Chapter 1

Introduction to multivariable
functions and vectors

1.1 Functions of several variables

We are already familiar with the concept of function, we have considered
functions of one variable in Calculus I. The absolute majority of real life pro-
cesses have many parameters (which can be viewed as independent variables)
and cannot be described by one-variable functions.
For example, if we would like to consider the temperature of the air then
it depends on the location, that is, on the coordinates of the point in the
3D-space, where it is measured. Hence, the temperature T can be viewed as
a function of three variables x, y, and z:

T = T (x, y, z),

where (x, y, z) is the point, where the temperature is measured.

Another example is the volume of a box: it depends on the dimensions
w, l, and h, which denote respectively the width, length, and height of the
box. It follows that the volume V is a function of three variables

V = V (w, l, h) = w · l · h.

Note that in this case we even know how V can be expressed in terms of its
variables, that is, we know an algebraic expression defining the volume as a
function of the box dimensions.

1
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 2

In the examples above we considered a couple of functions of three vari-

ables. Similarly, one can come up with various “real life” functions of two
variables. For example, the CobbDouglas production function, which de-
scribes a simplified model of the economy: the production output P depends
on the amount of labor L involved and the amount of capital K invested.
Hence, P is a function of two variables L and K:
P = P (L, K).

1.1.1 Definition of two-variable function. Domain

Now, let us define abstract function of several variables. We are going to
give a definition of a two-variable function, but it can be easily generalized
to any number of variables.
Definition 1.1.1 (Two-variable function). Let D be a set of points in the
xy-plane. A function of two variables f is a rule that assigns to each point
from D a real number f (x, y). In this case D is the domain of f and the set
{f (x, y) | (x, y) is from D} is the range of f .
In other words, we have
f
(x, y) → f (x, y),
that is, the function f sends the point (x, y) to a number f (x, y). We say
that f (x, y) is the image of the point (x, y) from D.
Usually, to define the function f (x, y) means to give a mathematical ex-
pression for f in terms of x and y.
Example 1.1.1. The function D(x, y) is defined as the distance from the
point (x, y) in pthe xy-plane to the origin. Hence, we can define D(x, y) by
the expression x2 + y 2 :
p
D(x, y) = x2 + y 2 .
Observe that in the example above we did not specify the domain of D.
If the domain is not explicitly given then it means that the domain is the
natural domain, that is, it is the set of all pairs (x,py) for which the expression
for D(x, y) is a well-defined real number. Since x2 + y 2 is defined for any
pair (x, y), it follows that the domain of D(x, y) is the whole xy-plane or
Domain(D) = R2 .
Consider a couple of examples below.
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 3

Example 1.1.2. Find the domain of the function

√ √ p
f (x, y) = x + y + 1 − x2 − y 2 .

Solution. Notice
√ that the expression defining f makes sense only if x > 0
√
(because of x), if y > 0 (because of y), and if 1 − x2 − y 2 > 0 (because of
p
1 − x2 − y 2 ). In other words, the domain of f can be described using the
set-builder notation as follows
Domain(f ) = {(x, y) | x > 0, y > 0, 1 − x2 − y 2 > 0}.
The conditions listed in the definition of Domain(f ) are considered simulta-
neously as the system 
 x>0
y>0
 2
x + y2 6 1
whose solutions form a set in the xy-plane equal to the intersection of the
first quadrant with the disk of radius 1 centered at (0, 0).
y

x
0 1

Hence, the domain of f is a bounded region: it has finite diameter. Notice

that the boundary of the region in the picture also belongs to the domain
of f : the boundary consists of three pieces defined by the equations x = 0,
y = 0, and x2 + y 2 = 1.
Example 1.1.3. Find the domain of the function
g(x, y) = ln(y − x2 ).

Solution. Since the logarithm is defined only for positive arguments, the
expression ln(y − x2 ) is defined only if y − x2 > 0, or y > x2 . That is,
Domain(f ) = {(x, y) | y > x2 }
which is the region shown in the picture below.
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 4

x
0

Observe that the boundary of the region in the picture above is not included
in the domain: the boundary is described by the parabola y = x2 , that is
y − x2 = 0 on the boundary and the logarithm is not defined there. Also, the
domain of g is an infinite region not bounded above by any horizontal line
and the picture shows only a finite part of it.

