Reprinted from SCIENCE, August 12, 1960, Vol. 132, No.

3424, pages 393-400

ments to be planned with composure

and deliberation. Undoubtedly, this
planning would be more rigorous inso-
far as it was based on improved knowl-
edge, from closer approaches, of the
chemistry and physics of planetary
Exobiology: Approaches to habitats. Unfortunately, this orderly
and otherwise desirable program takes
Life beyond the Earth insufficient
living organisms
account of the capacity
to grow and spread
of

throughout a new environment. This

Joshua Lederberg unique capacity of life which engages
our deepest interest also generates our
gravest concerns in the scientific man-
agement of missions beyond the earth.
It is a privilege to discuss some basic meticulous planning, and laboratory On account of these, as well as of the
problems in biology with an audience testing must still be invested in the immense costs of interplanetary com-
whose special concern is for the recent experimental approaches to this prob- munication, we are obliged to weigh
striking advances in the physics of the lem. This may require international the most productive experiments that
earth in the solar system. However, cooperation and also-perhaps more we can do by remote instrumentation
many of us are looking forward to the difficult-mutual understanding among in early flights, whether or not manned
close investigation of the planets, and scientific disciplines as isolated as bio- space flight eventually plays a role in
few inquisitive minds can fail to be chemical genetics and planetary as- scientific exploration.
intrigued by what these studies will tell tronomy.
of the cosmic distribution of life. To Many discussions of space explora-
conform to the best of our contempo- tion have assumed that exobiological Motivations for Exobiological Research
rary science, much thoughtful insight, studies might await the full develop-
ment of the technology for manned The demons which lurk beyond the
The author is professor of genetics at Stanford
University Medical Center, Palo Alto. Calif. This
space flight and for the return of plane- Pillars of Hercules have colored the
article is adapted from a paper preset&d 13 Janu- tary samples to the terrestrial labora- folklore and literature of ages past and
ary 1960 at the 1st International Space Science
Symposium, Nice, France-a symposium spon- tory. To be sure, these might be present, not always to the benefit of
sored by the Committee for Space Research of the preceded by some casual experiments fruitful exploration and dispassionate
International Council of Scientific Unions. The
article will appear as chapter IX of the Space on some instrumented landings. One scientific analysis. Apart from such
Science Board’s copyrighted report-in-progress on advantage of such a program is that
“Science in Soace.” and is oublished here bv
adventuresome amusements and the
permission of ihe National Academy of Sciences. time would allow exobiological experi- amateur delights of a cosmically en-
larged natural history, how does exo- we might again rely upon the evolution- variety of terrestrial life can be referred
biology relate to contemporary science ary concept: a living system has those to subtle differences in the nucleic acids,
and culture? The exploration of space properties (of self-replication and the same basic structure is found in the
may seem to have very little to do with metabolism) from which we may with nuclei of all cells. This a long, linear
fundamental questions in biology or more or less confidence deduce an polymer fabricated from a sugar-
medicine, with the role of genes in evolutionary scheme that would encom- phosphate repeating unit:
embryological development, protein syn- pass self-evidently living organisms. But
thesis, the biology of viruses, and the I do not propose this as a rote formula -o-P-o-c-c-c-
evolution of species. The physical sci- for the assessment of life on other
ences may sharpen our perspective. celestial bodies, and certainly not before
Twenty-five centuries of scientific as- we have some empirical knowledge of
tronomy have widened the horizons of the diversities of chemical evolution.
the physical world, and the casual place From this standpoint, the overriding
of the planet Earth in the expanding objective of exobiological research is to where R is a purine side group:
universe is a central theme in our mod- compare the over-all patterns of chemi-
ern scientific culture. The dynamics of cal evolution of the planets, stressing
celestial bodies, as observed from the those features which are globally char-
earth, is the richest inspiration for the acteristic of each of them.
generalization of our concepts of mass We are all thinking of the question:
and energy throughout the universe. “Is there life on Mars?” To answer
The spectra of the stars likewise testify
to the universality
chemistry.
of our concepts
But biology has lacked tools
in
it may require a careful reassessment
our meaning of “life” and matching
this with the accumulation of hard-
of
Ii
Adenine
d
Guanine

for such extension, and “life” until now won evidence on the chemical compo- or a pyrimidine side group:
has meant only terrestrial life. This dis- sition of that planet. On the other hand,
parity in the domains of the physical we might be confronted with an object
versus the biological sciences attenuates obviously analogous to an earthly plant,
most of our efforts to construct a animal or microbe. But even this abrupt
theoretical biology as a cognate of theo- answer would be trivial in deference to
retical physics or chemistry. For the a biochemical analysis of the organism
most part, biological science has been and of its habitat for comparison with
the rationalization of particular facts, the fundamentals of terrestrial life.
