, As a result, the [The] following corrosion control plan, which was endorsed by federal, state and county health officials and approved by the Seattle City Council, will be put into effect next year. ‘The first part of this plan involves water treatment, while the second part concentrates on controlling distribution and plumbing systems. First, the (The] corrosion treatment program involves adding minerals already found in the raw water but not in sufficient amounts. These minerals will neutralize the acidity of the water and make up deficiencies in calcium, alkalinity, and silicate, Second, the [The] program deals with materials specifications for distribution and plumbing systems. Corrosion is not a serious problem in City mains, many of which are made of concrete pipe or cement-mortar-lined steel. However, the (The] metallic, unlined pipe of most home owners’ plumbing systems is much more vulnerable. To avoid such problems, the [The] program will encourage use of thick-walled copper pipe, discourage use of asbestos, cement and galvanized pipe, and work toward future use of plastic pipe in home plumbing systems. Point-of-use treatment of both hot and cold water systems is also being considered. Note: Headings appear in underlined type (not underlined in actual test conditions). Previews appear in boldface type {normal face type in test conditions). Logical Connectives appear in italicized type (normal face type in test conditions). Original text that was adjusted for signal addition appears in brackets. 298 READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY * Summer 1987 XXIL/3