Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Ackno wledgements iv
Contents vi
vi
5. Compressors 168
Types of Compressors 169
Compressor Theory 170
Compressor Thermodynamics 176
The Behavior of Air 178
Boyle's Law 179
Charles' Law 180
Specific Heat 180
Perfect-Gas Equation 181
Horsepower Required to Drive the Compressor 181
7. Turbines 198
Types of Turbines 198
Function of the Nozzle Guide Vanes 199
Construction of the Nozzle 200
The Impulse Turbine 201
The Reaction Turbine 202
Reaction-Impulse Turbine 202
Turbine Construction 203
viii
Hand-Crank Starter 389
Ground and Airborne Auxiliary Power Units 391
Appendices 643
A Conversion Factors 644
B Commonly Used Gas Turbine Engine Symbols and Abbreviations 648
C Glossary 649
D Tables and Charts 650
E Commonly Used Formulas, Units, and Terms Definitions 653
F Decimal/Fraction Conversions 654
G Drill Sizes, the Greek Alphabet, and Prefix Multiples 655
H Fuel Utilization 656
I Variations of the Speed of Sound with Temperature 657
J Psychrometric Chart 658
�- J(
r
f
•
s
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t
Long before humans appeared on earth, nature had given
i some creatures of the sea, such as the squid and the cuttle-
1
fish, the ability to jet propel themselves through the water
'·t (Fig. 1-1). Many examples of the reaction principle existed
during the early periods of recorded history, but because a
suitable level of technical achievement in the areas of engi
neering, manufacture, and metallurgy had not been reached,
there was a gap of over 2000 years before a practical appli
cation of this principle became possible.
THE AEOLIPILE
FIGURE 1-2 Hero's aeolipil e.
I
and a hydraulic organ. He also wrote many works on mathe ing Chinese scholar named Wan Hu intended to use his
matics, physics, and mechanics. rockets as a means of propulsion (Fig. 1-4). His plan was
simple. A series of rockets were lashed to a chair under
which sledlike runners had been placed. Unfortunately,
LEONARDO DA VINCI when the rockets were ignited, the blast that followed com
f
pletely obliterated Wan Hu and the chair, making him the
' ney jack (Fig. 1-3), a device later widely used for turning
roasting spits. As the hot air from the fire rose, it passed
fi6URE 1-1 The squid, a jet-propelled fish. FIGURE 1-3 Da Vinci's chimney jack.
2
FIGURE 1-4 Chinese rocket sled. FIGURE 1-6 Newton's steam wagon.
first martyr in humanity's struggle to achieve flight. In later gas turbine and to suggest its use for propelling a "horseless
times rockets·were used during several wars, including the carriage" (Fig. 1-7). The turbine was equipped with a chain
Napoleonic Wars. The phrase the rockets' red glare in our driven, reciprocating type of compressor but was otherwise
national anthem refers to the use of rockets by the British in the same as the modem gas turbine, for it had a compressor,
besieging Fort McHenry in Baltimore during the war of a combustion chamber, and a turbine.
1812. And, of course, the German use of the V -2 rocket dur
ing World War II and the subsequent development of space
vehicles is contemporary history. SIR FRANK WHITTLE
FIGURE 1-5 Branca's jet turbine. FIGURE 1-7 Barber's British patent-1791.
The work of many others, in addition to those mentioned, FIGURE 1- 10 The y oung Sir Frank Whittle.
GERMAN DEVELOPMENT
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1- 17 The two coinventors honored in 1991 for their independent and nearly simultaneous
development of the turbojet aircraft engine: (a) Sir Frank Whittle (b) Hans von Ohain
this development made a flight with Erich Wahrsitz as pilot Caproni Company in Italy also used the reaction principle
on August 27, 1939, now considered to be the earliest date of (Fig. 1-18). A successful flight was made in August 1940
modern jet propulsion. The HE178 was equipped with a cen and was reported, at the time, as the first successful flight of
trifugal-flow jet engine called the Heinkel HeS-3b, which a jet-propelled aircraft (Fig. 1-19). The powerplant of this
developed 1100 lb [4893 N] of thrust and had a top speed of aircraft was not a "jet" because it relied upon a convention
over 400 mph [644 km/h] (Fig. 1-15). al 900-horsepower (hp) [671-kilowatt (kw)] reciprocating
Subsequent German development of turbojet-powered engine instead of a turbine to operate the three-stage com
airctaft produced the ME262, a 500-mph [805 km/h] fight pressor. Top speed for this aircraft was a disappointing 205
er, powered by two axial-flow engines. (The terms centrifu mph [330 km/h], and the project was abandoned in late 1948.
gal flow and axial flow will be examined in chap. 2.) More
than 1600 ME262 fighters were builtin the closing stages of
World War II, but they reached operational status too late to DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICA
seriously challenge the overwhelming air superiority gained
by the Allies (Fig. 1-16). These engines were far ahead of
America was late to enter the field of jet propulsion
contemporary British developments, and they foreshad
because, at that time, it was felt that the war would have to
owed many of the features of the more modern engine, such
be won with airplanes using conventional reciprocating
as blade cooling, ice prevention, and the variable-area
engines. In September 1941, under the auspices of the
exhaust nozzle. An interesting sidelight to the German con
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA,
tribution was that on September 30, 1929, a modified glid
now the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or
er using Opel rockets was the world's first airplane to
�ASA), the W.1X engine, which was the forerunner of the
achieve flight using a reaction engine.
W.1, and a complete set of plans and drawings for the more
In 1991 both Whittle and von Ohain (Fig. 1-17) were
advanced W.2B gas turbine, were flown to the United Scates
honored as coinventors of the jet engine, and they are now
under special arrangements between the British and U.S.
equally recognized for this outstanding achievement.
governments. A group of Power Jets engineers was also
sent. The General Electric Corporation was a�arded the
contract to build an American version of this engine because
ITALIAN CONTRIBUTION of their previous experience with turbosuperchargers and
Moss's pioneering work in this area.
Although not a gas turbine engine in the present sense of The first jet airplane flight in the United States was made
the term, an engine designed by Secundo Campini of the in October 1942, in a Bell XP-59A (Fig. 1-20), �ith Bell's
Chapter 2 discusses the variety of forms the gas turbine can emerging from the rear of the engine at a higher velocity
take. It is divided into two major sections. The first part than it had at the forward end. The turbofan engine also uses
(pages 9 thru 18) deals with most of the possible variations, the reaction principle,but the gases exiting from the rear of
permutations and combinations possible, while the second this engine type have a lower energy level, since some
part (pages 18 thru 136) deals with the specific engines that power has to be extracted to drive the fan. (See pages 15-17
illustrate this diversity and most of the aircraft in which they for a more detailed explanation of the operating principles
are installed. of the fan engine.) Turboprop and turboshaft engines both
convert the majority of the kinetic (energy of motion), stat
ic (energy of pressure), and temperature energies of the gas
THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE into torque to drive the propeller in one case and a shaft in
the other. Very little thrust from reaction is produced by the
Gas turbine engines can be classified according to the exiting gas stream.
type of compressor used, the path the air takes through the From these basic types of gas turbine engines have come
engine, and the way power produced is extracted or used the literally dozens of variations that are either in actual ser
(Fig. 2-1). Compressor types fall into three categories: vice or various stages of development. Many combinations
are possible, since the centrifugal and axial flow compres
1. Centrifugal flow sor engines can be used for turbojet,turbofan,turboprop, or
2. Axial flow turboshaft applications. Furthermore, within the major
3. Axial-centrifugal flow classifications are a host of variations, some of which are
discussed on the following pages.
In addition, power usage produces the following engine
divisions:
1. Turbojet
Centrifugal Compressor Engines
2. Turbofan
3. Turboprop Variations of this type of compressor include the single
4. Turboshaft stage; two-stage; and single-stage, double-entry compressor
(Fig. 2-2). The centrifugal design works well for small
[Author's Note A turboprop may be considered a engines where a high compre ion ratio (pressure rise
form of turboshaft, but a turboshaft engine is not across the entire compressor) i not essential,or where other
always used to drive a propeller. Only the turboprop design or operational considerations may take precedence.
will be discussed in the section comparing engine The principal advantages of the compressor are as
types (page 15). Also, in the future there may be five follows:
divisions with the addition of the propfan or ultra
high-bypass-ratio turbofan, which will also be dis 1. Low weight
cussed in this chapter.] 2. Ruggedness. and therefore resistance to foreign object
damage
Compression is achieved in a centrifugal-flow engine by 3. Simplicity
accelerating air outward perpendicular to the longitudinal 4. Low cost
axis of the machine,while in the axial-flow type,air is com 5. High compressor ratio per stage (with a limited num
pressed by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils mov ber of stages)
ing the air parallel to the longitudinal axis. The 6. High tolerance of "off-design" conditions (See chap. -.
axial-centrifugal design uses both kinds of compressors to
achieve the desired compression. Probably the most famous example (historically speaking
In relation to power usage, the turbojet engine directly of this type of powerplant is the Allison Engine J:::3 F:5.
uses the reaction resulting from a stream of high-energy gas 2- 13), used in the first U.S.A.F. jet. the Loc'· eed P-•
e rua w �•
n � (��-
Gas t urbine engines
���� �C��M�� g�
if �� ���
l f� �� ��
�����������
lf� ���������
����Mrifu�l fiow
Turboshaft turboprop
Single-spool
turbojet
Single shaft
��-.._.
� � ----
- t
Reverse-flow combustor
--
=:-
Turboshaft turboprop
Nonmixed exhaust '-
Single shaft .,.
,. I '
Free-power turbine :/
Dso
�
Newer versions were used in the T-33, which was a training inward toward the center,causing the turbine wheel to turn.
version of the P-80. Centrifugal compressors have found The free-power turbine used on many different forms of
wide acceptance on smaller gas turbine engines. Example gas turbines has no mechanical connection to the primary or
of this application are the Teledyne CAE J69 'Fig. _-8 1 . gas-generator turbine, which, in this situation, is used only
the Williams International WR27-l (Fig. _g . and the _ to turn the compressor in order to supply high-energy gases
Allison model 250 series III (Fig. 2- 14). Two other exam to drive the free-power turbine. The design lends itself to
ples of engines equipped with a form of the centrifugal com \'ariable-speed operation better than the single shaft, and it
pressor are the Rolls Royce Dart (Fig. 2-71) and the produces high torque at low free-power turbine speeds. In
AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331 (Fig. 2-4). These two turbo addition, this type of powerplant has the advantage of
prop engines incorporate a two-stage compressor and inte requiring no clutch when starting or when a load is applied.
gral propeller-reduction gearbox. On the other hand,single- or fixed-shaft engines,when used
Figure 2-18 shows an engine equipped with a separate pro as turboprops, allow rapid response rates. The fixed-shaft
peller-reduction gearbox. Interesting features on some of these engine, even at so-called idle, is running at the same rpm as
engines are the radial-inflow, gas-producer turbine shown in it is at 100 percent. All that is required to obtain maximum
Fig. 2-25 (a) and (b) and the "free-power" turbine shown in power is to increase fuel flow and the propeller blade angle.
Figs. 2-17 and 2-26. The radial-inflow turbine is essentially Also, on a power-to-power comparison, the fixed-shaft
the opposite in function to the centrifugal or radial-outflow engine will bum less fuel since there is no fluidic coupling
compressor. It receives the hot gases from the combustion to create inefficiencies. (Compare the free-power turbine
chamber at its periphery, where they then proceed to flow arrangement to an automatic transmission in a car.)
Single-stage compressor
Two-stage compressor
Double-entry compressor
Some centrifugal and axial compressor engines incorpo Pratt & Whitney Axial Compressor Engines
rate a heat exchanger called a regenerator or recuperator.
The purpose of the regenerator or recuperator is to return Two early, widely used axial-flow engines were the Pratt
some of the heat energy that would normally be lost with the & Whitney JT3 (J57). and JT4 (J75) series powerplants (Fig.
exhaust to the front of the combustion chamber. Less fuel 2-63). These engines were used in early-model Boeing 707s
thus needs to be added to reach the turbine limiting temper and 720s and Douglas DC-8s and, except for dimensional
atures, resulting in high thermal efficiency, low specific fuel and ihrust values, are essentially the same in construction. A
consumption, and low exhaust gas temperature. Although forward-fan version of this engine, the JT3D (Fig. 2-64).
regeneration has been used on a number of ground-power replaced the JT3 and, in tum, was replaced by later-model
engines, at the time of this writing, no aircraft engines use engines such as the JT8D and others. Some JT3D engines
this method of power recovery because of excessive weight (military nomenclature, TF33) are still being used in the
and/or regenerator air-sealing difficulties. Two regenerator Boeing B-52 and KC-135 aircraft. Other Pratt & Whitney
or recuperator types are the rotary drum shown in Fig. 2-15 engines include the highly produced JT8D (Fig. 2-66) used
and the stationary or nonrotating type shown in Fig. 2-20 on the Boeing 727, Boeing 737, McDonnell Douglas DC-9.
and Fig. 2-11. and MD-80 aircraft. Three high-bypass-ratio designs have
come from Pratt & Whitney. The first is the JT9D (Fig.
2-67), used on the Boeing 747, Boeing 767, and the Airb
Axial Compressor Engines
Industrie A-300 and A-310 aircraft. The second is the Pran
Engines using axial compressors (Fig. 2-3) may incorpo & Whitney 2000 series engines (Fig. 2-68) used in the
rate one, two, or three spools. A spool is defined as a group Boeing 757, and the third is the Pratt & Whitney 4000 serie:
of compressor stages, a shaft., and one or more turbine engine (Fig. 2-69), used on the Boeing 747 and 767; the
stages, mechanically linked and rotating at the same speed. Airbus Industrie A-300, A-310, and A-330; and the
Figures 2-30, 2-63, and 2-76 show single-spool, two-spool, McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft (For a discussion of
and three-spool engines, respectively. These engines may bypass ratio see pages 15-16.)
also include forward or rear fans, afterburners, and free Military engines from Pratt & Whitney include the J5_
power turbines and be used in a variety of applications, such (Fig. 2-65), used on the Grumman A-6 and E-6, and the
as turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and turboshaft engines. TF30 (Fig. 2-59), installed on the General Dynamics F-111.
Most large gas turbine engines use this type of compres Grumman F-14, and the Vought A7 aircraft. One recent
'
sor because of its ability to handle large volumes of airflow engine to come from Pratt & Whitney is the F-100-PW
at pressure ratios in excess of 20: 1. Unfortunately, it is more series (Fig. 2-60), an augmented (afterbuming) two-spool.
susceptible to foreign-object damage, expensive to manu low-bypass-ratio turbofan used on the McDonnell Douglas
facture, heavy in comparison to a centrifugal compressor F- 15 and General Dynamics F-16 aircraft. One of the few
with the same compression ratio, and more sensitive to "off supersonic-cruise engines, the J58 (Fig. 2-58), is also made
design" operation. (See chap. 5 for aerodynamic and ther by them.
modynamic considerations relating to the axial flow The last group of engines from Pratt & Whitney includes
compressor.) the JT12 (J60) (Fig. 2-6 1), a small axial-flow engine in the
The two major manufacturers of gas turbine engines in 3000-lb [ 13,344-N] thrust class. One JT12 is installed in the
the United States are the Pratt & Whitney Company (Figs. North American Buckeye, and two in the North American
2-57 to 2-69) and the General Electric Company (Fig. 2-30 Sabreliner, while four are used to power the earlier-model
to 2-48). The author has elected to use the engine designs Lockheed Jetstar. Note the placement of the engine(s) on
produced by these manufacturers to illustrate the several these aircraft. Pratt & Whitney also manufactures an axial
axial-flow compressor engine variations. Examples of axial flow turboprop, the T34 (Fig. 2-57), which is used in the
flow machines are even more numerous than centrifugal Douglas C- 133, and a free-power turboshaft engine, the
flow types and include all the uses to which gas turbines JFTD 12 (Fig. 2-62), two of which are used in the Sikorsky
may be put. Skycrane helicopter.
ial through-shaft to provide cold, front-end power extraction. designed to be installed in the Sikorsky Utility Tactical
A feature of these engines is the reverse-flow combustion Transport Aircraft (UTTAS) UH60A, the model 214 Bell heli
chamber design mentioned previously. copter, and the McDonnell Douglas Army Attack He1icopter
Two later engines developed by AlliedSignal Lycoming (AAH) AH64. It is sometimes fitted with an integral inlet par
are the LTS/LTP (Fig. 2-8) series of small turboshaft/turbo ticle separator located at the forward end. (See chap. 4.).
prop engines and the ALF502 (Fig. 2- 10). At the time of this An engine that shows great promise, and combines many
writing, most turbofan engine fans are either coupled to one of the design innovations discussed at the beginning of the
of the compressors or to a group of turbines independent of section on the axial-centrifugal compressor, is the
the gas-generator compressor turbine(s). Either case AlliedSignal Garrett TFE73 1 (Fig. 2-5). This machine is a
requires a compromise, since the best number of revolutions medium-bypass, two-spool engine, with the geared front fan
per minute (rpm) for the fan is, in most cases, lower than the coupled through a planetary gearbox to the low-pressure
best rpm for the gas-generator compressor (core engine) or axial spool. The centrifugal- compressor, high-pressure spool
any turbine wheel. In the ALF502, the fan is geared down, is driven by a single turbine. Reverse-flow combustion
like the propeller on many piston engines, so the low chambers are also used. The engine will be found on late
pressure turbine and high-bypass-ratio fan can each tum at model Lear Jets, the I.A.I. 1 124 Westwind, and other aircraft.
an appropriate rpm. Once again, British designers and manufacturers have
The highly produced and used Pratt & Whitney Canada produced an unusual axial-centrifugal flow engine. The
(PWC) PT6A engine (Fig. 2-51) also uses a reverse-flow Bristol Proteus (Fig. 2-27) incorporates a reverse-flow,
combustion chamber. On this machine, the air enters toward axial-centrifugal compressor and a two-stage, free-power
the rear and flows forward, with the power takeoff at the turbine driving the propeller output shaft through a series of
front. It is currently in use on many twin engine aircraft in reduction gears. The engine is used in the Britannia aircraft.
business and commuter operation, including the Beech
Starship, Beech King Air, Shorts 360, the Piper Aircraft
Mixed-Flow Compressor Engines
Corp. Cheyenne, Cessna Conquest, a few Bell helicopters,
and several foreign aircraft. The engine has also been used The mixed-flow compressor does not fall into any of the
to power the STP Special at the Indianapolis 500 race. three main categories. The mixed-flow design is similar in
Another interesting design from PWC, also incorporating a appearance to the single-entry centrifugal compressor, but
This section reviews almost every American engine pro used in American aircraft. In addition, several engines that
duced currently, or within the last several years, and most of are out of production or are being used for special purposes,
the American and foreign aircraft in which each engine is such as auxiliary power units and missile powerplants, are
installed. Also included are many foreign engines that are also listed where these engines incorporate or illustrate
unusual or interesting design features. The engines are
arranged alphabetically by manufacturer and withirc the
1' major classification by compressor type, where possible.
AlliedSighal Garrett TPE331 Keep in mind that the specifications accompanying each of
the. engines only approximately reflect actual engine param
(T7 6) (FIG. 2-4) eters, such as thrust, airflow, and specific fuel consumption,
The AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 is a single due to the fact that several configurations (dash numbers)
shaft (spool) turboprop engine. The compressor are possible for each model engine. All values are given for
sea level, static conditions, and maximum power. This sec
has two centrifugal stages in series that are driv
tion should provide a useful and valuable reference through
en by three turbine wheels. Compression ratio is out your studies of this form of prime mover.
8: 1 and mass airflow is 5.8 lb/s [2.63 .kg/s] at
4 1 ,730 rp,m. Propeller rpm is reduced t<:> �000 by
means of a 20.86: 1 integral gearbo� equipped
to sense torque. A reverse-flow combustion
chamber is used. Specific fuel consumption is
0.66 pounds/equivalent shaft horsepower/hour
(lb/eshp/h) [300 grams/equivalent shaft horse
power/hour (g/eshp/h)], and the engine weighs
330 lb (J50 kg]. Power is 600 to 700 eshp
approximately! depending on the dash number.
FIGURE 2-4 continued on the next page.
REDUCTION GEARS
PROPELLER SHAFT
/
FRONT BEARING
A C CESSORIES
1WO-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR
REE S A
'o/--J'---...L.. T
H -:���t: ������;
� C N
CHAMBER
F U EL NOZZLES
?f=c-:E�::=::i: Ir.=;;;�lt:.tl
Inlet air is drawn into the first-stage centrifugal compressor. 4 The hot gases are then expanded through a three-stage:-�·
2 The comp ressor section consists of two stages of radial bine which converts the energy in the gases to shaft po\'.E
_
impellers of forged titani u m . 5 This shaft power is used to d rive the compressor and,
3 After passing through i ntercon necting ducting, t h e com through the gearbox, engine accessories and the p rope e•
pressed air enters the combustor where fuel is added and 6 The gases are exhausted rearward via the straight-througn
the mixture is burned. design tai lp i pe providing additional thrust.
Figure 2-4 (e) The AlliedSignal Garrett TSE3 3 1 -7 with com Figure 2-4 (f) The TSE33 1 -50 model incorporates a free
p ressors, turbines, and load (through reduction gears) on the power turbine.
same shaft (single-spool engine).
Figure 2-4 (g) The Turbo II Aerocom mander is equipped Figure 2-4 (h) Two All iedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 engines are
with two AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 engi nes. i nstalled in the Mitsubishi M U-2 turboprop ai rqaft.
20 Hi story an d Theory
�IGURE 2-4 (continued).
Figure 2-4 (i) The Cessna model 44 1 Conquest Propjet is Fi gure 2-4 G) The North American OV- 1 OA counterinsur
cowered by two AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 -8-401 engines . gency (COIN) aircraft with two AlliedSignal Garrett T76
Figure 2-4 (k) Two All iedSignal Garrett TPE3 3 1 engi nes are Fi gure 2-4 (I) The Sweari ngen Aircraft Metro II with two
installed in the Beech King Air B 1 00 turboprop ai rcraft . AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 engines.
Fi gure 2-4 (m) The Volpar Super Turbo 1 8 Conversion using Figure 2-4 (n) Shorts Skyvan .
two AlliedSignal Garrett TPE3 3 1 engines.
Figure 2-5 (c) Versatil ity of the TFE73 1 instal lation . FIGURE 2-5 continue d on the next page.
22 History an d Theory
FIGURE 2-5 (continued).
Figu re 2-5 (e) Appl ications of the All iedSignal Garrett TFE73 1 turbofan engine.
LOW
PRESSURE FAN TURBINE
TURBINE
n
::T
Q)
"'C
....
ro
""'
IV
�
"'C
CD
_Ul
(c)
� 1 SINGLE-STAGE FAN 11 HP-SHAFT FRONT ROLLER
OEARING
LAR COMBUSTOR
20 .FUEL MANIFOLD
30 FAN-SPOOL TRANS-
DUCER GEAR
COOLING AIR
42 GEARBOX VENT
� 2 FAN STATORS
'6' 3 OIL COOLER 12 Ill' COMPRESSOR FACE 21 HP TURBINE STATORS 31 HP CASE 43 PMG
::J SI IHOUD 22 SINGLE-STAGE HP AXIAL 32 ACCESSORY-DRIVE COU- 44 FUEL-PUMP PAD
Ul 4 COMPRESSOR INLET STA-
TOR (VARIABLE) 13 HP CENTRIFUGAL COM- TURBINE WHEEL PLING SHAFT 45 OIL-PUMP DRIVE
Ill
::J 5 LP COMPRESSOR STA- PRESSOR 23 AIR-COOLED HP TURBINE 33 ACCESSORY GEARBOX 46 AFT FIRESHIELD
a.
TORS 14 HP COMPRESSOR DIF- BLADES 34 HP-TURBINE CURVIC 47 MIDFRAME AND MAIN
)>
"'C 6 FIVE-STAGE LP AXIAL FUSER 24 LP ROTOR SHAFT COUPLING MOUNT
"!:2. COMPRESSOR 15 FAN-SPOOL ROLLI\!\ 25 LP-SHAFT CURVIC COU- 35 FAN-DUCT INLET 48 FORWARD FIRESHIELD
(1' BEARING PLING 36 IGV ACTUATION RING 49 AFT FAIRING
� 7 ALUMINUM-COATED
6'
::J
COMPRESSOR FIXED STA- 16 HP-SPOOL THRUST BEAR- 26 LP TURBINE STATORS 37 SPLITTER 50 EXHAUST CASCADES
TOR RING-ALL STAGES lNG 27 TWO-STAGE LP TURBINE 38 CROSSOVER DUCT 51 CASCADE DAGMAR
Ul
8 FAN-SHAFT THRUST RACE 17 FAN-TURBINE STATOR 28 LP-SPOOL REAR ROLLER 39 T8 HARNESS AND JUNC- 52 FORWARD FRAME AND
9 THRUST BALL-RACE LPC 18 THREE-STAGE FAN TUR- BEARING TION BOX MOUNT
10 AIR-LABYRINTH SEALS BINE 29 LP-SPOOL-SPEED TRANS- 40 DESWIRL VANES
(BUFFER AIR) 19 REVERSE-FLOW ANNU- DUCER GEAR 41 ACCESSORY-GEARBOX
InletSpool
IGN1V ==Fan Vane Control
GuideSpeed
NN32 ==HiLow-Pressure
g h-Pressure Spool
Spool Speed
Speed
=Power-Lever
TPT2T2 ==InlInleett Total Angle
Temperature
Total Pressure
PLA
T =HiInlgeh-Pressure
t Temperature ne-
PMG = PGeneratorma MmM�n�
Ts
Synchronizer
AlliedSignal Garrett F1 09
(TFE76} (FIG. 2-7 see p. 27)
This engi.lle was designed for installation in the
U.S.A.F. new primary trainer. Thrust equals
1 33 0 lbt, TSFC equals less than 0.4 lb/lbt/h, air
flow is 52 lb/s, overall pressure ratio is 20.7 : 1 ,
and bypass ratio is 5 . 7: 1 . The weight of the engine
is about 400 lb, length approximately 43 in, and
diameter approximately 30 in. Incorporated is an
advanced, state-of-the-art compressor, state-of
the-art . low-aspect-ratio turbine blades, and tull
,
authority digital electronic control. ;I'he engine is
a two-spool, counterrotating, high-bypass fan
type. The low-pressure single-stage fan is coupled
directly to a two-stage axial-flow turbine. The
FIGURE 2-6 (continued).
(e) The Falcon 20G, equipped with two AlliedSignal Garrett
high-pressure stage consists of a two-stage cen
ATF3-6 engines. trifugal compressor driven by a two-stage axial
turbine with concentric shaft. Turbine inlet tem
perature is 1 ,846°F. The combustion section has a
one-piece annular, reverse-flow cgmbustor, plus
1 2 individual piloted air-blast fuel.nozzles and an
electric ignitor. Engine electrical power (for igni
tor and control unit) is supplied by an integral per
manent-magnet generator, located in an accessory
gearbox. Engine accessories are driven by a high
pressure spool through the gearbox in the lower
forward part of the engine (for minimum enve
lope), below the fan.
26 Histo ry an d Theo ry
GENERAL ROTOR DYNAMICS H.P. COMPRESSOR
ENGINE OPTIMIZED OPTIMIZED BEARING SYSTEM-MANEUVER LOADS RUGGED 2-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL-F.O.D.
FOR OPERATIONAL AND CRITICAL SPEEDS TOLERANT
UTILITY ONLY 2 BEARING COMPARTMENTS TESTED ADVANCED AFAPL AERODYNAMICS-
GROWTH CAPABILITY MINIMUM VIBRATION-HYDRAULIC OIL MOUNTS 1 3 :4:1 PRESSURE RATIO
LOW LIFE CYCLE CURVIC COUPLINGs-EASE OF MODULAR MAINTE- STABLE SURGE CHARACTERISTICS-NO SURGE
COSTS NANCE VALVE/VARIABLE GEOMETRY
LOW MAINTENANCE HP & LP SHAFTS OPERATE BELOW BENDING CRITI DUAL ECS HIGH/LOW BLEED PORTS
MODULAR CON CAL SPEED UNIFORM CUSTOMER BLEED EXTRACTION
STRUCTION SYMMETRICAL COMBUSTOR FLOW
VERIFIED LOW NOISE
H.P. TURBINE
LONG LIFE-LOW BLADE
COUNT
LOW RISK-SIMPLE SINGLE
PASS COOLING
FAN
CLEARANCE CONTROL
TESTED AERO PERFORMANCE/
PASSIVE, CYLINDRICAL
DISTORTION TOLERANCE
TIPS
OPTIMUM ROTOR/STATOR
MODERN AERODYNAMICS
SPACING-LOW NOISE
BIRD INGESTION CAPABILITY
-PROVEN GARRETT FEA
TURES
-2 BEARING SUPPORT
SELF DEICING SPINNER
BLADE CONTAINMENT CAPA
BILITY
INDIVIDUAL BLADE REPLACE L.P. TURBINE
MENT-IN FIELD
TESTED PERFOR
MANCE
LOW STRESS 2-STAGE
DESIGN
CLEARANCE CON
TROL-PASSIVE,
TIP SHROUDS
LOW EXIT SWIRL
EXIT GUIDE VANES
DAMAGE TOLERANT DESIGN
LOW STRESS DISKS-LONG LIFE
CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGA
TION
LONG INSPECTION PERIOD-2000 HRS
TURBINE CONTAINMENT-2 BLADES+ COMBUSTOR FUEL CONTROL
POST REVERSE FLOW ANNULAR DIGITAL-HYDROMECHANICAL
CURVIC COUPLINGS-NO HOLES IN SHORT HP SPOOL COUPLING BACKUP
DISKS PRESSURE ATOMIZER FUEL AUTOMATIC START SEQUENCE
GEAR BOX
. NOZZLE8-EXCELLENT LIGHT TRIMLESS OPERATION
• RUGGED ONE-PIECE DESIGN
OFF SELF-TEST CAPABILITY
LOW EMISSIONS, NO VISIBLE ENGINE MONITORING CAPABILITY
SMOKE PERSONALITY CHIP
AlliedSignal Lycoming
LTS/LTP SERIES (FIG. 2-s>
The AlliedSignal Lycom:it).g LTS/LTP series tm:
boshaft/turboprop engines are the smallest of the
company's aircraft engines, but they can produce
more than 2 hp for each pound of engine weight.
The single-stage axial and single-stage centrifugal
compressods driven by one turbine wheel and has
a mass airflow of 5 lb/s [2.27 kg/s] with a pressure
ratio ()f 8.5 :. 1 . The single-stage power turbine
drives the load through a gearbox. The LTP ver (a)
sion has an aqditional reduction gear stage so that FIGURE 2-8 All iedSignal Lycom ing LTS/LTP series
the propeller will tum in a range of 2000 rpm. turboshaft/turboprop gas turbine engines .
(a) The AlliedSignal Lycoming LTS 1 0 1 . In addition t o being
Specific fuel consUJJJ.ption is 0..5.51 potmds/shaft installed in the Bell Model 222, this engine is also sched
horsepower/hour (lb/sbp/h) [250 grams/shaft uled for use in the
horsepower/hour (g/shp/h)]. The engine weighs 1 . United States Si korsky S-SST-2 twin conversion
helicopter.
290 lb [ 1 32 kg] and produces 6 1 0 eshp or 587 shp 2 . Japanese Kawasaki KH-7 light twin helicopter.
plus 57.5 lbt [256 N] . 3. French Aerospatiale AS-350 Sunbird helicopter.
FIGURE 2-8 continue d on the next page.
RADIAL INLET
COMBUSTORPO'o'i£R
TURBt..,E MODULE
FIGURE 2-9 ( b)
Figure 2-9 (h) The Boeing Hel icopter C H-47 is equ ipped
with two Al liedSignal Lycoming T55 turboshaft engi nes.
Allied.Slgnal Lycoming
ALF502 (FIG. 2-10}
This engine is derived from the AlliedSignal
Lycoming T55 turboshaft engine. The high
bypass-ratio fan and single-stage low-pressure
compressor are driven by the last two stages of a
four-stage turbine through reduction gears. Fan
Figure 2-9 (e) The Kamen HH-43B H uskie is powered by bypass ratio is 6:1 . Total airflow is 240 lb/s
one All iedSignal Lycoming T53 engine.
( 1 09 kg/s). The combustion chamber is of the
reverse-flow or folded-annular type, for short
engine length and turbine blade containment in
case of failure. Many other engines use this type of
combustion chamber. Specific fuel consumption is
0.42 lb/lbt/h [42.8 1 g/N/h] . The engine weighs
1 245 lb [565 kg] and produces 5500 to 6500 lbt
(24,464 to 28,91 2 N) depending on the model.
30 Hi story an d Theory
FIGURE 2-1 0 (continued).
(b) C utaway view of the All iedSignal Lycoming ALF502,
high-bypass-ratio geared fan engine. Notice that the core
is basically the AlliedSignal Lycoming TSS engine.
(c) Two All iedSignal Lycom ing ALF502 tu rbofans instal led in
the Canadair C L-600 C hallenger.
1. FAN ROTOR
2. FAN STATOR
3. LOW-PRESSURE COMPRESSOR
4. OIL TANK
5. REDUCTION GEAR ASSEMBLY
6. ACCESSORY GEARBOX
7. AXIAL/CENTRIFUGAL HIGH-PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
8. CUSTOMER BLEED PORTS
9. COMBUSTOR
10. HIGH-PRESSURE TURBINES
FIGURE 2-1 0 (b) 11. LOW-PRESSURE TURBINES
AlliedSignal Lycoming
AGT 1 500 (FIG. 2-1 1 )
Although the AGTl$00 is not used in an aircraft
application, it has several notable design features
and is the world's first gas turbine designed and
mass produced for battle tanks. It powerful
enough to accelerate the tank from 0 to 20 mph in
6 s, to a maximum speed of 45 mph. A five-stage
low-pressure compressor is driven in one direc
tion by a single-stage gas-generator turbine,
while a four-�tage axial, plus one centrifugal
stage high-pressure 'compressor is driven in the FIGURE 2-1 1 AlliedSignal Lycoming AGT 1 500 tu rboshaft
other direction by another single-stage turbine. gas turbine engine for use in the M 1 A 1 Abrams 60-ton bat
tle tank. Note the recuperator (heat exchanger) to raise the
The load is driven by a two-l:ltage free-power tur temperature of"the com pressor discharge air.
bine. The combustor is of an unusual scroll ( a) C utaway view of the Al liedSignal Lycom ing AGT1 500 tur
boshaft gas turbine engine.
design. A fixed recuperator recovers some of the
heat energy that would be lost to the atlllosphere.
FIGURE 2-1 1 continued on the next p age.
DIFFUSER
HOUSING RECUPERATOR
VARIABLE
SINGLE CAN POWER TURBINE
COMBUSTOR
VARIABLE
COMPRESSOR
FIGURE 2-1 1 (b) Schematic view of the Allied Signal Lycoming AGT 1 500 tu rboshaft gas turbine
e..,g ne, showing the flow of compressor discharge air and exhaust gas through the recuperator.
-- s-= o:. im proves the thermal cycle by req u i ring less fuel to be added in the combustion chamber
32 - �� and Theory
FIGURE 2-12 ALLIEDSIGNAL LYCOMING PRODUCT LINE.
Huey UH-lH
Mainstay of the Army's aerial resupply This versatile craft relays vital battle
and assault forces for over two field information by eye, radar, and
decades. infrared sensors.
T53
First gas turbine to
power a helicopter.
Cobra AH-lS
Antitank helicopter is latest version of
these combat-proven gunships.
jk
Ill\
•
Boeing Vertol 234 Bell 214
Multipurpose, heavy lift helicopter is commercial version of the "Big lifter" helicopter is a workhorse with excellent altitude and
Chinook. hot-day operating capabilities.
ALl" 502
34 and Theory
FIGURE 2-1 2 (continued).
TSOO-APW-800
Compact, high-output, advanced technology
engine is being developed to power the LHX
helicopter and other new generation craft.
FUEL NOZZLE
FUEL MANIFOLD
AIR-INLET SCREEN
BALL BEARING
CROSSOVER TUBE
E X H A U S T G AS E S
EXHAUST G A S E S
D I A G R A M OF G A S T U R B I N E O P E R AT I O N
F I G U R E 2-1 5 (b)
38 H i story and Theory
Allison Engine Company J71
(FIG. 2-1 6)
The 16�stage axial�flow compressor of this turbo�
jet engine flows 160 lb/s [73 kg/sJ at. a compres�
sion . .ratio . of 8 : 1 at 6 1 00 rpm. Tllfl. call, �annular
combustor has 10 interconnected flame tubes. A
three�stage turbine drives the compressor. Specific
fuel consumption is 1 . 8 lb/lbt/h [ 183.5 g/N/h] with
the afterburner in operation. The engine weighs
4900 lb [2223 kg] and produces 10,000 to 1 4,000
lbt [44,480 to 62,272 N] under normal and reheat
( afterburn.er) operation.
F I G U R E 2-1 7 (c) The All ison Model 250 in the turboprop configuration (external and cutaway view).
F I G U R E 2-1 7 (g)
F I G U R E 2-1 8 Allison Engine Company 501 -0 (T56) series F I G U R E 2-1 8 (c) The Grumman E-2A Hawkeye with two
engine. All ison T56 engines.