and we have had all too limited a basis In our first approaches to the nearby Thymine Cytosine
for the construction and testing of planets we will wish to design experi-
meaningful axioms to support a theory ments which have some tangible foun- The meaningful variety of nucleic acids
of life. At present, perhaps the only dation in the present accumulation of depends on the specific order of the
potentially universal principle in biology biochemical knowledge. The aqueous side group attached to each sugar on
is the Darwinian concept of evolution environment, and its corollary of mod- this monotonous backbone, a linear
through the natural selection of random erate temperatures in which large message written in a language of four
hereditary fluctuations. carbonaceous molecules are reasonably letters, A, G, T, and C. The bacteria,
Some chemical attributes of terres- stable, are implicit in terrestrial bio- which are the simplest free-living
trial life might support a claim to be chemistry. This is not to reject the organisms, contain nucleotide sequences
basic principles: for example, poly- abstract possibility of nonaqueous life, about 5 million units long; man con-
phosphates (adenylpyrophosphate) oc- or noncarbonaceous molecules that tains sequences about 5000 million units
cur in all organisms as coupling agents might characterize temperatures of long-this content being one of our
for the storage and transfer of metabolic < 200” or > 500°K. However, we best objective measures of biological
energy. But, at least in principle, we can defer our concern for such exotic complexity. On the other hand, the
can imagine that organisms may have biological systems until we have got full simplest viruses, which can multiply only
found alternative solutions to the same value from our searches for the more inside living cells and come close to
problem. Only the perspective of com- familiar, and have learned enough of being single genes, have about 2500
parative biology on a cosmic scale could the exotic chemistry to judge how to units per particle. Playing a central
tell whether this device is an indis- proceed. role in the unification of terrestrial
pensable element of all life or a par- Within the bounds of its aqueous biology, nucleic acids underlie both
ticular attribute of its local occurrence environment, what are the most nearly heredity and (through their control of
on this planet. universal features of terrestrial life? In protein synthesis) development. Are
An important aim of theoretical fact, our plants, animals, and bacteria they the only linear polymers which
biology is an abstract definition of life. share a remarkable list of biochemical can subsume these functions, or have
Our only consensus so far is that such components, and a biochemist cannot many other fundamental types evolved,
a definition must be arbitrary. If life easily distinguish extracts of yeast cells to be found on other celestial bodies?
has gradually evolved from inanimate and beef muscle. Among these com- Equally general among the con-
matter, the demarcation of chemical ponents, the nucleic acids warrant first stituents of living cells are the proteins,
from biological evolution is one of use- attention. Although they constitute the which are also polymers, but with a
ful judgment. For a working principle, hereditary material, so that all the more diverse set of constituents, some
20 amino acids. The fundamental back- peculiarities of extraterrestrial organ- and “self-replication” was an axiomatic
bone of a protein is a poly-amino acid isms, any more than they would for a principle whose chemical basis seemed
chain: newly discovered phylum of the earth’s beyond the grasp of human understand-
own repertoire. Nor should we pre- ing. Now we recognize that the nucleic
H-NH-CH-CO-NH-CH-CO ...
clude the possibility of finding new acids are the material basis of heredit.y,
k Ii organisms that might be economically and we can begin to construct mechan-
. . NH-CH-CO-OH useful to man, just as new organisms istic models of their replication. The
d were among the most fruitful yields of first principle, as already stated, is that
geographic exploration. However, the the gene is a string of nucleotides, each
where R may be any of 20 different enlargement of our understanding, position in the string being marked by
groups, distinguishing a like number rather than of our zoos and botanical one of the four nucleotide units A, T,
of amino acids found in natural pro- gardens, is surely our first objective. C, and G. The polymerization of such
teins. Proteins assume a wide variety of strings by the union of the monomeric
three-dimensional shapes, through coil- units presents no fundamental prob-
ing and cross-linking of the polymer Theories of the Origin of Lie lems, but self-replication would neces-
chains. They are in this way suited to sitate the assembly of the units in a
perform such diverse functions as those At this point, a consideration of specific order, the one dictated by the
of enzymes, structural elements, and contemporary theory on the origin of order of the nucleotides in the parent
antibodies. Not only do we find just life is justified for two reasons: (i) molecule. The key to the solution of
the same 20 amino acids among the exobiological research gives us a unique, this problem was the realization by
proteins of all terrestrial organisms but fresh approach to this problem, and (ii) Watson and Crick that the complete
these are all the levo- isomers, although we can find some basis to conclude that nucleic acid molecule is a rigid, duplex
dextro- amino acids are found to have life need not be so improbable an structure in which two strings are