1.1.2 Graph of two-variable function

The definition of the graph of a two-variable function is very similar to the
one-variable case.
Definition 1.1.2 (Graph). Let f (x, y) a function. Then the graph of f is
the set of points

Graph(f ) = {(x, y, f (x, y)) | (x, y) is in the domain of f }

in the 3D-space.
Indeed, since f (x, y) is a real number assigned to (x, y), then the triple
(x, y, f (x, y)) can be viewed as a point in the 3D-space. The set Graph(f )
is actually a surface in the Euclidean space described by the equation z =
f (x, y).
Example 1.1.4. Find the graph of the function

f (x, y) = 1 − x + 2y.

Solution. The graph of f is the surface defined by the equation z = 1 − x +

2y. Notice that the equation can be rewritten as x − 2y + z = 1 which an
equation a plane. The plane is shown in Figure 1.1.1 below.
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 5

Figure 1.1.1: The graph of f (x, y)

Example 1.1.5. Find the graph of the function

p
g(x, y) = 9 − x2 − y 2 .

p
Solution. The graph of g is the surface defined by the equation z = 9 − x2 − y 2 .
The equation can be easily transformed into x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 which means
that the graph g belongspto the sphere of radius 3 centered at the origin. In
fact,
p the equation z = 9 − x2 − y 2 describes the upper hemisphere (since
9 − x2 − y 2 > 0, it follows that z is non-negative) shown in Figure 1.1.2
below.

Figure 1.1.2: The graph of g(x, y)

Some functions can have pretty complicated graphs.

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 6

Example 1.1.6. Graph of the function

2 −y 2
h(x, y) = 10(x2 + y 2 )e−x .

Solution. One can use a graphing device or a software package (for example,
Maple, Mathematica, Geogebra) to graph the surface
2 −y 2
z = 10(x2 + y 2 )e−x .

The surface is shown in Figure 1.1.3 below.

Figure 1.1.3: The graph of h(x, y)

1.1.3 Cross-sections and level curves

If you consider an arbitrary function f (x, y) then usually it is hard to visualize
the graph of f without graphing software. At the same time, one can try
to imagine the graph of f using its cross-sections by various planes. For
example, you can consider cross-sections by planes parallel to the xy-plane,
xz-plane, and yz-plane.
We know that the graph of f is the surface z = f (x, y). If substitute
x by a constant a in the equation z = f (x, y) then we obtain the equation
z = f (a, y) whose graph is a curve in the yz-plane. The cross-section of the
surface z = f (x, y) by the plane x = a is then the same curve z = f (a, y) but
drawn in the plane x = a (which is parallel to the yz-plane).
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 7

Similarly, the cross-section of the surface z = f (x, y) by the plane y = b

is the curve z = f (x, b) drawn in the plane y = b.
Example 1.1.7. Find cross-sections of the graph of the function f (x, y) = x2
by the planes x = 1 and y = 1.
Solution. First of all, observe that the graph of the function f is the surface
z = x2 .
The cross-section of the surface by the plane x = 1 (which is parallel to
the yz-plane) is the curve z = 1 drawn in the plane x = 1. This curve is
a straight line which is parallel to the y-axis and which passes through the
point (1, 0, 1). It is shown in Figure 1.1.4 below.

Figure 1.1.4: The cross-section by the plane x = 1

Now, the cross-section of the same surface by the plane y = 1 is the

parabola z = x2 . See Figure 1.1.5.

Figure 1.1.5: The cross-section by the plane y = 1

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 8

Now we define level curves. They are of particular importance in the

Multivariable Calculus.
Definition 1.1.3 (Level curves). Let f (x, y) be a two-variable function. The
level curves of f are the curves with equations f (x, y) = C, where C is a
constant in the range of f .
The level curves of f can be viewed as the cross-sections of the graph of
f by the planes z = C projected onto the xy-plane.
By definition, a level curve f (x, y) = C is the set of all points in the
domain of f at which f takes on a given value C. In other words, it shows
where the graph of f has height C.
Level curves are also called contour lines, hence, a collection of level curves
f (x, y) = C for several values of C is called a contour diagram or contour
map of the function f .
Consider several examples.
Example 1.1.8. Sketch the level curves of the function f (x, y) = 1 − x − y
Solution. The range of f is the interval (−∞, ∞), so we can take any value
C and consider the curve in the xy-plane defined by the equation

C = 1 − x − y.

The equation defines a straight line with the slope 1, which does not depend
on the choice of C. Hence, we obtain a family of parallel equally spaced
straight lines (see Figure 1.1.6).

Figure 1.1.6: The contour diagram of f

Example 1.1.9. Sketch the level curves of the function g(x, y) = x2 + y − 3.