FIGURE 2-1 8 ( a) External view of the Allison 5 0 1 -0 1 3 . Note that the gea rbox can be offset u p or down .
TORQUEMITER ASSEMBLY
AND TIE STRUT POWER SECTION
F I G U R E 2-1 8 ( b) Sectioned view of the Allison 501 -0 1 3 wifh the reduction gearbox offset up.
F I G U RE 2-1 8 continued on the next p age.
F I G U R E 2-1 8 (g )
ISO Std
571 KF Max Rated ISO Std
Rating Power Continuous
Ambient Temp. •F 59 59
F I G U R E 2-20 ( a)
F I G U R E 2-20 {b)
The desig11 and parts of the GMA 3007 show (b) G MA 3007 cutaway view showing t h e general arrange-
some commouality with the Allison G\�4A 2 1 00 ment and design features.
(c) Two appl ications for the GMA 3007: the Embraer EMB-
and the !406 engines. It bas a single 1 45 (left); the Cessna C itation X (right) .
stage, wide-chord fan and a 1 4-stage compressor.
Total pressure ratio is 24: 1 . A two-stage high
pressure turbine drives the core compressor,
while a three-stage low-pressure compr(fssor
drives the fan. As with all other engines in this
family, the combustor is of the annular flow
design (see chap. 6). It is designed to produce
7 1 50 .l b of tl#t.tst. with a specific fuel consump
tion of .35 ll:!f,tbt/h. The engine is 1 06.5 in long,
has a diameter of 43.5 in, and weighs 1 580 lb. In
this powerplant the fan duct is a structural part of
the engine.
F I G U R E 2-21 (a)
LIGHTWEIGHT STRUCTURAUACOUSTIC
COMPOSITE COMPONENTS BYPASS DUCT
DIRECT
DRIVE
WIDE -
CHORD
FAN
F I G U R E 2-2 1 (c)
46 H i story an d Theory
F I G U R E 2-22 The Allison Engine Company G MA 2 1 00
turboprop.
Allison Engine Company (a) External view of the Allison Engine G MA 2 1 00 turbo
GMA 2 1 00 (FIG. 2-22) prop.
(b) GMA 2 1 00 cutaway view showing the general a rrange
The GMA 2 1 00 represents a new generation of ment of the parts. (Note: The T406 engine is slated for
regional tral;tsp<lrt aircraft engine. TQ.e. ()()()0-shp use in the Bell/Boeing V-2 2 Osprey Tilt Rotor Aircraft.)
COMPACT, LIGHTWEIGHT
GEARBOX
FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL
ELECTRONIC CONTROL
F I G U R E 2-22 (a)
T406 ENGINE
T56 DESIGN
TORQUEMETER
SAAB 2000
�
-
··
"'
- SAAB 2000
• • • • • •
I PTN N250
L 1 OO/C -1 30J
48 H istory a nd Theo ry
F I G U R E 2-23 (continued).
F I G U RE 2-23 (a)
F I G U R E 2-23 ( b)
I N DUSTRIAUMARI N E ENGINES
2 4 3 5 6 7
Air inlet Compressor collector Reduction gears ----.
\
Fuel E x h aust
compressor. The compressor is driven by a two
stage turbine and has a compression ratio of
7.2: 1 , a mass airflow of 44 lb/s [20 kg/s ] , and a
rotation of 1 1 ,755 rpm. Eight can-type combus
tion chambers are located on the outside of the
compressor. A two-stage free-power turbine
drives the propeller by means of. a concentric
shaft through the engine. A.n integt'al gearbox
reduces the propeller rpm by a ratio o!. l1 .593: 1
in relation to the free-power turbine rpm .
Specific fuel consumption is 0.48 lb/eshp/h
[2 1 8 g/eshp/h] in cruise. The engine weighs
2900 lb [ 1 3 1 5 kg] without the propeller and pro
- = =: 2-26 (b) Sectioned view of the Boeing T50 engine duces 4445 eshp, or 3960 shp plus approximately
; :� e arrangement of parts and ai rflow.
1 2 1 3 lb [5395 N] of thrust. It may be equipped
with water injection.
___.--
Oil Power-turbine Compressor Compressor Compressor Intake Exhaust Power-turbine
pump coupling shaft casing rotor rear bearing cas ing cone bearing
CFM56 (General
Electric/SN ECMA) (FIG. �...�s)
1)1e CEM-56 engine is a joint 50/50 venture
between the General Electric Company of the
United States and SNECMA of France that has
found wide acceptance in a variety of aircraft.
The CFM56 actually represents a family of
engines that have been derived from a common
core of one of the most advanced military
engines, tb.� F-.10 1 . Variations within the several
"dash nUJZQ.bers'' include changes in the fan,
booster compressor, and other components.
Other design and material changes have also
resulted in "dash number" changes. The several
models have thrusts that vary from 20,000 lb for
the -3 model, to over 30,000 lb for the -5 model.
Fan diameters range from 60 in to over 72 in;
bypass ratios run from 5: 1 to 6: l , a-p.d airflows
are from 650 lb/s to over 800 lb/s. The core com
pressor tUJ:ns at about 1 5 ,000 rpm, while the fan
and booster low-pressure compressor run at
about 5000 rpm. Compressor pressure ratios
range from approximately 22: 1 to almost 40: 1 ,
F I G U R E 2-28 CFM56 engines are produced by CFM
and specific fuel consumption from 0.32 lb!lbt/hr International, a 50/50 joint company of General Electric of
to 0.39 lb/lbt/h. The engine is about 1 00 in long, the United States and S N E C MA of France.
(a) External view of the . C FM 56-3 high-bypass-ratio turbo
has a diameter of about 72 in, and weighs from a fan .
little over 4200 lb to over 5700 lb.
F I G U R E 2-28 cont i nued o n the next page.
'
F I G U R E 2-28 (b) C utaway view of the c FM56 engine.
Il
HP Compressor Combustion HP Turbine
-9 Rotor Stages Section -1 HPT
HP -1 Variable IGV - 1 OGV Nozzle
SYSTEM -3 Variable Stator Stages -1 Annular -1 HPT
-5 Stationary Stator Stages Combustor Rotor
LP
SYSTEM
Il -1
-1
-3
Fan & Booster
Fan Stage
Fan OGV
Booster Rotor Stages
-4
-4
LP Turbine
LPT Rotor Stages
LPT Nozzle
L------.--�
ACCESSORY
DRIVE
SECTION
l ACCESSORY
'-----
GEARBOX
F I G U R E 2-28 (c) Cutaway view showing the general arrangement of the parts and some of the
advanced features of the CFM56-3.
F I G U R E 2-28 continued on the next page.
F I G U R E 2-28 (d) Exploded view of the CFM56. Note: Newer models are equipped with a partspan
(m id-span) shroud, rather than the ti p-span shroud shown here.
Accessory Drive
F I G U R E 2-28 (e) As is typical for a modern engine, the C FM56 is modularized for easy mainte
nance. A typical g rouping is shown.
F I G U R E 2-28 (f) Mil itary and commercial applications of the General E lectric/SN EC MA CFM56
high-bypass-ratio turbofan .
Super 70 737-300
EXHAUST -NOZZLE
EXTENSION
F I G U R E 2-29 (c) Sectioned view of the Fairchild J44 turbojet showi ng the arrangement of pa rts
and the a i rflow.
F I G U R E 2-30 (c)
F I G U R E 2-30 (a) F I G U R E 2-30 conti n ued on the next page.
56 H istory a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-30 (cont i n ued).
=GURE 2-30 (d) Two General Electric CJ6 1 0 engines a re F I G U R E 2-30 (f) Two General Electric CJ6 1 0 engines are
-s-..alled in the Gates Lear Jet Model 24. Later models use the insta lled in the Jet Commander, formerly man ufactured by
- edSignal Garrett TFE73 1 (Fig. 2 -5). the Rockwell Standard Corporatio n . It is now built by Israel
Ai rcraft Industries Ltd. in a stretched, reengi ned, and modified
form, called the Westwi nd or Astra (Fig. 2-5).
- ::_�i: 2-30 (e) The Northrop T-38 Ta lon jet trainer. This F I G U R E 2-30 (g) The Cessna A-37B is powered by two
- - - � :ersion of the highly produced F-5 Freedom Fighter General Electric J85GE- 1 7 engi nes i nstead of the Teledyne
_:: .o General Electric J85 engi nes. CAE J69 (Fig. 2 -8 1 ).
General Electric CF700 F I G U R E 2-3 1 General Electric CF700 aft tu rbofan engine.
(a) External view of the General Electric C F700 tu rbofan
(FIG. 2-31 ) engine.
58 History a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-32 (cont i n ued).
F I G U RE 2-32 (f) The McDon nell Douglas F-4B Phantom II, F I G U R E 2-33 (a)
with two General Electric J79 engines, is produced in large
quantities. Many variations are being used here and abroad .
F I G U R E 2-32 (g) The Israel Aircraft Industries Kfir C -2 pow F I G U RE 2-33 (c)
ered by one General Electric J79.
··-�
F I G U R E 2-35 (a) External view of the General Electric TF39 F I G U R E 2-3 5 (c) A sectioned view showi ng the General
turbofan engine. Electric C F6!TF39 comparison.
1. FAN: The 1 '/ , stage high-bypass fan, driven by the low-pressure turbine , 3. COMBUSTOR: Annular combustor incorporates vortex-inducing swirl
is instrumental in achieving fuel economy and is optimized for the altitude cups at each of30 fuel nozzles. Demonstrated 98.5 percent efficiency and airstart
cruise point. Both stages are titanium. They have part span supports for extra capability well beyond the required envelope.
stability, vibration control , and reduction of blade deflection under load. The 4. HIGH-PRESSURE TURBINE: The two-stage high-pressure (core) turbine
first ('/,) stage fan supercharges the inner Aowpath of the second stage, which incorporates film and convection cooling in the first-stage nozzle vanes and
in turn provides core engine supercharging and the bypass flow through the blades and convection cooling in the second stage. The film cooling system
front plug nozzle formed by the core engine cowl. The fan has successfully discharges air from holes in the leading edge of the blades, which flows back
passed qualification tests at 200 percent of maximum expected stress. over the airfoil forming an insulating layer. Actual metal temperatures are COPl
2. COMPRESSOR: The high-pressure (core) compressor has 16 stages. The parable to earlier, uncooled systems.
inlet guide vanes and first six-stage stator vanes are variable and are scheduled 5. LOW-PRESSURE TURBINE: The six-stage low-pressure (fan) turbine is
to provide an optimum engine cycle, rapid acceleration, and excellent stall mar a high-aspect ratio, tip-shrouded, uncooled turbine. Constant diameter is dic
gin. Bleed air for the aircraft is drawn from the inner tip of the eighth-stage tated by installation aerodynamic considerations. Case is externally cooled for
stator vane to take advantage of the centrifugal action of the compressor in clearance control and installation compatibility.
minimizing contamination. Materials are titanium and stainless steels, chosen 6. ENGINE ACCESSORIES
for reliability, long life, and corrosion resistance.
F I G U R E 2-35 (b) Trimetric view of the General Electric TF39 turbofan engine, showi ng configura
tion and components.
F I G U R E 2-36 (a)
'
4
3 7
15 16
Legend
1 . Spinner cone
2. Fan blades (7 of 38) 10. Compressor rear frame
3. Fan forward case 11. Combustor
4. Low-pressure compressor (LPC) booster stator 12. High-pressure turbine (HPT) stage 1 nozzle
5. LPC booster rotor 13. HPT rotor
6. Fan shaft 14. HPT stage 2 nozzle
7. Fan frame, aft case, and outlet guide vanes 15. Low-pressure turbine (LPT)
8. High-pressure compressor (HPC) stator 16. Turbine rear frame
9. HPC rotor 17. Accessory gearbox and fire shield
F I G U R E 2-36 (e) Exploded view of the Genera l Electric C F6-80C2 high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine.
Airbus lndustrie A300-600/600 R Airbus lndustrie A31 0-200 Adv/300 Boeing 747-200/3
F I G U RE 2-36 (f) Appl ications of the CF6 hig h-bypass-ratio tu rbofan . Shown are a i rcraft that use
some version of the C F6-50 or C F6-80 engine.
A300 DC-10-15/-30
747-200/300 KC-10
F I G U R E 2-36 (f) Appl ications of the C F6 high-bypass-ratio turbofan. Shown are ai rcraft that use
some version of the CF6-50 or CF6-80 engine.
64 H istory a n d Theory
FIG U R E 2-37 (co nt i n ued). FIGURE 2-37 General Electric F 1 0 1 augmented tu rbofan
engine.
(a) External view of the General Electric F 1 0 1 engine with a
2:1 bypass ratio.
(b) Cutaway view of the General Electric F1 01 engine.
(c) The Rockwell International B- 1 Bomber with four General
·Electric F 1 0 1 -G E-F 1 00 engi nes.
F I G U R E 2-38 (a)
F I G U R E 2-38 (b)
F I G U RE 2-39 (a)
10 COMPRESSOR ROTOR
11 COMPRESSOR AFT STATO"l
12 STATOR SUPPORT (WISH-
BONE)
13 COMBUSTOR CASE
14 COMBUSTOR
1 CENTERBODY 15 FORWARD INNER NOZ'Z!.i:
2 FRONT FRAME SUPPORT
3 FAN STATOR 16 HPT NOZZLE
4 FAN ROTOR 17 AFT OUTER S E AL
5 FAN FRAME 18 HPT SHROUD
6 ACCESSORY G E ARBOX 19 HPT ROTOR
7 OUTER DUCT 20 LPT ROTOR & LPT STATOR
8 INNER DUCTS 21 TURBINE F JE
9 COMPRESSOR FORWARD 22 AUGMENTO
STATOR 23 EXHAUS- OZZLE
F I G U R E 2-39 (b)
F I G U R E 2-39 cont i n ued on the n ext page.
F I G U R E 2-39 (d)
(c) C utaway view of the Genera l Electric F 1 1 0-G E-1 00 a ug F I G U R E 2-40 (b)
mented turbofan engine.
(d) Appl ications of the General Electric F1 1 0-G E-1 00 aug F I G U R E 2-40 The General Electric F1 1 8-GE-1 00 for use in
mented tu rbofan engine. the U . S .A.F. B-2 Bomber.
(a) External view of the General Electric F1 1 8-GE-1 00.
(b) The Northrop B-2 uses four General Electric F 1 1 8-GE-1 00
low-bypass-ratio tu rbofan engines.
F I G U R E 2-41 (a)
F I G U R E 2-42 (a)
F I G U R E 2-41 (b)
F I G U R E 2-42 (b) C utaway view of the General Electric TF34/CF34 turbofan engine.
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTOR
HIGH-PRESSURE
• Annular design TURBINE LOW·PRESSURE
• Carbureting fuel
• 2 stage TURBINE
system
• Convection-cooled • 4 stage
• Uniform temperature rotor blades
profile • Tip shrouded blades
• Film/convection
• Insensitive to fuel • Split stator casing
cooled stator vanes
contamination • Replaceable blades
• Modular design
• No visible smoke &nd vane segment-S
• Replaceabl� blades
• Fully machined liner and vane segments
F I G U R E 2-42 (c) Schematic and exploded view of the General Electric TF34/CF34 turbofan engine.
7
OR RIGHT [OPTIONAL
F I G U R E 2-43 (e) Two General Electric CT58 engines power
1 TEN-STAGE, AXIAL
FLOW COMPRESSOR TORQUE-SENSING the Boeing Vertol Division CH-46 Sea Knight.
WITH ONE-PIECE SPEED DECREASER
STEEL CONSTRUC GEAR (NOT SHOWN)
TION FOR LAST EIGHT PROVIDES FORE AND
STAGES OF ROTOR AFT POWER TAKEOFF]
HUB 5 ANTI-ICED INLET
2 SHORT, SMALL-DIAM STRUTS AND INLET
ETER ANNULAR COM GUIDE VANES
BUSTOR 6 HYDROMECHANICAL
3 TWO-STAGE, AXIAL CONTROL
FLOW GAS GENERA 7 SINGLE-STAGE, AX
TOR TURBINE IAL-FLOW FREE
4 EXHAUST POSITION, POWER TURBINE
ADJUSTABLE 90° LEFT
F I G U R E 2-43 (b) C utaway view of the General Electric CT58 F I G U R E 2-43 (f) The Si korsky S-62 is driven by one Gen eral
engi n e. Electric CT58 engine.
F I G U R E 2-43 (c) The Bell model UH-IF with one General F I G U R E 2-43 (g) The Sikorsky S-61 (HH-3E) with two
Electric CT58 eng ine. G eneral Electric CT58 engines.
F I G U R E 2-43 (d) The Kamen U -2 S easprite has one F I G U R E 2-43 (h) The Boeing 1 07-1 1 commercial airl i n er has
General E l ectric CT58 engine. two G eneral Electric CT58 engines.
72 H i story a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2--44 General Electric T-64 turboprop/turboshaft
General Electric T64 (FIG. 2-44>
engine.
(a) External view of the General Electric T-64 turboshaft/tur
The General Electric T64 is a turboprop/tur boprop.
(b) C utaway view of the General Electric T-64 engine.
boshaft engine in the 3000-6000 shp class. It (c) The Sikorsky S-65 (CH53A) with two General Electric T-64
incorporate$ a two-stage gas-generator turbine turboshaft engines.
(d) Later version of the S-65 (HH53B) is powered by two
and a two-;$tage free-power turbine. The COfil
General Electric T-64 engines.
pressor has 14 Stages with the inlet guide. vanes,
the first four stages being variable. The combus
tion chamber is of the annular variety. Mass air
flow at 18,000 rpm is 261b/s [ 1 1.7 kg/s], and the
compression ratio is approximately 13: 1,
depending on the model. Specific fuel consump
tion is about 0.5 lb/eshp/h [227 g/eshp/h]. Weight
with the propeller reduction gearbox is 1150 lb
[522 kg]. The shaft version weighs appr<?.Xill1ate
ly 700 lb (818 kg]. Shaft horsepower for the tur
boprop is approximately 3000 at a prop speed of
about 1200 rpm and for the turboshaft approxi
mately 4000 at a free-power turbine speed of
about 14,000 rpm. Power takeoff is at the front.
Diameter is 20 in, and length is 79 in for the shaft
version and 1 10 · for the prop version.
l
II
F I G U R E 2--44 (c) F I G U R E 2--44 (d)
F I G U R E 2-44 (e) Vought Systems Division, LTV Aerospace F I G U R E 2-44 (f) The DeHavilland Canada DHC-5 B uffalo
Corp. experi mental XC- 1 42 , a ti lt-wing, triservice V/STOL with with two General Electric T-64-820-1 engi nes.
four General Electric T-64 engi nes.
F I G U R E 2-45 (b)
74 H istory a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-45 (cont i n ued).
Rugged Air-Cooled
Axial-Centrifugal Annular Gas Generator
Seff;.Contained Fuel,
Compressor Combustor Turbine
Lubrication, and
Electrical Systems
F I G U R E 2-45 (c)
Controls and
Accessories
S e par ator
and Lube Tank
Turbines
Combustor
Saab 340 Regional Airliner Saab 340 Military Transpo rt CN-235 Regional Airliner
..
F I G U R E 2-45 (f) �;) G:o s of the General Electric T700/CT7 as a tu rbo�haft engine.
F I G U R E 2-46 (b)
F I G U R E 2-46 (c)
LMSOOO STIG™
System
HP Steam
Steam is injected into the fuel
Compressor
nozzles and compressor d is
Discharge Port
charge bleed ports. In add ition,
I
steam ca n be injected i nto the
low-pressure turbine.
LM2500 STIG™
System HP Steam Fuel
Steam is i njected into the fuel Compressor Manifold
nozzles and compressor dis
charge bleed ports.
Discharge Prirt /
LM1600 STIG™
System
HP Steam Inlet LP Steam
Steam is i njected into the fuel
to Inlet
nozzles, the compressor d is
charge bleed ports, and the
power turbine.
Combustor 7r ·
liirbine
F IGURE 2-46 (d) The General Electric STIG (Steam-Injected Gas Tu rbine) system.
U.S. Navy AEGIS Cruiser U.S. Navy Patrol Frigate West German Bremen Frigate U .S. Navy Burke Destroyer
U .S. Navy Spruance Destroyer Italian Lupo Frigate Indonesian Patrol Gunboat South Korean Corvette
F I G U R E 2-46 (e) Marine appl ications of the General Electric LM series engines.
F I G U R E 2-46 (f) Stationary appl ications of the General Electric LM series engines.
FIG U RE 2-46 (g) An u n usual appl ication for the General Electric LM 1 500 en gine. The reserve elec
trical power unit for the C i ncinnati Gas and Electric Company uses 1 0 LM 1 500 gas generators to
d rive one large free-power turbine, wh ich in turn drives an electrical generator.
General Electric/NASA U DF
Demonstrator Engine (FIG. 2-47)
The UDF (U�ducted Fan) has a bypa�s xatio of
35: 1 , produces 25,000 lbt, and has a. speci£ic fuel
consumption 25 percent lower than modem h igh
bypass-ratio turbofan engines. This engine will
have a propfan blade diameter of 1 1 .7 ft, with a
FIGURE 2-47 The General Electric/NASA UDF (Unducted
blade tip speed of 750-800 ft/s. The blades are
Fan) demonstrator engine.
made in t\x.•o halves from a carbon, cloth/glass (a) External view of the General Electric UDF engine.
composite material with a nickel leading edge (b) General Electric 2 5,000-pound-thrust UDF demonstrator
engine uses an F404 gas generator ( 1 ) The first-stage tur
and a titanium spar. · A full authority digital elec bine (5) drives the hig h-pressure compressor (3), wh ile
tronic control (FADEC) wil l set rpm and pro the second-stage (6) drives the low-pressure compressor
peller pitch angle to answer the pilot's power (2) The turbine is j ust aft of the combustor (4) The car
bon/epoxy composite fa n blades ( 1 1 ) are attached to the
demands. Two counterrotating low-pressure tur- forward (7) and aft (8) rotati ng frames. The mixer frame
.,..
bines (no stationary nozzle vanes are used), ( 1 2) is the mai n structural support for the engine and
bea rings. The main bearing support structure (9) and
directly coupled to the propfan blades, are driven exhaust nozzle ( 1 0) are also shown in this view.
by the hot gases produced by the core engine. (c) General Electric has designed a unique low-pressure tur
bine where the turbine nozzle vanes and blades serve the
There is no production aircraft application at the
dual purpose of both turbine nozzle va nes and turbine
time of this writing. (See the text material on blades.
p. 1 7 :t;elatmg to the propfan engine.) (d) Two proposed uses for the U D F.
80 H i story a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-47 (cont i n ued).
F I G U R E 2-47 (d)
F I G U R E 2-47 (b)
F I G U R E 2-49 (b)
l
1 5.0 in.
(401 mm)
9.
(241
F I G U RE 2-49 (a)
A COMPRESSOR INLETS
B COMPRESSOR TURBINE
C AIRPUMP O UTLET
D THROTTLE VALVE
84 H i story a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-5 1 Pratt & Wh itney Canada PT6 series of engi nes
is used in a large number of applications.
Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 (a) External and cutaway views of the PWC PT6 powerplant.
(FIG. 2-51 ) (b) Schematic of the PWC PT6 showi ng the general a rrange-
ment of the parts and giving a general description of air
Since its production started i n 1 9641 the PWC flow.
PT6 has proven to be the most popular engine in
'
its class in the world. The more than sixty ver
sions of this engine have been installed in 1 78
different aircraft. The PWC PT6 is a two-shaft
turboprop engine. The air enters the three-stage
axial compressor from the side of the engine
through an inlet screen, then flows forward to a
single centrifugal stage. The pressure ratio is
6.7 : 1 , and airflow i s 6.8 lb/s [3.1 kg/s] at
3 7 ,500 rpm . The reverse-flow combusti<m
The PT6/T74 engine
chamber surrounds the turbine wheel. One tur
bine wheel drives the compressors, while the
free-power turbine drives the propeller through
a 1 5 : 1 -ratio integral gearbox. Propeller rpm i s
2200 maximum. Specific fuel consumption at
cruise i s 0.6 lb/eshp/h [272 g/eshp/h]. The
engine weighs 300 lb [ 1 36 kg] and produces
7 1 5 eshp, or 680 shp plus 87.5 lbt [389 N].
F I G U R E 2-5 1 (a)
Several versions of this engine have higher
power settings (up to 1 1 00 shp) and different
specifications in several respects.
�he air enters the engine through the i nlet screen; it is then compressed by a multistage compressor
and fed to the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and ignited . The hot gas expands
-hrough two turbine stages; the fi rst d rives the compressor and the accessories; the second,
'Tlechanica l ly i ndependent from the first, drives the
::nopeller shaft by means of a reduction
gearbox. Final ly, the hot gas is discharged
-nrough the exhaust d ucts.
compressor screen
F I G U R E 2-5 1 (b)
� >
....�
... ....�
...: • , .... .
Pilatus PC-7 Israel Aircraft Industries Ayres Turbo Thrush
Arava
'',y. �'·�
-
/ '·' .,
------ �.
Fairchild Swearingen Metro I l l A Weatherly 620 TP Lear Fan 2 1 00
Norwalk Turbo Inc F I G U R E 2-5 1 (d) Marine and i nd ustrial applications of the PWC PT6 turboshaft
TC-7 Compressor engine.
F I G U R E 2-5 1 (e) External and cutaway views of the PWC PT6T/T400 Twin-Pac© powerplant.
88 H i story a n d Theory
Pratt & Whitney Canada
JT1 50 (FIG. 2-52)
The J?WG JT 1 5D is another two-spool front-tur
bofan engine. The fan is driven by the last two
turbines of a three-stage tUrbine. Total airflow i�
75 lb/s (34 kg/s] . Of this amount, 57.5 lb/s
[26 kg/s] i s secondary airflow for a bypass ratio
of 3 . 3 : 1 . Fan-pressure ratio is 1 . 5 : 1 , and overall .
pressure ratio (fan-pressure ratio times the sin
gle-stage centrifugal compressor ratio) is almost
1 0 : 1 . An axial�boost stage is located between
the fan and the centrifugal compressor and is
driven at the same speed as the centrifugal com
pressor. Combustion chamber is of the annular
rever�e-fl()w type. Specific fuel consumption i s
0.56 lb/lbt/h [57 . 1 g/N/h]. The engine weighs 557
lb [253 kg] and produces 2500 lbt [ 1 1, 1 20 N] .
F I G U R E 2-52 (a)
Combustion
chamber
F I G U R E 2-52 (b)
IMPELLER
HIGH COMPRESSOR
TURBINE \
F I G U R E 2-52 (c) Six rotating assemblies make up the PWC JT1 5D two-spool tu rbofan engine.
PropeUer
control lever
Turbomachinery
and TBO
92 History a n d Theory
Pratt & Whitney Canada Pratt & Whitney Canada
PW200 Series (FIG. 2-54) PW300 Series (FIG. 2-55)
The PWC :PW206 is another new engine from The third of PWC 's new engines is the PW305.
Pratt & Whitney Canada in the (:i0()�$,hp class. Tw? t bine stages drive tlle single-stage fan,
ur
The singl@ centrifugal compressor driven by while three turbine stages drive tlle high-pressure
the gas-generator turbine, and the load is driven compressor. The engine produces 5225 lbt, and
by a single-stage turbine. Compressor pressure has a specific fuel consumption of 0.675 lb/lbt/h.
ratio is 8 : 1 , and specific fuel consumption is Pressure ratio is 1 9: 1 . Diameter is 43.7 in, length
0.55 lb/shp/h. Diameter of the engine is 22 in, is 80 in, and weight is 960 lb.
length is 36 in, and weight is 237 lb.
.
F I G U R E 2-54 (b) F I G U R E 2-55 (b)
FIG U RE 2-54 Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206A for use in F I G U R E 2-5 5 Pratt & Whitney Canada PW305 for use in the
the MBB Bo- 1 0 5 hel icopter. BAe 1 000 and Learjet 60.
(a) External view of the PWC PW206A tu rboshaft engine. (a) External view of the PWC PW305 tu rbofan engine.
(b) C utaway view of the PWC PW206A turboshaft engine. (b) C utaway view of the PWC PW305 turbofan engine.
PT6T/T400 PW900
PT6B ST6
PW200 FT8
TURBOPROPS TURBOFANS
PT6 JT1 5D
- TWO STAGE -
- SINGLE STAGE
PW1 00 PW300
PW124/PW127 SERIES -
PWI20 SERIES .
F I G U R E 2-58 (b)
96 H i story a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-59 (conti nued).
F I G U R E 2-59 (a)
F I G U R E 2-59 (b)
7-Stage HPC
C D Variable Area
Iris Nozzle
F I G U R E 2-59 (c)
F I G U R E 2-60 (a)
FUEL NOZZLES
INTERMEDIATE
CASE
AUGMENTOR FUEL
I I MANIFOLD
FLAME HOLDER
VARIABLE CAMBER
INLET GUIDE VANE BALANCED BEAM
DIFFUSER CASE AUGMENTOR DUCT
EXHAUST NOZZLE
F I G U R E 2-60 (d)
F I G U R E 2-61 (d)
F I G U R E 2-61 (a)
F I G U R E 2-61 (e)
1 00 H istory a n d Theory
F I G U R E 2-62 (conti n u ed) .
F I G U R E 2-62 (b)
19
20
21
22
F I G U R E 2-62 (c)
FC"'452i
p
J . 5
\. 1 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
FIGURE 2-64 (d)
11
1a
33
31 30 29 ·; 2' 26 15 24 JJ
STATION 2 2.5 3 .. 5 7
9 10 13 14 15 16 17 19 20
27 25 24 23 22
26
��-----1M"--------�--��
. _j
FIRST TURBINE
ACOUSTIC
BLADE
TREATMENT
FIGURE 2-66 (e) C utaway view of the ·JTSD-200, a late FIGURE 2-66 U> The Boei ng 727 (standard and stretched
versions) uses three Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines. Ill ustrated
model engine that incorporates many design changes from
is the stretched model.
the original model, including fan stream m ixing, the n umber
of fan stages (one versus two), a n d acoustic treatment of the
fan stream. Compare the many differences between Fig.
2-66 (c) and Fig. 2-66 (e).
(e) The Boei ng 747 with fou r Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan P,(P SIA) {kPa]
[1 ��:� 6] �;:: ;���
(1 ] [2 � �:::
[1 ] [2 �;:.8] [2 ;�:
.3]
20.9
[144.1]
(FIG. 2-68)
The PW2000 is a twin-spool, high-bypass�ratio
turbofan, designed to power short- to medium
range commercial aircraft. It has five main bear
ings; three support the low-pressure rotor, and
two support the high-pressure rotor. The engine's
single-stage fan and four-stage low-pressure
compressor are driven by a five-stage low-pres
sure turbine, while the 12 -stage high-pressure
compressor is driven by a two-stage high-pres
sure turbine. The first five stages of the high
pressure compressor are variable. Thrust values
range up to 41,700 lbt, with a specific fuel con
sumption of 0.35 lb/lbt/h. The bypass ratio is 6:1, FIGURE 2-68 (a)
and the overall pressure ratio is 28:1, with an air
flow of 1255 lb/s. Diameter of the engine is 85 in,
length is 147 in, and engine weight is 7 300 lb.
IL-96M TU-204
C-1 7A 757
FIGURE 2-69 (d) Appl ications of the PW4000 series engi ne. FIGURE 2-70 continued on the next page.
HIGH-PRESSURE
AIR INTAKE LOW-PRESSURE
TURBINE
TURBINE
EXHAUST UNIT
COOLING AIR
Rolls-Royce/Bristol Viper
(FIG. 2-72)
The Bristol Yiper is a single-spool, eight-stage
axial compressor engine with an a.r:wular combus
tion cb,l:Ullber and a two-stage tut'b}tJ.e. The com
pressor has a compression ratio of 5.8:1, flows
58.4 lb/s [26.5 kg/s], and rotates at 13,760 rpm.
Turbine inlet temperature is a nominal 1282°F
[695°C]. Specific fuel consumption is 0.9 lb/lbt/h
[91.7 g/N/h]. The engine weighs 760 lb [345 kg]
FIGURE 2-71 (d) The Fairchild Industries F-27 powered by and develops 3750 lbt [16,680 N]. Later models
two Rolls-Royce Dart engines.
have slightly improved specificati()ns.
VIPER 500
Rolls-Royce/SN ECMA
Olympus 593 (FtG. 2-73)
The Olympus 593 is one of the few afterbtttning
commercial engines in service. The seven-stage
low-speed spool driven by a single turbine wheel
turns at 6500 rpm, and the seven-stage high
speed spool driven by another single turbine
turns at 8.850 rpm, for an overall pressure ratio of
15. 5:1 and an airflow of 4 15 lb/s [188 kg/s]. The
afterburner section, built by SNECMA, has a
variable- area exhaust nozzle and provides about
20 percent additional thrust for takeoff and tran
FIGURE 2-73 (a)
sonic acceleration. Specifk fuel consumption is
0. 7to 1 .1 8lb!lbt/h [ 71.3 to 120 .3 g/N/h] depend
FIGURE 2-73 Rol ls-Royce SNEC MA Olympus 593 Mk 6 1 0-
ing on whether the afterburner is off or on. The 14-28, jointly built by British and French companies.
engine diameter is 49 in, length is 150 in, and (a) External view of the Olympus 593 engine.
(b) C utaway view showing the two-spool compressor. The
weight is 6780 lb. With the afterburner on, it can Olympus is one of the few afterburner-equi pped com
produce 3 8,400 lbt [1 70,803 N]. mercial engi nes.
HPTURSINE
H P COMPRESSOR
\
Oil TANK
Rolls-Royce Spey/Allison
Engine Company TF 41
(FIG. 2-74)
FIGURE 2-74 (c)
The jointly designed and developed, low-bypass
ratio Spey is a two-shaft turbofan engine having a
four- or five-stage front fan driven by the third- and
fourth-stage turbine, and a 12-stage high- pressure
compressor driven by the first and second turbine
stages. The fan compression ratio is about 2 .7 :1
and flows... 85 .lb/s [38.6 kg/s] of air at '8500 rpm.
The high-pressure compressor has a compression
ratio of 20:1 overall, and the airflow is 123 lb/s
[55.8 kg/s] at approximately 12,600 rpm. The can
annular combustion chamber has 10 flame tubes.
FIGURE 2-74 (d)
Specific fuel consumption is 0.6 to 1.95 lb/lbt/h
[61.2 to 198.7 g/N/h] depending on afterburner
FIGURE 2-74 Rol ls-Royce Spey/AIIison Engine Compar.1y
use. 'fhe engine weighs 2300 to 3600 lb [1043 to TF41 tu rbofan engine.
1633 kg] at1d produces from 10,000 to 21,000 lbt (a) C utaway view of the Rolls-Royce Spey (Mk 505, 506,
[44,480 to 93,408 N], depending on the model. The 555), fou r-stage, low-pressure compressor (fan) engine.
(b) C utaway view of the Rol ls-Royce Spey (Mk 51 0, 5 1 1 ,
TF41 is an advanced version having a three-stage 5 1 2), five-stage, low-pressure compressor (fan) engine.
fan. an_ll-stage compressor, and other modifica (c) A schematic showing the essential d ifferences between
the four- and five-stage, low-pressure compressor version
tions for installation in the VoughtA-7D Corsair IT. of the Rolls-Royce Spey series engines.
(d) C utaway view of the All ison Engine C ompany TF4 1 , a
derivative of the Rolls-Royce Spey series engine.
(e) Two (five-stage) Rol ls-Royce Spey engines drive the
Gru mman G ulfstream II.
(f) The A-7 D C orsair II is equ ipped with one All ison Engine
Company TF4 1 engine.
(g) The B . A. C . 500 One-Eleven series is man ufactured by the
British Aerospace Corporation and is powered by two
Rol ls-Royce Spey Mk 5 1 2 (five-stage, low-pressure com
pressor) engi nes.
(h) Two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans are installed in the
DeHavilland Canada modified B uffalo with an experimen
tal aug mentor wing, developed in conj unction with
NASA and Boeing.
(i) The Fokker F-28 with two Rol ls-Royce Spey Mk 555
engi nes i nstalled.
\
LP COMPRESSOR ROTOR (FAN)
HP COMPRESSOR
Bigger jetpipe
and reoptimised
Rolls-Royce/Bristol Pegasus
(FIG. 2-77)
In tl:J.e Bristol Pegasus, the major po,rtion of the
three-stage fan air, 300 lb/s [136 kg/s] at a pressure
ratio of 2:1 , is diverted to two front-vectored thrust
nozzles through a plenum chamber, in which fuel
may be burned for additional thrust. Two turbines
drive the fan and two counterrotating turbines
drive the high-pressure compressor, which handles
150 lb/s [68 kg/s] of air. Core engine air is direct
I
HOT STREAM
PROPELLING NOZZLE ed to a bifurcated duct at the rear whose nozzles
move in unison with the front nozzles. Specific
Ps P6 P7 Ps fuel consumption is 0.74 lb/lbt/h. Weight of the
Ts Ts T7 Ta
engine is 3 226 lb, and it produces 22,000 lbt.
FIGURE 2-76 (c)
FIGURE 2-77 (b) C utaway view of the Rolls-Royce Pegasus Mk 104 engine.