other metabolic functions. Next only evolutionary development as had once united. In that rigid structure, as can
to the incidence of nucleic acids, we been supposed. be shown by suitable molecular models,
would ask whether exobiota make The interval between Pasteur’s work adenine occupies a space which is just
analogous use of proteins, comprising on spontaneous generation and the re- complementary to that of thymine, and
the same amino acids, in hopes of cent past has been especially difficult cytosine is likewise complementary to
understanding what seem to be random for the mechanistic interpretation of the guanine. A string can therefore repli-
choices in the sculpture of our own origin of life. Before Pasteur’s time, cate-that is, direct the assembly of
living form. many investigators could believe that another daughter string-in the follow-
Common to all forms of terrestrial simple microorganisms arose spontane- ing way. The nutrient mix of the cell
life are also a number of smaller mole- ously in nutrient media. His demon- contains all four nucleotide units, How-
cules which are involved in the working stration that such media remained ever, at any position of the parent
metabolism of the cells; for example, sterile if properly sterilized and pro- nucleic acid molecule only one of these
most of the B vitamins have a perfectly tected seemed to rule out any possibility four can make a suitable fit and will
general distribution. They are vitamins of “spontaneous generation.” His con- therefore be accepted. After being
for us only because we have learned, in clusion was, of course, overdrawn, accepted, the daughter units are firmly
our evolutionary history, to rely on since life must have evolved at least bound together by new chemical link-
their production by green plants, rather once, and the event could still occur, ages giving a well-defined daughter
than to synthesize them within our own though very much less frequently than string. Kornberg has reconstructed most
cells. But once formed, these vitamins, had been supposed before. Meanwhile, of these events in some detail, by means
and similar categories of substances the problem was compounded by the of extracts from bacteria, to the very
such as porphyrins, play entirely an- growth of biochemical knowledge. We verge of proving duplication of genes
alogous roles in the metabolism of all now realize that bacteria, small as they in a chemically defined system in the
cells. are, are still extremely complex, well- test tube.
A few substances, such as the steroid ordered, and representative organisms. However, the media in which such
hormones, do play special roles in the The first organisms must have been syntheses can occur, in the cell or even
metabolism of higher organisms, and far simpler than present-day free-living in the test tube, are extremely complex.
testify to some progress in biochemical bacteria. Knowing that the simplest organisms
evolution. In fact, most objective evi- With the growth of genetics since would be the most dependent on their
dence points to a loss of specific func- 1900, and the recognition of the self- environments for raw materials, where
tions-microorganisms are certainly replicating gene as the elementary basis did these precursors come from before
more versatile and less dependent than of life, the question could focus on living organisms had evolved the en-
man is on a specific nutrient mileu. the origin of the first genetic molecule: zymes to manufacture them?
The main trend of biochemical evo- given the power of self-replication, and Thanks to the insight of Haldane,
lution, from microbe to man, has been incidents of stochastic variation, Dar- Oparin, Horowitz and others, we now
far less the innovation of new unit win’s principle could account for the realize that this paradox is a false one,
processes than the coordination of ex- eventual emergence of any degree of though it dates to the confusion between
isting processes in time and space. biological complexity. “carbon chemistry” and “organic chem-
While we propose to give first priority An immense amount of fruitful istry” which still exists in English
to these most general questions, they by genetic work was done in a period when terminology. In fact, in 1828, Wohler
no means exhaust our interest in the “genetic molecule” was an abstraction had already shown that an organic
compound, urea, could be formed ex- Whether the earth has retained rem- re-created, we can state this as a rele-
perimentally from an inorganic salt, nants of this chemistry is hard to say. vant problem for exobiological study,
ammonium cyanate. A hundred years There is at least some evidence of it in with considerable optimism for the
later, a number of routes for synthesis the spectra of comets, and fragments prevalence of life elsewhere. But a
of geochemically significant amounts of from these continue to form part of the sterile planet, too, would be of ex-
complex organic materials were pointed meteoroidal infall. These particles, un- traordinary interest to biology for the
out, for example, the hydrolysis of less associated with larger meteorites, insight it should give on the actual
metallic carbides, and subsequent re- would be unrecognizable after traversing progress of probiotic chemical evolu-
actions of olefins with water and am- the earth’s atmosphere; they are among tion.
monia. More recently, Miller and Urey the possible treasures to be found buried
demonstrated the actual production of in protected crevices on the moon.
amino acids by the action of electric Light traversing the interstellar Natural and Artificial Panspermia
discharges on gas mixtures containing smoke has been found to be polarized.