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 9

Solution. By definition, every level curve of g has the equation C = x2 +

y − 3. The equation can be written as y = −x2 + (3 + C) which is a parabola
opening downward with the vertex at the point (0, 3 + C) on the y-axis.
Hence, the contour diagram is a collection of parabolas opening downward
whose vertices lie on the y-axis (see Figure 1.1.7).

Figure 1.1.7: The contour diagram of g

Example 1.1.10. Sketch the level curves of the function h(x, y) = x2 + y 2 .

Solution. By definition, every level curve of g has the equation C = x2 +
y − 3. The equation can be written as y = −x2 + (3 + C) which is a parabola
opening downward with the vertex at the point (0, 3 + C) on the y-axis.
Hence, the contour diagram is a collection of parabolas opening downward
whose vertices lie on the y-axis (see Figure 1.1.8).

Figure 1.1.8: The contour diagram of h

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 10

1.1.4 Cylinders and quadric surfaces

As we saw in Example 1.1.4 and Example 1.1.5, graphs of some functions can
be parts of well-known surfaces: planes, spheres. In this section we are going
to consider more surfaces which may be useful when working with graphs of
two-variable functions.

Cylinders
A cylinder is a surface that consists of all lines (called rulings) that are
parallel to a given line and pass through a given plane curve.
Example 1.1.11. Graph the surface

z = x2 .

Solution. Since the equation z = x2 doesn’t depend on y, cross-section

of the surface by any plane parallel to the xz-plane (that is, by any plane
y = C) is the curve z = x2 . All these curves combined together form a
parabolic cylinder whose axis coincides with the y-axis.
The surface is shown in Figure 1.1.9 below.

Figure 1.1.9: The surface z = x2

Example 1.1.12. Graph the surface

x2 + y 2 = 1.
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 11

Solution. This equation doesn’t depend on z, hence, the cross-section of the

surface by any horizontal plane z = C is always equal to the circle x2 +y 2 = 1
drawn in the plane z = C. Again, all these circles together form the circular
cylinder shown in Figure 1.1.10 below.

Figure 1.1.10: The surface x2 + y 2 = 1

In the previous example the axis of the cylinder coincides with the z-axis
- the axis corresponding to the missing variable. The same applies to any
cylinder. For example, in Figure 1.1.11 you can see three circular cylinders:

x2 + y 2 = 1 : the axis = z − axis, x2 + z 2 = 1 : the axis = y − axis,

y 2 + z 2 = 1 : the axis = x − axis.

Figure 1.1.11: The circular cylinders along the coordinate axes

CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 12

Quadric surfaces
A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in the variables
x, y, and z. The most general such equation is

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + F xz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0,

where A, B, C, . . . , J are constants, but by translation and rotation it can be

brought into one of the two standard forms

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 or Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0.

Below we show the standard quadric surfaces.

• Ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 = 1.
a2 b c

Figure 1.1.12: Ellipsoid

• Elliptic paraboloid
z x2 y 2
= 2 + 2.
c a b
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 13

Figure 1.1.13: Elliptic paraboloid

Figure 1.1.14: Hyperbolic paraboloid

• Hyperbolic paraboloid
z x2 y 2
= 2 − 2.
c a b
The surface has a “saddle” shape.

• Cone
z2 x2 y 2
= 2 + 2.
c2 a b
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 14

Figure 1.1.15: Cone

• Hyperboloid of one sheet

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 − 2 = 1.
a2 b c

Figure 1.1.16: Hyperboloid of one sheet

• Hyperboloid of two sheets

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 − 2 = −1.
a2 b c
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 15

Figure 1.1.17: Hyperboloid of two sheets

1.1.5 Exercises
1. Sketch the domains of the following functions.
√
(a) f (x, y) = x − y
√ p
(b) g(x, y) = 1 − x2 + 1 − y 2
√
(c) h(x, y) = xy

2. Describe the graphs of the following functions.

(a) f (x, y) = 1 + x
(b) g(x, y) = y 2 + 1
(c) h(x, y) = 1 − x2 − y 2
p
(d) k(x, y) = x2 + y 2

3. Draw a contour diagram of the following functions.

(a) f (x, y) = (y − x)2

(b) g(x, y) = x2 − y 2
(c) h(x, y) = x2 − y
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 16

Answers:
y
y=x

x
0

1. (a)
y

x
-1 0 1
-1
(b)
y

x
0

(c)

2. (a) A plane.
(b) A cylinder whose axis coincides with the x-axis.
(c) A paraboloid opening downward with the vertex at (0, 0, 1).
(d) The upper half of the cone z 2 = x2 + y 2 .
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 17

3. (a)

(b)

(c)