PCB involves the burning of fuel in the bypass air supplying the
front nozzles of a Pegasus type of engine. Full scale engine The bypass flow is ducted forward through the aircraft
testing is carried out in a Harrier suspended from a gantry. fuselage to a remote combustion system and exhausted
downward to provide lift thrust.
Hybrid fan
Ejector Lift
The fan front and rear stages are separated by a transfer duct.
, The duct contains a shut-off valve and its own auxilliary air inlet The bypass air is ducted forward to become the primary flow in
system and incorporates vectored thrust nozzles. a high-area-ratio ejector system.
FIGURE 2-79 (a) C utaway view of the Rolls-Royce Tay FIGURE 2-79 (b) The G ulfstream IV with two Rol ls-Royce
turbofan. Tay turbofan engines instal led.
INOOSTIIIAt sm
Mechanical llfiW 15.900 shp
l12600kW)
Electrical !)ellerlll!OO 12 to 14 1/1{1
MMINESI'£Y
PQwer 17,100 1o 11'4,138 shp
,12751 to 18000 kW)
INOUSTIII At AVON
Thrust ra� 23,000 to 27,500 lb
122 History and Theory FIGURE 2-80 continued on the next page.
FIGURE 2-80 (continued). THE ROLLS-RO YCE FAMILY OF ENGINES.
BAeHawk
Japanese T2 and F1
McDonnell Oouglas/BAeT-45
Goshawk
Sepecat Jaguar
OlYMPUS 593
Thrust 38,000 lb (with afterburner)
(169.0 kN)
TYNE
Take-off power 4,785 to 6,100 tehp
(3 568 to 4 549 1M/)
AeritaliaG222
Canatlair Forty-Four
Short Belfast
Transall C160
DART
Take-off power 1,540 to 3,245 tehp
(1 148 to 2 420 1M/)
:: GURE 2-81 Teledyne CAE J69 Series 25 engine. Teledyne CAE Missile and
a. The Teledyne CAE J 69-T-25A, external view. Drone Engines (FIG. 2-s2>
::J1 Sectioned view of the Teledyne CAE J 69 showing airflow.
:: Cutaway view of the Teledyne CAE J 69-T-25A engi ne. These three Teledyne CAE engines (J69-T-2 9,
c. The Cessna T-378 is powered by two Teledyne CAE J 69-T-
25 engi nes.
J 1 00-CA�100, and the model 490) have all been
developed from French Turboweca: designs by
Teledyne CAE as powerplants for remote pilot
vehicles and other unmanned aircraft. The spec
ifications given here apply only to the J69-T2 9
(Teledyne CAE model 356-7A) . The J69-T-2 9 is
a single-spool engine with a one-stage axial and
one-stage centrifugal compressor that together
have a: pressure ratio of 5. 5: 1, an airflow of
2 8.6ilb(s [1 3 kg/s], and a rotation of 22,000 rp1ll.
The side-entry combustion cha1llber is typical of
Teledyne CAE designs. Specific fuel consump
tion is 1 .08 1b/lbt/h [110.1 g/N/h]. The engine
weighs 340 lb [154 kg] and produces 1700 lbt
[7562 N].
15
13
5
8
1 HOSE GROUP
2 STARTING SYSTEM
3 FUEL-COI'<'TROLLED
GROUP
4 FUEL FILTER AND 11 EXHAUST DUCT
VALVE GROLl> GROUP
5 OIL PUMP GROUP 12 FRONT-THRUST
6 AIR-INTAKE DUCf BEARING CAGE
GROUP GROUP
7 AXIAL-COMPRESSOR 13 RADIAL COMPRES
ROTOR GROUP SOR GROUP
8 AXIAL-COMPRESSOR 14 TURBINE-SHAFT
STATOR GROUP GROUP
9 ACCESSORY-DRIVE 15 COMBUSTOR-SHELL
GROUP AND NOZZLE GROUP
16 COMBUSTOR HOUS
FIGURE 2-82 (c) T h e Teledyne CAE J69-T-29 (CAE356-7A)
10 ACCESSORY-DRIVE
CAGE GROUP ING GROUP
sectioned view showi ng principal parts.
FIGURE 2-82 continued on the next page.
=IGURE 2-82 (d) The Teledyne CAE J 1 00-CA-1 00 (CAE356- FIGURE 2-82 (g) C utaway view of the Teledyne CAE model
:: 8A) util izes a two-stage transonic axial plus a single-stage 490-4 turbofan engi ne.
:entrifugal compressor. Mass airflow is 44.9 lb/s [20.4 kg/s]
th a compression ratio of 6 .3 : 1 .
CONTROL ISLAN D I
\
1\
2nd-STAGE TURBINE
COM PRESSOR
FIGURE 2-83 (a) This model is used in the highly produced MA 1 A starting cart. (See chap. 1 7 .)
Williams International
Corporation WJ24 AND
WR27 (FIG. 2-88)
These two engines are shown as examples of small
centrifugal-flow engines used for jet thrust (WJ24)
and for shaft power (WR27). The WJ24-8 turbine
is 1 1 in [27.9 em] in diameter and 1 9.7 in [49.9 em]
long. It weighs 50 lb [22.7 kg] and produces 240 lbt
[ 1 067 N]. Air enters the inlet and passes through
FIGURE 2-87 (a)
the single-stage axial compressor and then through
a single,.stage radial compressor. From the com
pressor diffuser, it passes into the annular combus
tion chamber. Fuel enters the inlet housing and is
transferred into the rotating governor assembly by
the fuel-transfer seal. The fuel then continues
through the center of the shaft to the fuel distribu
tors, which provide a uniformly distributed fuel fog
into the combustor. The products of combustion
are cooled by the addition of secondary air through
holes near the exit of the combustor. The hot gases
FIGURE 2-87 (b) then pass through the turbine nozzle and rotor and
out the exhaust. The compressor has a 6: 1 pressure
ratio. Turbine inlet temperature is 1789°F [955°C]
with an airflow rate of 4.1 lb/s [ 1 . 86 kg/s]. The spe
cific fuel consumption is 1 .2 lb/lbt/h [ 1 200 g/N/h]
at a rated speed of 52,000 rpm. The WR27 features
a twin-compressor configuration. The first com
pressor totm; (left) provides air. to the aircraft sys
tems and the second, higher airflow compressor
rotor furnishes air for the fixed-shaft turbine com
bustor. The two axial turbine stages drive both
compressors and the accessory gearbox. The
FIGURE 2-87 (c)
WR27- 1 i s in U.S. Navy fleet usage in the
Lockheed S-3A antisubmarine aircraft. It provides
ANNU LAR
COMBUSTO
T U R BI N E R OTOR
A X I A L COMPR E S S OR
R E AR BEARING
FUEL INLET
� t '\
:g
Turbofan
takeoff
........"'
.!: thrust
� Turbojet
__..-Tubofan
-
� urbojet
�1- t
Tu r b o j e t
C o mp ressor
e n e rg y
Jet
energy
Turbine
Tu r bo p rop
C o m b u stion
T u rbof a n
I--T-
- _
of
r b-
u- n--:::--
a_ /
-,·- - - - -\ \
\
\
\
\
I
z
11
(.)
u..
(/)
1-
frl L
....
....
Q)
)...,.-
.- -""- - - - - - - - - - ......
Turbojet
-..... ..._
Ambient a i r temperature, o F [° C ]
fl
£
....
Q)
6. List some va riations of the axia l-com pressor
engine. Name some a i r planes in which this type
of e n g i n e is i n sta l led .
z 7. What are t h e advantages a n d disadvantages of
the axial compressor?
8. Where is the fa n located on the fan-type e n g i ne?
How is it drive n ?
9. What are three ways of using a gas turb i n e
engine t o power a n a i rplane?
1 0. What is meant by m ixed exhaust a n d non m ixed
exhaust fan engines?
0 1 0,000 20,000 30,000 1 1 . Make a ta ble that l ists the characteristics a n d uses
[3000] [ 6000] [ 9000] of the tu rbojet, tu rboprop, and tu rbofan e n g i n es .
1 2. List the general trend i n the future development
of the gas turbine engine.
Energy of fuel
-- -
Front entry of
compressor Mass to rear entry
to drive compressor
af compressor passes
between cylindrical ducts
Axial flow
F I G U R E 3-1 Airflow th rough centrifugal- and axial-flow engi nes. (U.S.A.F AFM 52-2.)
137
the air had at the front. In the burner section, fuel, similar to 551b X 10ft= 550ft·lb
kerosene, is sprayed and mixed with the compressor air. The [24.75 kg X 3m= 74.25 kg·m)
bodies toward the earth at a rate that will cause the object to
increase its velocity by 32.2 feet per second (ft/s)
[9.8 1 meters per second (m/s)] for each second the object is Power
falling. That is, at the end of 2 s, the speed would be 64.4 ft/s Nothing in the definition of work states how fast the
[ 1 9.62 m/s]; at the end of 3 s it would be 96.6 ft/s work is being done. The rate of doing work is known as
[29.43 m/s], etc. The figure 32.2 feet per second per second power.
(32.2 ft/s2 or 9.81 m/s2) is called the acceleration due to
gravity and is represented in formulas by the letter g. This force X distance
Power=
' c:..:...::_:_
.:: _ _ .==
..:..::.::.
:: .::..
value can also be used to determine the amount of resistance time
an object of given weight offers to motion. When the. weight Fd
is divided by the acceleration constant, the quotient is called P=
the mass of the object. (See page 1 40.)
As will be learned later when developing a formula for
w converting thrust to power, power may be expressed in any
M=
g one of several ways, depending on the units used for the
force, the distance, and the time. Power is often expressed in
Force is also a vector quantity; that is, it has both magni units of horsepower. One horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft ·
tude and direction. \\ben we speak of 1 000 lb [453.6 kg] of lb/min [4554 kg m/min] or 550 ft lb/s [69 kg m/s] . In
· · ·
force acting on an object we cannot know its effect unless other words, a 1 -hp motor can raise 33,000 lb a distance of
we know the direction of the force. Two or more forces act 1 ft in 1 m.in or 550 lb a distance of 1 ft in 1 s (Fig. 3-3).
ing on a body will produce a resultant force. Vectors and
their resultants will be used in chaps. 5 and 7 to help explain
the operation of compressors and turbines. _ power (ft lb/min) ·
hp -
33,000
hp
W=Fd 550
W = weight of object, lb
H = height of object, ft
G1 Second
where W = weight, lb
V
g
= velocity, ft/s
= acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ftfs2
[9. 8 1 m/s2]
KE = kinetic energy, ft lb
·
3 time
= 0.75 or
4
Speed units are commonly expressed in miles per hour or
Energy
feet per second [kilometers per hour or meters per second] .
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. The
- rgy that bodies possess can be classified into two cate
·es: potential and kinetic. Potential energy may be due to Velocity
• ·ition, such as water in an elevated storage tank; distortion
Velocity can be defined as speed in a given direction. The
:an elastic body such as a compressed spring; or a chemical
symbol V is used to represent velocity.
;:Oon, for example, from coal.
F = Ma
Momentum
3. Newton's third law states that "For every acting force
Mass times velocity or MV defines momentum. It is the there is an equal and opposite reacting force. The term
property of a moving body that determines the length of acting force means the force exerted by one body on
time required to bring it to rest under the action of a constant another, while the reacting force means the force the
force. Large objects with a lot of mass but very little veloc second body exerts on the first. These forces alway
ity can have as much momentum as low-mass objects with occur in pairs but never cancel each other because.
very high velocity. A boat must dock very slowly and care although equal in magnitude, they always act on dif
fully because if it touches the dock even gently, it may crush ferent objects. Examples of the third law are to be
it. On the other hand, a bullet weighs very little but its pen found in everyday life (Fig. 3-4). When a person
etrating power is very high because of its velocity. jumps from a boat, it is pushed backward with the
same force that pushes the person forward. It should be
noted that the person gains the same amount of
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION momentum as the boat received, but in the opposite
direction.
The fundamental laws of jet propulsion were demon The equation for momentum equals mass times velocity.
strated many years ago by recognized scientists and experi Since the momentum of both the person and the boat must
menters. These laws, and the equations derived from them, be equal, then
must be discussed in order to understand the operating prin
ciple of the gas turbine engine. Foremost among these sci
entists was Sir Isaac Newton of England, who derived three
laws pertaining to bodies at rest and in motion and the forces Example: A man weighing 150 lb [68.04 kg] jumps from his
acting on these bodies. boat to shore at a velocity of 2 ft/s [0.61 m/s] . If the boat
1. Newton's first law states that "A body (mass) in a state weighs 75 lb [34.02 kg], what will be its velocity?
of rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion
tends to continue to move at a constant speed, in a
straight line, unless acted upol} by some external 150 75 v2
force." The portion of the law that states "a body in a X2
32.2 32.2
state of rest tends to remain at rest" is acceptable from
our own experience. But the second part that states "a v = 4 ft/s [ 1 .22 m/s]
2
140 History and Theory
placed in the airstream. Burning the fuel raises the air tem
Thrust
Resultant force perature rapidly, and the air volume is greatly increased.
On gases Since the compressor pressure blocks the forward flow, the
air can move only rearward on the less restricted path lead
Balloon -
Motion
ing to the exit. By placing a turbine in the path of the heat
Thru� t
Combustion ed air, some of this energy is used to spin the turbine, which,
�:-cJ.�'f�....-
\� �)=41�L::::::=�
chamber
_ in tum, spins the compressor by means of a connecting
::: �
;t :Jl D
�� }
shaft. The remaining energy is expended in expelling the hot
Bullet Barrel gases through the stem of the balloon, which is in effect a
Gun jet nozzle. The transformation is now complete and the bal
loon "jet engine" can operate as long as there is fuel to bum.
The acting force that Newton's third law refers to is the
acceleration of the escaping air from the rear of the balloon.
The reaction to this acceleration is a force in the opposite
direction. In addition, the amount of force acting on the bal
loon is the product of the mass of air being accelerated times
the acceleration of that air. Since the forces always occur in
pairs, it can be said that if it takes a certain force to acceler
ate a mass rearward, the reaction to this force is thrust in the
opposite direction.
f- �
Force = thrust
Lawn sprinkler
Action = reaction
- SuRE 3-4 Applications of Newton's third law of motion,
_ :A.F Extension Course Institute and Air University, Course Thrust Computation
-�C;)
Using Newton's second law of motion permits the solu
tion of the simple problem that follows.
Everyone knows that when a balloon is blown up and
Example: How much force would be necessary to acceler
_ eased, it will travel at a fairly high speed for a few sec
ate an object weighing 161 lb [73.03 kg] at the rate of
.. The gas turbine engine operates like a toy balloon,
10 ftfs2 [3.05 mfs2 ]?
- the operation of both can be explained using Newton's
:d law of motion. F = Ma
lien the balloon is inflated, the inside air pressure,
where F = force
"·cb is stretching the skin, is greater than the. outside pres
weight of the object
. and if the stem is tied closed, the inside air pushes M=
acceleration of gravity
_ _
:rally in all directions and the balloon will not move (Fig.
�.::). If the balloon is placed in a vacuum and the stem is a = change in velocity
.:eased, the escaping air obviously has nothing to push w
prinst. Yet the balloon will move in a direction away from F = -X a
g
- stem just as it does in a normal atmosphere, proving that
i5 not the escaping air pushing against anything outside �
= X10
makes the balloon move, 32.2-
Releasing the stem removes a section of the skin on that = 50 lb [22.68 kg]
.:!<! of the balloon against which the air has been pushing.
-' the side directly opposite the stem, however, the air con The same formula applies to the jet engine.
::llues to push on an equal area of skin, and it is the Example: A large jet engine handles 100 lb [45.36 kg] of
::ncan celed push on this area that causes the balloon to
air per second. The velocity of this air at the jet nozzle
ve in the direction away from the stem. '
is 659 mph (approximately 966 ft/s) [1060.5 km m/h
The balloon's flight is short because the pressure within (294 m/s)]. What is the thrust of the engine?
- skin is lost quickly. This handicap could be overcome by
7:nnping air into the balloon with a bicycle pump so the F = Ma
;:ressure and airflow are maintained. w
= _a Xa
To transform this apparatus into a self-contained jet g
_ gine, the hand pump is replaced with a compressor. And
lOO
:the compressor is turned at high speed, a large quantity of = X 966
32.2
!:iT is passed through the balloon while holding a high pres-
:rre inside. For energy to tum the compressor, a burner is = 3000 lb [1360.8 kg] = thrust
Flight of balloon
F I G U R E 3-5 (a) Pressures are equal in a l l di rections. F I G U R E 3-5 (b) An unbalance of force is created when the
stem is opened.
� Flight of balloon
F I G U R E 3-5 (c) Maintaining p ressure i n the ba lloon. F I G U R E 3-5 (d) Replacing the hand pump with a compressor.
F I G U R E 3-5 (e) Raising the air temperature and i ncreasing F I G U R E 3-5 (f) The turbine extracts some of the energy i n
the volume. the a i r t o turn t h e compressor.
From the preceding example, if a 3000-lb force or known as the ram drag. Net thrust is then gross thrust minus
action is required to produce the 966 ft/s velocity change ram drag.
of 100 lb/s airflow, then an equal but opposite 3000 lb of
Fn = Fg- F,.
reaction or thrust will be felt in the structure of the engine.
Engine inlet air velocity times the mass of airflow is the ini
Gross and Net Thrust tial momentum. The faster the airplane goes, the greater the
initial momentum and the less the engine can change this
When the gross thrust is computed, the velocity of the air
momentum.
coming into the engine due to the velocity of the airplane is
disregarded and, as shown in the previous problem, the MV2 - MV1 =the acceleration of gases through the
velocity of the gas leaving the engine is used as the acceler engine
ation factor. True acceleration of the gas is the difference in where MV2 =
gross thrust or momentum of exhaust
the velocity between the incoming and outgoing air, and this gases
difference is used in computing net thrust. The loss in thrust MV1 =
ram drag or momentum of incoming air
involved in taking the air in at the front of the engine is due to airplane speed
et thrust =Ma
w (Vz- VI)
=_a
g
where V2 =velocity of air at the jet nozzle, ft/s
V1 = velocity of the airplane, ft/s (220 mph = F I G U R E 3-6 The choked nozzle.
322 ft/s = ram drag) [354.05 km/h (98. 1 m/s)]
Barometric pressure =29.24 inches of mercury (inHg)
1 00
� et thrust = --(966 - 322) = 14.4 pounds per square inch
32.2
(psi) [99 kilopascals (kPa).]
= 2000 lb [907.2 kg] Aircraft speed =3 1 0 mph (460 ft/s) [498.88 km/h
( 1 40.21 m/s)]
Compressor airflow =96 lb/s [43.55 kg/s]
Completing the Jet Engine Equation
Exhaust nozzle area =2 square feet (ft2) [0. 1 9 m2]
Since fuel flow adds some mass to the air flowing Exhaust nozzle pressure= 80 inHg (39.3 psi) [270.9 kPa]
through the engine, the same formula must be applied to the Exhaust gas velocity = 1 000 mph ( 1 460 ft/s) [ 1 609.3
weight of the fuel as was applied to the weight of the air, km/h (445.01 m/s)]
and this must be added to the basic thrust equation Fuel flow = 5760 lb/h ( 1 .6 lb/s) [26 1 2.7 kg/h
(0.73 kg/s)]
f
Fn = wa(Vz- VI)+ w (Vf)
g g If the acceleration due to gravity = 32 ft/s 2, then Fn is most
nearly equal to
where f = weight of fuel
w f
vf =velocity of fuel Fn = wa (Vz- VI) + w (Vf) + A/Pj- P.m)
g g
� �otice that becaus� the fuel is carried along with the engine 96 1..&_
= ( 1 460 - 460) + ( 1 460) + 2(5659 - 2074)
n will never have any initial velocity relative to the engine. 32 32
Some formulas do not consider the fuel flow effect when
=3 ( 1 000) + 0.05(1460) + 2(3585)
-omputing thrust because the weight of air leakage through
the engine is approximately equivalent to the weight of the = 3000 + 73 + 7 170
·
Compressor I I I
Diffuser Combustion chamber Turbine J Tail pipe
Using the following values for an engine at rest: = 1 9, 1 00 lb [8663.76 kg] of forward thrust
=
16
3
�
(350) + ( 100 X 200) - 1 9 , 1 00
�
= 2 1 ,750 - 19, 1 00
16 .
= (2000 - 0) + 330(6 - 0) = 2650 lb [ 1 202.04 kg] of forward thrust
3
The various forward and rear loads on the engine are Airflow = 1 60 lb/s [72.58 kg/s] (neglecting fuel flow)
determined by using the pressure times the area (PA) plus Velocity = 1 250 ft/s [38 1 .00 m/s]
the mass times the acceleration (Ma) at given points in the Pressure= 95 psi gage [655 kPa]
engine.
Area = 500 in2 [322,600 mm2]
Compressor Outlet Note: The condition at the inlet of the combustion chamber is
Airflow = 1 60 lb/s [72.58 kg/s] the same as that at the outlet of the diffuser, that is, 21 ,750 lb
[9865.80 kg], therefore
Velocity = 400 ft/s [ 1 2 1 .92 m/s]
Pressure = 95 psi gage [655 kPa]
Fn,burner = Ma + PA - 2 1 ,750
Area = 1 80 in 2 [ 1 1 6, 1 36 mm2]
=
16
3
� ( 1 250) + (95 X 500)- 2 1 ,750
Note: The pressure and velocity at the face of the compres
sor are zero. To compute the forces acting on the compres = 53,750 - 2 1 ,750
sor, it is necessary to consider only outlet conditions. = 32,000 lb [ 14,5 1 5 kg] of forward thrust
1 60
= (700) + (20
' X 550) - 53,750
Thrust computed for the complete engine (from page 144)
32 equals 1 1 ,980. Thrust computed for the individual sectroOs
= 14,500 - 53,750 of the engine equals 1 1,980.
= - 39,250 lb [- 1 7,803.80 kg] of rearward Fitting the engine with an afterburner will have two large
thrust effects on engine operating conditions.
= �
1 0
3
(650) + (25 X 600) - 1 4,500
- 3050 lb, a difference of 3220 lb. If 3220 lb is added to the
thrust of the nonafterbuming engine, the total thrust will be
wa
Fn = _ (V2 - VI) + A/Pj- Pam)
Exhaust-Nozzle Outlet g
1.
(Wa/g)(V - V1) +
2
A/Pj- Pam) X velocity of ale (ft/s) Engine rpm (weight of air)
2. Size of nozzle area
550
3. Weight of fuel flow
This formula can be simplified to 4. Amount of air bled from the compressor
5. Turbine inlet temperature
: "- et:.t.._ h
.:n rus:.::..t x
:.:: ::.= _ _ .:... v=-=e1-=-oc ty_.:
=-= i:...�. :: p=-= ...� 1-a-"- n
of:. ( f.:.:.
"'-' e_"'-t/s .. )
'-'-
thp = -
6. Use of water injection
550
Nondesign factors include
or
7.
}
Speed of the aircraft (ram-pressure rise)
n
FV 8. Temperature of the air
thp = _ _ density effect
550 9. Pressure of the air
Since airplane speeds are often given in miles per hour, it 10. Amount of humidity
may be desirable to compute the thrust horsepower using For the present, only factors 1 , 7, 8, 9, and 1 0 are dis
mile-pounds per hour. If such is the case cussed. The effects of the other variables on engine opera
tion are covered elsewhere in the book in the appropriate
.:n thru :.:::::.: :. s:.t .:. X
: :.::.. et:..._.:.: _ --' - -
p-"-la
v-'-el=-=o-=-c..::it_.,_y--= of=---" .:m
'- ne_ ....(,_-_. p_h-)"-- sections.
thp =
375
_ 4000 X 375
thp -
375
= 4000
From this it can be seen that at 375 mph each pound of thrust
will be converted to one horsepower, and that for each speed
of the airplane there will be a different thp. At 750 mph this
4000-lb-thrust jet engine will produce 8000 thp.
Speed Effect
w
81
The formula a
-
-
�
where81 = total pressure
" - Wa
. ft --
(V - VI ) 01 = total temperature
2
g
Losses may also occur in the duct during high speeds as a
result of air friction and shock-wave formation. (See chap. 4.)
-bows that any increase in the forward velocity of the air
<Jlane will result in a decrease in thrust. The faster the air
Temperature Effect
plane goes, the greater will be the initial momentum of the
in relation to the engine (V 1 increasing). But the jet noz
· The gas turbine engine is very sensitive to variations in
zle velocity is generally fixed by the speed of sound. the temperature of the air (Fig. 3-1 2). Many engines are
8bviously, the V - V 1 difference or momentum change rated with the air at a standard temperature of 59°
2
:ill become smaller as airplane speed increases (Fig. 3-9). Fahrenheit (F) [ 1 5° Celsius (C)], although some manufac
This loss of thrust will be partially offset by the increase in turers will "flat rate" their engines to a higher temperature;
the Wa due to ram (Fig. 3-1 0). Not as much thrust is recov that is, the engine is guaranteed to produce a minimum spe
ered due to the ram-pressure rise as would seem to be indi cific thrust at a temperature above 59°F [ 1 5°C]. Careful
cated on first examination. At high airplane speeds there is power-lever manipulation is required at lower tempera
a considerable temperature rise in addition to the rise in tures. In any case, if the engine operates in air temperatures
pressure (Fig. 3-1 1 ). The actual weight of airflow increase hotter than standard, there will be less thrust produced.
into the engine will be directly proportional to the rise in Conversely, engine operation in air temperatures colder
pressure and inversely proportional to the square root of the than standard day conditions will produce a greater than
rise in temperature. (See chap. 5.) rated thrust.
c:
"'
"
:u
0..
oL----------- � ----------
� �
sg•F (15°C]
Airspeed
Increasing air temperature ----..
Ram effect on thrust Effect of air temperature on thrust
F I G U R E 3-1 0 Combining th rust loss due to V2 - V, differ F I G U R E 3-1 2 Thrust may vary as m uch as 2 oercent from
ence decrease with t h rust gain due to ram-pressure rise. the specified rating on cold or hot days.
F I G U R E 3-1 3 Air pressure drops as altitude is gained. FIG U RE 3- 14 C ombining thrust loss due to pressure
decrease with altitude and thrust gain due to tem peratu re
decrease with a ltitude.
P = pressure, inHg While humidity has a fairly large effect on the recipro
T = temperature, degrees Rankine (0R) cating engine, its effect on the gas turbine engine is negli
gible. Since water vapor weighs only five-eighths as much
or density is directly proportional to pressure and inversely as dry air, increasing humidity will decrease the weight per
proportional to temperature times a constant. A constant of unit volume; therefore, the lower density equals less mass
1 7.32 is necessary in order to make the density ratio equal 1 at the same rpm. Since a carburetor is essentially a volume
under standard conditions of temperature (5 1 8.7°R) and measuring device, it will not sense this decrease in the
pressure (29.92 inHg). weight of the air and, as a result, will continue to supply the
r ��
:::.
I
(,) Cl
0
'iD
\ I
.:>!. -Q
""�
§ \� "'
J: ,.....
.,·
(") I
terms total, dynamic, and static pressure). From the diffuser,
-,... . ....
\I
c:
--
..... the air passes through the combustion section where a slight �
�
. tO
� :e 0
0
\� �I
pressure loss is experienced. The combustion-chamber pres
"'
:l
"'
0
N >
.... � \ �o 1\\ sure must be lower than the compressor-discharge pressure
r \
.,
\
·;;;
.t c:
�
�I ,
- 30 Ql
Cl during all phases of engine operation in order to establish a
\ \ direction of airflow toward the rear of the engine and allow
I ":'I
;:::' 00
\
81 the gases to expand as combustion occurs. A sharp drop in
0
�
\
00
l"'i - 40
�
o.
\, pressure occurs as the air is accelerated between the converg
LO
\ m
0
0
0
M
I \ \' ing passages of the turbine nozzle. The pressure continues to
�
-50
'-I "' ' drop across the turbine wheel as some of the pressure energy
"- in the hot gas is converted to a rotational force by the wheel.
,"'-..._
" ,, If the engine is equipped with more than one turbine stage, a
0
0
pressure reduction occurs across each turbine wheel. Pressure
8���----
L-L----L-- --�----
10[3) 30[9) 50[15) 70[21) changes after the turbine depend upon the type of exhaust
Altitude, thousands of ft [m)
pressure-temperature-density variation with altitude increase
z
F I G U R E 3-15 At 36,000 ft (1 0,973 m), temperature stops
•alling.
Changes [0.45} 0
u
a;
At the beginning of this chapter, a general description :l
....
of the series of events that take place in a typical u
-.:
"
-
� 1 0,000 .D.
z
""' f�
.
.
;
en Based on constant:
z [44,480}
- .I::
- ::I �
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"'
.:
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... ,.(/, . .r::
... "'
-..
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::I
... 0 "'
.:
[35,584] lJa,.
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�
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Sea-level altitude
4000
! 1\t. I -.....
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�
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I
c::
0 .a
u [0.64] E
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v "'
:::1
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.... 1 30
l 0.601
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[ 58. 5 ] a;
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- ;;:
·c; � �
1 60 [72 1 [',_ 550 knots -
�
Cl>
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;;:::u
u
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Sea-level altitude - �
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[0.56]
0
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Q.
(J)
...:
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1 40 [63 1
1 3 0 [ 58.5 1 �,;. �0 � 1 . 00
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0
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0
'E
[0.45]
I'-
.......
:.a: 90
� 1 1' 0 [49.5 1
-40 [-401 40 [41 1 20 [491 [40.5] 0 500 600
Ambient temperatu re, ( Ta l , o F [° C ] Airspeed I Vp l . knots
z
-
�
.:
..
::I
....... 2 .c
- ...
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.c. 6000
z � "! .t:
.:s 0 [26,6881 z
.c.
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[ 1 7,792]
�
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1 .60
u �
[0.901 u
q, 1 50 [0.721 i �
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1 .60
:E
u
8.
� f---+---1---l
(J)
[67.5]
� [0.72] (J)
1 20 [541
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;;:: 50 � 1 1 0 [49.5]
0
� [ 22.5] 1----t-----t�--�--� ;;::
... 1 00 [45]
00
1 0000 30000 50000 � 90 [40.5]
[3000] [9000] [ 1 50001 50 60 70 80 90 1 00
Altitude.• feet (meter ] Ram efficiency,n • percent
r
F I G U R E 3-1 6 The effects of eng ine rpm, a i rspeed, altitude (at a constant temperatu re), ram efficiency, and temperature on fuel f _
specific fuel consumption, a i rflow, and thrust for a General Electric J79 engine.
Mil
r
':
/ ::
..
,l Mil
/
'
.�·
/
,·
1 500°F (Mil)
25 1blin2
(AlB and Mil)
�====�--�----�
(a) For a typical turbojet er.1gine with and without afterburner operation.
F I G U R E 3-1 7
Wright Corporation.)
4000 1 600 1 60
[2222] [480] [1 204]
-- --
3000 1 200 1 20
/
/
!;L �.::i /
.s Ill
0� I
4i '(ij
...
� 4' /
2000 >: 800 80
c..
:I
4i OJ� I/
[1102] - [240]
i
[552]
...
:; � I
700 ft/s
Ql
c.. '() til I
E 0 til I
Velocity
Ql
�
I
� a: 1 1
15 lblin2
I
I
0 0 0
STATION
P1 (PSIA)
T, (• F) 2 2.5 3 4 5 7
V;p = 1 560
14.7 26 63 200 1 90 28
FT/SEC
59• 1 70° 360° 715° 1 600° 89o•
V;1 = 990
FT/SEC
(b)
F I G U R E 3-1 9 More energy is extracted by the turboprop turbine section than in a turbojet.
(U.S.A.F Extension Course Institute and Air University, Course 430 1.)
(a) Turbojet turbine.
(b) Turboprop turbine.
� 2
::>
"'
"'
Q)
a: �
::>
"'
"'
5 Q)
a:
Cycle begins
4
Volume V ol u m e
Compression E x pansion
I ntake and combustion ( power stroke ) Exhaust
Piston descends, Piston ascends, Increased Exhaust valve Air enters at Air enters Gas at increased Combustion
inlet valve open. both valves pressure at opens, releasing atmospheric compressor and volume and charge released
Air drawn in at closed. Pressure constant volume combustion pressure and pressure increases constant pressure through jet with
constant pressure increases and forces piston charge with constant volume as volume enters turbine rapid drop in
(line 1-2) . volume decreases down, resulting rapid drop in at point 1 . decreases to and expands volume at
to point 3. in increase in pressure at point 2 above. through it, constant pressure
Combustion at volume and drop constant volume Combustion at resulting in (line 4-1). Cyck
constant volume in pressure (line (line 5-2) . Piston point 2 at further increase is continuous,
results in sharp 4-5) . rises and forces constant pressure in volume and starting at point
pressure rise to remaining gases results in sharp sharp drop in 1.
point 4. out exhaust at volume rise to pressure (line 3-
constant pressure point 3. 4).
(line 2-1). Cycle
begins again at
point 1 .
The Otto Cycle The Brayton Cycle
F I G U R E 3-20 Pressure-volume changes i n the reciproc ating and gas turbine engines.
F I G U R E 3-2 1 Propulsive efficienc y is high for a propelle r and low for a jet.
3 3
�:OQ "'
t
"'
"'
c
"�
o'?
c
·c;.
c
t
·c:
5 t;O0"' �
c
� "' .....
"' :;:
"' 8�
a: Ofo>j
2
Volume � T e m perature �
O t t o cycle
(reciprocating e n g i n e cylinder only)
t
"' 2
E x p a n sion
:!'
3
=>
through
�
"' turbines �
"' "'
a: a:
Atmospheric
�LL<��� 5 pressure
Brayton cycle
(oircroft g o s turbine)
F I G U RE 3-22 . Comparison of the Otto and Brayton cycles. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corporation.)
I fl 300 r- y l
I
�XJ
11I [1 0 1 6] Heat added in
I
I
I
I
'iii'
a..
6
I
Ol
200
·1 Compressor
pressure /
co'mbus������� C
1'
I
I
rise � I
-� [677] a I
Q) I I
'5 I Additional turbine I
UJ
UJ
Q)
1 00
/
pressure drop in
turboprop� y/
I
I
/'-- Turbine
cl: pressure
[339]
1 /'">fDT drop in
b I c
j I F ....- I 1
turbojet
I ,/
AL------r-- �---�E
0 G �1 540
400 520 800 980 1 200 1 600 2000
Total temperature, oR
1 56 History a nd Theory
The term equivalent specific fuel consumption, ESFC, is
used to compare fuel consumption between turboprop TABLE 3-1 Summary of specific fuel consu mp
engines. tion formu las.
w,
ESFC = � S FC turboshaft
SHP
ESHP
ESHP = SHP + � hp
1 4,3 15,200
2.5 33 ,000
500 = 433.79 potential horsepower [323.48 kW]
= 2800 +
2.5
= 2800 + 200 The actual power output of the engine as compared to the
potential horsepower in the fuel is a measure of the engine 's
ESHP = 3000 [2238 kW] thermal efficiency and can be determined by dividing the
engine's actual power output by the fuel's potential power
then
input. They are never equal since all of the potential energy
wf in fuel cannot be liberated, and no engine is capable of tak
ESFC
ESHP ing advantage of all the heat energy available. Typical ther
1 500 mal efficiencies range from 20 to 30 percent, with a large
3000 portion of the heat energy lost to the atmosphere through the
exhaust nozzle.
ESFC = 0.5 lb/ESHP/h [0.225 kg!kW/h]
There are many factors that affect the overall efficiency
Another way of determining the engine's thermal effi of an engine. Some of these factors are
ciency is to compare the potential energy stored in a fuel
1. Component efficiency-Since none of the engine
with the amount of power the engine is producing.
components is perfect, there will always be a cert:a.i.I>.
Assuming that all of the heat energy could be liberated in a
amount of inefficiency present. For instance, if
pound of gas turbine fuel, the potential power output of the
compressor i� 85 percent efficient, the combus ·
fuel if it were completely burned in 1 min. version of the kinetic energy to propulsi\"e .._.,_. · determines
.,
exhaust wastes considerably more energy than the propeller u
Propulsive Efficiency = �(
• . �
exhaust gas elocity
f .
mrcra t veloCity
+ 1 ) Jc 100)
2oo 6 oo
[ 1 25 ) [ 250) [ 3 75)
A irspeed, mph [ km /h l
[500) [625 )
* Total pres
sure = 30 l b
( 1 33.5 N ]
High-velocity-flow
or dynamic pressure
= 20 1 b (89 N ]
Low-velocity-flow Low-velocity-
or dynamic pressure * Sfatic � Flow or flow or dynamic
�
� 1 0 lb (44.5 N ] pressure dynamic pressure pressure - 10 l b (44.5 N ]
F I G U R E 3-26 Pressu re and velocity changes a t subsonic flow. Kinetic energy (which is proportion
al to the square of the speed) and pressure a re mutual ly i nterchangeable forms of energy in a fluid.
Add1t1onally, a 1 rflow on the surface of an object is movi ng the slowest (stagnation pressure), and all
kmet1c energy IS converted to pressure.
Thus, as the speed of the object nears the speed ,of sound, a How fast is the airplane moving?