the hydrides NH+ OH2, and CH+. This If primitive aggregation plays some In the foregoing discussion it was
demonstration converges with other role in furnishing precursors for bio- tacitly assumed that the evolution of
argument that the primitive atmosphere logical evolution, this polarization fur- planetary life was a local phenomenon,
of the earth had just such a reduced nishes at least one bias for a decision independent of the incidence of life
composition, becoming oxidized sec- between levo- and dextro- isomers. elsewhere. But, at a time when de now
ondarily (and in part through photo- At any rate, possible sources of generation seemed less plausible than
synthetic separation of carbon from probiotic nutrition no longer pose a it does now, Arrhenius defended an-
oxygen). problem. Before the appearance of other hypothesis: panspermia, the mi-
An alternative theory of origin of voracious organisms, organic com- gration of spores through space from
carbonaceous molecules is even more pounds would accumulate until they one planet to another. The credibility
pervasive. Perhaps we associate carbon reached equilibrium with thermal and of the panspermia hypothesis has been
with life, and rocks and metals with radiative decomposition, from which eroded mainly for two reasons: (i)
physical phenomena; beyond doubt we the oceans would furnish ample pro- the lack of a plausible natural mechan-
tend to connote the latter with the pre- tection. Locally, the concentration of ism for impelling a spore-bearing
dominant substance of the universe. In the soup would be augmented by selec- particle out of the gravitational field of
fact, as a glance at tables of cosmic tive evaporation, and by adsorption a planet as large as the earth, or any
abundance will show, the lighter ele- onto other minerals. The main gap in planet large enough to sustain a sig-
ments are by far the most prevalent, the theory, not yet bridged by any nificant atmosphere, and (ii) the vul-
and after the dispersed hydrogen and experiment, is the actual formation of nerability of such a particle to destruc-
helium these are carbon, oxygen, and a replicating polymer in such a morass. tion by solar radiation. In any case,
nitrogen. The primitive condensation We are beginning to visualize the essen- the panspermia hypothesis could be dis-
of free atoms to form the interstellar tial conditions for chemical replication, paraged for evading the fundamental
smoke, and eventually the stars them- and its ultimate realization is fore- problem by transposing it to an un-
selves, must entail the molecular aggre- shadowed both by biochemical studies known, perhaps scientifically unknow-
gation H + C + 0 + N; that is, a of nucleic acids and by industrial syn- able, site. These difficulties have
large fraction of the condensed mass theses of stereospecific polymers. impeached the standing of panspermia
of the universe must consist, or once There is some controversy over as an experimentally useful hypothesis,
have consisted, of organic macro- whether nucleic acids were the first but not its immense significance for
molecules of great complexity. The genes, partly because they are so com- cosmic biology. In its defense, it might
chief problem for their synthesis is in plex, partly because their perfection be indicated that, in view of the
fact not a source of chemical energy hints at an interval of chemical evolu- dormancy of microorganisms in high
but how to dissipate the excess energy tion rather than one master stroke. The vacuum and at low temperatures and
of reactions of free atoms and radicals. advantage of the nucleic acid hypothesis of their relatively low cross section for
This aspect of astrophysics may have is that no other self-replicating polymers ionizing radiations, the hazards of ex-
place for a remote biological analogy: have so far been found. But, as an posure to space may have been ex-
Once a few molecules have formed, alternative speculation, a simplified aggerated. The chief hazard to micro-
the energy of subsequent impacts can protein might replicate by the comple- organisms might come from solar
be dissipated among the vibrational mentary attachment of acidic versus ultraviolet radiation and the proton
degrees of freedom. That is, such mole- basic units, perhaps the crudest possible wind, but a thin layer of overlying
cules can function as nuclei of con- method of assembly. The nucleic acids material would shield a spore from
densation. As seeds for further con- would be perfections on this theme for these. For the impulsion of particles
densation, those molecules will be replication. The existent proteins do we might possibly appeal to impacts
favored which (i) most readily dissi- not replicate; with their variety of with other heliocentric bodies, be they
pate the energy of successive impacts amino acids, they would have evolved grazing meteorites or planetoids in
and (ii) can undergo molecular fission as better adaptations for assuming cataclysmic encounters-suggestions not
to increase the number of nuclei. The specific shapes. A comparative view of more remote than those invoked for
actual molecular chemistry of the inter- independent evolutionary systems may other astronomical phenomena. Nor
stellar (or prestellar) smoke is thus at least serve to check such specula- can we be sure that all the electro-
subject to a kind of natural selection tions. kinetic mechanisms which Arrhenius
and cannot be a purely random Although many steps in the genera- may have had in mind can be excluded
sampling of available atoms, tion of living molecules remain to be from applying to any single particle.
 In testing for panspermia, we would simpler, earthly organisms could thrive though much more remote, refuge of
be concerned first of all for evidence of there. Indeed, many students have con- this kind.
interplanetary transport of any material. cluded that Mars does have a biota It may be academic to discuss the
The moon suggests itself as a nearby of its own. The most pertinent evi- exploration of the major planets, in
trap for particles of terrestrial origin, dence is perhaps the infrared reflection view of their distance and the difficulty
among which living spores or bio- spectrum recorded by Sinton which of deceleration in the Jovian field.
chemical fragments of them, might be indicates an accumulation of hydro- However, their wealth of light ele-
the most characteristic markers. At one carbonaceous materials in the dark ments, subject to solar irradiation at
spore per kilogram of sample (a weight areas. This is complemented by Doll- temperatures and in gravitational fields
ratio of 10wm), the sensitivity of easy fus’ report (see this symposium) on very different from the earth’s, offers
biological detection would partly com- the seasonal changes of granularity of the most exciting prospects for novel
pensate for the vulnerability of spores these areas. The main reservation that biochemical systems.
to physical hazards. must be registered is that these might
The development of rocket-impelled be meteorological phenomena involving
spacecraft has, of course, furnished a masses of material which may be car- Experimental Approaches
mechanism for producing artificial bonaceous but not necessarily living.
panspermia. Several authors have re- Most such material on the earth’s sur- A realistic view of our limitations
cently revived Haldane’s passing sug- face is associated with life. However, requires that our treatment of this topic
gestion that life might even have been this may be connected with the greedy be one of utmost humility. Useful
disseminated by intelligent beings from utilization of such compounds by or- landings on planetary targets are fraught
other stellar systems. That another cen- ganisms rather than their production by with difficulties and hazards, and
tury of productive science and tech- vital synthesis. However, the most experiments done at a distance must
nology could give the human species plausible explanation of the astronomi- not be overlooked in the excitement of
this capability would be hard to dispute. cal data is that Mars is a life-bearing planning for more adventurous mis-
The hypothesis is connected with the planet. (The term vegetation is often sions. Balloon- and satellite-mounted
age or agelessness of the universe, and used; this should be discouraged if it telescopes can tell much about planetary
until we have a basis for decision on implies that the Martian biota will chemistry, and hence biology, and
this point, and can make independent necessarily fall into the taxonomic probes to the vicinity of a planet can
tests for intelligent life elsewhere, it divisions that we know on earth.) furnish additional information prior to
must join natural panspermia in the The habitability of Venus is con- actual landing.
limbo of irrefutable, untestable scien- nected with its temperature, a highly It is instructive to ask ourselves how
tific hypotheses. The technique for controversial subject. Perhaps the most we might diagnose the existence of life
attempted radio communication with useful first contribution to the exo- on the earth from distant observations.
nearby stars has been detailed recently biology of Venus would be a definitive If we may judge from the photographs
by Cocconi and Morrison. measurement of its temperature profile. so far obtained from high-altitude
These new tools for the exploration Even should the surface be unbearably flights, we could hope to detect only
of the universe have caught many of hot, this need not preclude a more large-scale manifestations of organized
us unawares, and few can pretend to temperate layer at another level. culture-cities, roads, rockets. This re-
have recaptured their equilibrium in The exposure of the moon’s surface serve may not give due credit to the
dealing with these concepts. Irrefutable to solar radiation and the absence of a possibilities of high-resolution pho-
notions have little scientific value unless significant atmosphere have led scien- tography and sensitive infrared spec-
they lead to attempts at verification. A tists to discount the possibility of a lunar trometry, and reasonable implications
priori arguments for the presence or biology. However, the composition of from seasonal changes in the color and
absence of intelligent life on the planets the moon’s deeper layers, below even a texture of terrain. However, we may
or in nearby stellar systems are equally few meters beneath the surface, is very conclude that distant approaches will
unconvincing. The skepticism of most much an open question (see Uriy, this be invaluable for deriving preliminary
scientists is justified not by conviction symposium) particularly in the light chemical information but probably will
but by the consistency of negative evi- of Kozyrev’s recent reports of gaseous not be decisive for exobiological in-
I dence in the limited scientific data that emissions. Realistic plans for the bio- ferences. Even if we could more surely
have so far been collected. logical study of the moon probably decide that the Martian cycle involved
must await the results of chemical living organisms rather than inanimate
analyses. Apart from the remote pos- chemical transformations, we would
Planetary Targets sibility of indigenous life, the moon is still have little insight into the intimate
a gravitational trap for meteoroidal biochemical details which are a major
The suitability for life of the acces- material. We may eventually be able objective of exobiological research. On
sible bodies of the solar system has to screen large quantities of this virgin the other hand, a planet could harbor
already received ample attention. Mars material for what Haldane called astro- an extensive biota that would defy de-
is, of course, the likeliest target, most plankton, in an empirical test of the tection from a distance, like the biota
nearly resembling the habitat of the panspermia hypothesis. While exposed of our own extensive deserts and deep
earth. The indicated scarcity of free deposits would be subject to solar degra- waters.
moisture and oxygen would severely dation, shaded refuges must also exist. Microorganisms, for many reasons,
limit the habitability of Mars by man Mercury may be analogous to the are the best prospects on which to
or most terrestrial animals. However, moon, except insofar as its dark side concentrate marginal capabilities. They
there seems little doubt that many may furnish an even more reliable, are more likely to flourish in a minimal
environment than larger organisms. these will remain in reasonable balance tion for conservation of radio power;
The microbes must also precede the -for static or real time television com- the traveling ribbon can be stopped and
macrobes in evolutionary sequence, munication with the planetary probe- the Vidicon-transmitter activated just
though we must not suppose that the microscope may be the most when a stained object is in view.