�ompression wave will form, and changes in velocity, pres-
5Ufe, and temperature will take place quite sharply and sud V = Mcs V = Mcs
denly. The compression or shock wave results from the = 2 X 995 or = 2 X 680
"piling up" of air molecules as they try to move forward, = 1990 ft/s [606.6 m/s] = 1 360 mph [2189 km/h]
way from the pressure disturbance as fast as the object is
�oving forward through the air. The shock waves are very Reference was made on page 143 of this section to a
;:mrrow areas of discontinuity where the air velocity slows choked nozzle, and it was stated that when a nozzle is
- om supersonic to subsonic. choked the gases are traveling through it at the speed of
It becomes apparent that all compressibility effects sound and cannot be further accelerated. It can now be seen
�pend upon the relationship of the object's speed to the that the velocity of these exhaust gases is much higher than
ocal speed of sound. The term used to describe this rela 763 mph [1228 km/h] (the speed of sound at the standard
onship is the Mach number, so named for the Austrian temperature of 59°F [15°C]). In fact, if the exhaust-gas tem
-:hysicist Ernst Mach. Mach number, then, is the ratio of the perature is 1040°F [560°C], the exhaust velocity may reach
speed of an object to the local speed of sound. 1896 ft/s [577.9 m/s] or 1293 mph [2081 km/h] before the
speed of sound is reached.
In review, a sonic shock wave is the accumulation of
sound-wave energy (pressure) developed when a sound
moving away from a disturbance (object) is held in a sta
tionary position by the flow of air in the opposite direction.
The velocity of airflow across a shock wave will decrease
because the air molecules are moving with the sound wave
against the air velocity. This decrease in air velocity is
accompanied by a pressure rise, because the sound-wave
motion, in slowing the air velocity, will convert most of the
(a)
kinetic energy of velocity into a pressure rise.
There are two types of shock waves, oblique and normal
No c h a n g e of f l ow d i re c t i o n a p p a re n t
ahead of l eading edge (Fig. 3-28 on p. 160). The oblique shock wave stands off of
the moving object at an oblique angle; it occurs at high
supersonic velocities, and the velocity drop across this
shock is to a lower supersonic velocity. The normal shock
---�c----- wave stands perpendicular to the airstream; it occurs at low
supersonic speed and its velocity drop is from supersonic to
-� 3f--- (b)
subsonic behind the normal shock front. In both types. a
pressure rise occurs. If the velocity and pressure change are
small, it is called a weak shock; if the velocity drop and
Airflow behavior over a n a i rfoil at su bson ic
= ! G U R E 3-27
pressure rise are high, it is called a strong or forced hock.
a'1d supersonic speeds.
1a} Typical subsonic flow pattern.
Keep in mind that across all shock waves there is a temper
'b) Typical supersonic flow pattern . ature increase. (See chap. 4.)
W a v e s d u e to
J�:;t--1-
. -- 4th p e bb l e
3 r d pebble
2 n d pebble
I st p e bb l e
W a v e p a t t e r n at subsonic speed
Wave p at t e r n at 0 speed
Waves piling u p
and forming
normal shock
-
� w -
N o t e : Smaller c i r c l e s
are n o l o n g e r c o m p l e t e l y
i n s i d e larger o n e s
Wave pattern at s o n i c s p e e d
F I G U R E 3-28 Water wave analogy of shock formation: disturbance caused by pebbles dropped i nto
water at equal t1me mtervals.
Although the inlet duct is made by the aircraft manu engine is approximately 10 times or more that of a piston
facturer, during flight operation, as shown in chapter 3, it engine of comparable size.
becomes very important to the overall jet engine perfor Inlet ducts should be as straight and smooth as possible
m ance and will greatly influence jet engine thrust output. and should be designed in such a way that the boundary
The faster the airplane goes, the more critical the duct layer air (a layer of still, dead air lying next to the surface)
design becomes. Engine thrust can be high only if the inlet will be held to a m inimum. The length, shape, and place
duct supplies the engine with the required airflow at the ment of the duct is determined to a great extent by the loca
highest possible pressure. The nacelle/duct must also allow tion of the engine in the aircraft.
the engine to operate with m inimum stall/surge tendencies Not only must the duct be large enough to supply the
(see pages 175 to 1 78) and permit wide variations in angle proper airflow, but it must be shaped correctly to deliver the
of attack and yaw of the aircraft. For subsonic aircraft, the air to the front of the compressor with an even pressure dis
nacelle/duct should not produce strong shock waves or tribution. Poor air pressure and velocity distribution at the
flow separations and should be of m inimum weight for front of the compressor may result in compressor stall
both subsonic and supersonic designs. For certain military and/or compressor blade vibration. (See chap. 5.) Spring
applications, the r adar cross-sectional control, or r adar loaded, blow-in, or suck-in doors are sometimes placed
reflectance, is a crucial design requirement. This design around the side of the inlet to provide enough air to the
can be achieved by interposing the aircraft fuselage engine at high engine rpm and low aircraft speed. This
between the inlet duct and the ground, by correctly shap arrangement permits the inlet duct to be sized most effi
ing the inlet duct, and through careful selection of the ciently for cruise speed.
m aterials used in the inlet duct. Another primary task a duct must do during flight opera
Inlet ducts add to the parasitic drag, or aerodynamic tion is to convert the kin�tic energy of the rapidly moving
resistance drag. Parasitic drag can be broken down into skin inlet airstream into a ram pressure rise inside the duct. To do
friction due to the viscosity of the air, form drag due to the this it must be shaped so that the ram velocity is slowly and
shape of the duct, and interference drag that comes from the smoothly decreasing, while the ram pressure is slowly and
junctions of the aircraft's components. The wing generates smoothly rising.
another form of drag, called induced or lift drag, which i s Inlet ducts are rated in two ways: the duct pressure effi
the penalty paid for lift. ciency ratio and the ram recovery point. The duct pressure
The inlet duct must operate from static ground run up to efficiency ratio is defined as the ability of the duct to convert
high aircraft Mach numbers with a high duct efficiency at all the kinetic or dynamic pressure energy at the inlet of the duct
altitudes, attitudes, and flight speeds (Fig. 4- 1 ) . To com (P11) into static pressure energy at the inlet of the compressor
pound the problem, the amount of air required by a turbojet (P12) without a loss in total pressure. (See pages 157 to 1 58,
� I I I I I IT
I I I llll11
�
�(
�
----
g
and pressure increasing
(a) (b)
162
Nose Inlet F8U-1, FJ4, F-100
Variations F-84 F-86
Scoop Inlet
Variations
Bernoulli's theorem .) It will have a high value of 98 percent (a) two dimensional
if the friction loss is low and if the pressure rise is accom (b) axisymmetric and half axisymmetric
plished with small losses. The ram recovery point is that air-
Figure 4-2 illustrates the variety of possible inlet duct
raft speed at which the ram-pressure rise is equal to the
designs falling within these categories. It is interesting to
fr iction pressure losses, or that airspeed at which the com
note that the engine manufacturers rate their engines using
pressor inlet total pressure is equal to the outside ambient air
a bellmouth inlet (Fig. 4-3). This type of inlet i s essential
pressure. A good subsonic duct will have a low ram recovery
ly a bell-shaped funnel having carefully rounded shoul
point (about 1 60 mph [257.4 km/h]).
ders, which offer practically no air resistance . The duct
Inlet ducts may be divided into two broad categories:
loss is so small that it is considered zero, and all engine
1. Subsonic ducts performance data can be gathered without any c orrection
2. Supersonic ducts for inlet duct loss being necessary. (See chap. 1 9.) Normal
(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-4 (a) A typical Pra.tt & Whitney Canada PT6 engine instal lation showing a passive (no
moving parts) air fi lter. The heavier particles i n the air tend to continue in a straight line, while the
clean a i r is req u i red to turn sharply to enter the engine.
CONTROlSANDACCESSORIESMOOULE
duct inefficiencies may cause thrust losses of 5 percent or
more because a decrease in duct efficiency of 1 percent
will decrease airflow 1 percent, decrease jet velocity 1/2
percent, and result in 11/2 percent thrust loss. The decrease
in jet velocity occurs because it is necessary to increase
the area of the jet nozzle in order to keep the turbine tem
perature within limits when duct losses occur.
Inlet ducts can also be used to pre-clean the air before it
enters the compressor. Traditional filters or screens are not
used because they would offer too much resistance to air
flow. Particle separators for turboshaft/turboprop engines
.
take advantage of the natural inertial property of matter to
continue in a straight line, as shown in Fig. 4--4.
SUPERSONIC DUCTS
The design and construction of the inlet duct for high speed
aircraft is of critical importance because of its profound effect
on both the airframe and engine. The high-speed inlet duct is
often a complex construction because, not only must the air be
delivered to the face of the compressor at an acceptable mass
flow rate, velocity, angle, and pressure distribution, it must do
this under wide extremes of aircraft speed, altitude, and atti
tude, and with as little loss of total pressure as possible.
At high aircraft speed, the amount of thrust provided by
the inlet is much greater than that produced by the engine,
and any inefficiencies in the inlet duct will result in large
thrust losses. (At Mach 3, the pressure ratio across a typical
inlet may be as high as 40: 1 and is contributing much more FIGURE 4-4 (b) The General E lectric T700/CT7 turboshaft
engine uses an integrated, active particle sepa rator. Solid
to the total thrust than is the engine.) ·
matter is removed from the incoming air by centrif ugal force
The supersonic inlet duct must operate in three speed and extracted by a separate engine-mounted blower and dis
zones (Fig. 4-5): charged overboard .
�
pressure rise and a velocity decrease to subsonic velocities
(a) (b)
before the air strikes the actual inlet duct. The inlet will then
be a subsonic design behind a normal shock front. At low
_____. \\E
supersonic Mach numbers, the strength of the normal shock
Obllqu �Spillage
shock
r{>:_:_. wave is not too great, and this type of inlet is quite practi
- - ormal cal. But at higher Mach numbers, the single, pormal shock
shock
------
�-
wave is very strong and causes a great reduction in the total
pressure recovered by the duct and an excessive air temper
ature rise inside the duct.
At slightly higher airspeeds the normal bow wave will
(c) (d)
change into an oblique shock [Fig. 4-S(c) and (d)]. Since
the air velocity behind an oblique shock is still supersonic,
to keep the supersonic velocities out of the inlet duct, the
duct will need to set up a normal shock wave at the duct
inlet. The airflow is controlled so that the air velocity at the
duct inlet is exactly equal to the speed of sound. At this time
the duct pressure rise will be due to
1. An oblique shock pressure rise
(e) (f)
2. A normal shock pressure rise
3. A subsonic diverging section pressure rise
FIGURE 4-5 Types of i nlet ducts.
(a) Subsonic duct. As the airspeed is increased, the angle of the oblique shock
(b) Transonic duct. will be forced back by the higher air velocity until the oblique
(c) Supersonic duct with variable geometry operating at shock contacts the outer lip of the duct. When this occurs
design speed .
there will be a slight increase in thrust due to an increase in
(d) Ramp- or wedge-type duct below design speed.
(e) Ramp- or wedge-type d uct at design speed. engine inlet pressure and airflow, because the energy con
(f) Ram p- or wedge-type duct establishing m u ltiple tained in the shock front is now enclosed within the duct and
oblique shocks. delivered to it with less pressure loss. This point is called the
duct recovery point [Fig. 4-S(e)] or duct start [see Fig. 4-6] .
Start Condition
1. Subsonic
2. Transonic
3. Supersonic
by slowing the air with the weakest possible series or com established wel l into the engine; unstart descr ::;:: :-= -� d
bination of shocks to minimize energy loss and tempera tion in which the normal shock moves fan,• a·: ::; - :: �..artds"
ture rise. in front of the i nlet, red ucing airflow in;:o :-:= =-; -=.
Shock
(a)
(a)
TO VENT EXCESS
AIR FLOW
�
�� __ , ,
AS SCOOP TO TO PREVENT
INCREASE AIRFLOW TURBULENCE
),,
(b)
'
MACH3
��;� MACHS
[Author's Note In a ramjet, the inlet air is deceler 2. Define duct pressure efficiency and ram recovery
ated to subsonic velocities inside the engine before it point. What is the importance of these terms in
is mixed with the fuel for combustion, while in a the design of a good inlet duct?
scramjet, the airflow velocity remains supersonic all 3. What is a bellmouth inlet? When is it used?
the way through the engine. Hydrogen is the fuel of 4. Into what two broad categories do inlet ducts fall?
choice because of its ability to bum fast enough to go 5. What are the three speed zones in which the
to complete combustion inside the engine.] supersonic inlet duct must operate? Give a brief
:::n
description of the inlet duct airflow under these
summary, the supersonic duct must
three conditions.
1. Have a high duct efficiency and deliver the highest 6. What is the action of inlet duct airflow across a
possible ram pressure. normal shock? Across an oblique shock?
2. Deliver the airflow required. (Although at some super 7. Why is it desirable for a high-speed supersonic inlet
sonic speeds, it may be required to dump excessive duct to produce a series of weak oblique shocks?
airflow.) 8. Why must supersonic aircraft be equipped with
variable-geometry inlet ducts?
REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
9. List some methods of constructing the variable
geometry ducts.
1. What is the function of the inlet duct? Why is its
correct design so important?
The role of the compressor in a gas turbine engine is to airflows up to approximately 350 lb/s [ 1 58.8 kg/s]. With the
provide a maximum of high-pressure air that can be heated in addition of a fan, total pressure ratios of more than 25 : 1 and
the limited volume of the combustion chamber and then mass airflows of 1 000 lb/s [453.6 kg/s] have been achieved.
expanded through the turbine. The energy that can be released The compressor in an axial-flow engine and, to a some
in the combustion chamber is proportional to the mass of air what lesser extent, the centrifugal-flow engine presents a
consumed; therefore the compressor is one of the most impor number of important and challenging problems for the
tant components of the gas turbine engine since its efficient manufacturer. The importance of good compressor design
operation (maximum compression with minimum tempera can be illustrated by pointing out that for a high-bypass
ture rise) is the key to high overall engine performance. The ratio turbofan, each 1 percent improvement in fan effi
compressor efficiency will determine the power necessary to ciency can result in a 0.75 percent improvement in
create the pressure rise of a given airflow and will affect the specific fuel consumption, and for each 1 percent
temperature change that can take place in the combustion improvement in the efficiency of the high-pressure com
chamber. (See chap. 3.) Present-day compressors have com pressor, a 0.5 percent change in specific fuel consumption
pression ratios over 25 : 1 , efficiencies over 90 percent, and is obtained. See Table 5 . 1 for a listing of (and in some
TABLE 5-1 Some of the variables that must be considered when designing an axial-flow compressor.
Rotor Blade and Stator Vane Design Considerations General Compressor Design Considerations
1. Airfoil shape or camber of the blades and vanes 1 . N u m ber of spools- M ultispoo� compressors a llow
2. Height (H) of the blades and vanes each compressor to be turned at its own best rpm but
make the engine more mechan ically and aerodynami
3. C hord (C) of the blades and vanes
cally complex and heavier.
4. Aspect ratio (H/C)-Aspect ratios in modern engines
2. Compressor rpm or blade speed-The rpm w i l l influ
are decreasing. For compressor vanes and blades it is
ence whether the blade has a subsonic, transonic, or
about 1.4. For high-pressu re-ratio, low-bypass- ratio
supersonic profile.
turbofans it is about 1 , and for low-pressure-ratio,
high-bypass-ratio, single-stage turbofans it is 2. 0 to 3. Location and number of a i r bleeds-Air bleeds can be
2. 5. Low-aspect-ratio blades and vanes have a lso used for turbine cooling, anti-icing, clearance control,
resulted in i ncreased durability, fewer parts, lower sta l l control during starting and acceleration, and for
•
cost, better sta l l resistance, higher efficiency, and less customer usage.
need for shrouding. 4. Number and spacing of blade rows or stages, pressure
5. Blade spacing (S)-The circumferential distance ratio per stage, and total pressure ratio
between blades and vanes 5. Desired mass a i r flow- Mass a i r flow is one of the pri
6. Solidity (CI S)-The solidity ratio is increasing, com- mary determiners of engine size and power.
monly averaging about 1.4. 6. Flow-path shape, which influences the velocity of the
7. Angle of i ncidence, or stagger a ngle a i rflow parallel to the axis of the. engine.
8. B lade and vane attach m ent methods 7. Sufficient sta l l margin-The entire operating range,
i ncluding starting, must be stal l free.
9. B lade and vane tip clearance or endwal l loss, which is
especially i mportant because of the trend toward low 8. Compressor efficiency-The higher the efficiency, the
aspect-ratio blades and vanes. Endwal l loss may be less work the turbine has to do, and the lower the
controlled by controlling the temperature of the com specific fuel consumption.
pressor rotor and/or compressor case; by tip treatment 9. C h oice of materials- Mechanica l , aerodynamic, and
(squealer tips); a nd by the use of rub coatings, vane thermal considerations a l l i nfluence the selection of
shrouding, and labyrinth seals. (See chapter 1 5 for a materials.
·
discussion of labyrinth seals.) 1 0. Vector analysis, which helps determine the turning
1 0. Usage of fixed- or variable-stator vanes-Stator vanes ' a ngles of both blades and vanes and the velocity
can be either cantilevered or shrouded. changes occurring across these parts.
1 68
IMPELLER DIFFUSER COMPRESSOR MANIFOLD
Swept-back second-stage
centrifugal compresso r
with half-vanes
(a) (b)
::ases, a short discussion of) ·some of the many variables The Centrifugal-Flow Compressor
j}at must be taken into account in the design of a modern
The centrifugal compressor consists basically of an
axial-flow compressor.
impeller and a diffuser manifold (Fig. 5-l ) . Other compo
nents such as a compressor manifold may be added to direct
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
the compressed air into the combustion chamber. As the
impeller revolves at high speed, air is drawn in at the eye or
All gas turbine engines use one of the following forms of
inducer. Centrifugal force provides high acceleration to this
-ompressor:
air and causes it to move outward from the axis of rotation
1. Centrifugal flow toward the rim or exducer of the rotor, where it is ejected at
2. Axial flow high velocity and high kinetic energy. The pressure rise is
The centrifugal-axial-flow compressor is a combination produced in part by expansion of the air in the diffuser man
of the two, with operating characteristics of both. ifold by conversion of the kinetic energy of motion into stat
It will be the purpose of this chapter to examine, in ic pressure energy. The total compression is shared between
-orne detail, the construction and operation of each of the rotor and the diffuser, but the diffuser does not work on
these compressors. the air (Fig. 5-2).
Diffuser Outlet
Resultant
vector
Tip velocity
vector
CCC c
A
�
Resulto t
rpm vector
A
Inlet velocity
vector Inlet
(a) (b)
2 .00
proportional to the energy or work expended. This proposi
tion will be examined in more detail in the section titled
�
c
0 Compressor Thermodynamics.
i_ 1.50
E
:::>
1/)
c
8 1.00 ....... The Compressor Blade as a Wing
---
--
--
a;
:::>
'1- Bernoulli's principle states that as air gains speed or
¥0.50 dynamic pressure, it loses static pressure, and as it loses speed
·;:;
Q) or dynamic pressure, it gains static pressure. Dynamic pres
a.
(fl
sure (which is proportional to the square of speed) and static
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 pressure are thus mutually interchangeable forms of energy in
Pressure ratio
a flowing fluid. As air moves past any object, the normally
straight-line' flow is deflected into longer paths around that
FIGURE 5-3 Specific fuel consumption decreases with object. The longer path forces the flow to speed up and thus
increasing pressure ratio. momentarily lose pressure. If the object is asymmetrical or at
an angle to the relative wind, the flow path around one side m iniature tornado called the wingtip/bladetip vortex. Power
v.ill be longer than around the other. Air moving over the long is consumed in generating these vortices, and the result is a
side must move faster and thus lose more pressure than air drag force called induced drag. Other form s of drag are
moving over the short side. This pressure difference exerts a wake drag and drag due to skin friction .
net force on the object at right angles to the airflow. This force
· lift. A wing/compressor blade is just such an asymmetrical
object. 100
The highest positive pressure that can act on a wing/blade
is the so-called stagnation pressure, which results when
Axial flow
/
motion caused by the turning compressor, the resultants E and
G are produced, which show the true airflow through the
compressor. Notice that these vectors are exactly in line for Rotor
Stator
entrance into the next stage of the compressor. One final aero entrance E D\ discharge
dynamic point to note is that the stator entrance (vector E) is
longer than the stator discharge (vector F) because of the
I
\
X
addition of energy to the air by the rotor rotation X. Thus, as
1st
each set of blades, rotors, and stators causes a pressure rise to
stage
occur at the expense of its discharge velocity, the air's rotary stator
motion restores the velocity energy at each blade's entrance, Note: E Absolute velocity
D
=
= Tangential velocity
You will notice that both the rotor blades and the stator
vector E is obtained
blades are diffusing the a ii4Jow. It is much more difficult to
by adding D to X
obtain an efficient deceleration (diffusion or pressure
increase) of airflow than it is to get efficient acceleration,
because there is a natural tendency in a diffusion process for 2nd
the air to break away from the walls of the diverging passage, stage
- Rotation rotor
reverse its direction, and flow back in the direction of the
pressure gradient of lower pressure (Fig. 5-7). A pressure
ratio of approximately 1 .2 is all that can be handled by a sin
\ Rotor
H
gle compressor stage since higher rates of diffusion and
excessive turning angles on the blades result in excessive air
\ discharge
instability, hence low efficiency. A desired compression ratio
is achieved by simply adding more stages onto the compres FIGURE 5-6 Vector analysis of a i rflow through an axia l-flow
sor. The amount of pressure rise or compression ratio com pressor. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp.)
pre ssure
-
-
-
-
Unstable flow
1 4.7 psi.
is the result of multiplying the pressure rise in each stage.
Fan compression ratio = 3:1 (Fan outlet pressure-+- ambient
Example: A 1 3-stage compressor has a pressure ratio across
pressure or 44.1 psi -+-
each stage of 1 .2 and an ambient inlet pressure of 1 4.7 psi
14.7 psi)
[ 101 .4 kPa] . What is the final pressure? What is the pressure
Core compression ratio = 8:1 (Core outlet pressure-+- core
ratio?
inlet pressure or 352.8 psi -+-
. 44.1 psi)
stage 1 stage 2 stage 3
1 4.7 X 1 .2 1 7.64 X 1 .2 2 1 . 17 X 1 . 2
Total compression ratio = 24:1
= = =
The pressure ratio is the same in both cases but the actu
al increase in pressure is much greater toward the rear of the 160
[7 12Jr
� 1 20
compressor (Fig. 5-8) than the front. The compression ratio
will increase and decrease with engine speed. It will also be � [ 534]
affected by compressor inlet temperature. As the inlet tem 'iii 80
perature (due to ram) increases, the compression ratio will ': [ 356]
3
Q)
tend to decrease due to the combined effects of air density 40
�
ct
decrease and the temperature effects on the angle of attack. [ 178]
1:.----�
To get some idea of the pressure ratio effects and the OL--L� �� ��--� � --� 7�
2 3 4
° --�--
5 6 �7--8 9 �1�0�17 1-12 13
pressure changes across an actual turbofan engine installed
Stages
in the F 1 5 and F 1 6 aircraft, the following values are listed
for the F100-PW- 1 00 low-bypass-ratio turbofan equipped . FIGURE 5-8 The res ult of compressor pressu re multiplication.
1�
= diameter, if given in inches
By bypassing some of the excess compressor discharge 12
air around the combustion chambers and turbine and dis
charging it into the primary airstream at the jet nozzle, (see = revolutions per second
Fig. 2-58) and/or by reducing the number of compressor
stages, these high compressor discharge pressures may be the tip speed of any rotating wheel, i.e., the compressor or
used to advantage. A system of "blow-in" doors will be nec turbine, may be found. For example, if the diameter of a par
essary to ensure the proper pressure relationship between ticular compressor is 18 in [45.7 em] from tip to tip, the
the bypassed air and primary air. corv.pressor rpm is 20,000, and the temperature at the fron
A cross-sectional view of the engine (Fig. 5-9) shows of the compressor is standard, the tip speed of the blade
that the space formed by the compressor disk rim and the would be:
stator casing gradually reduces in area. Figure 3-1 7 (p. 1 5 1 )
rrD .!:£!!!_
shows that the airflow velocity is relatively constant through X
12 60
the compressm. If air is compressed and the volume is not
3. 1 4X 18
X
decreased, its velocity will decrease excessively toward the 20,000
rear stages and the stall area (discussed on pages 1 75 to 1 78) 12 60
will be approached. Two methods of reducing the volume
1 570 [3987.8 cm/s]
toward the rear stage are to use a compressor whose case has
a constant diameter and whose compressor rotor tapers, or to Always keeping in mind that the speed of sound is a func
use a compressor with a tapering case and a constant diam tion of temperature and that under standard day tempera
'
eter rotor. Fig. 2-63(b) shows both types used on one tures the speed of sound is equal to 1 1 1 7 ft/s [340.5 m/s], we
engine. Since rpm and airflow are related, the compressor can see that the rpm of this compressor would be much too
FIGURE 5-9 Sectioned view s howing a typical com pressor taper and constant-d ia meter case .
X 12 X 60
high in importance is the stall problem. If for some reason
D Vrps
the angle of attack, i.e., the angle at which the airflow strikes
x
=
'TT rpm
the rotor blades, becomes too low, the pressure zones shown
in Fig. 5-1 1 will be of low value and the airflow and com
To keep bladetip speed below Mach 0.85, pression will be low. (The angle of attack should not be con
maximum compressor rpm is limited
fused with the angle of incidence, which is a fixed angle
determined by the manufacturer when the compressor is
constructed.) If the angle of attack is high, the pressure
Compressor 1 zones will be high and airflow and compression ratio will be
high. If it is too high, the compressor will stall. That is, the
A i r f low
airflow over the upper foil surface will become turbulent
at X than at X
'
Tip spe e d g reater
and destroy the pressure zones. This turbulence will, of
course, decrease the compression and airflow. The angle of
t
Y' 2 c:
·.;::
Compressor
0
_L Airflow
�
at Y and Y '
Tip spe e d the some -
0
c:
0
·.;::
�
0
Chapter 5 Compressors 1 75
attack will vary with engine rpm, compressor-inlet tempera can be reset to low angles by moving the variable
ture, and compressor discharge or burner pressure. From vanes at low engine speeds. Some advanced engine
Fig. 5-1 2 it can be seen that decreasing the velocity of air designs also use the variable-stator concept on the las·
flow or increasing engine rotor speed will tend to increase several compressor stages.
the angle of attack. In general, any action that decreases air 5. Use a variablecarea exhaust nozzle to unload the com
flow relative to engine speed will increase the angle of pressor during acceleration.
attack and increase the tendency to stall. The decrease in air
flow may result from the compressor discharge pressure [Author's Note A combination of these methods
becoming too high, for example, from excessive fuel-flow may be used.]
schedule during acceleration. Or compressor-inlet pressure
One last point on compressor aerodynamics needs dis
may become too low in respect to the compressor-discharge
cussion. Every compressor has a certain ability to maintaiL
pressure because of high inlet temperatures or distortion of
a compression ratio for a given mass airflow. Figure 5-14(a
inlet air. Several other causes are possible (Fig. 5-1 2).
shows a typical compressor's ability to maintain a compre
During ground operation of the engine, the prime action
sion ratio as mass flow varies. Any point located above the
that tends to cause a stall is choking. If the engine speed is
compressor's stall curve represents a compression ratio too
decreased from the design speed, the compression ratio will
high for the existing mass airflow. The normal operating line
shows the actual pressure ratio the compressor would be
decrease with the lower rotor velocities, as shown in Fig.
�
--;::. -;::::.:Jl;�"---+--=--� c
1 'l
\ � �
I �J � ROTATION
I �
-._ )
1/
I!
/1
....__/
COMPAT I B L E I N LET-AIR I N LET-A I R V E LOCITY DE· RPM I NCR EASE W I THOUT I N LET
VE LOCITY A N D RPM PROV I D E S CR EASE W I T H OUT R P M C H A N G E AI R-VELOCITY INCR EASE W I LL
R E A SO N A B LY E F F EC T I V E C A U S E S E F F ECTI V E A N G L E O F I NC R EASE E F F EC T I V E ANG LE OF
A N G L E OF ATTACK (a). ATTACK ( a ) T O I NC R EASE. ATTACK ( a ) . B LADE STALL,
EXCESS I V E A I R - V E LO C I TY G E N E R A L LY OF SHORT D U R A T I O N ,
D E C R EASE MAY R ES U LT I N MAY OCCU R .
B L A D E STALL
LEG E N D :
A - I N LET-AI R V E LO C I T Y .
B - I N LET-G U I D E-VA N E D I SC H A R G E A I R V E LO C I T Y .
C - A I R MOTION R E LAT I V E T O R O T O R BLADE AS R ES U LT OF COMPR ESSOR R P M .
D - R E S U LTANT A I R F LOW A N D V E LO C I T Y E N T E R I NG ROTOR.
a - E F F ECT I V E ANGLE O F ATTACK.
(a)
Normal Low
angle of Normal
airflow ---...
attack
Normal
ai rflow
Angle of
incidence
t
(fixed)
-
e
n;
E
Direction of air High angle___.
0 '/
through engine /
Direction of 2
rotation
(1) (2)
High
airflow -
(5)
Low angle
(b)
FIGURE 5-1 2 (a & b) The result of changing airflow velocity and rpm on the angle of attack.
Chapter 5 Compressors 1 77
�
::J
:;
Q)
"'
"'
t
l5.
Q) "'
"'
l5.
Q)
� 1 0 : 1 Comp. ratio
Q)
0
l: .!!!
....
"'
.c Normal operating
0 u c
"'
¥ �-----.::::-�----,.---'--'-- ;;::
�
line
a;::J 13 0
"'
�
0 "'....
u.. "' Q)
9 : 1 Comp. ratio
"'
l5. E
::> Q) a.
�
C/1
E u
C/1
0
"' u
c
·;;;
�
0
Mass air flow
(.)
c
(a)
Increasing stages -
less pressure output than the ideal compressor. Since this is not
a text on thermodynamics, these phenomena will be investi
gated only rather briefly.
X
2mc number of molecules c
Further, each molecule in a container will eventually Force =
3 ld
strike all sides of that container. If a force in one direction is
of interest, i.e., pressure on a specific area, the total force where c = speed of molecule, ft/s
must be divided by 3 . d molecule distance to wall
=
PV/w = RT P2 V2 = C
then
Now, if
P 1 V1 = P2 V2 or
3gPV
c2 =
w
where P 1 = initial absolute pressure, psi
then P2 = final absolute pressure, psi
c2 = 3gRT vl = initial volume, ft3
v2 = final volume, ft3
In this formula the 3, g, and R are all constants, and it can Transposing will give us
be seen that the temperature varies as the square of the
molecular speed. The letter K is often used for the combined p 2 = P J VJ P J VJ
or V2 =
constant for the 3, g, and R, resulting in the formula: v2 P2
Chapter 5 Compressors 1 79
or
CHARLES' LAW
V T2
v2 = PI I
P2TI
Charles' law states that if the pressure on a given quanti
ty of gas is held constant, the volume is directly proportion
or
al to the absolute temperature (Fig. 5-15).
P2V2TI
T2 =
or P I VI
quantity of gas is held constant, the pressure is directly pro given weight of gas, when heated at a constant volum=
varies directly as the absolute temperature. When a g
portional to the absolute temperature.
·
does not expand, its volume remains the same and ,..
or external work is done. All of the heat added to a gas ar _
Melting Boi l i ng
ice water
Melting Boiling
ice water
v
1 0 psig (24.7 psia) [ 1 70.3 kPa] 19 psig (33.7 psi a ) [232.4 kPa] 3 3
32° F (492° R )
V 1 0 ft [0.28Ll 1 3.6 ft [0.39Ll
21 2° F (672° R )
= =
21 2° F (672° R ) 32° F (492° R )
At a constant volume, pressure and temperature At a constant pressure, volume and temperature
vary d i rectly vary d i rectly
Pl' = constant
0.24 X 600 X 200 X 778
According to Charles ' law, the volume varies as the tem
550
perature varies. Also it is known that the pressure will vary
the temperature. Combining these statements will give = 40,739 at 1 00 percent
PV Construction Features
= const or R
T Centrifugal-flow turbine engines usually use machined
steel or titanium compressors, although cast compressors
By transposing,
are being used on small engines of this type. The compres
PV = RT sor's diffuser is also generally manufactured by casting. In
many cases the inducer or guide vanes, which smooth and
If the values for R (53.3 for air as found above) and any
direct the airflow into the engine and thus minimize the
two of the quantities P, V, or T are known, the third can be
shock in the impeller, are manufactured separately from the
found by using one of the following equations.
impeller or rotor. Rotor vanes may either be all full length,
RT PV PV as in Fig. 5-16, or some may be half length, as shown in Fig.
V= T= R =
p R T 5-1 7 (on p. 1 82). A close fit is important between the com
pressor and its case in order to obtain maximum compressor
efficiency. The clearance is usually checked with a feeler
gage or with a special fixture. Balancing of the rotor may be
HORSEPOWER REQUIRED TO DRIVE
accomplished by removing material from specified areas of
THE COMPRESSOR
. the compressor or by using balancing weights installed in
holes in the hub of the compressor. On some engines in
The compressor requires a considerable amount of shaft
which the compressor and turbine wheel are balanced as a
horsepower to pump air and to give this air a pressure and
unit, special bolts or nuts having slight variations in weight
temperature rise. The horsepower requirements can be deter
are used. Compressor support bearings may be either ball or
mined by finding out how much energy has been put into the
roller, although all manufacturers use at least one ball bear
air by the compressor. Multiplying the specific heat of air at a
ing on the compressor to support both axial and radial loads.
constant pressure by the temperature rise across the compres
Axial-flow engines have compressors that are constructed
sor will give the energy put into each pound of air during the
of several different materials depending on the load and tem
pressurizing process. If this result is then multiplied by the
perature under which the unit must operate. The rotor assem
total weight of airflow through the compressor, the total ener
bly illustrated in Fig. 5-1 8 consists of stub shafts, disks,
gy put into the air by the compressor can be obtained:
blades, ducts, spacers, and torque cones. The rotor blades are
cP �TWa or cP (T2 - T1 )Wa = Btu/s being put into the air, generally machined from stainless-steel forgings, although
or total energy of air some blades may be of titanium in the forward or colder part
of the compressor; the remainder of the components are The several stages of the compressor are composed of ·
machined, low-alloy steel forgings. The clearance between that can be joined together by means of a tie bolt as sho\\�
the rotating blades and the outer case is most important, with Fig. 5-19. Serrations or splines prevent the disks from �
many manufacturers depending on a "wear fit" between the in relation to each other. Other manufacturers eliminate the -
blade and the compressor case. Many companies design their bolt and join the stages together at the disk rim (Figs. 5-1" ·
blades with knife-edge tips (blade profiles) so that the blades 5-20). Methods of attaching the blade to the disk also \-�
will wear away and form their own clearance as they expand between manufacturers, with the majority using some ar:
from the heat generated from compression of the air. Other tion of the dovetail to hold the rotor blade in the disk. Vari
companies coat the inner surface of the compressor case with locking methods are used to anchor the blades in place. T
a soft material that can be worn away without damage to the blades do not have a tight fit in the disk, but rather are s -�
blade. Clearance control can also be achieved by regulating by centrifugal force during engine operation. By allowing -
the temperature of the compressor case or the rotor. For blades some movement, vibrational stresses, produced by -
example, the temperatures inside the rotor of the P&W 4000 high-velocity airstreams from between the blades, are redu - -
engine are increased under cruise flight conditions, causing On some of the latest engines, for example, the Pran
the entire rotor to expand, tightening bladetip and inner Whitney TF30-P- 1 00, JT9D, and others, airflow has bee-:
airseal clearances and improving performance. At the same increased by designing a bulged inner diameter flow p -
time the temperature of the turbine case is also controlled This configuration provides a greater linear blade veloci-::
using cooling tubes that surround the case in order to keep increasing the fan-root pressure ratio and work capability
turbine bladetip clearance to the desired amount. the low-pressure compressor. The canted vanes and bla �
FIGURE 5-1 7 Double-sided centrifugal com pressor with half-vanes. (Allison Engine Company J33.)
SPAC ERS
FRONT
STUB
AG E
SHAFT
A I R BAF F LE
FIGURE 5-1 8 Com pressor construction features of the General Electric J79 engine.
BALANCE W E I G HT
(1 4TH STAG E-SEGME NTED AS N E E D E D )
W H E E L ASS E M B LY
DOVETAIL
FIGURE 5-1 9 The Allison Engine C ompany 501 -0 1 3 com pressor is held together with a tiebolt.
Notice the dovetai l blade base, balanci ng weight, and lock p i n .
CANTED VANES
AND BLADES
FIGURE 5-2 1 The Pratt & Wh itney JT9D, showing canted vanes and blades.
HALF R I NG -it-t-HI
SUPPORT P LATE
B E L LCRAN K
MASTER-ROD SUBASS E M B LY f.
����������
9th-STAG E A I R MAN I FOLD
FIGURE 5-22 Stator case for the General Electric J79 engine.
ROTOR BLADE
F IR ST-STAG E
D ISK ASSEM B L y-n-:::::�lll-+l._
D ISK ASSEMBLY
SPACER
FIGURE 5-23 Rotor and stator assembly for the General E lectric CJ61 0 (J85). Note the fi rst-stage
blade attachment.
Chapter 5 Compressors 1 85
FIGURE 5-24 The AlliedSignal Lycom ing T53 has a split
compressor case.