present-day bacteria are necessarily efficient sensory instrument. The re- These preliminary experiments can
very primitive. The earth is well en- dundancy of a pictorial image would indicate some of the general features
dowed with both kinds of organisms; not be altogether wasted: would we of the planetary microbiota. The data
we can imagine another world with put our trust in a one-bit pulse from they furnish will support more intensive
only microbes, but we cannot conceive an efficient black box to answer our studies of the growth characteristics,
of one lacking microbes if it bears any queries about the cosmos? chemical composition, and enzymatic
form of life at all. Likewise, taking the According to this experimental con- capabilities of organisms cultivated on
earth as a whole, we find that large cept, the terminal microscope-Vidicon a larger scale. The interaction of these
organisms occupy only a small fraction chain must be supported by three types organisms with tissue cultures of animal
of the surface. However, we can rea- of development: (i) for collection and cells can also be considered. From the
sonably expect to find evidence of transport of the specimen to the aper- results of these initial probes we can
microscopic life in any drop of water, ture of the microscope; (ii) for cyto- better deduce how to anticipate the
pinch of soil, or gust of wind. Given chemical processing of the samples; long-range consequences of the inter-
a limited sample for study, micro- (iii) for protection of the device against course of planetary biota.
biological analysis will certainly give environmental hazards, for appropriate
the most reliable evidence for the pres- location after landing, and for illumina-
ence of life anywhere on the planet. tion, focusing, and perhaps preliminary Conservation of Natural Resources
By the same odds the greatest diversity image selection. Detailed studies of
of biochemical mechanisms will be these problems are only just under way, A corollary of interplanetary com-
represented among the microbiota of a and the following suggestions are only munication is the artificial dissemina-
small sample. tentative. tion of terrestrial life to new habitats.
Microbiological probes also offer The easiest specimens to obtain may History shows how the exploitation of
distinct advantages for the collection be atmospheric dust and samples of newly found resources has enriched
and analysis of living material. From surface soil, once the device has been human experience; equally often we
a single particle, microbes can easily be landed. These would be collected on a have seen great waste and needless
cultivated within the confines of an traveling ribbon of transparent tape misery follow from the thoughtless
experimental device. In this they re- which would be thrown out and then spread of disease and other ecological
main accessible to physiological and rewound into the device. Larger disturbances. The human species has
chemical experiments that would be samples, collected by a soil auger, could a vital stake in the orderly, careful,
extremely cumbersome with larger be subjected to a preliminary concen- and well-reasoned extension of the
organisms. (Compare, for example, the tration of nonmineral components by cosmic frontier; how we react to the
automatic instrumentation that would flotation in a dense liquid. The use of adventuresome and perplexing chal-
be needed to catch a mouse or an ele- such a tape would simplify the prob- lenges of space flight will be a crucial
phant and then to determine its nutri- lem of treating the samples with a suc- measure of the maturity of our national
tional requirements!). The techniques cession of reagents-for example, spe- consciences and our concern for pos-
of cytochemistry already developed cific enzymes and fluorescent stains for terity.
for the chemical analysis of microscopic the detection of nucleic acids and pro- The introduction of microbial life to
cells and organisms appear to be the teins. Microscopy with ultraviolet light, a previously barren planet, or to one
most readily adaptable to automation particularly at 2600 and 2800 ang- occupied by a less well-adapted form
and telemetric recording, an important stroms, owing to its selectivity for of life, could result in the explosive
advantage under the existing pressure nucleic acids and proteins, may be the growth of the implant, with conse-
of time, talent, and cost. Important most direct way to distinguish micro- quences of geochemical scope. With a
issues of policy cannot be decisively organisms from mineral particles. Gen- generation time of 30 minutes and
settled without factual information on erally speaking, the microscope can be easy dissemination by winds and cur-
the growth capacity of the micro- adapted to many simple analytical rents, common bacteria could occupy a
organisms that might be exchanged procedures whose construction on a nutrient medium the size of the earth
among the planets. Accordingly, larger scale would present formidable in a few days or weeks, being limited
methodological precedents in terrestrial problems for automatic technique. only by the exhaustion of available nu-
science for exobiology are most evident The adaptation of the microscope trients. It follows that we must rigor-
in microbial biochemistry. The con- system to a payload can be undertaken ously exclude terrestrial contaminants
ceptual aims are equally close to those more realistically when laboratory pro- from our spacecraft. This stricture must
of biochemical genetics. Needless to totypes have been built and tested. For hold until we have acquired the factual
say, no other resource or objective of example, we will have to decide be- information from which we can assess
serious biological science can be tween accurate prefocusing of a micro- with assurance the detrimental effects
neglected in the development of an scope whose lenses and entry slit are of free traffic and determine whether
experimental program. mounted in a rigid structure and con- these are small enough to warrant the
Aside from experimental designs, the tinuous control of focus by an optically relaxation of these controls.