F I G U RE 5-26 Rol ls-Royce Dart showi ng a l u m i n u m com pressor housing and diffuser construction.
REVIEW AND STUDY QUEST IONS 9. What are two methods of reducing the flow area
toward the rear of the compressor? Why is it nec
1. How would you define an efficient compressor?
essary to do this?
2. List some typical operating specifications in terms
10. What formula is used to determi ne the tip speed
of compression ratios, airflows, and efficiencies for
of the compressor?
a large axial-flow compressor.
11. Explain the phenomenon of compressor stall.
3. Name the two basic types of gas turbine compres
What conditions bring a compressor closer to
sors. Describe the operating principles of each.
stall? How may the stall problem be reduced?
4. Using vectors, show the pressure and velocity
1 2. What is the relationship between temperature
changes through an axial compressor.
and the speed of sound? Between temperature
5. What is the practical maximum pressure rise per
and work done on a gas?
stage for an axial-flow compressor? For a centrifu
13. State Boyle's law and Charles' law.
gal-flow compressor? Why?
1 4. What is meant by specific heat?
6. What is the purpose of the curved section at the
1 5. Give the formula for determining the power
front of the centrifugal-flow compressor?
required by the compressor.
7. Compare the pressure increase per stage a t the .
16. Describe the construction features and matenals
front and rear of the axial-flow compressor.
of the axial and centrifugal compressors.
8. Determine the compression ra�io for a 1 0-stage
axial-flow compressor ( 1 . 2 C R and 1 4. 7 psi
[ 1 0 1 .4 kPa] ambient pressure).
The development of burner systems for aircraft gas tur (a) Through-flow annular
ine engines presents a number of challenging problems. (b) Side-entry annular
These problems involve thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, (c) Reverse-flow annular
eat transfer, chemistry, metallurgy, and many other phases 3. Can-annular type (Fig. 6--3 ), a combination o f the can
f development. and annular styles
TYPES OF BURNERS
Can Types
The three basic types of burner systems in use today are Can-type combustion chamber versions can be seen in
:lS follows: Figs. 2-1 1 , 2-1 3 , 2-14, and 2-1 7.
NOZZLE DIAPHRAGM
187
1-1--- burner primary
air and fuel tube
(a)
(c)
1 OUTER COMBUSTION
2
CASING
INNER COMBUSTION
3
CASING
4
COMBUSTION LINER
5
SHAFT SHIELD
NO. 3 (REAR) BEARING
6 NO. 3 (REAR) CARBON
3 SEAL
7 N O . 3 (REAR) SEAL SUP
8
PORT
NO. 3 (REAR) BEARING
9
SUPPORT
TURBINE STATIONARY
10
SEAL
FIRST-STAGE TURBINE
NOZZLE
(b)
combustion-! i
casing
(a)
transition
section
FIGURE 6-3 The can-a n n u lar type burner.
(a) External view of the can-annular-type burner.
primary
(b) Sectioned view of the can-a n n ular burner used on the outer shell
section
mixing
Allison 50 1 -0 1 3 engine. Note how the transition section section
changes the circu l a r cross-section of the liner to a n
fuel nozzle
annular shape s o that t h e gases w i l l i mpinge on t h e
entire nozzle face. (b)
Can-Annular Types
(a) (b)
FIGURE 6-4 The Pratt & Whitney JT9D combustion chamber is basica l ly of annular design, but the for
ward end is d ivided into individual inner liners for more accurate control of fuel and airflow patterns.
(a) Schematic view of a JT9D comb ustor.
(b) A recent JT9D comb ustor design.
SW I R L CUP
F U E L-NOZZLE AIR
SW I R L G U I D E
SPACER
FRONT O UTER L I N E R
INNER LINER �...._�"""'&
L I N E R COVE R
SPA R K-IGN ITER
SLEEVE
COMBUSTION-CHAMBER
AI R-PR ESSUR E TRANSF ER
TUBE
LOCATI N G F LANG E
NO. 2 OUTER L I N ER
FIGURE 6-5 A variation of the can-annular combustion chamber as used on the Pratt & Whitney
JT3 (J 57) series engi nes, where each in ner l iner is actually a m i n iature annular com bustion cham ber.
- -
-
I I�
�
// �
J\
�
�-�
-
� \. \ "'-
/
/ /
� ""
......._,__
0 0
F l am e t u b e
combustion, and it creates the intense turbulence that is nec many longitudinal passages to substantially increase cooling
essary for mixing the fuel and air and for transferring ener efficiency. Finwall's construction, similar to a honeycomb, ·
gy from the burned to the unburned gases. provides a stronger wall at less weight through the use of
Since there are usually only two ignitor plugs in an thinner materials (Fig. 6-8 on p. 1 92).
engine, cross ignition or flame propagation tubes are neces One of Pratt & Whitney 's later combustor designs is
sary in the can and can-annular types of burners in order that called Floatwall. This combustor differs from conventional
burning may be initiated in the other cans or inner liners. The rolled-ring designs, which are discussed in the following
ignitor plug is usually located in the upstream, reverse-flow paragraph, mainly by the segmented cast platelets that make
region of the burner. After ignition, the flame quickly spreads up the inner combustor surface. The platelet segments are
to the primary or combustion zone where there is approxi attached to a backing shell in a manner that allows the plates
mately the correct proportion of air to completely bum the to thermally expand axially and circumferentially to avoid
fuel. If all the air flowing through the engine were mixed stresses and eliminate low-cycle fatigue. Longer time
with the fuel at this point, the mixture would be outside the between repairs, and therefore lower maintenance costs, and
combustible limits for the fuels normally used. Therefore, uniform temperature distribution are the claimed benefits
only about one-third to one-half is allowed to enter the com (Fig. 6-9 on p. 193).
bustion zone of the burner. About 25 percent of the air actu The rolled-ring combustor of the General Electric/- SNEC
ally takes part in the combustion process. The gases that MA CFM56 engine uses a short, stiff, machined constructed
result from combustion have temperatures of 3500°F
[ 1 900°C] . Before entering the turbine the gases must be Cooling air
-
cooled to approximately half this value, which is determined
���
by the design of the turbine and the materials involved.
Cooling is done by diluting the hot gases with secondary air
that enters through a set of relatively large holes located
Hot c o m b u s t i o n g a s e s
toward the rear of the liner. The liner walls must also be pro
tected from the high temperatures of combustion. This is
usually accomplished by introducing cooling air at several
I
stations along the liner, thereby forming an insulating blan
ket between the hot gases and the metal walls (Fig. 6-7).
Higher metal temperatures required the development of Cooling air
(a) (b)
combustor. Machined construction allows thickness variations a decrease in total gas energy and a corresponding
for better stress distribution and stiffness. Since sheet metal is decrease in engine performance (Fig. 6-1 1 ).
not used, there are no overlapping sheets and no brazed joints 5. Easy starting-Low pressures and high velocities in
to affect thermal conduction (Fig. 6-10 on p. 1 94). the burner make starting difficult; therefore, a poorly
designed burner will start within only a small range of
flight speeds and altitudes, whereas a well-designed
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
burner will permit easier air restarts.
6. Small size-A large burner requires a large engine
Combustion chambers require the following performance housing with a corresponding increase in the airplane ·
parameters: frontal area and an increase in aerodynamic drag. Thi
1. High combustion efficiency-This is necessary for will result in a decrease · in maximum flight speed.
long range. Excessive burner size also results in high engine
2. Stable operation-Freedom from blowout at airflows weight and, for a given aircraft, a lower fuel capacity
ranging from idle to maximum power and at pressures and payload and shorter range. Modem burners release
representing the aircraft's entire altitude range is 500 to 1 000 times the heat that a domestic oil burner
essential. or heavy industrial furnace of equal unit volume does.
3. Low pressure loss-It is desirable to have as much Without their high heat release the aircraft gas turbine
pressure as possible available in the exhaust nozzle to could not have been made practical.
accelerate the gases rearward. High pressure losses will 7. Low-smoke b urner-Smoke is not only annoying on
reduce thrust and increase specific fuel consumption. the ground but may also allow easy tracking of high
4. Uniform temperature distribution-The average tem flying military aircraft.
perature of the gases entering the turbine should be as 8. Low ca_rbonformation-Carbon deposits can block crit
close to the temperature limit of the burner material as ical air passages and disrupt airflow along the liner walls,
possible to obtain maximum engine performance. causing high metal temperatures and low burner life.
High local temperatures or hot spots in the gas stream
will reduce the allowable average turbine inlet temper All of the burner requirements must be satisfied over a
ature in order to protect the turbine. This will result in wide range of operating conditions. For example, airflows
AREA R U L E D
CASCADE
FLOATWALL
(CAST T U RBINE ALLOY S E G M E N T )
FIG U R E 6-9 Schematic and photo of Pratt & Whitney's Floatwall desi g n .
IGNITER
FERRULE
PRIMARY
DILUTION
SWIRL
HOLES
NOZZLE
may vary as much as 50: 1 , fuel flows as much as 30: 1 , and inlet air temperature is increased, combustion efficien _
fuel/air ratios as much as 5 : 1 . Burner pressures may cover a rises until it reaches a value of substantially 100 percent. Ji"
ratio of 100: 1 , while burner inlet temperatures may vary by the fuel/air ratio is increased, combustion efficiency firs:
more than 700°F [390°C]. rises, then levels off when the mixture in the combustioc
zone is close to the ideal value, and then decreases as th�
fuel-air mixture becomes too rich. An increase in fuel/arr
EFFECT OF OPERATING VARIABLES ratio will result in increased pressure loss because increas
ON BURNER PERFORMANCE ing fuel/air ratios cause higher temperatures with a corre
sponding decrease in gas density. In order to maintair.
The operating variables are as follows: continuous flow, these gases must travel at higher velocities.
and the energy needed to create these higher velocities mus
• Pressure
come from an increase in pressure loss. Increasing the flo\\
• Inlet air temperature velocity beyond a certain point reduces combustion effi
• Fuel/air ratio ciency, probably because it reduces the time available for
• Flow velocity mixing and burning.
· - t----
Gas increased, more heat is transferred from the burning gases to
flow the liner, partly by radiation through the insulating blanket
___._
of cool air and partly by forced convection, and the lining
temperature goes up. If the fuel/air ratio is increased, com
bustion temperatures become higher, and again the liner
temperature goes up, mainly due to increased radiation. On
1 200 [654)
the other hand, an increase in flow velocity outside the liner
Gas temperature, o F [° C)
tends to increase external convection, thereby reducing the
temperature of the liner.
FIGURE 6- 1 1 Temperature distribution.
OUTER
LINER LIP
REAR LINER ilvEAR R I NG
FUEL-NOZZLE
FERRULE
OUTER LINER
AFT CUP
VANE ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 6-1 2 General Electric's " low-smoke" combustion chamber for the J79.
be at much higher temperature and pressure levels, thus gen 3. How many ignitors are generally used in the com
erating much higher levels of nitrogen oxide (NOx). The bustion section? How is the flame front propagat
oxides of nitrogen have been shown to adversely affect the ed into the rest of the section?
atmospheric ozone layer, permitting increased ultraviolet 4. List the requirements for a good combustion
radiation to reach the earth's surface (Table 6-1). chamber.
Unfortunately, the perfect mixture ratio for combustion, 5 . Discuss the effects of the operating variables such
that is, where every molecule of fuel combines with the correct as pressure, inlet air temperature, fuel/air ratio,
number of air molecules, results in the highest amount of and flow velocity on burner performance.
Ox. Since fuel lean or rich mixture ratios generate the least 6. What is the relationship between fuel nozzle
amount of oxides of nitrogen, research is being done to mix design and burner performance?
fuel and air at different stages and ratios as the mixture passes
through the engine's combustor. Experimental combustors E3 Configuration
such as those shown in Fig. 6-13 show some possible varia
tions in combustor design from the General Electric Company.
(b)
(a)
TYPES OF TURBINES
(a) the wheel blades and then exhausts the air in an axial direc
tion to the atmosphere. These turbine wheels, used for small
engines, are well suited for a lower range of specific speeds
and work at relatively high efficiency.
The axial-flow turbine comprises two main elements
consisting of a set of stationary vanes and one or more tur
bine rotors. The turbine blades themselves are of two basic
types, the impulse and the reaction. The modem aircraft gas
turbine engine utilizes blades that have both impulse and
reaction sections (Fig. 7-3).
The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a
row of contoured vanes set at an angle to form a series of
small nozzles that discharge gases onto the blade of the tur
bine wheel. For this reason, the stationary vane assembly is
usually referred to as the turbine nozzle, and the vanes them
selves are called nozzle guide vanes.
(b)
FUNCTION OF THE NOZZLE GUIDE
VANES
F IGURE 7-2 The radial-inflow turbine.
(a) Airflow through a radial-i nflow turbine.
(b) Radial-inflow turbi nes superficially look l ike centrifugal The nozzle guide vanes (diaphragm) (Fig. 7--4) have two
compressors.
principal functions. First, they must convert part of the gas
heat and pressure energy into dynamic or kinetic energy, so
�D
t:l:::>.
I NSERT �
COVER �
v- R E AR INSERT
�?O L I N G -
R
-, , '- ' · ·:, HOLES
.
FRONT I NSERT
TR A I L I N G - i D I MPLES
EDGE
D I MPLES
(a) (b)
that the gas will strike the turbine blades with some degree
CONSTRUCTION Of THE NOZZLE
of force. Second, the nozzle vanes must tum this gas flow so
that it will impinge on the turbine buckets in the proper
direction; that is, the gases must impact on the turbine blade Nozzle vanes may be either cast or forged. Many vanes
in a direction that will have a large component force in the are made hollow (Fig. 7-5) to allow a degree of cooling
plane of the rotor. The nozzle does its first job by using the using compressor bleed air. In all cases the nozzle assembly
Bernoulli theorem. As through any nozzle, when the flow is made of very high-temperature, high-strength steel to
area is restricted, the gas will accelerate and a large portion withstand the direct impact of the hot, high-pressure, high
of the static pressure in the gas is turned into dynamic pres velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber.
sure. The • degree to which this effect will occur depends Several companies are experimenting with transpiration
upon the relationship between the nozzle guide vane inlet cooled nozzle and turbine blading in which the air flows
and exit areas, which, in tum, is closely related to the type through thousands of small holes in a porous airfoil made
of turbine blade used. from a sintered wire mesh material. (Refer to Fig. 1 0-7.)
The turbine nozzle area is a critical part of engine design. Since the performance of the gas turbine engine is depen
Making the nozzle area too small will restrict the airflow dent to a large measure on the temperature at the inlet of the
through the engine, raise compressor discharge pressure, turbine, increasing the turbine inlet temperature from the
and bring the compressor closer to stall. Nozzle area is espe present average limit of about 1 800°F [982°C] to the-2500°F
cially critical during acceleration, when the nozzle will have [ 1 370°C] possible with transpiration-cooled blades will
a tendency to choke (gas flowing at the speed of sound). result in about a 100 percent increase in specific horsepow
Many engines are designed to have the nozzle operate in this er. Transpiration cooling may be a promising development
choked condition. Small exit areas also cause slower accel in gas turbine design (Fig. 7-6). See chapter 10 for a more
erations because the compressor will have to work against detailed treatment of material and cooling advancements.
an increased back pressure. Increasing the nozzle diaphragm
area will result in faster engi�e acceleration, less tendency to Convection cooled Transpiration cooled
stall, but higher specific fuel consumption. The area of the Airfoii-1 800" F {990"CI Skin-1 500° [822" 1
1682" I
nozzle is adjusted at the factory or during overhaul so that Airfoil - 1 750• {962°) Ulll'IH-- Strut-1 250"
the gas velocity at this point will be at or near the speed of
. Airfoil-1 100• (934° ) Skin-1 300" [ 71 0° )
sound. (See chap. 1 8 , Maintenance and Overhaul
Procedures.) j�jjjlt- strut-1 250• (682" 1
The second function, that of turning the gases so that they Fir tree-1 55o"
strike the turbine blades at the correct angle, is accom
plished by setting the blades at a specific angle to the axis of
Disk-1400° ( 766°] Disk-1 1 25" [61 2" 1
the engine. Ideally, this angle should be variable as a func
tion of engine rpm and gas flow velocity, but in practice, the Hub-1300" { 71 0" ] --�f4ii.--- Hub-1 1 oo" (598° )
vanes on aircraft prime mover engines are fixed in one posi
tion. It should be noted that the auxiliary power unit (APU)
for the DC- 1 0 and several turbine-powered ground vehicles FIGURE 7-6 Typical turbine metal temperatures in degrees F
are equipped with variable-angle nozzle vanes. and degrees C .
A -
Axis __v;:LJ-_
L t
Vz
__
Root Tip
A A
flow flow
v, > v,
VR > VR
u < u
vR, < vR,
Vz Vz
u, < u,
Pressure
Temperature
Temperature
Absolute
velocity
FIGURE 7-7 Vector analysis of turbine gas flow. Note: Gases worki n g on turbine equals relative velocity, or vector subtraction.
Turbine working on gases equals resultant velocity or vector addition.
that the impulse force does not act directly in the plane of tum change by the nozzling action of the rotor blading, and
rotation of the turbine wheel but is resolved into two com therefore does not require excessively high nozzle diaphragm
ponents. The parallel component acts in the plane of rotation exit velocities. The presence of impulse and reaction force
and causes the turbine wheel to rotate . The axial component may then be represented by vectors as shown in Fig. 7-9(c).
acts as a thrust along the center line of the shaft and has to It can be seen that the two forces combine vectorially into a
be taken up by a thrust bearing. resultant that acts in the plane of rotation to drive the turbine.
REACTION-IMPULSE TURBINE
THE REACTION TURBINE
<
the blade tips will be traveling faster than the blade roots (as
� with the impulse turbine. The gases leave the nozzle at a spe-
can be seen by the length of the vector U in Fig. 7-7).
cific velocity indicated by the vector V1 • The speed of rotation
because they have a greater distance to travel in their larger
of the turbine wheel is represented by the length of the vector
U. From the inlet velocity diagram, the relative velocity is
circumference. If all the gas velocity possible is made to
l
U.
impinge upon the blade roots, the difference in wheel speed
found to be VR, which is the vector difference of V1 and
at the roots and the tips will make the relative speed of the
On entering the first rotor stage, the gases see the rotor as
gases less at the tips, causing less power to be developed at
a convergent passage (outlet area less than inlet area). The
the tips than at the roots.
lj{'f
change in area produces an increase in the relative velocity
with an accompanying pressure drop across the blades. The
acceleration of the gases generates a reaction force like that Impulse
torce
produced on a wing. It is from this feature of the reaction
turbine that its name is derived. The relative velocity
VR .
/�,
increase is represented by the length of the vector
The velocity of the gases at ·the outlet of the turbi e may �
be determined by the vector addition of the relative velocity
�Moo �
of VR 1 and the rotational speed U 1 of the turbine wheel. From
the outlet velocity diagram, the resultant is found to be V2 •
Note: V2 is less than V1 , indicating a loss in absolute veloc force
ity across the blade, but as stated in the preceding paragraph, (a)
an increase in relative velocity. (The definition of absolute
and relative velocity may be viewed as follows: Relative
velocity changes assume that the turbine is not turning,
whereas absolute velocity changes take into account the
rotation of the turbine.)
J't�/ The presence of the turbine blade in the path of the gases
causes a force to be exerted on the gases : The force acting on ·
(b)
the gases is represented by the deflecting force vector in Fig.
7-9(a). The deflecting force acts on the gases to change the FIGURE 7-9 Forces exerted on a reaction blade.
�
in the engine. Not only must it operate at temperatures of
::J
"'
"'
approximately 1 800°F [982°C], but it must do so under
severe centrifugal loads imposed by high rotational speeds
���=-
- - - - -
----�--�---1 £- - - -- - -
of over 60,000 rpm for small engines to 8000 rpm for the
larger ones. Consequently, the engine speed and turbine inlet
temperature must be accurately controlled to keep the tur
bine within safe operating limits.
The turbine assembly is made of two main parts, the disk
and blades. The disk or wheel is a statically and dynamical
ly balanced unit of specially alloyed steel, usually contain
FIGURE 7-1 0 Pressure cha nges across the impu lse and reac ing large percentages of chromium, nickel, and cobalt. After
tion sections of a turbine blade. forging, the disk is machined all over and carefully inspect
ed using x-rays, sound waves, and other inspection methods
to ensure structural integrity. The blades or buckets are
To cope with this problem, in actual practice, the turbine attached to the disk by means of a "fir tree" design (Fig.
blading is a blending of the impulse type at the roots and the 7- 1 3 on p. 204) to allow for different rates of expansion
reaction type at the tips (Fig. 7-1 1 ). Figure 7- 1 0 shows that between the disk and the blade while still holding the blade
by making the blade "impulse" at the root and "reaction" at firmly against centrifugal loads. The blade is kept from
the tip, the blade exit pressure can be held relatively con moving axially either by rivets, special locking tabs or
.
stant. The changing height between the two pressure lines devices, or another turbine stage.
indicates the pressure differential across the blade. From Some turbine blades are open at the outer perimeter, as
previous discussion it can be seen that the required pressure shown in Fig. 7- 1 , whereas in others a shroud is used, as in
drop for "reaction" is present at the tip and gradually Fig. 7- 1 3 . The shroud acts to prevent bladetip losses and
changes to the "no pressure loss" condition required for excessive vibration. Distortion under high loads, which tend
"impulse" at the root. In addition, the higher pressures at the to twist the blade toward low pitch, is also reduced. The
tip will tend to make the gases flow toward the base of the shrouded blade has an aerodynamic advantage in that thinner
blade, which counteracts the centrifugal forces trying to blade seCtions can be used and tip losses can be reduced by
throw the air toward the tip. using a knife edge or labyrinth seal at this point. Shrouding,
Of course, with every change in engine speed and gas however, requires that the turQine run cooler or at a reduced
flow velocity, the vector triangle will be shaped consider rpm because of the extra mass at the tip. On blades that are
ably differently. The angle of the nozzle and the turbine not shrouded, the tips are cut or recessed to a knife edge to
blades are such that optimum performance is achieved only permit a rapid "wearing-in" of the bladetip to the turbine cas
during a small range of engine rpm. ing, with a corresponding increase in turbine efficiency.
One can see that if the length of the vector U in Fig. 7-7 is B lades are forged or cast from highly alloyed steel and
changed (rpm varied), the gases will not enter the turbine in are passed through a carefully controlled series of machin
the correct direction and loss of efficiency will occur. In addi ing and inspection operations before being certified for use.
tion, it is desirable to have the gases exit from the turbine with Many engine manufacturers will stamp a "moment weight"
as much of an axial-flow component as possible. Changing number on the blade to retain rotor balance when replace
rpm will cause V2 to be angled off the axis and the result will ment is necessary.
be a swirling motion to the gas with a consequent loss of ener The temperature of the blade is usually kept within limits
gy. To counteract the swirling of the gases, straightening by passing relatively cool air bled from the compressor over
vanes are located immediately downstream of the turbine. the face of the turbine, thus cooling the disk and blade by the
These vanes also serve the function in many engin.es of pro process of convection. This method of cooling may become
viding one of the main structural components and they act as more difficult, as high Mach number flights develop high
a passageway for oil, air, and other lines (Fig. 7-12). compressor inlet and outlet temperatures.
Straightening
FIGURE 7-1 2 Vanes are used for straightening gas fJow and
FIGURE 7-1 1 An impulse-reaction blade. for structural support.
(a)
J (c)
A discussion of some newer methods of blade tempera REVI EW AND STUDY Q U ESTIONS
ture control that include convection, impingement, film and
1 . What is the function of the turbine?
transpiration cooling techniques, and the use of ceramic
2. Name two types of turbines. Describe the gas flo ·
EXHAUST NOZZLES
(a)
TEMPERATURE-SENSING PROBE
SEE DETAIL I
. /-----
(b)
F I G U R E 8-2 Thermocouple construction.
(a) Thermocouples are all hooked in parallel so that several may fail without losing the temperature
indication. Many thermocouples are used in order to obtain an average reading.
(b) This system actually has 24 thermocouples for safety. Each sensing probe is a double thermocouple.
(c) A radiation pyrometer is a device used for measuring turbine blade temperature by converting
radiated energy into electrical energy. The pyrometer consists of a photovoltaic cell, sensitive to
radiation over a band in the infrared region of the spectrum, and a lens system to focus the
radiation onto the cell. The pyrometer is positioned on the nozzle casing so that the lens system
can be focused, through a sighting tube, directly onto the turbine blades. The radiated energy
emitted by the hot blades is converted to electrical energy by the photovoltaic cell and is then
transmitted to a combined amplifier/indicating instrument that is calibrated in degrees Celsius.
In this way thermcouple probe interference is eliminated.
a small amount will sharply increase the exhaust gas tem shape and pushed from behind. This three-dimensional
perature, pressure, and velocity, and will also increase squirting action causes the velocity to increase. Since this
thrust. Although rapidly disappearing as a method of nozzle velocity increase is faster than the volume expansion, a con
adjustment, on some engines this area is still adjustable, as verging area is necessary to maintain the pressure or squirt
shown in Fig. 8-3(b), by the insertion of small metal tabs ing action. In the convergent nozzle, the gas velocity cannot
called mice. By use of these tabs, the engine can be trimmed exceed the speed of sound because, as the gas velocity
to the correct rpm, temperature, and thrust settings. increases, the ability of the gas pressure to move the
molecules from behind becomes less. In fact, the pushing
action will drop to zero when the gas moves at the speed of
The Convergent Nozzle
sound. The speed of sound is the speed of a natural pressure
The typical convergent nozzle is designed to maintain a wave movement. It is dependent on the natural internal
constant internal total pressure and stitl produce sonic veloc molecular velocity, which is limited by the amount of inter
ities at the nozzle exit. In this type of nozzle the gas flow is nal temperature energy of these gas molecules. In other
subsonic as it leaves the turbine. Each individual gas words, the speed of sound, although a pressure wave, is lim
molecule is, in effect, being squeezed by the converging ited by the m9lecular velocity (or sound-temperature energy).
(a)
RESTRICTOR SEGMENTS
(b)
The Convergent-Divergent Nozzle down into a funnel and then released, the ball would shoot
out of the funnel (Fig. 8-4). If only the funnel were released,
If the pressure at the entrance to a convergent duct
it would move away from the ball. What is happening is that
becomes approximately twice that at the exit of the duct
the ball is partially compressed when it is pushed down into
eiliaust nozzle), the change in velocity through the duct will
the funnel, increasing the pressure of the air inside the ball.
be enough to cause sonic velocity at the nozzle. At high
When the funnel is released, the air in the ball expands,
�ach numbers the pressure ratio across the duct will become
returning it to its normal size and pushing the funnel away.
greater than 2 .0, and unless this pressure can be turned into
This same type of action occurs in the diverging section of
velocity before the gases exit from the nozzle, a loss of effi
a converging-diverging nozzle. As the gases expand against
ciency will occur. Since the maximum velocity that a gas can
the side of the duct, they produce a pushing effect even
attain in a convergent nozzle is the speed of sound, a con
though they are decreasing in pressure.
vergent-divergent nozzle must be used. In the diverging sec
tion, the gas velocities can be increased above the speed of
sound. Since the individual gas molecules cannot be pushed
by the pressure of molecules behind them, the gas molecules
can be accelerated only by increasing the gas volume out
ward and rearward. The diverging section of the convergent
divergent nozzle allows expansion outward but also holds in
the expansion so that most of it is directed rearward off the
side wall of the diverging section. In other words, the diverg
ing action accelerates the airflow to supersonic velocities by
controlling the expansion of the gas so that the expansion
(which is_ only partially completed in the converging section)
will be rearward and not outward to the side and wasted.
An example of the action that produces an increase in
thrust through a diverging nozzle can be shown with the fol FIGURE 8-4 The ball analogy showing thrust increase by
lowing experiment. If a greased rubber ball were pushed means of a divergent nozzle.
NOZZLE SUPPORT
(a)
BOTTOM
DIVERGENT
\
EXHAUST AUGMENTOR DUCT
NOZZLE SEGMENT
NOZZLE CONTROL FINGER VALVE
(c)
(b)
I SOUND SUPPRESSION
I
., I
- 0 "' I
., c
�f: I
0 "' u
:::>
"- ,.I
"' ><I
ol The noise problem created by commercial and military
"0
::;:1
I jet takeoffs, landings, and ground operations at airports near
I
I residential areas has become serious within the last several
Cl6sed I
I years. Figure 8-10 (on p. 211) illustrates the several levels
Throttle power setting of sound, in decibels, from various sources. The decibel
FIGURE 8-6 The nozzle schedule can be designed so that (dB) is defined as approximately the smallest degree of dif
the nozzle is open in both idle and afterburner regimes. ference of loudness ordinarily detectable by the human ear,
the range of which includes about 130 dB.
The pattern of sound from a jet engine makes the noise
problem even more bothersome than that coming from other
A two-dimensional nozzle, that is, one with a rectangular types of engines. For example, the noise from a reciprocating
sh�pe as opposed to a conventional circular shape (axisym engine rises sharply as the airplane propeller passes an
metrica)), is being developed for use on the McDonnell observer on the ground and then drops off almost as quickly.
Douglas F15 and/or the General Dynamics F16 (Fig. 8- 8 on But as shown in Fig. 8-11 (on p. 212), a jet reaches a peak
p. 210). Such a design will give the airplane/engine combi after the aircraft passes and is at an angle of approximately
nation the capability of in-flight vectoring and reversing, 45° to the observer. This noise then stays at a relatively high
along·with the ability to vary the nozzle area for afterburner level for a considerable length of time. The noise from a tur
operation. This design should result in a substantial reduc bojet is also more annoying because it overlaps the ordinary
tion in landing and takeoff distances and increased high speech frequencies more than the noise from a reciprocating
Mach-number maneuvering. engine and propeller combination (Fig. 8-12 on p. 2 12 ).
Further investigation by the General Electric and Pratt & Since the noise is produced by the high-velocity exhaust
Whitney companies is leading to the development of gas shearing through the still air, it follows that if the
axisymmetric, pitch-yaw, thrust-vectoring engine exhaust exhaust velocity is slower and the mixing area wider, the
1 ACTUATOR RING
2 LINK
3 HOUSING
4 INNER LEAF
5 ROLLER
6 HOUSING EXTENSION
7 OUTER LEAF
FIGURE 8-7 The variable-area exhaust nozzle for the General Electric J85.
In level flight the nozzles function To g ain greater lift during take-off,
conventionally, allowing the and to improve agility, the nozzles
exhaust to be emitted straight. can vector the thrust.
With the nozzles closed the In full reverse thrust, the nozzles
exhaust is exfHII«l through •r• closed and the louvres direct
louvres, providing br•king. exh.1uat forw.1rd.
FIGURE 8-8 (a) This nozzle permits pitch-thrust vectoring FIGURE 8-8 (b) External and cutaway view of the 35,000-
and thrust reversing. lb thrust class P&W F119, with a two-dimensional, variable
geometry, thrust-vectoring nozzle designed for the Lockheed/
General Dynamics F22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF).
FIGURE 8-8 (c) The P&W F119-PW-100. C-D nozzle can be vectored 20 degrees up and down.
FIGURE 8-8 (d) The Lockheed/General Dynamics YF22 uses FIGURE 8-9 Pratt and Whitney's pitch-yaw, balanced-beam
the P&W F119-PW-100 with a two-dimensional, vectoring, nozzle, mounted here on an F1 00-229, is being tested at the
convergent/divergent, variable-geometry exhaust nozzle. time of this writing. The new nozzle is about 300 pounds
, heavier than a conventional F100 nozzle.
exhaust noise levels can be brought down to the point generated by this effect occurs when the columns of air
where a sound suppressor is not necessary. The exhaust created by the compressor inlet guide vanes are cut by the
gas. velocity of a turbofan is slower than a turbojet of com rapidly moving compressor blades, generating high-fre
parable size because more energy must be removed by the quency pressure fluctuations. Further noise reductions are
turbire to drive the fan. The fan exhaust velocity is rela achieved by lining the fan shroud with acoustical materials
tively low and creates less of a noise problem. Noise lev [see. Fig. 8-2 0(b)], thus dampening the pressure fluctua-.
els are also lower in the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine tions by gearing the fan speed down (see Fig. 2-5), and by
through the elimination of the inlet guide vanes (see Figs. spacing the outlet guide vanes farther away from the fan.
2-5, 2-36, 2-41, 2-68 , 2-69, 2-70, 2-75, 2-76, and 2- 8 7) For these reasons, fan engines in general do not need
and the resulting reduction of the "siren" effect. The noise sound suppressors.
Noise level,
Domestic Treffic Aircraft Hum•n response
in dB
160 Permanent
damage to ear
150 c=�========�==========�==�==� Acute pain in
the ears
140
Threshold
Jet engine 50ft
130 "' "'===�============*===========::::� [15m] away
of feeling
Conversation
120' e::::::;:=====::==z:JIIC Aero engine impossible
50ft [15m] away
110 cc::::�=========o:;JI Passing tank Jet airliner at Conversation
500ft [150m] only possible
Pneumatic drill by shouting
100 mm::::c::::=:: away
==z;;;::JI10 ft [3m] away
:: ==
::::
90 cr==::===�===:�[lnside subway
Inside cabin of
civil aircraft Conversation
Motor horn
by raised voice
70 L '"''I Loud radio music Heavy traffic
Normal
50 n.cf.l I Conversation Quiet car passing �=========:::J conversation
possible
40 � Private office
10
Threshold
o c=�======�==� of hearing
----- 15°
�
�
"
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c;:,<::i "'
300
.,.-->'"�
120
°
��
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"''"'-'"-- __.. _ 50° ----g__------
Observer moving parallel to jet axis 100ft [30m] away
.
\
60°
°
70
°
100° 90° 80
FIGURE 8-1 1 Typical noise field from a jet spreading in still air. The curved lines represent equal
sound levels.
The function of the noise suppressor is to lower the level suppressors can be portable devices for use on the ground by
of the sound, about 25 to 30 dB, as well as to change its fre maintenance personnel, or they can be an integral pari of the
quency (Fig. 8-13), and to do this with a minimum sacrifice aircraft engine installation. Examples of various types of
in engine thrust or additional weight.
l!l
The two facets of the noise problem, ground operation and M ,-------,---,
0
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-
/
C><
---
/
<'/
"- �..... �
VI ..... .....
Q)
()
.0
..... _
--- Prop
Q)
Cl
l!l
0 �------�--�
.... 30 60
0 100 Speech frequenc1es Angle from jet axis
FIGURE 8-1 2 The jet engine produces its maximum noise in FIGURE 8-1 3 The sound-level intensities are reduced by
:he speech frequency. means of a noise suppressor.
ground and airborne suppressors can be seen in Figs. 8- 14 exhaust. The turbulence increases in proportion to the speed
and 8-15. Of the two, airborne suppressors are more difficult of the exhaust stream and produces noise of varying intensi
to design because of the weight limitations and the necessity ty and frequency until mixing is completed (Fig. 8- 16 on
of having the air exit in an axial direction to the engine. p. 215). Since there is little mixing close to the nozzle, the
fine grain turbulence produces a relatively high frequency
sound in this area. But as the jet stream slows down, more
The Source of Sound
mixing takes place, resulting in a coarser turbulence and cor
Jet engine noise is mainly the result of the turbulence pro respondingly lower frequency. Therefore the noise produced
duced when the hot, high-velocity jet exhaust mixes with the from a jet engine exhaust is a "white" noise (an analogy to
cold, low-velocity or static ambient atmosphere around the white light) consisting of a mixture of all frequencies with
(c)
l8'-0"
[244 em)
ALTER NAT E
�
PA NT OGRA P H
ATTAC HMENT STEER ING
-
15'- 0" [457 em) TOTAL EST. WT. 10,000LB [4500 kg)
(d)
(e) (f)
Theory of Operation
(a)
0
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o�--- ---�--��---4-
a.
(.)
,::
(.)
c:
Q)
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tT
"'O
.to
or-------t---����=-�
(b)
FIGURE 8- 1 7 Typical sound spectrum showing a high noise FIGURE 8- 1 8 The internally installed sound sua::=s:
level over a wide frequency range. The two peaks are funda (a) Rear view.
mental notes of the turbine wheel acting as a siren. (b) Side view.
Chapter 8 Exhaust Systems 215
(a) (b)
ol
•'
(a) (b)
10 1\
fXI
,
�
0
·
... 20
\
I�
�
�
�
30 t-... -
t--1--
r---r---
- -
40
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
3
Frequency, cps X 10
Typical noise control features in modem turbofans, and nies (Aeronautical Development Corporation, Rohr fudustries,
trends in propulsion design in the effort to reduce noise, are Page Avjet Corporation, etc.) have developed Hush Kits for
shown in Fig. 8-22 and (on p. 21 " 8 ), Fig. 8-23. Figure 8-24 these aircraft. The kits generally consist of nacelle modifica
(also on p. 218 ) shows some ultra-high-bypass-ratio designs tions and the replacement of some nacelle components with
that may present special noise problems. sound-absorbing materials. Noise levels have been reduced
about 50 percent from their previous levels, which has allowed
continued economical operation of this type of aircraft and
Another Approach
engine (See Figs. 8-25 and 8-26 on p. 219).