pace of exobiological research may be controlled servo system (an innovation At the present time, the values that
regulated by advances in vehicular and that would be far from useless in the would most obviously be threatened by
guidance capabilities and data com- biological laboratory). Fluorescent stain- contamination are scientific ones. The
munication. In the expectation that ing may facilitate automatic discrimina- overgrowth of terrestrial bacteria on
Mars would destroy an inestimably more positive, exciting, and patently of pandemic disease, and the greater
valuable opportunity for understanding rewarding aspects of space research. likelihood of serious economic nuisance,
our own living nature. Even if an Scientific microbiology in the labora- must dictate a stringent embargo on the
intemperate mission has not contami- tory is absolutely dependent on the premature return of planetary samples.
nated a planet, the threat of its having rigorous application of the special or of craft that might inadvertently
done so will confuse later studies, if technique of pure culture with aseptic carry them. Again, our preliminary
earth-like organisms are found. How- control. If we do not exercise the same experiments must give us the foundation
ever, other values are also involved. rigor in space science, we might as of knowledge to cope with exoorgan-
Quite apart from strictly scientific con- well save ourselves the trouble of think- isms, even to select those which may
cerns, would we not deplore a heedless ing about, and planning for, exobiologi- be of economic benefit. A parallel
intrusion on other life systems? It cal research. development of techniques for disin-
would be rash to predict too narrowly While early traffic to the planets will fection may mitigate some of these
the ways in which undisturbed planetary be one-way, we must anticipate round- problems; at present the prospects for
surfaces, their indigenous organisms, or trip, and even manned, space flight. treating a returning vehicle to neutralize
their molecular resources may ultimately Undoubtedly, planetary samples can be any possible hazard are at best marginal
serve human needs. If we have cause to analyzed for any scientific purpose more by comparison with the immensity of
prejudice these values, we surely would conveniently and more exactly in the the risks.
not wish to do so by inadvertence. terrestrial laboratory than by remote Of the possible payloads for inter-
To guard effectively against contami- devices. For each step of analysis, planetary travel, living man, of course.
nation requires a nice appreciation of special devices can be used (or if need excites the widest popular interest. In
the ubiquity and durability of bacterial be, newly designed and constructed), due course, he may be supported b>
spores, which are well preserved in high and a constant give-and-take between a sufficient payload to accomplish use-
vacua and at low temperatures and are human judgment and instrumental ful tasks in exploration beyond the
rapidly destroyed only when kept at datum is possible. However, the return capacities of instrumentation. However.
temperatures over 160°C. It is prob- of such samples to the earth exposes 11s he is a teeming reservoir of microbial
able that spacecraft can be disinfected to a hazard of contamination by foreign contamination, the most difficult of all
by the conscientious application of organisms. Since we are not yet quite payloads to neutralize, and he is an
gaseous disinfectants, especially ethylene certain of the existence of planetary especially suitable vehicle for infectious
oxide, but this will succeed only if the (that is, Martian) organisms, and know organisms. In view of these difficulties.
procedure is carried out meticulously nothing of their properties, it is ex- and insofar as manned space flight is
and with controlled tests of its effective- tremely difficult to assess the risk of predicated on the return of the crew,
ness. Sealed components, if found to be the event. The most dramatic hazard a sound basis of scientific knowledge
potential sources of contamination, can would be the introduction of a new from instrumented experiments is a
be disinfected by chemicals prior to disease, imperiling human health. What sine qua non for the planning of such
sealing, or subsequently by heat, or by we know of the biology of infection missions.
irradiation at very high doses. The makes this an extremely unlikely possi- Timely effort now to devise and build
technology of disinfection is an expert bility; most disease-producing organisms instrumented experiments is essential
one, and personnel already experienced must evolve very elaborate adaptations to keep pace with the technical capaci-
in it should be delegated supervisory to enable them to resist the active de- ties of space vehicles.
control. fenses of the human body, to attack
The assessment of this problem in- our cells, and to pass from one person
volves a concept of risk that has not to another. That a microorganism Conclusion
always been perceptively realized. The should have evolved such a capacity in
hazards of space flight itself, or of the absence of experience with human Many of the ideas presented in this
hard impact. or the planetary environ- hosts or similar organisms seems quite article are not new. In the scientific
ment might suffice to neutralize any unlikely. However, a converse’ argu- literature they have been treated only
contaminants, but can we afford to ment can also be made, that we have occasionally, for example in a remark-
rely on uncertain suppositions when the evolved our specific defenses against able article by J. B. S. Haldane ( 1954).