Recent federal aviation regulations have established an
upper noise limit for all transport aircraft, both domestic and
foreign registered, operating in the United States. ill order to THRUST REVERSERS
permit certain models of DC8 and 707 aircraft equipped with
the Pratt & Whitney JT3D engine to continue operating with A jet-powered aircraft, during its landing run, lacks the
out the prohibitively high cost of re-engining, several compa- braking action afforded by slow-turning propellers, which on
• Other features
- Compressor bleed
port suppressors
Bypass
Future
Ultra High Bypass Concepts
larger aircraft are capable of going into reverse pitch, thus addition, once deployed, the pilot has no control over
giving reverse thrust. The problem is further compounded by drag on the aircraft except to release the chute.
the higher landing speeds due to the highly streamlined, low Experiments in the use of large nets for stopping aircra.
drag fuselage and the heavier gross weights common to mod and in the use of arresting gear similar to that used in
em jet airplanes. Standard wheel brakes are no longer Navy for carrier landings are being performed at some ai;"
adequate under these adverse conditions, and larger brakes ports. Also being installed in the overrun areas of som�
would incur a severe weight and space penalty and decrease major airports such as Kennedy and LaGuardia are 30-inc -
the useful load of the aircraft. In addition, brakes can be very
ineffective on wet or icy runways.
Counterrotating
Many solutions to this problem have been advanced. One variable-pitch Propfan
Electronic Model
method, used extensively by .the Air Force, is a "drag chute," Engine Control 571
or "parabrake" (Fig. 8-27). The parachute stowed at the rear
of the fuselage is deployed upon landing, or, in some cases,
while the airplane is still airborne to hasten emergency
descents. The parabrake does not lend itself to commercial
operation, since the chute is easily damaged, must be
repacked after each use, and is not absolutely dependable. In
(b)
•
·'
(a)
FIGURE 8-27 Drag parachute deployed to shorten the landing roll of a McDonnell Douglas F4H.
'\
'
REVERSER DEPLOYED
I REVERSER DEPLOYED REVERSER DEPLOYED
(b)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
---�
OfflfCTOR lOCK
'
-�
s
I t r�· �������=' •c=u,�ro�•s��;:��o �- I -� . 1
.I
PRIMARY REVERSER
l _ _j
N L
I . S- STOWED
I
R- REVERSE
I 1-H=-----+---..J...----•..
i ��ptl=:��=:=;:�=====·=·=======-�-��=- -- -
•TWO IN PARALLEL
IL- ___
__
--
L
--A-
-'!_
N
I_ -AT! _A_
I
I_"_
' ' "-. cf_£,_·j o
RETURN
OIL
REAR GEARBOX
FIGURE 8-35 The Pratt & Whitney Aircraft JT3D fan engine requires a separate reverser for primary
and secondary airflows, as do several other engines, including the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft JT9D
engine shown in Fig. 8-36 and the General Electric CF6 series engine shown in Fig. 8-37.
TRANSLATING
RING
CRUISE
100
Thrust controlled by power limiter
- -----,-
'\ �--, )(
�
t; 0
c �
/
E
.<::
�
0
+-
�
+= I
0
� 90 -
/-
.
I
..
"
E
0
�
0
80
Takeoff p ower boosted
80 by water / methanol injection
(a) (b)
FIG U R E 9-1 The effect of water injection on a turbojet and turboprop engine.
(a) Turbojet thrust increase with water injection.
(b) Turboprop power with and without water injection.
225
WATER
DISCHARGE ___,��
PORTS
WATER REG\.J LATOR
FUEL
WATER INLET NOZZLE
- FROM AIRCRAFT (20 REQUIRED)
SUPPLY
O'B'D
SECONDARY
A I R FLOW
WATE R-INJECT ION
I
CHECK VALVE
Tt2 SENSOR -MANIFOLDS- FD 4
O'B'D
28 VDC
FUEL DE I CING
AIR VALVE
FUEL PUMP
F======-� Pdbo
FIGURE 9-2 On the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft JT9D, as on most other engines, the fuel and water injec
tion systems are integrated. In this system, water will not be supplied unless the power lever and burn
er pressure are at appropriate settings. Water will also reset the fuel control for a different fuel flow.
whereas others have fluid added at the diffuser. Figure 9-2 Note that when water injection is used, fuel flow is not
shows a system where the water is added at the fuel nozzles. reduced and is often increased. The increased thrust results
The system described at the end of this section injects water from the increase in w. and/or wf allowed because of the
at both points (see Fig. 13-3). cooling effect of the water or the increased mais flow
When water is added at the front of the compressor, through the fixed area turbine that effectively increases the
power augmentation is obtained principally by the vaporiz operating pressure ratio of the engine. All of the preceding
ing liquid cooling the air, thus increasing density and mass depends on where in the engine the water is injected.
airflow. Furthermore, if water only is used, the cooler, The water injection system is not without penalty. Water
increased airflow to the combustion chamber permits more and the injection system are very heavy; there is a thermal
fuel to be burned before the turbine temperature limits are shock to the engine, and compressor blade erosion can occur
reached. As shown in chap. 3, higher turbine temperatures when the system is activated. An important limiting factor,
.... will result in increased thrust. compressor stall can also be a problem with water injection.
. ..
Water added to the diffuser increases the mass flow through Furthermore, the alcohol used with the water does not have
the turbine relative to that through the compressor. This rela the same burning characteristics as jet fuel nor does it bum
tive increase results in a decreased temperature and pressure in the correct place in the combustion chamber.
drop across the turbine that leads to an increased pressure at Generally water/air ratios are in the order of 1 to 5 lb
the exhaust nozzle. Again, the reduction in turbine temperature [0.45 to 2.25 kg] of water to 100 lb [45 kg] air. For exam
when water alone is used allows the fuel system to schedule an ple, Fig. 9-3 shows a schematic of the water injection sys
increased fuel flow, providing additional thrust. tem used on the B-52G and earlier models. Later models
In both cases water is the fluid used because its high heat of of this airplane use the fan engine with no provision for
vaporization results in a fairly large amount of cooling for a water injection. The water tank holds approximately 1200
given weight of water flow. Deminerali4ed water is generally gallons (gal) [4542 liters (L)], which is usually exhausted
used to prevent deposit buildup on compressor blades that will during takeoff. About 110 s are required to consume all of
lead to deterioration of thrust and more frequent "field cleaning" the liquid. Any water not used during takeoff is drained
of the compressor and engine trimming (see chap. 1 9). overboard.
j SIPHON-BREAK VALVE v DRAIN SWITCH engine with its concurrent penalties of increased frontal area,
k LOW-PRESSURE WARN- w TANK-BOOST-PUMP weight, and fuel consumption. The afterburner, whose opera
lNG LIGHTS PRESSURE INDICATOR
tion is much like a ramjet, increases thrust by adding fuel to
CHECK VALVES x SYSTEM CONTROL
m HIGH-P�ESSURE WATER SWITCH the exhaust gases after they have passed through the turbine
section. At this point there is still much uncombined oxygen in
F I G U R E 9-3 Water injection system for one model of the the exhaust (see chap. 6). The resultant increase in temperature
852. raises the velocity of the exiting gases and therefore boosts
engine thrust. Most afterburners will produce an approximate
50 percent thrust increase, but with a corresponding threefold
Operation
F I G U R E 9-5 One of the newer types of afterburners is used on the Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-1 00
engine. This system uses a multizone afterburner fuel system that provides smooth transient thrust
increases from minimum afterburner thrust level to maximum. The five-zone, fully variable after
burner augmentation sys.tem uses a 4-joule (see chap. 1 6) electrical ignition design in place of
either hot streak or torch ignition, thus reducing pressure excursions during initial light-off by 30 to
40 percent. Notice the translating, primary iris nozzle combined with an aerodynamically actuated
blow-in ejector. This arrangement provides an increase in aircraft subsonic operating range through
a reduction in base drag. Drag is reduced by the smaller "boat-tail" angle of the iris nozzle.
(a)
exhaust duct would be in order to obtain a reduced-velocity For a constant pressure ratio, the amount of thrust
gas stream, and thus reduce gas friction losses. This reduced increase, in terms of percentage, due to afterburning is
velocity is still too high for stable combustion to take place, directly related to the ratio of the exhaust gas temperature
since the flame propagation rate of kerosene is only a few feet before and after the afterburner (Fig. 9-7 on p. 230). For
per second. It becomes necessary to use a form of flame sta example, if the gas temperatures before and after the after
bilizer or holder located downstream of the fuel spraybars to burner are 1140°F (1600°R) [615°C (8 8 8 °Kelvin, °K)] and
provide a region in which turbulent eddies are formed, and 3040°F (3500°R) [1670°C (1940°K)], respectively,
where the local gas velocity is further reduced. Fuel is fed into . 3500
Temperature ratiO 2 .19
the afterburner through a series of nozzles or spraybars. In
= -- =
1600
some engines the afterburner is either on or off, while in oth
But since the velocity of the jet stream increases as the
ers, degrees of afterburning are available. Ignition occurs in
square root of the temperature, then
one of several ways:
1. Hot streak ignition-In this system an extra quantity \1'2.19 = 1.48
of fuel is injected into one of the combustion cham
bers. The resulting streak of hot gases ignites the or a jet-stream velocity and thrust increase of 48 percent at
afterburner fuel. sea level static conditions. (See Formula on p. 230.)
60
/v ated when the throttle lever is moved outboard while the
engine is operating above the 8 0 percent range. The switch
v
connects an electrical circuit to a 2 8 -volt (V) direct current
�
0
<l) (de) afterburner actuator motor mounted on the fuel transfer
0
/
"'
� valve body (1). This causes the fuel shuttle valve (m) to open
.E 40
u
v
the fuel ports, first in the afterburner exhaust nozzle actua
/
...
f-.
.s=
The fuel shuttle valve (m) directs fuel from the after
burner stage of the fuel pump (r) into the afterburner fuel
20
v
control. Metered fuel from the afterburner fuel control
enters the manifold (b) and is atomized for burning by the
spray nozzles mounted in the afterburner diffuser. A
0 mechanical afterburner fuel shutoff valve (j) is installed on
1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
the engine, in conjunction with the throttle linkage, to pre
Temperature ratio
vent fuel flow from going to the afterburner until approxi
mately 8 0 percent of engine power has been reached. Field
F I G U R E 9-7 Thrust increase versus temperature ratio
adjustment of any of the afterburner fuel regulation and con
increase.
trol components should not be attempted. The units must be
set with the use of proper flow bench facilities.
Percent increase = 48
screen(s). The filtered fuel (t) then passes through the inlet
side of the afterburner and engine stages of the pump assem
[Author's Note The generalized formula for finding bly. Relief valves (u) located in the discharge side of the
the percentage difference between two numbers is gear pumps relieve excess fuel pressure back to the inlet
side of the fuel pumps. A connecting point is provided on the
� percent = (� ) - 1 (100)
outlet side of the engine fuel pump for connecting the low
fuel-pressure warning system (o). The afterburner fuel pump
(r) is a part of the engine-driven fuel pump assembly, which
or
has a gear stage for each system. The inlet of both stages is
� percent = (� )
x y (100)]
fed by a common centrifugal boost pump (q). An automatic
emergency transfer valve is incorporated in the pump hous
ing for the purpose of diverting fuel flow from the after
On a "net thrust" basis the advantage increases directly
burner stage of the pump to the main fuel system if the main
with increases in airplane speed. For example, this same
fuel pump fails.
engine-airplane combination with the same cycle tempera
The afterburner fuel shuttle valve and actuator unit (m) is
ture would realize a net percentage augmentation of 8 5 per
incorporated as a part of the fuel-pump transfer valve
cent at Mach 1 and 130 percent at Mach 2 .
assembly to control the flow of fuel to the afterburner fuel
There are also small effects on "wet" thrust due to changes
system. The actuator, a 2 8 -V de motor that opens and clos
in total F/F weight across the nozzle, in total pressure, and in
es the valve, is controlled by the afterburner switch located
the specific heat of air as the temperature increases.
in the cockpit throttle quadrant.
The afterburner fuel control is installed on the right-hand
J 57 Afterburner System
side of the engine at the engine wasp-waist section. The con
The Pratt & Whitney J57 engine has a typical afterburner, trol is provided to meter fuel for use during afterburner
composed of the afterburner diffuser and the afterburner duct operation. Fuel metering is accomplished by an internal
and exhaust nozzle assembly (Fig. 9-8 ). The exhaust nozzle mechanical linkage that adjusts the metering valve opening.
assembly is variable and operated by pneumatic actuating cylin The internal mechanical linkage is actuated by a static air
ders moved by compressor bleed air, which is metered by the bellows (h), which extends and retracts with variations of
exhaust nozzle control valve. During normal •engine operation, N2 compressor discharge pressure.
the cylinders hold the nozzle iris or flaps in·the CLOSED position. Fuel metering is also affected by spring-loaded fuel pres
When afterburning occurs, the cylinders open the nozzle to per sure valves within the control. Control inlet fuel is routed to
mit the less restricted passage of exhaust gases. the antispring side of the fuel control bypass valve (i). This
c:::::::l
c:::::J METEREO PRESSURE
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
m2113l N2 01FFUSER PRESSURE
E!:3 ENGINE COMPARTMENT OR
C=::J
CO"'F'ftESSOR INLET PRESSURE
FUEL DRAIN
ESS��i•k
28· VOU CC
n
:::T
D>
"0
....
ro
....,
1.0
$;:
ro
....
:::T
0
OYERBOARO
"''"''"
a.
fUWU
U !U "UUIUUUUU/UIUDUU/I. "-��""'..... .,..,,
"'
0 a e j n r
....,
FLAPS ACTUATING CYL- METERED FUEL PRES- MECHANICAL AFTER- 28-VOLT DC AFTERBUR- AFTERBURNER STAGE OF
-i INDER SURE BURNER FUEL SHUTOFF NER MOTOR ACTUATOR THE FUEL PUMP
:::T b f 0 s
...., FUEL MANIFOLD IGNITER ASSEMBLY PIS- VALVE LOW-FUEL-PRESSURE FUEL PUMP FILTER
c c k
"' "HOT STREAK" IGNITER AFTERBURNER FUEL WARNING CONNECTION SCREEN
....
TON
( NUMBER 3 COMBUS- g FUEL CONTROL FILTER DRAIN VALVE p FUEL INLET TO BOOST t FILTERED FUEL TO PUMPS
)> TION CHAMBER) h u
c STATIC AIR BELLOWS I FUEL TRANSFER VALVE PUMP FUEL PUMP RELIEF
lC d i
FULE PUMP OUTLET FUEL CONTROL BYPASS BODY q CENTRIFUGAL BOOST VALVES
3 m FUEL SHUTTLE VALVE
ro
PRESSURE VALVE PUMP
:::J
....
D>
....
a·
:::J
VARIABLE
NOZZLE SECTION
MA I N
SPR A Y
BAR
- P R ESS. - B U R N ER W h B U R N ER
(a)
Engine
driven
Main burner
t spraybar
t
Afterburner Afterburner and
fuel pump nozzle control
From main
F i lter
fuel control
-
Shutoff valve
Pressure l i ne
_ To overspeed
governor
To acceleration valve
- i n main fuel control
f,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,l Low pressure Pump discharge pressure � Pilot-burner pressure r:zzz.i'l Main burner pressure � Servo pressure
(b)
Check &
drain �··........ F i lter · - AB Pump
valve
II n u
Drain l i n e
�
Main Overboard dra i n
metering
valve
Ma i n
press� reg
� 1-- COP Servo
Wf/P3
Shutoff _ F uel
valve Servo Control
input valve � in
�
�_r
shaft
l1
11 y
Wf/P3
cam
KV--
Pilot
metering r-
�
Ma i n valve AB Trigger
c check 1---
valve
�
valve position
Main
�
feedback •
Pilot
ts
burner Nozzle
signal
flow press. reg
cam
valve
�
Nozzle position Lockout
-
Nozzle valve
signal to nozzle
servo
•
Pil ot- Pilot
�-
actuator control To acceleration
burner - &:IJ· check
I
valve i n M FC-2
flow valve
-- From main
fuel pump
Afterburner
� Servo pressure � Low pr.essure G::::J pump pressure � Main burner pressure V'''''''""''''l Pilot-burner pressure
(c)
From the pump, the fuel flows to the afterburner fuel and REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
nozzle control, which is mounted directly on the pump. It is
1 . Name two methods of thrust augmentation.'
a hydromechanical device consisting of three main parts: the
2. Why is alcohol added to water in water injection
fuel-metering section, the computer section, and the after
systems? What effect does the alcohol have on
burner nozzle control section.
the operation of the engine?
The fuel-metering section meters the fuel flow required
3 . Tel l how water injection increases thrust. Explain
during afterburner operation to the pilot burner and main
how afterburning increases thrust.
spray bars as determined from information received from
4. Where can water be injected?
the computing section.
5. How much thrust increase does water injection
The computer section positions the main and pilot burn
give? How much thrust increase does afterburning
er valves of the fuel-metering section as a function of com
give? Why?
pressor discharge pressure and power lever angle. The
6. Descr ibe a typical water injection system.
power lever angle input is in tum limited by signals from the
7. Discuss the principle behind the afterburner.
nozzle and the turbine discharge temperature system.
8. Why are afterburners used mainly for military air
The afterburner nozzle control section schedules the
craft as a method of boosting thrust?
afterburner nozzle area, as directed by the power lever, and
9. Why is i t necessary t o have a variab le-area geome
the turbine discharge temperature. The leaves of the vari
try exhaust on an afterburner-equipped engine?
able-area exhaust nozzle are positioned by three mechanical
1 0. What are the requirements of a good afterburner ?
screwjack actuators powered by the nozzle actuator control
1 1 . Describe a typical afterburner system. What type
via flexible drive cables.
of ignition systems are used?
235
'
6. Welding-A process of fusing two pieces of metal vanadium, aluminum, chromium, tin, zirconium, and
together by locally melting part of the material through molybdenum to improve its manufacturability.
the use of arc welders, plasmas, lasers, or electron
beams. Steel Al loys
7. Pressing-Metals are blended, pressed, sintered (a
This group includes high-chromium and high-nickel iron
process of fusing powder particles together through
base alloys in addition to low-alloy steels. Because of their
heat), and then coined out of the prealloyed powders.
relatively low material cost, ease of fabrication, and good
8. Protective finishes and swface treatments-These
mechanical properties, the low-alloy steels are commonly
include plating by means of electrical and chemical
used for both rotating and static engine components, such as
processes, by use of ceramic coatings, or by painting.
compressor rotor blades, wheels, spacers, stator vanes, and
Surface treatments for increased wear may take the
structural members. Low-alloy steels can be heat-treated and
form of nitriding, cyaniding, carburizing, diffusion
used in temperatures up to 1 000°F. High nickel-chromium
coating, and flame plating.
iron-base alloys can be used up to 1 250°F [677°C]. The use
9. Shot peening-A plastic flow or stretching of a metal's
of steel may decrease because of the increasing use of the
surface by a rain of round metallic shot thrown at high
aluminum and titanium alloys mentioned above.
velocity.
10. Heat treatment-A process to impart specific physical
Nickel-Base Alloys
properties to a metal alloy. It includes normalizing,
annealing, stress relieving, tempering, and hardening. The nickel-base alloys constitute some of the best metals
11. Inspection-Strictly speaking, not a part of the metal for use between 1 200°F and 1 800°F [649°C and 982°C] . Most
working process, inspection is nevertheless integrally contain little or no iron. They develop their high-temperature
associated with it. Inspection methods include magnet strength by age hardening and are characterized by long-time
ic particle and dye penetrant inspection, x-ray inspec creep-rupture strength and high ultimate and yield strength
tion, dimensional and visual inspection, and inspection combined with good ductility. Many of these materials, origi
by devices using sound, light, and air. Some of these nally developed for turbine bucket applications, are also being
inspection procedures will be discussed in chap. 1 8. used in turbine wheels, shafts, spacers, and other parts.
Cobalt-Base Alloys
Heat Ranges of Meta ls
Cobalt-base alloys form another important group of high
The operating conditions within a gas turbine engine
temperature, high-strength, and high-corrosion-resistance
vary considerably, and metals differ in their ability to satis
metals. Again, as a group, they contain little or no iron. These
factorily meet these conditions (Fig. 10-1).
alloys are used in afterburners, turbine vanes and blades, and
other parts of the engine subjected to very high temperatures.
A l u m i n u m Alloys
Their use is somewhat restricted due to cost and the limita
Aluminum and its alloys are used in temperature ranges tion imposed because of cobalt's status as a critical material.
up to 500°F [260°C] . With low density and good strength
to-weight ratios, aluminum forgings and castings are used
Chem ical Elements Used in Alloys
extensively for centrifugal compressor wheels and housings,
air inlet sections, accessory sections, and the accessories The number of alloying materials is large. Some of the
themselves. commonly used elements are listed in Table 1 0-l .
Some newer aluminum alloys include aluminum lithium,
which is about 1 0 percent lighter than conventional alu
minum and about 1 0 percent stiffer. Aluminum lithium pre
sents a hazard in its molten form when moisture is present
TABLE 1 0-1 Some com monly used elements i n
and it costs more than conventional alloys, but it will last
the production of al loys found i n
two to three times longer because of its superior fatigue per I gas turbine engines.
formance. Aluminum alloyed with iron and cerium will Chemical Chemica l
allow continued aluminum alloy use up to 650°F. Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminum AI Molybdenum Mo
Tita n i u m Alloys Boron B Nickel Ni
Carbon c Nitrogen N
Titanium and its alloys are used for centrifugal-flow
Chromium Cr Silicon Si
rotors, axial-flow compressor wheels and blades, and other
Cobalt Co Tantalum Ta
forged components in many large, high-performance
Columbium Cb Titanium Ti
engines. Titanium combines high strength with low density
Copper Cu Tungsten w
and is suitable for applications up to 1 000°F [538°C].
Iron Fe Vanadium v
Newer titanium alloys include titanium aluminide, which
Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr
is good for temperatures to 1 500°F. Titanium is alloyed with
AI Base Alloys Cu Si Mg Mn
355 1.5 5 0.5
14 s 4.5 1 1
Mg Base Alloys AI Zr Zn Th
Dow C 9 2
HK 3 1 0.7 3
HZ 32 0.75 2.1 3 . 25
* For all alloys C = 0.2 max; 02 = 0.25 max; N = 0 . 1 max; H, = 0.015 max.
F I G U R E 1 0-1 Percentage compositions of some jet engine alloys (see Table 10-1 for an explanation
of the chemical element symbols).
The percentages of the various elements used partially 3. Resistance to thermal shock
determines the physical and chemical characteristics of the
alloy and its suitability to a particular application (see Fig.
1 0-2 on p. 238). Tempering and other processes determine H igh-Temperature Strength
the rest. Three characteristics that must be considered are The most highly stressed parts of the gas turbine engine
1. High-temperature strength are the turbine blades and disks. Centrifugal forces tending to
2. Resistance to oxidation and corrosion break the disk vary as the square of the speed. For example,
DESIGNATION c Mn Si Cr Ni Co Fe Mo w Ot ers
h GENERAL USE
2 1 Alloy .20 1 .0 1 .0 25.0 1 . 75 Bal. 3.0 5.0 B-.007 Max. Good high temperature
(AMS 5385B) .30 Max. Max. 29.0 3.75 Max. 6.0 strength and shock resist
once. Oxidation resistance
lo 2 1 0 0 o F
X-40 .45 1 .0 1 .0 24.5 9.5 Bal. 2.0 7.0 P-.04 Max. .Maximum high tempera-
31 Alloy .55 Max. Max. 26.5 1 1 .5 Max. 8.0 S-.04 Max. ture strength. Oxidation
(AMS 53828) resistance to 2 1 00 ° F
Hoslelloy .15 1 .0 1 .0 1 5 .5 Bal. 2.5 4.5 1 6.0 3.75 V-.2-.6 I ntermediate high temp
"C" Max. Max. Max. 1 7.5 Max. 7.0 1 8 .0 5.25 strength. Oxidation resist
N-155 .20 1 .0 1 .0 20.0 1 9 .0 1 8 .5 Bal. 2.5 2.0 C b +Ta-.75 Good strength at interme
(AMS 5376B) Max. 2.0 Max. 22.0 2 1 .0 2 1 .0 3.5 3.0 - 1 .25 d i ate temperature. Oxidc
N - . 1 -.2 tion resistance to 2000 � ;:
P-.04 Max.
S-.03 Max.
309 Mod. .15 1 .0 .75 22.0 1 1 .0 Bal. 2.5 P-.04 Max. Good strength a t inter�e
H.R. Crown .30 Max. 2.00 25.0 1 4.0 3.5 S-.04 Max. diate temp. with low c
Max. content
Type 302 .25 2.0 1 .0 1 7 .0 8.0 Bal. .50 P-.C4 Max. Good corrosion resistonu
(AMS 5358) Max. Max. Max. 1 9 .0 1 0.0 Max. S-.03 Max. Oxidation resistance "'=
C u - . 5 Max. 1 60 0 ° F
Type 3 1 0 .18 2.0 .50 23.0 1 9 .0 Ba l . .50 P-.04 Max. Excellent o x i d a t i o n res$
(AMS 5366A) Max. Max. 1 .50 26.0 22.0 Max. S-.03 Max. ance to 2000 c F . Moae
Cu-.5 Max. ate high temp. streng -
�--�--+---
Type 3 1 6
--4-�
.15
�-+--�
2.0 .75
��� --4-�
1 6.0
��----j �B�
1 2.0 al.
-4---� �+----4�
1 .50
�
P- .04� --�
Max. �
M a x i--
--- - ----
m u m co.,osion res
(AMS 5360) Max. . Max. Max. 1 8 .0 1 4.0 2.25 S-.03 Max. once a n d moderate
C u . - . 5 Max. temperature strength
1 600 ° F
Type 303 .20 1 .5 2.0 1 8 .0 9.0 Bal. .40 P-.05 Max. Free m a c h i n i n g grade
Max. Max. Max. 2 1 .0 1 2 .0 .80 S - . 2 - .4 corrosion service
(AMS 5350C) .1 5 Max. Max . 1 3 .5 Max. Max. S-.03 Max. heat resistance, servic:e
C u - . 5 Max. 1 2 00 ° F . M a x i m u m d::.-::
4340 .38 .60 .75 .70 1 .65 Bal. .20 S-.04 Max. H i g h ly stressed __
.43 .80 Max. .90 2.00 .30 P-.04 Max. Good i m pact res· -
with h i g h strength. - _
ice to 1 00 0 ° F
8620 .18 .70 .75 .40 .40 Bal. .15 S-.04 Max . Highly stressed
.23 . 90 Max. .60 .70 .25 P-.04 Max. rized parts
·
F I G U R E 1 0-2 Several representative alloys and their properties.
STRESS RUPTURE
DATA CREEP FATIGUE
1 00 HR. 1 000 HR. DATA STRESS
TEST Y.S. 2 % LIFE LIFE 1 % 1 0,000 ! 08 CY.
CAST- TEMP. OFFSET T.S. ELONG. R.A. HARD- STRESS STRESS HR. STRESS STRESS
ABiliTY CONDITION "F psi psi % % NESS psi psi psi psi
�
Poor Ht. Tr. (2) 1 200 70,000 1 00,000 8 10 75,000 60,000
Ht. Tr. (2) 1 500 50,000 55,000 20 30 28,000 1 8,000
��:;_
Good A s Cast 70 30,000 35 3S BOR
Ann'ld. (3) 35,000 40 40 81Rb
�
70
Pro. A n n . (4) 70 90,000 1 20,000 10 20 25R c .
Fair H.T. ( 4 & 5 ) 70 1 1 0,000 1 40,000 10 30 30R,
H.T. (4&5) 70 85,000 1 1 0,000 20 50 24Rc 'I
1- � II
A n n ' ld . (7) 70 35,000
��.��� 25
:�
77 b
( 1 ) 5 0 h r . 1 35 0 " F
Good H.T. ( 8 )
H .T. ( 8 )
70
70
1 00,000
80,000
1
95,000
15
20 50 9SR i, I•
(2) 3 hr. 2 1 00 " F, air cooled, 24 hr. 1 SS O " F plus
Ann. (7) 70 45,000 85,000 20 35 84R b
20 h r . 1 300" F
Excellent H .T. ( 8 ) 70 1 30,000 1 5 0,000 5 15 38R c
H.T. ( 8 ) 70 95,000 1 1 0,000 10 30 28R�
(3) O i l or w a t e r quench from 1 900 to 2 1 00 " F
Excellent Ann. (7) 70 65,000 1 25,000 5 5 25R,
H . T. ( 8 ) 70 (4) 4 hr. 1 20 0 " F to 1 400 " F, oir cool
1- w.
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TEMPERATURE, ° F [° C ]
the centrifugal force on a disk rotating at 20,000 rpm will be their positions are reversed. Inconel X has an ultimate tensile
four times that at 1 0,000 rpm. Blades weighing only 2 ounces strength of 55,000 psi [379,225 kPa], while S 8 1 6 has an ulti
(oz) [6.2 grams (g)] may exert loads of over 4000 lb [ 1 8 14 mate tensile strength of 75,000 psi [5 1 7 , 1 25 kPa] . The creep
kg] at maximum rpm. The blades must also resist the high strength, which is closely associated with ultimate tensile
bending loads applied by the moving gas stream to produce strength, is probably one of the most important considera
the thousands of horsepower needed to drive the compressor. tions in the selection of a suitable metal for turbine blades
There is also a severe temperature gradient (difference) (Fig. 1 0-4). Engine vibration and fatigue resistance will also
between the central portion of the disk and its periphery of have some influence on the selection and useful life of both
several hundred degrees centigrade. Many metals that would disks and blades.
be quite satisfactory at room temperatures will lose much of Although many materials will withstand the high tem
their strength at the elevated temperatures encountered in the peratures encountered in the modem gas turbine engine (for
engine's hot section. The ultimate tensile strength of a metal example, carbon, columbium, molybdenum, rhenium, tanta
at one temperature is not necessarily indicative of its ultimate lum, and tungsten, all have melting points above 4000°F
tensile strength at a higher temperature (Fig. 1 0-3). For [2200°C]), the ability to withstand high temperatures while
example, at 1 000°F [538°C] Inconel X has an ultimate ten maintaining a reasonable tensile strength is not the only con
sile strength of approximately 1 60,000 psi [ 1 , 1 03,200 kPa] , sideration. Such factors as critical temperature, rupture
and S 8 1 6 at the same temperature has an ultimate tensile strength, thermal conductivity, coefficient of expansion,
strength of 1 35,000 psi [930,825 kPa] . At 1 500°F [8 1 6°C] yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, corrosion resis
tance, workability, and cost must all be taken into account
FRACTURE when selecting any particular metal.
Ceramics
SQUEALER T I P
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LEADING BLADE TRAILING BLADE
CF6-6
TI P - CA P HOLES
CAP
SQUEALER Tl P Tl P CAP
=·
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BLADE
PLATFORM
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t
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CF6-50 AI RFOI L AI R - I NLET HOLES
(a)
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES .
Casting
• Sand casting
• Spin casting
FIGURE 1 0-6 (b) An unusually shaped, cast single-crystal • Single-crystal casting
turbine blade with cast single-crystal Lamilloy end walls from
• Lost-wax or investment casting
the Allison Engine Company. Lamilloy is an Allison-designed
transpiration cooling scheme that uses laminated alloys that • Resin-shell mold casting
allow very high turbine inlet temperatures and increased effi
• Slip casting
ciency. See page 244 in this chapter for a discussion of sin
gle-crystal casting. • Mercasting
Sand casting (Fig. 1 0-8) uses a wood or metal pattern t o successfully pass through t o the top. That grain then prop
around which a clay-free sand has been packed to form the agates through the rest of the metal, integrating it into a sin
mold. The mold is then split, the pattern removed, the mold gle crystal, thus eliminating the weakening effect of the
reassembled, and any cores that are necessary added. Molten boundaries between the metal grains.
metal at a precise temperature is poured into the mold and The investment casting process (Fig. 10-10 on p. 246)
allowed to cool. The mold is removed and various heat treat involves the use of heat-disposable wax or plastic patterns
ments may be performed to obtain the desired physical char surrounded with a refractory material to form a l)lOnolithic
acteristics. The casting may be spun while being poured. mold. Patterns are removed from the mold in ovens, and
Spin casting results in a denser, more sound casting. molten metal is poured into the hot mold. Sometimes this
Spinning is normally performed on small ring sections. pouring is done in a vacuum furnace. After cooling, the
Cooling of the metal radially inward results in fewer stress mold material is quite fragile and easily removed from the
es. Other casting techniques result in greater tensile strength castings. Because the finished product duplicates the pat
by causing the normally random grain structure of the cast tern exactly, the production of patterns i s a critical factor.
ing to become oriented in one direction like the grain of They are made by injecting molten wax or plastic into
wood (Fig. 1 0-9). metal dies. The finished castings have an exceptionally
An even newer method of turbine blade casting, which smooth surface finish and require very little further
not only causes higher strength but allows higher turbine machining. Incidentally, this process is not new. It was used
inlet temperatures and increased thermal fatigue and corro by the ancient Greeks and Egyptians to cast lightweight
sion resistance, is called single-crystal casting. In both statues, intricate bowls, and pitchers, and is used today to
directional solidification and single-crystal casting, the make complex jewelry.
metal is poured into a heated ceramic mold (see the follow Resin-shell mold casting (Fig. 1 0-1 1 on p. 247) is a high
ing paragraph on investment casting) that is water cooled on production method similar to investment casting except that
the bottom. The part of the molten metal touching the water the tolerances are not held as closely. In many ways it rivals
cooled end begins to solidify first and forms the type of sand casting in economy.
grain structure shown in Fig. 10-9(b). However, the direc Slip casting (Fig. 1 0- 1 2), borrowed from the ceramics
tional solidification is not allowe<;i to proceed the entire industry, is used to form super-heat-resistant materials.
length of the mold in the production of a single-crystal air Often it is the only way certain materials can. be shaped.
foil. The helical grain selector or pigtail, which is designed Metal ceramics, silicon nitride, and refractory metals cast
into the mold next to the cooled end, permits only one grain this way can be used in temperatures over 2200°F [ 1 200°C].
The Mercast process is a precision-casting technique. It "Transpiration CastCool." This process produces a monolith
is essentially the same kind of method as the lost-wax pre ic, single-crystal, multilayer complex casting such as a tur
cision-investment process, except that frozen mercury is bine vane. The advantages claimed are that the parts produced
used as a pattern instead of wax. Liquid mercury is poured are stronger and less expensive to manufacture than the more
into a master mold, where it is frozen at temperatures below traditional single-crystal, serpentine-cooled blades. The cast
-40°F [ -40°C] . Then it is removed and coated with a cold ing process is cheaper because yields are higher, and it elimi
refractory slurry to a thickness of 1/8 in [3 . 1 75 mm] or more. nates the high cost of using laser drilling, electrodischarge
The refractory shell is dried at low temperature; then the machining, or electrochemical machining to cut the cooling
shell and mercury are brought to room temperature, and the holes in vanes and blades. The CastCool process can produce
mercury is melted out. The refractory shell is fired to give it these holes more accurately and in areas of the part that were
strength and then is used as the mold for a usual casting pro previously inaccessible (Fig. 1 0- 1 3 on p. 249).
cess. Complicated parts can be made by use of the Mercast
process, and very close tolerances and excellent surface fin
Forgi ng
ish can be obtained. The cost, however, is higher than that of
some other methods. Disks, drive shafts, rings, gears, vanes, blades, and
The Allison Engine Company has developed a single numerous other parts of the gas turbine engine are manu
piece casting technology with the commercial name factured by forging (Fig. 10-14 on p. 249). This process
is then
Heat causes the resin sand mixture
• to set. The shell
removed from the matchplate.
n
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ro
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Castings are shaken out...
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Mold material is either removed
..-+
manually or by shaking on a screen.
ro
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Inspected for soundness...
v;-
Visual, dimensional, and
radiographic inspection
c..
optimum properties
to the castings.
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Very often castings are ready for use
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ci..
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F I G U R E 1 0-1 4 A 35,000-lb [7200-kg] drop-hammer forge. I
Machining
F I G U R E 1 0-20 In the Electro-Stream process, the hole results from the displacement of the metal
ions of the workpiece by the electrolyte. (General Electric)
(a) Photo showing a typical Electro-Stream setup.
(b) Schematic and description of the Electro-Stream process.
high-amperage-low-voltage de, is flushed away by a highly dielectric fluid. Material is removed from both the electrode
pressurized electrolyte before it can plate out on the cathode and the workpiece by a series of very short electric dis
tool. The cathode tool is made to produce the desired shape charges or sparks between the two and is swept away by the
in the workpiece, and both must be electrically conductive. dielectric fluid. More material is removed from the work
The work proceeds while the cathode and workpiece are piece than from the tool by proper selection of the two mate
both submerged in an electrolyte such as sodium chloride. A rials. This process can be used to shape complex parts to
variation and extension of electrochemical machining is close tolerances from refractory metals and alloys that were
electrostream drilling. In this process a negatively charged formerly impossible to machine. The use of electric dis
electrolyte, usually an acid, drills holes in a workpiece that charge machining is limited in that it is slower than electro
has been positively charged. Holes as small as 0.005 in chemical machining, tool replacement can become
[0. 1 27 mm] in diameter and 0.5 in [ 1 2.7 mm] deep in super expensive, and the surface of the workpiece is damaged as
alloys can be drilled in this manner (Fig. 1 0-20). a result of the sparks. On the other hand, the EDM process
In EDM, high voltages are used to produce a high elec is less expensive than the ECM process.
trical potential between two conductive surfaces, the work Electron-beam and laser-beam machining are being used
piece and electrode tool, both of which are immersed in a experimentally and may find future use in the production of
(-)
FILTER
DC SOURCE
(+)
AJM CHM
STIRRING
VIBRATION IF
WORKPIECE WORKPIECE
POWDERS USED
A N ODE
D E F LECTION COIL
E C G IS T H E A N ODIC D ISSOLUTION O F A POSITIVE WORK EBM REMOVES MATERIAL WITH A HIGH-VE LOCITY FOCUSED
PIECE UNDER A CONDUCTIVE ROTATING ABRASIVE STREAM OF ELECTRONS THAT M E LTS & VAPORIZES T H E
W H E E L WITH A MOVING CONDUCTIVE ELECTROLYTE WORKPIECE A T T H E POINT OF IMPINGEMENT
� �
LASER BEAM M A C H I N I N G ULTR ASONIC M A C H I N I N G
MIRROR
USM
LBM FEED
F LASH LAMP
SM A L L A MPLITUDE LINEAR
LAS I N G MATERIAL
HIGH-FREQUENCY ULTRASONIC MOTION SOURCE
SO URCE (e.g., MAGN ETOSTRICTIVE
TRANSDUCER)
LENS
SHAPED TOOL
WORKPIECE
WORKTABLE
gas turbines and other aerospace components. Many of the and lasers (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
nontraditional machining techniques are illustrated in Fig. Radiation). Electric-resistance welding is used to make spot,
1 0-2 1 . stitch (overlapping spots), and continuous-seam welds (Fig.
1 0-22). Inert-gas welding employs a nonconsumable elec
trode (tungsten-thorium alloy) surrounded by some inert gas
Fabrication
such as argon or helium (Fig. 1 0-23). The gas prevents an
Welding is used extensively to fabricate and repair many adverse reaction with the oxygen present in the normal
engine parts. Fabricated sheet steel is used for combustion atmosphere. The inert gas can be applied in the immediate
chambers, exhaust ducts, compressor casings, thrust area of the arc or, in the case of production runs, the work
reversers, sound suppressors, etc. Common methods include piece and/or the entire welding machine can be enclosed in
resistance and inert-gas (usually argon) welding. a thin plastic balloon, sometimes as large as a room. The
Uncommon methods utilize plasmas (see pp. 254 to 255) entire plastic bubble is filled with and supported by the inert
COLUMN
ALIGNMENT
OPTICAL
V I EWING
SYSTEM
WATER-COOLED TO
HEAT S H I E L D VACUUM
SYSTEM
F I G U R E 1 0-23 A H eliarc welding setup. FIG U RE 1 0-24 The Hamilton Standard electron-beam welder.
gas. The operator stands on the outside and works through E lectrochemica l Treatment
specially designed armholes. After welding, many parts
Anodizing is a common surface treatment for aluminum
must be stress-relieved. Where temperature or working
alloys whereby the surface aluminum is oxidized to an
loads are not large, brazing or silver soldering may be used
adherent film of aluminum oxide.
to join such parts as fittings and tube assemblies.
Electron-beam welding (Fig. 10-24) is showing great
promise as a method of fabricating parts from heretofore Painting
difficult-to-weld or unweldable materials. Electron-beam A thin, preservative, resin-varnish coating is used to pro
welding uses a stream of focused electrons traveling at tect internal steel, aluminum, and magnesium parts. The
speeds approaching 60 percent the speed of light. Even ·
characteristic color of this shiny, transparent coating is usu
though the mass of electrons that form the beam is small, ally green or blue-green. A graphite powder may be mixed
they are traveling at such speeds that they contain a great with the varnish to act as an antigalling agent. Gray, black,
amount of kinetic energy. When the beam strikes the work or aluminum enamel (or epoxy paint) is also used exten
piece, the kinetic energy is transformed into heat energy. sively as a protective finish.
The welding usually takes place in a vacuum, although non
vacuum techniques can be used. Deep, narrow welds with a
Shot Peening
very narrow heat-affected zone in the base metal, the abili
ty to weld materials as thin as 0.00025 in [0.00635 mm] and This procedure can increase the life of a part many
as thick as 4 in [ 1 0 1 . 6 mm] of stainless steel, and the abili times. It is essentially a plastic flow or stretching of a
ty to weld many different types of materials make this metal 's surface by a rain of round metallic shot thrown at
welding process a valuable one in the gas turbine manufac high velocity by either mechanical or pneumatic I]leans.
turing area. The 0.005- to 0.035-in [0. 1 27 - to 0.889-mm] stretched
Another new welding method is called friction or inertia layer is placed in a state of compression with the stress
welding (Fig. 1 0-25). In this process the parts are joined concentration uniformly distributed over the entire sur
through the friction generated when they are rubbed togeth face. Glass beads are sometimes used as the shot for
er. Strictly speaking, the joint is not a weld. It is more close cleaning purposes.
ly related to forming by hot forging, and the "welded" joint
is actually bonded in a solid state, resulting in a quality joint
of great strength.
Workpiece
Finishing
der
The basic material, the properties desi;ed in the fin
ished product, and the kind of protection desired will
determine the type of surface and internal treatment
received. The variety is considerable and includes the fol
lowing: N i troQen Barrel
QOS
Acetylene gas
Chem ical Treatment
258
F I G U RE 1 1 -1 C rude oil m ust be refi ned before it can be
used i n a gas turbine engine.
I .. I
Tt.NKER
(a) Petroleum flowchart: from the well to the refinery.
REFINERY STORAGE
----
-�
..--
- ----.. fiELD STORAGE
--- ...._ (Humble Oif·and Refining Co.)
(b) Detail of the bubble tower used for fractional distil lation .
...-""'Gas
WAX
FUEL OILS
OXIDIZED ASPHALT
Furnace oil
Gas oil
Crude
Reduced crude
Crude
(b)
Furnace
A typical midcontinent crude might yield the following the process of polymerization, two lighter molecules
approximate percentages of the various fractions : are combined into one large molecule.
Gas 3 percent 3. Impart to a fraction certain desirable properties with
Gasoline and naphtha = 1 8 percent the inclusion of "additives." Such additives might
Kerosene = 15 percent include chemical compounds for inhibiting microbial
Gas-oil = 39 percent growths. Other additives reduce the tendency for the
Lube oil = 7 percent ever-present water in fuel to form ice crystals at the
Residual material = 1 8 percent low temperatures encountered at high altitudes.
Lubricating oils also contain many additives.
The percentages will vary depending on the source and type
of the crude. Step two represents processes performed mainly to develop
more gasoline from a barrel of crude.
The Chemical Process
From the purely physical processes of separation, the DEVELOPMENT OF JET FUELS
products of distillation are further refined to ·
1. Remove undesirable components such as sulfur and Various grades of jet fuel have evolved during the devel
gums and resins by means of sulfuric acid and other opment of jet engines in an effort to ensure both satisfactory
chemicals, or by a selective solvent extraction process. performance and adequate supply (see Table 1 1-2). The JP
2. Split heavy molecules or combine lighter ones to series has been used by the military and its behavior is out
obtain more of a particular fraction of the crude. lined in Specification MIL-J-5624. For commercial use, the
Thermal and catalytic cracking are two methods of American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has
splitting large molecules into smaller ones. While in Specification D- 1 655, which covers Jet A, A- 1 , and B fuels.
* Inhibitors may be added to the extent required (max 1.0 lb approved inhibitor for each 5000 U.S. gal of finished fuel) to prevent formation of
excessive gum during the oxygen bomb test. Several inhibitors are approved for use.
Density of fuel at 60°F
t
Density of water at 60°F
Grade JP- 1 fuel was the original low-freezing-point, This fuel was an experimental blend of gasoline and
kerosene-type fuel. In the United States, kerosene is kerosene. A large percentage of the blend was kerosene, and
required to have a minimum flash point of l 20°F [48 .9°C] therefore it did not appreciably save enough crude oil to
and to have an endpoint in the ASTM distillation test of not warrant its widespread adoption.
more than 572°F [300°C]. (See the following section on
JP-3 Fuel
fuel tests for a definition of terms used in this section.) Its
characteristics were low vapor pressure, good lubricating Grade JP-3 fuel with a Reid vapor pressure of 5 to 7 psi
qualities, and high energy content per unit volume. It was [35.5 to 48.3 kPa] , a flash point of about -40°F [ -40°C] ,
.,,
thought to be a afer fuel than gasoline because of its high and an endpoint of 550°F [287.8°C], superseded Grade JP-1.
er flash point. Kerosene-type fuels like JP- 1 proved to The fuel was a blend of 65 to 70 percent gasoline and 30 to
have many disadvantages. Cold-weather starts were quite 35 percent kerosene and had handling characteristics very
difficult (in part due to poor ignition and early, less sophis similar to gasoline. Cold-weather starting was improved, as
ticated fuel control ), and at high altitudes, kerosene was was the chance of an air restart at high altitude. Its chief dis
prone to cause engine flameouts, and air starts were near advanrages were high vapor locking tendencies and high fuel
ly impossible. Kerosene has a tendency to hold both water losses through the aircraft's fuel tank vents during high rates
and solids in suspension, making filtration and ice forma of climb because of both evaporation of the lighter fractions
tion a problem. In addition, the potential supply of and entrainment of the liquid fuel with the escaping vapor.
kerosene is more limited than gasoline since more gasoline JP-3 also had poor lubricating characteristics because of the
than kerosene can be produced from a barrel of crude oil. high gasoline content.
One of the most commonly used fuels for military jet The most commonly used commercial fuels are Jet A and
engines was JP-4, and at the time of this writing it may still Jet A-1 (see Table 11 -3 on p. 262). Both are kerosene-type
be in use. In 1987 the Air Force began to convert to the fuels, and both are alike except that Jet A has a freezing
much safer JP-8 fuel, which is similar tq commercial Jet A. point below -40°F [ -40°C], and Jet A-1 has a freezing
JP-4 is a wide-cut blend of kerosene, with some naphtha point below -58°F [ -50°C]. Another kerosene specifica
fractions and gasoline, but it has a much lower Reid vapor tion used by British manufacturers is D. Eng. R-D-2482.
pressure of 2 to 3 psi [13.8 to 20.7 kPa] and a flash point of
about -35°F [ -37.2°C]. Its distillation range is 200 to
Jet B Fuel
550°F [93.3 to 287.8°C], and its freezing point is -76°F
[ -60°C]. The lower vapor pressure reduces fuel tank loss Jet B fuel and JP-4 are basically alike. They are wide
es and vapor lock tendencies. The absence of the lighter boiling-range fuels covering the heavy gasoline-kerosene
ends or fractions reduces not only vapor pressure but the range and are sometimes called gasoline-type fuels. They
combustion performance during cold-weather and high have an initial boiling point considerably below that of
altitude starting. kerosene. They also have a lower specific gravity.
Specifications for current fuels are listed in Table 11 -3.
JP-5 Fuel
FUEL TESTS
JP-5 fuel was developed as a heavy kerosene to be blend
ed with gasoline to produce a fuel similar to JP-4 for use on
In order to determine the physical and chemical charac
aircraft carriers. The gasoline is carried on board the ship for
teristics of a fuel, a number of tests are performed. Most of
use in reciprocating engine aircraft. JP-5 has a high flash
these tests have been devised by the ASTM, composed of a
point of 140°F [60°C], a very low volatility, a distillation
group of people representing the oil companies, airline
range of 350 to 550°F [176.7 to 287.8°C], and a freezing
operators, and engine manufacturers. The ASTM has also
point of -55°F [ -50°C] maximum. Because of this low
published several fuel specifications defining properties of
volatility, it can be stored safely in the skin tanks of the ship
fuels suitable for commercial gas turbine use. Among these
rather than in the high-priority, protected space in the center
are the Specification A, describing a kerosene-type fuel
of the ship that is required by avgas. The mixed fuel requires
similar to JP-5, and Specification B, describing a gasoline
only one protected service tank. Several engines are now
type fuel like JP-4 (both are listed in the preceding section).
designed to use straight JP-5. Although cold-weather starts
The Allison Engine Company and the Pratt & Whitney
are marginal, the altitude restarting problem appears to have
Engine Company Corporation both have written their own
greatly diminished because of the development of high
fuel specifications as a guide for airplane operators to fol
energy ignition systems.
low when purchasing gas turbine fuel. These specifications
will produce a fuel similar in volatility characteristics to
JP-6/JP-7 Fuel both JP-4 and JP-5.
more than JP-4, but it is the goal of the Air Force to oper
ate with a single fuel (JP-8) by the year 2010. x = 0.7507 sp. gr.
Notes
1 The above specifications are considered only a summary. In case of question the detailed specification must be consulted.
2 ASTM Jet A-1 is identical to Jet A except that the freezing point is - 58°F max and the pour point is eliminated.
3 In general ASTM specifications permit approved oxidation and corrosion inhibitors and metal deactivators. However, the quantities and
types must be declared and agreed to by the consumer. Military specifications permit the inclusion of oxidation inhibitors. MIL-J-5624E,
Grade JP-4, requires the addition of anti-icing additive and corrosion inhibitor.
:s 6.0
smoke point and fuel distillation.
& [0.09] Copper strip corrosion is a test to measure the corrosivity of
fuel toward copper. Copper appearance is rated numerically,
5.5 with increasing numbers indicating increasing corrosion.
Fuel SP. GR. (60/60u F)
[0.08] Water reaction is a test to check the separation characteris
JP-1 .850 Max
JP-3 .739-780 tics of fuel and water. To be accurate it must be conduct
JP-4 .751-802 ed under strict laboratory conditions.
5.0 JP-5 .788-845
[0.07] JP-6 .780-840 Separometer is a test in which a fuel-water emulsion is
pumped through a miniature filter separator. Water
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 removal is rated by measuring the haziness of the filtered
[-51 ](-40] [-29] [-6] [4] [16] [27] [38] [60] [49] [72]
fuel with a photocell.
Temperature, oF [° C] Existent gum is the amount of nonvolatile material present
in fuel. Such material is usually formed by the interaction
F I G U R E 1 1 -2 Temperature effects on density of aviation
of fuel and air.
fuels and oils.
Accelerated gum is the amount of nonvolatile material
Specific gravity is an important factor since fuel is metered formed when a fuel is put into contact with pure oxygen
and sold by volume (Fig. 11-2). To arrive at the correct vol at high pressure and elevated temperature.
ume, gravity must be known. Notice that the formula indi Burning test kerosene is burned in a standard lamp for 16 h.
cates that the specific gravity is affected by temperature . Changes in flame shape, density, and color of deposit as
(Fig. 11-3). well as wick condition are reported.
M
0
X
15
... [7]
::s
0
.s::
(i;
E
�
8' 10
�[
M
0
X
...
5 5 i-------jl--1-���;,c_--!-. _U.i:S<f
� [2]
'1:l
c:
::s
0
c.
0 4 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
[ 1] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [15]
Gallons/minute [liters/minute]
�"
I
0::
,"' ...J "'
<(C) paper, with water-detecting paste, or by drawing off a small
0 .
�-o"" 140 f- c. amount of fuel and observing its clarity.
"
w£
z
, Water problems are solved in a number of ways:
17
130
[40) Settling-Most entrained water will eventually settle
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.
FUEL SPECIFIC GRAVITY out of the fuel, but it takes a much longer time
(approximately 4 times as long) for the water to settle
F I G U R E 1 1 -5 A graph ical representation of net heating out of turbine fuel than out of avgas due to its more
value changes by weight and volume. viscous nature and higher specific gravity (Fig. 11-7).
0.016
'* 0.009
0 o.do8
> 0.007
�
e J.006
�' 0.005 W;/.�/;:\:;d ���d wc ot";�minonts
a
0.004 � Solids removed
� water coalesced
0.003 into drops
� Cleon,dry fuel
0.002
F I G U R E 1 1 -8 Cutaway view of a typical filter-separator.
L..-
---"'
'---'..
_ _L_..,-'_
_ _L_ __L__
40 60 80 100 120
�-:----L .,--,-
-::-'
140 160
(4] [16] [27] [38] [49] [60] [72]
Temperature, °F [°C] Precautions While Hand l ing Jet Fuels
I \\ �
J.
0<0 6 � Future Developments
:::.[1.8 J
LL
og -. \J>"- '::0\:. � In recent years there have been large-scale efforts by the
4
:;; [1.2]
1-
1-
a�
7'
6. Carbon
9.
lliW8J
Coking
E:g.�:
-
300
,.,
0 Afterburner
'0 -
'
"'
Q)
0
2. Mixing & propagation
zoo r---f-�,-���-r--�---r��--�
.0 vaporization
482°F [250°C]. Under these conditions, trace compo 7. Gelled fuels to reduce the danger of fire in the event of
nents in a fuel concentrate into deposits that plate out an abnormal landing.
on critical surfaces and block fine orifices in the fuel A radically different approach to the problem of finding
system.
suitable fuels for supersonic engines would involve the use
2. Jet fuels that are capable of absorbing the aerodynam of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The advantage claimed for
ic heat generated by aircraft operating in the Mach 3 to such a product is greater thermal stability, allowing cleaner
Mach 6 range. An interesting development in this area burning at Mach 3 temperatures without forming varnishes
is the endothermic fuel. Basically, the idea is to use a and other deposits that could foul injectors. In addition,
chemical that decomposes into a good fuel mixture as LNG would burn with a lower radiant heat output, resulting
a result of a heat-absorbing (endothermic) reaction. in lower metal temperature of the combustion chamber com
This reaction not only boosts the heat-sink capacity ponent. Another advantage claimed for this fuel is its high
but also increases the amount of energy that can be hydrogen/carbon ratio and therefore higher heat content per
extracted from any given fuel. Reason: The heat taken unit weight.
up during the reaction has to be released when the fuel Because it is a cryogenic fuel with a boiling point of
is burned. Thus the fuel, which initially enters the sys -260°F [ -162.2°C], LNG offers substantially more heat
tem as a liquid, constantly soaks up heat as it cools the sink capacity than present fuels. This greater cooling capac
engine walls and changes from the liquid to the vapor ity could be used to cool the turbine cooling air and thus
phase. It continues to absorb heat and then undergoes raise cycle efficiency or increase engine life.
the endothermic reaction that decomposes the chemi Liquefied natural gas also has some drawbacks. Its
cal or alters its structure. extremely low temperature and volatility could cause han
3. High-density jet fuels that have a high-energy content dling and storage problems. The low density of LNG-
per unit volume for use on volume-limited aircraft roughly half that of kerosene--means lower heat content per
such as fighter airplanes and missiles. unit volume. In addition, completely new servicing and dis
4. Low volatility fuels because of high engine tempera tribution methods would be required. Cost and availability
tures and high altitudes. would have to be determined.
5. Jet fuels with adequate low�temperature characteristics Some other considerations involved in developing new
(viscosity and freezing point) for cold weather starting fuels are those of economy, compatibility with engine and
and subsonic operation. _
airframe materials, availability, and storage. In addition,
6. Jet fuels with low water content to prevent the forma safety in storage might necessitate fuel tank inerting or fill
tion of ice resulting from the low temperatures ing the space on top of the fuel with an inert gas such as
encountered at high altitudes. nitrogen, thus precluding the likelihood of explosion.
• B urner pressure
HVDROMECHANICAL FUEL • Rpm
CONTROLS AND ELECTRONIC
• Turbine temperature
ENGINE CONTROLS
The electronic controls, especially the full authority digital
Depending on the type of engine and the performance electronic control (FADEC), which may be part of a sophis
expected of it, fuel and engine controls range in complexity ticated engine electronic control (EEC) system, will sense
from simple valves to automatic computing deyices contain many more operating parameters. Electronic systems may
ing hundreds of intricate and highly machined parts. Strictly also use fiber optics instead of wire to provide immunity
speaking, in reference to fuel flow, the pilot of a gas turbine from electromagnetic (EM) effects. Fiber optic systems are
powered airplane does not directly control the engine. The safer (no fire hazard), have fewer components, and require
pilot's relation to the powerplant corresponds to that of the less maintenance.
bridge officer on a ship who obtains engine response by relay There are as many variations in engine and fuel controls
ing orders to an engineer below deck, who, in tum, actually as there are fuel control manufacturers, and each type has its
moves the throttle of the engine (Fig. 12-1). However, before particular advantages and disadvantages. Many controls in
moving the throttle, the engineer monitors certain operating use today are of the hydromechanical type, although at the
factors that would not be apparent to the captain, such as pres time of this writing, there is a definite trend toward the elec
sures, temperatures, and rpm. The engineer then refers to a tronic control of the engine, especially in the larger transport
chart and computes a fuel flow or throttle movement rate that and military aircraft. Regardless of type, all controls accom
will not allow the engine to exceed its operating limits. plish the same things, although some may sense more of the
aforementioned variables than others. At best, hydrome
chanical fuel controls are compkx devices composed of
Types of Controls speed governors, servo systems and feedback loops, valves,
Modem fuel and engine controls can be divided into metering systems, and various sensing mechanisms, while
three basic groups: hydromechanical, hybrid, and electron the electronic fuel controls contain thermocouples, ampli
ic. The first two may sense some or all of the following fiers, relays, electrical servo systems, switches, solid-state
engine variables: devices, solenoids, and a variety of sensors, and they feature
a large number of inputs.
• Pilot's demands The discussion of engine control theory will limit itself
• Compressor-inlet temperature mainly to two hydromechanical controls, one hybrid con
• Compressor-discharge pressure trol, and one sophisticated EEC and FADEC. Fig. 12 -2 (on
p. 270) shows the general functions of the components used
B ridge Officer in an early integrated electronic fuel system. A much later
l
model, combination hydromechanical and electronic fuel
, control is shown in Fig. 12-3 (on p. 271). The newest EEC
/ and FADEC discussion starts on page 292.
Engineering Officer
v
....v
..
1----'
- Theory of Operation of the
Chart Hydromechanical Fuel Control
269
Cockpit control p a n e l
Afterburner
�
rang e
Nor mal rang e
Cut off
�-
� �
M e c h a n i cal
l in k a g e
fuel- metering unit
Exhoust -nozzle
Main f u e l - metering unit
P i lot's control lever area-control unit
FIGURE 1 2-2 An early integrated electronic fuel-control system . Afterburner fuel-control ampl ifier When the requested
Cockpit control panel This panel provides various ind icator engine thrust calls for afterburner operation, this amplifier
lights and control switches, including a starter switch. A signals the afterburner fuel-metering u n it, causing afterburn
selector valve allows the pilot to transfer to hydromechanical er l ightup. Following that, it regulates fuel metering to the
control for comparison or as a n emergency measure. afterburner for the additional thrust.
Pilot's control lever The pi lot selects engine thrust by the Afterburner fuel-metering u nit This fuel-metering unit
position of this lever. Regardless of how far or how rapidly controls l ig htup and fuel flow to the afterburner spray noz
the lever is moved, automatic features ensure maximum rates zles. It is electrical ly regulated from the afterburner fuel-con
of engine acceleration or deceleration, with i n safe engine trol amplifier. The amplifier also senses and integrates suitable
operating limits. engine parameters.
Main fuel-control ampl ifier The "thrust request" from the Exhaust-nozzle area-control amplifier This amplifier
pilot's control lever is signaled electrically to this amplifier; it receives a signal from a thermocouple that senses the tem
also receives sensor signals covering various engine-operating perature of the exhaust gases. This signal is electron icaUy
conditions. From these a control signal is integrated and sent compared with other engi ne-operating conditions. A resulting
out to the metering system . working signal directs the nozzle area control.
Main fuel-metering unit The fuel-metering valve of this Exhaust-nozzle a rea-control u nit This is a hydraulic u nit
u nit is electrically controlled from the main fuel-control under electrical control from the ampl ifier. It serves to posi
amplifier. In this way, fuel is metered to the engine spray tion the exha ust-nozzle-area mechanism through hydra ulic
nozzles in response to the i ntegrated fuel demands, with i n actuating cylinders. Nozzle area is varied for optimum operat
safe operating l i mits. ing conditions.
• Pump to pressurize the fuel The fuel components mentioned above are important, for
• Shutoff valve to stop fuel flow it would take a very careful operator to run the engine with
• Relief valve to protect the control when the shutoff out one or more of these refinements. Another component
valve is closed only slightly less essential is an acceleration limiter. Since
these engines are internally air cooled, much of the air
• Minimum fuel-control adjustment to prevent complete
pumped by the compressor is used to cool the combustion
stoppage of fuel by the metering valve
gases to the point where they can tum the turbine without
A flow of fluid may be metered by keeping the pressure melting the blades. In order to accelerate the engine, fuel
drop or difference across the metering valve constant while flow is increased but only to the limiting temperature. As the
varying the valve orifice, or the valve orifice may be kept a engine accelerates and increases the airflow, more fuel can be
constant size and the pressure difference varied. Most modem added. This function can be performed by the operator, but if
fuel controls meter fuel by the first method, so an additional it must be done often, it can probably be done better and
refinement would consist of a device to maintain a constant more cheaply by an automatic device. If turbine inlet tem
pressure drop across the metering valve, regardless of the perature were the only engine limitation, a control sensing
pressure level on either side of the valve or valve opening. this temperature could be used, although such controls are
MAX 1 20°
E LECTRO N I C
I COMPUTER
F I G U R E 1 2-3 The AlliedSignal TFE731 fuel control. A key 1. Acceleration and deceleration fuel schedules.
design feature of the TFE73 1 is the full authority electronic 2. Automatic power changes with am bient conditions.
engine control (EEC). Engine operation from start-up 3. Overspeed protection.
throughout the flight envelope is monitored and controlled 4. Proportional thrust with power lever position.
by the EEC with i nputs from ambient air temperature and 5. Surge bleed control.
pressure, power-lever angle, spool speeds, bleed-valve posi The EEC also improves engine operating economy and dura
tion, and turbine temperature. The EEC, in combination with bility while reducing pilot workload .
the hydromechanical fuel control, provides: ·
generally complex and expensive. In most cases it is also • When the turbojet is used in an airplane where air-inlet
necessary to avoid the compressor surge and stall lines (Fig. conditions change drastically
12-5 on p. 272). (Refer to chap. 5.) Since a good incipient • When the simple machine delivers hot gases to another
stall detector has not yet been developed for the hydrome wheel or is subject to variation in back pressure from
chanical fuel control, it is necessary to schedule the fuel any other source
needed for acceleration in accordance with some engine
• When any shaft power is taken from the machine so that
parameter or combination of engine parameters. When the
the fuel flow required is a function of load as well as
shortest possible acceleration time is important, the control
speed
becomes rather involved. Since gas turbine engines require
rapid acceleration to make the engine more responsive to A simple governor consists of flyweights balanced by a
operator demands, aircraft controls tend to be complicated. spring. When the engine is running unloaded, at rated speed,
For smaller engines with less aerodynamically critical com the metering valve is open only far enough to supply the small
pressors, or for applications where the cost and simplicity of fuel flow required. If a load is applied to the engine, the speed
the control are more important than optimum performance, a will decrease, causing the flyweights to move in under the
simpler control is used, giving equally effective engine pro force of the spring and the fuel valve to open wider and admit
tection but longer acceleration time. Compressor-discharge more fuel. With the additional fuel, the engine picks up speed
pressure or burner pressure is commonly used as the sensed again, and as the set speed is reached, the flyweights move the
variable for these simple controls, since each varies with fuel valve in the closing direction until the proper steady-state
both engine speed and inlet-air conditions, thus giving a fair fuel flow is reached. Note, however, that since the engine now
indication of the amount of fuel that can be burned safely. requires more fuel to carry the load, the fuel valve must be
The amount of fuel required to run the engine at rated open farther than it was at no load, causing the flyweights to
rpm varies with the inlet-air conditions. For example, it run slightly farther in, so that the spring is relaxed somewhat
requires less fuel to run the engine on a hot day than on a and exerts a little less force. As a result, the system will come
cold day. In order to relieve the operator of the necessity of to equilibrium at a speed slightly lower than the unloaded
resetting the power lever, the final refinement, a speed gov speed. Thus, as load is progressively added to the engine, the
ernor, is added to the simple fuel control. A speed governor speed will progressively decrease. If speed versus load is plot
becomes necessary under the following conditions: ted, a drooping line results (Fig. 12-6). This characteristic
(c)
(d) (e)
.
"w��:;
F I G U R E 1 2-4 S ome steps i n the dev I
hydromechani cal f"el contro l (Wood
ent of one type of
� :
"speed droop , so et mes called regulatio n or proportional
l
o to all mechanical govemors It' rulva�tage
�o tro is co
Governor n l,
' " ,mi,
Company)
(a) Basic fuel control.
lS that it mak.es the e g
�,�e-go,.mo 'Y em
0
le, but it al•o
meens that the engi e " running dthec below rated speed
(b) Addin 9 a shutoff
:
(c) Add .lng a high-pressure relief val e , a differen tial-relief �
when loaded "' ab ve rated speed when unloaded 0
�
valve and m rm m ,m- flow 'al, .
.
(d) Addi ; g a g vernor and an acceleratlon-sched u \ 'lng valve.
The problem o droop can be reduced m vanous ways:
0
0 0
0 0
• u se a weaker sprin reqmrmg a lower force neee""'Y
�
(e) Addin g a droop control .
for valve movemen
• - i
· 0
o
MW<e the metenng port w de radially so that it requ1res
a small movement of the v al veo
Speed,
%
R e q u i r e d to
r u n s te a d y
state
o ---- 10 0
Loa d , o;0
VI FUEI:-INLET BAFFLE RELIEF VALVE CUT OFF STOP SPEED ENRICHMENT LEVER
'< /
-� (
� FUEL INLET ( P , ) --------_ CUT OFF VALVE
MAXIMUM FLOW STOP '·,
11>
\
LINKAGE
CUTOFF VALVE LINKAGE THROTTLE LEVER
3 METERING-YALVE LEVER
"'
QJ METERING VALVE
\
::::l
0.
,..,,..,
)> '"a '""' "' ''"'" "''\ TORQUE-TUBE
ADJUSTING SCREWS
11>
"'
"'
0 CONTROL DRIVE SHAFT
::::!. CUTOFF VALVE I DRIVEN BY GASf!PRODUCER
11>
"' BYPASS VALVE --------
SECTION OF ENGINE )
3/ / ATMOSPHERIC VENT
�
lWS ____-
.-
ACCELERATION BELLOWS
I
ENRICHMENT SPRING
(EVACUATED) ______-
-------
------
- THROTTLE LEVER
''"""'��
MODEL TS·E2 TEMPERATURE
COMPENSATOR
INLET FUEL
�
PI
PRESSURE
Pc FROM ENGINE METERED FUEL
GOVERNOR LEVER Pz
, PRESSURE
CONTROL DRIVE SHAFT BYPASS FUEL
Po
(DRIVEN BY POWER TURBINE PRESSURE
GOVERNOR SECTION OF ENGINE)
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE
--
�
SPRING Pc
� GOVERNOR WEIGHTS PRESSURE
�
PRESSURE
� CAM-FOL LOWER LEVER
DISC STACK
Pr GOVERNOR
THROTTLE SHAFT AND PRESSURE
J
GOVERNOR CAM
.--
M_D-
O_ EL
__A_-N
L-- I_P
_O_
W_ R-:
Ecc I
T
-
GOVERNOR AND LIMITER
U
-:R
c::-:
BINE
MINIMUM SPEED ADJUSTMENT
Po
AMBIENT AIR
PRESSURE
HOT
F I G U R E 1 2-7 Schematic diagram of the AlliedSignal Bendix D P-F2 fuel-control system with the
AL- N 1 power turbine governor and li m iter and the TS-E2 temperature compensator. (AIIiedSignal
Bendix Engine Controls Division)
The pressurizing valve is located between the metering will open if N8 increases sufficiently to cause the weight
valve and the cutoff valve. Its function is to maintain ade force to overcome the force of the larger spring. At this point
quate pressures within the control to ensure correct fuel the governor ,valve will be open and the enrichment valve
metering. The cutoff valve provides a positive means of closed, as shown in view D.
stopping fuel flow to the engine. During normal operation, The main body incorporates a vent port that vents the
this valve is fully open and offers no restriction to the flow inner body cavity to atmospheric pressure Pa · Modified
of fuel to the nozzles. compressor-discharge pressure, Px and PY ' will be bled off
An external adjustment is provided on the bypass-valve to P when the respective enrichment and governor valves
a
spring cover that was initially intended to compensate for are open.
the difference in specific gravity of various fuels. It is some
times used to match accelerations between engines on mul
Bel lows Section
tiengine installations. Compensation for variations in
specific gravity resulting from chang,es in fuel temperature The bellows assembly consists of an evacuated (acceler
is accomplished by the bimetallic disks under the bypass ation) bellows and a governor bellows connected by a com-
valve spring. . mon rod. The end of the acceleration bellows opposite the
rod is attached to the body casting. The acceleration bellows
provides an absolute-pressure reference. The governor bel
Throttle Input, Speed Governor, and Enrichment
lows is secured in the body cavity and functions similar to
Section
that of a diaphragm.
Figure 12-8 (on p. 276) illustrates details of the governor Movement of the bellows is transmitted to the metering
and enrichment levers. Views A and B identify the individu valve by the cross shaft and associated levers. The cross
al levers and their relationship to each other. Views C and D shaft moves within a torque tube attached to the cross shaft
show these levers in operation. The following text is coordi- near the bellows lever. The tube is secured in the body cast
nated with Fig. 12-8. . ing at the opposite end by an adjustment bushing. Therefore,
The throttle-input shaft incorporates a cam that depress any rotational movement of the cross shaft increases or
es an internal lever when the throttle is opened. A spring decreases the force of the torque tube. The torque tube forms
connects this cam-follower lever to the governor lever. The the seal between the air and fuel sections of the control. It is
governor lever is pivoted and has an insert that operates positioned during assembly to provide a force in a direction
against an orifice to form the governor valve. The enrich tending to close the metering valve. The bellows act against
ment lever pivots at the same point as the governor lever. It this force to open the metering valve.
has- two extensions that straddle a portion of the governor PY pressure is applied to the outside of the governor bel
lever so that after a slight movement a gap will be closed lows. Px pressure is applied to the inside of the governor bel
and then both levers must move together. The enrichment lows and to the outside of the acceleration bellows. Figure
lever actuates a fluted pin that ope_rates against the enrich 12-9 (on p. 277) illustrates the forces applied to the bellows
ment "hat" valve. Another smalier spring connects the and their functions. For explanation purposes, the governor
enrichment lever to the governor lever. A roller on the arm bellows is illustrated as a diaphragm. PY pressure is applied
of the enrichment lever contacts the end of the governor to one side of the "diaphragm" and Px is applied to the oppo
spool. site side. Px is also applied to the evacuated bellows attached
The speed-scheduling cam applies tension to the gover to the diaphragm. The force of Px applied against the evac
nor spring through the intermediate lever, which applies a uated bellows is canceled by application of the same pres
force to close the governor valve. The enrichment spring sure on an equal area of the diaphragm, as the forces act in
between the enrichment and governor levers provides a opposite directions.
force to open the enrichment valve. All pressure forces applied to the bellows section can be
As the drive shaft revolves, it rotates a table on which the resolved into forces acting on the diaphragm only. These
governor weights are mounted. Small levers on the inside of forces are PY pressure acting on the entire surface of one
the weights contact the governor spool. As gas-producer tur side, the internal pressure of the evacuated bellows acting on
bine speed N8 increases, centrifugal force causes the weights a portion of the opposite side (within the area of pressure
to apply increasing force against the spool. This force tends cancellation), and P, acting on the remainder of that side.
to move the spool outward on the shaft against the enrich Any change in PY will have more effect on the diaphragm
ment lever. As governor-weight force overcomes opposing than an equal change in Px, because of the difference in
spring force, the governor valve is opened and the enrich effective area.
ment valve is closed. Px and PY vary with changing engine-operating condi
_ The enrichment valve will start to close whenever N8 tions as well as inlet-air temperature. When both pressures
increases enough to cause the weight force to overcome the increase simultaneously, as during acceleration, the bellow
force of the smaller spring. If Ng continues to increase, the cause the metering valve to move in an opening direction.
enrichment lever will continue to move until it contacts the When PY decreases as the desired Ng is approached (for goY
governor lever as shown in view C, at which time the erning after acceleration), the bellows will travel to reduce
enr!chment valve will be fully closed. The governor valve the opening of the metering valve.
ENRICHM ENT
LEVER
F I G U R E 1 2-8 Operation of the drive body assembly. (AIIiedSignal Bendix Engine Controls Division.)
(>
on the compressor case with the bimetallic discs extend
ing into the inlet airstream. Compressor-discharge pres
sure Pc is applied to the compensator. This pressure source
P
x
I�
___
j ,' �
I
,I
py to provide an acceleration schedule biased by inlet tem
I
I
- - - - -
I'
I I I
I·
.... perature to prevent compressor stall or excessive turbine
temperatures.
Px
(AIIiedSignal Bendix Engine Controls Division.) PY during engine acceleration. The increase in pressure
sensed by the bellows causes the metering valve to move in
When both pressures decrease simultaneously, the bel an opening direction.
lows will travel to reduce the metering-valve opening As N8 approaches idle, the centrifugal force of the drive
because a change in PY is more effective than the same body weights begins to overcome the governor-spring force
change in Px. This reduction occurs during deceleration and and opens the governor valve. This action creates a Px - PY
moves the metering valve to its minimum-flow stop. differential that causes the metering valve to move in a clos
ing direction until the required-to-run idle fuel flow is
Model AL-N1 Power-Turbine Governor
obtained.