stakes are so high, and when we have terrestrial bacteria and that we might They are also anticipated in the classic
practical means at hand for conserva- be less capable of coping with organ- works of science fiction-for example.
tive protection? We must be especially isms that lack the proteins and carbo- H. G. Wells’ War of the World-and
sensitive to the extreme variations in hydrates by which they could be in a flood of derivative fantasies of less
the environments of spacecraft or of recognized as foreign. Furthermore, a certain quality either as science or as
planetary surfaces which might furnish few diseases are already known (for fiction. This kind of attention has not
refuges for microbe survival no matter example, psittacosis, botulism, asper- necessarily contributed to realistic evalu-
how hostile the average conditions. gillosis) whose involvement of man ation of the biological aspects of space
The indication by agencies both in seems to be a biological accident. These travel, discussion of which may still be
the United States and the U.S.S.R. that arguments can only be resolved by dismissed as overimaginative by some
adequate precautions will be exercised more explicit data. Nonetheless, if they of our colleagues. However, exobiology
on all relevant missions is an important are harmful at all, exobiota are more is no more fantastic than the realization
step in the realization of constructive likely to be weeds than parasites, to act of space travel itself, and we have a
exobiology. on our agriculture and the general com- grave responsibility to explore its im-
Scientists everywhere will call for fort of our environment, and to be plications for science and for human
the application of these measures with pervasive nuisances than acute aggres- welfare with our best scientific insights
the same care and enthusiasm as the sors. However, even the remotest risk and knowledge.
 Notes G. Cocconi and P. Morrison, Nature 184, 844 A. Kornberg, “Biologic synthesis of deoxyri-
(1959). bonucleic acid,” Sciewce 131, 1503 (1960).
The principles embodied in this article reflect R. W. Davies and M. G. Comuntzis, “The steri- J. Lederberg, “A view of genetics,” Science 131,
the judgment of one among several of the scien- lization of space vehicles to prevent extrater- 269 (1960).
tific groups advisory to the Space Science Board restrial biological contamination,” Intern. Astro- - and D. B. Cowie, “Moondust,” Science
of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. How- nauf. Congr. Proc., 10th Congr., Londou 127. 1473 (1958).
ever, they do not necessarily represent any official (1959). S. L. Miller and H. C. Urev. -7
ibid. 130. 245
policy of the committed views of each consultant. A. Dollfus. “Resultats d’observations indiquant la (1959).
The continued interest and advice of M. Calvin. vie sur la plan&e Mars,” Proc. Znrern: Space A. I. Oparin, The Origin of Life, S. Morpulis,
R. Davies, N. Horowitz, S. E. Luria, A. G. Marr; Science Symposium, 1st Symposium, Nice translator (Macmillan. New York. ed. 2. 1938):
D. Ma&, A. Novick, C. Sagan, G. Stat, H. C. (1960). (Dover, tie, York, ‘cd. 3, 195j); A.’ Syng;;
Urey. C. B. van Niel, and H. Weaver, among J. Dufay. Nebuleuses Galactiques ef Motiere In- translator (Oliver and Boyd, London, 1957).
many others, have been indispensable. lerslelloire. translated bv A. J. Pomerans as W. M. Sinton. Science 130. 1234 (1959).
To document this article in detail with refer- Gnlaclic ‘Nebulae and . Inrersrellar Marter H. C. Urey, “’ Lines of &ide”ce ‘regaiding the
ences to original sources would require a bibliog- (Hutchinsons, London, 1957). composition of the moo”,” Proc. Znlern. Space
raphy of inordinate length. Many of the issues C. S. Elton, The Ecology of Imasions by Animals Science SJ~rnposium, JSI Symposium, Nice
are reviewed in the following works. and Plants (Methuen, London, 1958). ( 1960).
S. W. Fox, Science 132, 200 (1960). The Origin of Life on the Earth, Reports on the
Blbliograpby J. B. S. Haldane, “The origins of life,” in New International Symposium, August 1957, Mos-
Biology (Penguin, London, 1954), vol. 16. cow (Academv of Sciences of the U.S.S.R..
V. Alpatov, “The rocket, the moon and life,” N. Horowitz, “The origin of life,” in Frontiers of Mosc&). .
Izt,est. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. Ser. Biol. 1959 Science, E. Hutchings, Jr., Ed. (Basic Books, “Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
(18 Sept. 1959). New York, 1958). Extraterrestrial Soace ICETEX) 1959.” ICSU
C. B. Anfinsen, The MolecuIar Basis of Eldurion H. Spencer Jones, Life on Other Worlds (New Rev. 1, 100 (1954); second rep&t, N&e 183,
(Wiley, New York, 1959). American Library, New York, 1949). 925 ( 1959).