The model AL-N l power-turbine governor is mounted on Any variation in engine speed from the selected (IDLE)
the reduction-gear case of the engine, is driven at a speed speed will be sensed by the governor weights and will result
proportional to power-turbine speed N1, and provides power- in increased or decreased weight force. This change in
.
turbine-overspeed protection. The function of the AL-Nl weight force will cause movement of the governor valve
governor is to limit the maximum speed N1 of the power tur that will then be reflected by a change in fuel flow necessary
bine, as, during normal operation, N1 is controlled by the to reestablish the proper speed.
propeller governor. However, in the event of a system mal
function, the AL-Nl governor will prevent N1 from exceed Acceleration
ing 105 percent by reducing the fuel flow of the DP-F2 fuel As the throttle lever is advanced above idle, the speed
control. scheduling cam is repositioned, moving the cam-follower
The governor employs a drive body similar to the drive lever to increase the governor-spring force. The governor
body of the fuel control, the main difference being the elim spring then overcomes the weight force and moves the lever,
ination of the speed-enrichment mechanism. The cover closing the governor valve. Px and PY immediately increase
incorporates vent holes that maintain the inner cavity of the and cause the metering valve to move in an opening direction.
governor at atmospheric pressure P0. During normal opera Acceleration is then a function of increasing Px (Px PY).
=
tion, the governor throttle lever is positioned against the With the increase in fuel flow, the gas-producer turbine
maximum-speed stop and locked in this position. will accelerate. When Ng reaches a predetermined point
PY pressure from the DP-F2 control is applied to the AL-Nl (approximately 70 to 75 percent), weight force overcomes
governor valve. If a power-turbine overspeed occurs, the gov the enrichment spring and starts to close the enrichment
ernor-weight force overcomes the spring force, which opens valve. When the enrichment valve starts to close, PY and Px
the valve to bleed off PY pressure. This action, in tum, reduces pressures increase, causing an increase in the movement rate
PY pressure on the governor bellows in the fuel control and of the governor bellows and metering valve, thus providing
reduces fuel flow and, consequently, N8• speed enrichment to the acceleration fuel schedule.
As the overspeed condition is corrected, the governor Continued movement of the enrichment lever will cause the
weight force diminishes and the spring force again over valve to close and enrichment will then be discontinued.
comes the reduced weight force. This action closes the Meanwhile, as Ng and the exhaust-gas velocity increase,
valve, restoring control of PY pressure and engine fuel flow the propeller governor increases the pitch of the propeller to
to the DP-F2 fuel control. prevent N1 from overspeeding and to apply the increased
Woodward Type 1 307 Fuel Control Author's Note: All numbers refer to Fig. 1 2-10.
Maximum fuel is supplied to the control inlet port ( 1 07)
General Description from the main fuel-pump discharge at pressure P 1. The flow
of fuel is divided at the metering valve, sending fuel to the
The Woodward main fuel control (Fig. 1 2-10 on pp.
engine at one pressure (P2) and a bypass flow to the pump
280-2 8 1 ) , used on the J79 and CJ805 series turbojet
inlet at a second pressure (Pb).
engines, provides the following engine-control functions:
Fuel-inlet pressure P 1 and outlet pressure P2 are applied
1. Maintains engine speed (rpm) according to the throttle to opposite sides of sensing land on the differential-pilot
schedule valve plunger ( 1 1 0). Inlet pressure P1 on the bottom side of
2. Schedules maximum and minimum fuel rate limits the land is opposed by P2 plus the force of the pressure-reg
3. Limits maximum compressor-discharge pressure (P3) ulator reference springs ( 1 1 1 ). The controlling action of the
by limiting fuel flow valve plunger regulates pressure P4 until the bypass flow
4. Reduces maximum speed (rpm) limit in the low causes the force produced by P 1 - P2 to be equal to the
engine-inlet-temperature range force of the spring. As P2 increases, or P 1 decreases, the
5. Provides a pilot-actuated reset of minimum fuel, when valve plunger is forced downward by P2, venting P1 to P4.
required, for high-altitude starting This action forces the bypass-valve plunger ( 1 09) to reduce
6. Resets the flight idle speed as a function of compres the opening, increasing P 1 enough to restore the P 1 - P2 dif
sor-inlet-air temperature ferential and recenter the differential-pilot-valve plunger.
7. Controls the position of the variable-inlet-guide vanes When P 1 increases, or P2 decreases, the valve plunger is
and variable, first six stator-vane stages by providing forced upward by P 1, venting P4 to Pb· This action allows P1
'
control fuel for the inlet-guide-vane actuators pressure to force the bypass-valve plunger to the left, thus
FIGURE 1 2-1 0 Schematic diagram of the type 1 307 fuel control. (Woodward Governor Company)
81 SHU T D O W N - V A L V E
PLUNC;ER
82 SH UTDOWN-BYPASS-
23 V A LV E L E VEl\
83 O R I F I C E
84 SO LEN O I I ) RESET V A L V E
8 5 M I N I M U M- F U EL ADJUST-
MENT S C R E W
8 6 M I N I M U M- F U EL R E S E T
A DJ U ST M E N T PISTON
87 M I N I M U M- F U EL RESET
SPRING
88 M I N I M U M- F U EL RESET
A DJ U S T M E N T CAM
89 C A M - S U M M I N G I I ) LER
L E VEH
90 CORRECTED F U E L C A M
FOLLOWER
91 CORRECTED F U E L C A M
9 2 C A M - S U M M I N G L E V ER
93 PIVOT OF C A M S U M-
M I N G L E V EH
94 P3 SE RV O- l i ) L E R G E A H
95 P 3 C A M
9 6 DECELERATION A DJ U ST-
MENT SCREW
9 7 D E C A M M I N G PISTON
98 FUEL S U M M I N G L I N K
99 C A M - S U M M I N G L I N K
FORK
100 FU EL-LIMIT L E V E R
1 0 1 F U EL-LIMIT-LEVER PI-
VOT P O I N T
102 F U EL C A M
103 FUEL-LIMIT P L U N GER
104 L I N K A G E L O A D I N G
S P R I NG
105 P R E S S U R E-REGULATING
VALVE
106 P R E S S U R E-REGULATI NG-
V A L V E S P R I NG
107 R E GU L A TOR I N LET PORT
108 F U EL-V A L V E PLU NGER
109 B Y P A S S- V A L V E PLU N G ER
1 1 0 D I F F E R E N T I AL-PILOT-
VALVE PLUNGER
1 1 1 P R E S S U R E-REGULATOR
REFERENCE SPRING
1 1 2 SPECIFIC-GR A V I T Y CAM
113 I NL ET-G U ID E- V A N E
P L U N G ER S P R I N G
114 I N LET-G U IDE-V A N E
P L U N G ER
115 I N LET-G U ID E- V A N E
V A L V E DISK
116 I NL ET-GUIDE-V A N E
V A L V E STEM S P RI N G
117 I N LET-G U ID E- V A N E
F E E D B A C K G E A R SEG
C A M E N D PLATE 66 FLYWEIGHTS OF THE 7 3 M A X I M U M-SPEED R E SE T MENT
60 HIGH-TEMPERAT URE GOVERNOR B A L L H E A D LE V E R SCR E W 118 POWER-ACTUATOR
S PE E D -RESET A R M ASSEMBLY 74 M A X I M U M-SPEED RESET P L U NGER
6 1 H I G H -T E M P E R A T U R E 6 7 SPEED-CONTROL LEVER 119 FEEDBACK GEAR
SPEED-RESET A DJ U S T I N G P L U NGE R 7 5 POWER-LEVER S H A FT 120 I N L ET-GUIDE-VANE-CAM
SCREW 6 8 M IL I T A R Y SPEED A D 76 SP E ED-SETTING C A M FOLLOWEH L E V E R
6 2 HIGH-TEMPERATURE JUSTMENT 7 7 AFTE R B U R NER-S I G N A L 1 2 1 I NLET-GUIDE-V A N E-CAM
S P E ED-RESET CAM 6 9 SPEED-CONTROL L E V E R A DJ U ST M E N T S C R E W ST Y L U S
63 HIGH-TEMPERATURE 7 0 SPE ED-CONTROL-LEVER 7 8 AFTERB U R N E R - S I G N A L 1 2 2 I N L ET-G U IDE-V A N E C A M
SPEED-RESET L E V ER LEAF S P R I N G LEVER 1 2 3 I N L ET-GUIDE-V A N E
64 G O V E R N O R R EF E R E N C E 71 S P E E D-CONTROL-LEVER 7 9 A FTERB U R N E R V A L V E SHAFT A S S E M B L Y
SPRING B E A R I N G ROLLER PLUNGER 124 F E E D B A C K C A B L E
6 5 131 M E T A L S T R I P A S S E M 72 M A X I M UM-SPEED RESET 8 0 SHUTDOWN-BYPASS 1 2 5 I N LET-G U I D E-V A N E
ilLY CRANK VALVE P L U NGE R SERVO
®sousr PR
® REGULATED SERVO P�
CFI;) COMP INLET PR .
O LUBE PR
� 0 SHAFT SEAL LlH ..).tN
Overspeed governor
(90° )
Compressor surge
area 58" and 0° power-lever angle
�-
0
Stabil ized start point
;;:::
a;
Acceleration 0( -
:;) (0c,t; ·�'\,. 1 5° to 35° power-laver angle
..... , .,.,-
,.,- .,..,.
limit
u..
�� ,,� _ ,.... -1
.,
- _, .,.
,o,"'{........
..... ., ,......
Flight idle governor
�v I
...--
------ _ -
.,...- Reverse thrust I
A
Taxi range r:P .,... governor ..... ---+-1"'"'\ :
propeller
load li mit Minimum fuel flow
J
I
1 4, 1 00 14,300
F I G U R E 1 2-1 2 Fuel curve at sea level. (AIIiedSignal Bendix Engine Controls Division.)
During an acceleration beyond point B to a maximum governor's break point (dotted line extending below point E)
throttle opening of 90°, the curve is limited at point C by the and connecting with the ends of the part throttle characteris
part-throttle-scheduling cam (face cam) and the part-throt tics curves would terminate parallel to EF.
tle-setting cam. The combirmtion of the effect of both of Figure 12-13 illustrates the result of governor-schedul
these cams produces the curve CE. Temperature change will ing cam operation. The cam rise begins at a jentative point
shift the plotted curves upward or downward as required to of approximately 20° of throttle opening and reaches its
avoid a corresponding shift of the compressor surge area on maximum-speed setting at approximately 37.5° of throttle
a temperature basis, always avoiding the surge area but at opening. Beyond this point the governor speed is main
the same time maintaining maximum permissible fuel flows tained relatively constant.
and corresponding engine efficiency by following the Below approximately 20° the governor break point is deter
upward shift of the surge area. The higher the temperature, mined by the governor spring force versus the governor
the more the curve would shift away from the presently indi weight force. Taxi-range propeller load limits illustrate fuel
cated surge area. At lower temperatures the fuel curve would requirements and engine speeds during ground operatioJl (for
follow the receding surge area within predetermined limits. ward or reverse thrust). Reverse-thrust operation is at reduced
However, before engine speed reaches point E, propeller speed on part-throttle curve back-slopes; forward thrust is
governor action (separate from the fuel-control system) indicated at normal operating speeds, as illustrated in Fig.
maintains a predetermined maximum engine speed at any 12-12.
throttle setting above a tentatively established position of Figure 12-14, which is a detailed enlargement of the
34 o. If for any reason the propeller governor were ineffec part-throttle characteristics portion of Fig. 12-12, illustrates
tive or sluggish in its operation, maximum fuel flow from the approximate fuel curves for various throttle angle posi
the control would be limited at point E at 90° throttle-lever tions. Note that the 0° and 58° curves are similar, thus pro
position, thus defining maximum engine speed by operation viding increased fuel flow for reverse-thrust operation. Also,
of the centrifugal governor weights. When the governor as lower fuel flows are selected (for instance, the idle and
weight force overcomes the governor spring force, the land band), the curves become somewhat sharper.
metering valve is moved toward a closed position, thus lim
iting maximum engine speed. � 14,400
Each of the represented curves preceding point C in Fig.
Cam rise
"'
Q)
12-12 is a part-throttle curve determined by degrees of throt Q)
a.
cutoff curve EF represents a return to the minimum fuel flow F I G U R E 1 2-1 3 Governor ca m effect. (AIIiedSignal Bendix
from a 90° throttle opening. Other curves originating at the Engine Con,trols Division.)
Temperature-Datum Valve
20 percent of the fuel is bypassed in order to prevent exces
The temperature-datum valve (Fig. 1 2-16 on p. 290) is a sive temperature during acceleration and to compensate for
part of the electronic fuel-trimming system of the 501-D l 3 "rich" fuel schedules and high-Btu-content fuel. Put is that
engine and is located between the fuel control and the fuel condition during which less than 20 percent of fuel is
manifold. It receives 1 20 percent of the engine fuel require bypassed in order to compensate for "lean" fuel schedules
ments from the fuel control. The extra 20 percent of fuel and low-Btu-content fuel.
enables the fuel-trimming system to adjust fuel flow to com Components of the electronic fuel-trimming system
pensate for variations in density and Btu content of the fuel, include the following:
manufacturing tolerances in the components of the fuel sys
• Temperature-datum valve (mounted on bottom of com
tem, and turbine inlet temperature (TIT) limitations. The
pressor housing)
amount of fuel bypassed by the temperature-datum valve is
• Temperature-datum control (engine furnished, but air-
controlled by the temperature-datum control.
craft mounted)
In the description of temperature-datum-valve operation,
• Relay box (engine furnished, but aircraft mounted)
certain terms are used to indicate conditions of trimming or
bypassing. Null is that condition during wqich the electron • Coordinator control (mounted on fuel control)
ic trim system makes no correction to fuel flow and the extra • Temperature trim light (in cockpit)
20 percent of fuel delivered to the temperature-datum valve • Temperature trim switch (in cockpit)
is bypassed. Take is that condition during which more than
• Temperature-datum-control switch (in cockpit)
r,: "-'l'
for acceleration could result in excessive turbine inlet tem
peratures. If the turbine inlet temperatures become exces-
sive during temperature limiting, the temperature-datum
valve must take (bypass) more fuel. When rpm is constant,
0° and 58°
temperature-control operation is desirable. Therefore, tur
bine inlet temperature is scheduled, and in order for it to
remain as scheduled, it may be necessary for the tempera
----:-16°T0 3\
I
� � � � � �
�o
70%
Bypass
,,
M o • . S t a r t Ta k e
,, �o
40%
Bypass
11
M a x . 0 p e r Ta ke 11
2 �
Bypass
11
0
Null
11
,o�
Bypass
11
M a x. . P u t
"
B y p a s s - c o nt r o l n e e d l e p o s i t i o n s
Broke
solenoid ( E n e r g i z e d )
Motor
and
Gen erator
Ve n t u r i 11 11
To k e r e s e t
solenoid valve
( O e e n ergi z e d )
Fuel-control
outlet
11
0 °/o 11 Ta ke s t o p
• Temperature trim switch is in LOCKED (temperature limit datum valve motor. Energizing this motor will move 'the
is 977°C if rpm is above 1 3 ,000) bypass-control needle in the temperature-datum valve either
to put or take as required to establish the selected turbine
The temperature limit of 87 1 oc is required when the bleed
inlet temperature or limit the turbine inlet temperature.
air valves on the fifth and tenth stages of the compressor are During the starting cycle (engine rpm below 1 3,000), a
open. When these bleed valves are closed, a temperature "start" potentiometer (adjusted to 871 °C) in the temperature
limit of 977°C is possible. datum control provides the reference signal. When rpm
The electronic fuel-trimming system is in the tempera
exceeds 1 3 ,000, the speed-sensitive control initiates an
ture-control range of operation only if all three of the fol
action that causes the normal potentiometer (adjusted to
lowing conditions exist:
977°C) in the temperature-datum control to provide the ref
1. Engine rpm greater than 1 3 ,000 erence signal. If TIT exceeds the referenced temperature
2. Throttle setting greater than 65° limit of either 87 1 or 977°C, a take signal is sent to the tem
3. Temperature trim switch is in CONTROLLED perature-datum-valve motor, which moves the bypass-con
trol needle to increase the amount of fuel bypassed.
The temperature-datum control compares two input signals: Bypassing more fuel results in a reduced fuel flow to the
engine, which limits the TIT to prevent excessive tempera
1. Temperature signal (from 1 8 thermocouples wired in
tures. When operating in the temperature-control range, the
parallel at the inlet of the turbine)
reference signal to the temperature-datum control will be
2. Reference signal (from one of three potentiometers,
provided from the variable potentiometer in the coordinator.
depending on engine operation)
The intensity of this signal is controlled by throttle position.
As a result of comparing these two signals, the temperature The voltage difference of the reference signal and the tem
datum control may complete a circuit to the temperature- perature signal, as compared to the temperature-datum
�
AIRCRAFT
AND ENGINE
INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS
· : :} ENG N0. 3 ��
· : ' . :}ENG NO. 2
A··· . . . ... . ... .
. . ....... ...
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. :
B o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o :
THROTTLE POSITION
AND FUEL SENSORS
SWITCHES (RESOLVERS)
(a)
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
"8" l;H,"-Nru:L
COMPONENTS
HOUSING
4 PRESSURE PORTS
(b)
when the engine pressure ratio (EPR) on any two engines b. Fire
is above 1 .2. There are two modes of ETIS operation: c. Alternate mode select
a. In the master mode, the high EPR and the low EPR d. External reset (fuel-control switch)
engines are adjusted to the middle EPR engine.
e. Bump rate selector
b. In the target mode, a target EPR from the flight
f. Maintenance (data retrieval)
management system (FMS) is used to set all three
engines. g. Engine location identification
4. Seven discrete (electrical signals) inputs: 5. Two sources of 28 VDC power (DC bus and ground
a. Pt2/Tt2 probe heat test power)
li
ARINC IN • ALTERNATE MODE LIGHT
FCC 1 - ----
Toll
- -
I
ENGINE PARAMETERS
�H
Tl2
7 DISCRETES -
TO DEU 1 , 2, 3
- DISCRETES IN Pl2
Pl4.95
INTERNAL
MATING
- - - - CON NEcTOR _ _ _ _
CHANNEL B'
(a) (b)
Outputs from the FADEC are as follows: • Oil temperature (Toil) , which comes from the main gear
box, is used to schedule the fuel heat-management sys
• Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
tem and to schedule the integrated drive generator
• Low-speed spool (Nl). There is a backup Nl speed out-
(IDG) oil-cooling system.
Inlet total temperature (Tt2), which comes from the
put from channel "B."
•
• Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
inlet cowl on the wing engines and the bellmouth on
• High-speed spool (N2) the tail engine. It is used to calculate fuel flow and
Flap/slat position and weight-on-wheels status is also sent to rotor speed.
the FADEC. The flight-control computer (FCC) acts as a • Inlet total pressure (Pt2), which comes from the same
backup for the air-data computer (ADC). sources as Tt2, is used to calculate EPR.
• Exhaust gas pressure (Pt4_95), which comes from the
FADEC Interface with Engine exhaust case, is also used to calculate EPR.
• The engine electronic control (EEC) programming plug
All data input to the FADEC is validated through a series
of comparisons and chec�s [Fig. 1 2-1 8(b)] . For example, is used to determine the engine thrust rating and EPR
compressor rotor speeds are compared to each other and correction. (See chap. 1 9 for a discussion of engine cor
checked to ensure the proper range (0-120 percent). rection.)
• Burner pressure (Pb), which comes from the diffuser
Inputs to the FADEC from the engine are as follows:
case, is used for limiting and surge detection.
• N2 rpm. Power comes from the FADEC alternator and is • Ambient pressure (Pamb), which comes from the inlet
used for limiting, scheduling systems, and setting cowl, is used to validate altitude and Pt2• ·
engine speeds.
• Nl rpm, which comes from the FADEC speed transduc FADEC Fault Defi nition Logic
er (a transducer is a device used to transform a pneu
The purpose of the FADEC fault-reporting system [Fig.
matic signal to an electrical one) and is used for
1 2-1 9(a), (b), and (c) on pp. 296 and 297] is to identify
limiting and scheduling systems. It is also used as an
the types of failures in the control system and to display
alternate mode.
Compressor-exit temperature (Tt3), which comes from
these fault messages on the engine and alert display
•
(EAD). Several tests that can be made under varying con
the diffuser case, is used to calculate starting fuel flow. ditions include circuit checks in one or both channels,
• Exhaust-gas temperature (Tt4_95), which comes from the position checks, and sensor checks. Cross-checks will
exhaust case, is used for indication. indicate if a channel parametric or position input differs
• Fuel temperature (Tfuel) , which comes from the fuel pump, from the other channel's input by more than the permitted
is used to schedule the fuel heat-management system. amount.
• AIRCRAFT
B CHANNEL
• ENGINE
• TRACK CHECK
r • CONTROL SYSTEM
�
STATUS
�-- -- __ _ � • SOLENOID
__R U LE--
--� N PUT --
1 • TORQUE· OUTPUT RULE
• FADEC/EEC CAN USE 1 MOTOR
ANY VALIDATED • EACH CHANNEL CAN
INPUT AS PROGRAMMED I USE ONLY ITS OWN
OUTPUT COMMAND LOOP
.---c:=----.---"""-----,
BY THE FADEC/EEC IN I
THE EVENT OF A SINGLE 1
CHANNEL FAULT 1 • LVDT
• ACTUATOR • LOSS OF ·oNE
• RVDT/RVT CHANNEL OUTPUT
• IF AN INPUT IS LOST I • VALVE MAY CAUSE A
TO BOTH CHANNELS, A I • SWITCH
I CHANNEL CHANGE
1
I
c
Mo D E HAN G E MA Y oc c u R • THERMO·
1-__ __ _ ___ _ _ ___ _ .: �
:...:... .:
L.:--- - - - - - - - - - -�
1 COUPLE
LRU
(a)
(b)
F I G U R E 1 2-1 9 FADEC identification of faults. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp.)
(a) FADEC fault definition logic.
(b) M D- 1 1 automatic chan nel selection.
(NON-CRITICAL)
(A)
CHANNEL f---S OLENOID
COMMAND HPC SECONDARY lOG FUEUOIL NACELLE
FLOW CONTROL
SYSTEM
AIR/ OIL COOLER
HX SYSTEM SYSTEM
V:T��
s COOLING
SYSTEM
FEEDBACK---'----' '------' L----' '-----' ._
_ ___.
INTERNAL
- MATING ·
CONNECTOR
FIG U R E 1 2-1 9 (c) FADEC engine system control for the MD-1 1 .
Fig. 1 2-23(a) and (b). The inputs to some of these connec 3. Ph-This input comes from a static pressure port in the
tors are shown in Fig. 1 2-24 (on p. 300). The four pneu diffuser case to measure burner pressure.
matic inputs are as follows: 4. Pam-This input comes from two screened static pres
1. Pt4_95-This input comes from two combination sure ports located on the inlet cowl outer surface.
Pt4_95/Tt4_95 probes, located on the turbine exhaust case,
and goes to FADEC port "P5." For all pressure inputs,
Interface Components (See p. 300)
a transducer in the FADEC changes the pressure signal
into an electric signal and sends this signal to both Fuel Temperature Probe. A dual-element, alumel
channels. chromel thermocouple, located on the top right side of the
2. Pt2-This input comes from the Pt2/Tt2 probe located · fuel pump, provides the FADEC with information relating to
in the inlet duct. fuel heating and engine oil cooling [Fig. 1 2-24(a)] .
I
I ----- END OF RESOLVER
1 REVERSE RANGE
I
�--100
I
I
I
I
FWD I
IDLE l % oF
I I RATED
I I THRUST
I I
I I
�I
I /
I /
/ END OF RESOLVER
I / FWD RANGE
---7f-- 1DLE SPEED
I
!
/ I
I I I I I I I ,I I I I I I I I ·1 I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
F I G U RE 1 2-20 Engine control in idle and normal power range. (Pratt & Whitney, United
Technologies Corp.)
(a) Idle speed.
/
I
I
:
M AX
REVERSE
1- - - - -\
_,.
,. .... -
I
I
I
\ /
,'
\
I \ /
I ' I
I \ I
I ' DELTA N1 MAINTAINED
'
I
I UPON AUTOMATIC
\ I REVERSION TO N1 MODE
I \ I
I \ I
I '- - - - '
I
I
I
0 10 15
EPR -
N1 - -
Oil Temperature Probes. Two other similar devices box and then t o the FADEC. The temperature sense is used
inform the FADEC about scavenge oil temperature and No. only for input to the indication system. There is no EGT lim
3 bearing-oil temperature, and provide input for engine oil iting function in the FADEC [Fig. 1 2-24(c)] .
cooling-system control, oil-temperature warning indication,
and IDG oil-cooling override [Fig. 1 2-24(a) ] . Exhaust Gas Pressure Probes. The two probes mea
sure Pt4_95 pressure, are manifolded together, and send their
Tt3 Temperature Probe. This dual-element probe is locat
averaged pressure to the FADEC [Fig. 1 2-24(f)].
ed on the diffuser case and provides the FADEC with infor
mation for heat-soaked engine start logic [Fig. 1 2-24(c)].
Alternator. The alternator provides the FADEC with
Temperature Probes. Four thermocouples mea
Tt4.95 power and an N2 speed signal. It also sends N2 information
sure EGT and send their signal to the thermocouple junction to the flight deck [Fig. 1 2-24(b)] .
Nl
0:! Nl0:: (S Nl
N2
FF
n: " '"
N2
FF
0.:':,.... .,0.::
FF " '"
w �� OFF 1!. w
I'='
ENG 1
FAOEC MODE
r--- --�,
ENG 2
r-------jl
ENG Jl
r-� - -j1
A 8 ( OVID) 1":!!:'
©
0
[�}�·[§.@J
•' SIUCl 1•
��
•'- - - J
•' AtTN 1 r
:: ���·�,�· ::�·���·�·
•' AUN ,, •' AtTN 1•
1!-------',.1 �------- �-- ·---�.1
,• MANUAl ON a
FIGURE 1 2-2 1 Engine control mode switching. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp.)
m UNITE
D
0 TECHNOLOGIES
�Cl1\l1i:UiH.!�
® l!:aM �Itfol s�
d.� U.S.A.
�
WOOEL
UIUtO. J OATl
I
.....
... .
UTOINI'OIRTO
9G
IHSTLAfiR
0 0�=!
TYP•CER'N'lCATI!
PR 0.2
J ./
!.��
FIGURE 1 2-22 EEC programming plug. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp)
Speed Transducer. The speed transducer supplies the temperature sensor is a dual-element resistance type. One
FADEC "A" and "B" channels with the N1 signal by sensing element sends its signal to the "A" channel, while the other
the frequency at which the 60 teeth on the low-pressure sends its signal to the "B" channel. The probe is continu
compressor/low-pressure turbine (LPC/LPT) coupling pass ously electrically heated [Fig. 1 2-24(g) ] .
by them [Fig. 1 2-24(d)].
Fault Protection
Pt2/Tt2 Probe. The inlet pressure/temperature probe This sophisticated EEC/FADEC has been designed with
supplies the FADEC with engine-inlet pressure and temper fail-safe characteristics, which will allow continued operation
ature information. The pressure sensor is a total pressure in the unlikely event of a system or component failure. These
probe that sends its signal to both FADEC channels. The faults and the actions that will result are shown in Table 1 2- 1 .
(a)
ROTOR
LOCK
DUAL OUTPUTS/
FADECEEC
LEfl AOCBUS
625 T RACKCHECK
.. .. .. ................ .. . 1
lAANSDUCI!FI IAACKET
e;�u
&
;g,!)!ji[�,�[11"-�'"'�' l ,,.,,.. I �
USED IN NQN.SCU ENGINES
USED IN SCU ENGINES
(f) (g)
Loss of redu ndant i nput (N1 , N2, Tt2, Tt3, TRA, Use other channel's i nput via crosstal k data bus.
actuator feedbacks and discretes)
Loss of output driver for devices with Switch channel if opposite channel is more capable.
redundant coils
Common I n put Faults to Both Channels
Tt2 sense fai l u re Revert to alternate mode (use ADC i nput, if healthy; other
wise hold last value).
EEC programming plug Revert to alternate mode on reset.
Pamb sensor or sense line failure Use ADC (if healthy and agrees with synthesized Pamb). Use
synthesized Pamb if neither ADC agrees. Select fail-safe
mode for affected functions if ADC 's and synthesis fai l .
Pt2 sensor or sense line fai l u re Revert to alternate mode. U s e A D C i n put i f healthy and
agrees with synthesized Pt2 . Use synthesized Pt2 if ADC 's
fail. Select fail-safe mode for affected functions if ADC's
and synthesis fai l .
Pt4.95 sensor or sense line failure Revert to alternate mode a n d synthesize Pt4.95 from N1 , Mn,
and Pt2.
Pb. sensor or sense line failure Synthesize Pb from N2.
N1 sensor dual failure Synthesize N1 from N2 and Mn
N2 sensor dual failure Synthesize N2 from N1 and Mn.
TRA i nput dual failure Revert to idle EPR or 1 .00, whichever is greater on g round
only. In flight maintains last good value.
Loss of channel capabil ity Automatic switchover to the other channel.
Partial channel failure, Fail-safe affected functions.
other channel inoperative
to the engine main fuel control. Fuel not required by the main reaches a maximum of approximately 70 psi [482.6 kPa] at
fuel control is returned to the pump through the BYPASS port, 3 7 1 0 pump rpm. Fuel pressure is further increased across the
located schematically between the impeller and the inlet gear-type pumping element, with gear-stage discharge pres
screen assembly. Fuel leakage from the main fuel control is sure, which is controlled by main fuel control pressure regu
returned to the pump via the low-pressure return port. lation, reaching a maximum of 765 psig [5275 kPa gage] at
Fuel entering the pump at the INLET port is boosted by rated conditions.
the centrifugal pumping element (gear-driven centrifugal Additional pump components and their functions are as
impeller) prior to entering the single positive-displacement, follows:
gear-type pumping element. The pressure rise across the cen • High-pressure relief valve-The piston-type, spring-lo'ad
trifugal boost element (boost discharge pressure minus inlet ed valve is designed to limit the pressure rise across the
pressure) is a function of impeller rpm and fuel flow and main gear stage (discharge minus after-filter pressure)
Chapter 1 2 Fuel Systems and Components 301
Two positive-displacement, gear-type pump elements
(boost stage and main stage) operate in series to supply fuel
to the engine-fuel control. The boost stage acts as a pressure
boost for the main stage, which supplies the fuel to the
DISCHARGE
engine-fuel control. Control of internal fuel pressures and
FUEL CONTROL
main-stage discharge pressure is maintained by a group of
three valves. The pump is installed on the engine and func
tions as follows.
Power to drive the pump is supplied by the engine
through a mounting pad that accommodates the main drive
shaft spline. Exterior plumbing brings fuel to the following:
DISCHARGE FUEL
� SEAL DRAIN
Under normal operating conditions, fuel flows through
the pump from the FUEL IN port and the inlet fuel-filter ele
ment and self-relieving valve to the boost stage, out the SEC
F I G U R E 1 2-2 5 Single-gear-element pump with centrifugal
boost stage. (Chandler Evans Corp.) OUT port to the SEC RET port, to the main stage and out of
the PRIM OUT port to the engine fuel controller. Fuel not
required by the engine is returned to the pump by the fuel
and begins relieving at approximately 825 psi [5688 kPa] control through the PRIM RET and BY PS RET ports.
rise, bypassing the full output of the pump internally to
the inlet side of the inlet screen assembly without exceed Main-Stage Pressure-Relief Valve A
ing a pressure rise of 900 psi [6206 kPa].
This valve [Fig. 1 2-26(a)] controls the maximum value
• Slippage check valve-The spring-loaded ball check of pump discharge pressure and is set to open when main
valve is designed to ensure positive pump-lubrication stage discharge pressure reaches approximately 1 050 psi
pressures at high altitude in the event of pump operation [7240 kPa]. When the valve is open, fuel flow is bypassed
with negative inlet pressures, such as might be experi internally to the inlet side of the main-stage pumping ele-·
enced with failure of the aircraft, tank-mounted boost ment. The A valve is normally closed during operation.
pumps. The pressure differential across this valve
ranges from 10 to 19 psi [69 to 1 3 1 kPa] . Main-Stage Inlet Check Valve 8
• Self-relieving inlet screen assembly-The inlet screen
If the boost element fails, this valve will open, providing
assembly, fabricated from 40-in. by 40-in. mesh, stain
a fuel supply to the main element. The B valve is normally
less steel wire with a perforated, outer, stainless-steel
closed during operation.
shell reinforcement, is designed to limit the pressure
drop across the screen element in the presence of ice or
Boost-Stage Pressure-Regu lating Valve D
contaminant, to a maximum of 10 psi.
• Pressure-measuring taps Several pressure-measuring
-
This regulating valve controls the pressure of the fuel
taps are provided in the pump for use on the flow bench. delivered to the engine fuel-deicer system, and therefore the
pressure of fuel delivered to the main-stage inlet. The valve
is set to open at between 45 and 65 psi [3 1 0 and 448 kPa]
Double-Gear E lements (Series) with No above pump inlet pressure. When the valve is open, fuel is
Centrifugal Stage recirculated internally to the pump inlet.
This pump used on some Pratt & Whitney engines (Fig.
1 2-26) includes the following basic components: inlet fuel
Double-Gear Elements (Parallel) with
filter with self-relieving valve; two positive-displacement,
Centrifugal Boost
gear-type pumping elements; two relief valves; one check
valve; one control valve; and one drive shaft equipped with In this pump, which is in use on some General Electric
a rotary seal. engines (Fig. 1 2-27), fuel first enters at the centrifugal-type
MAIN-STAGE
DISCHARGE PORT
"PRIM
INLET FUEL
PORT
"FUEL I N "
MAIN- S TAGE
INLET
CHECK VALVE "B"
N OTE :
MAIN-STAGE PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE '/:.,
BOOST- STAGE PRESSURE-REGULAT I NG VALVE "D",
AND BOOST-S TAGE
DISCHARGE PRESSURE TAP
ARE LOCATED ON BACK SIDE OF PUMP AND
DO NOT SHOW I N THIS VIEW.
SEAL DRAI
(a)
A RELIEF VALVE
B RELIEF VALVE
C CHECK VALVE
D SECOND STAGE
E MAIN-FUEL-SYSTEM RE
LIEF VALVE
F SEAL OVERBOARD DRAIN
G FIRST STAGE
(b)
F I G U R E 1 2-26
(a) This pump is composed of two gear elements connected to flow fuel in series. There is no
centrifugal stage. Note: The letter references in the text refer to Fig. 1 2-26(a).
(b) Schematic of C ha ndler Evans pump used on the Pratt & Whitney JT3 series engines. Note: If
bottom element stops, pump becomes inoperative.
PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE
F I G U R E 1 2-27 Parallel arrangement of a double-gear element pump with booster stage. (General
Electric Co.)
CHECK VALVE
H I G H-PRESSURE FILTER
PARALLEL O P E R AT I O N P R I MARY F A I L U R E
2200- 9000 R . P . M .
F I G U R E 1 2-28 Fuel pump and high-pressure filter flow schematic. (Allison Engine Company)
FUEL NOZZLES
primary holes. The secondary holes are larger but they still
provide a fine spray at higher rpm because of the higher fuel Large and Small Slot
pressure. The chief advantage, then, of the duplex nozzle is
its ability to provide good fuel atomization and proper spray F I G U R E 1 2-3 1 The spray angle changes when fuel flows i n
pattern at all rates of fuel delivery and airflow without the t h e primary or primary and secondary ma nifolds.
necessity of abnormally high fuel pressures.
In order for the duplex nozzle to function, a device called require a double fuel manifold. Some dual-fuel manifolds
a flow divider must separate the fuel into low (primary) and may not be apparent as such. For example, the Pratt &
high (secondary) pressure supplies. This flow divider may Whitney JT3 and JT4 series engines use a concentric mani
be incorporated in each nozzle, as is the case with the sin fold system (Fig. 1 2-35 on p. 308).
gle-entry duplex type [Fig. 1 2-32(a) and (b) ] , or a single The flow divider, whether self-contained in each nozzle
flow divider may be used with the entire system (Fig. or installed in the manifold, is usually a spring-loaded (Fig.
1 2-33). 1 2-36) valve set to open at a specific rpm fuel pressure.
Single-entry duplex nozzles incorporating an internal When the pressure is below this value, the flow divider
flow divider require only a single fuel manifold (Fig. 1 2-34), directs fuel to the primary manifold and/qr nozzle orifice to
while, as shown in Fig. 1 2-33, dual-entry fuel nozzles give a wide-angle spray pattern. Pressures above this value
DISCHARGE
� PRIMARY FLOW
IJElllil SECONDARY FLOW
- CDP AIR
SPIN CHAMBER
(a)
NOZZLE
VALVE
S E AT
�III
(b)
FIGURE 1 2-33 Fuel system of a General Electric engine showing the flow divider and the requ i red
double fuel manifold.
NOZZLE
F I G U R E 1 2-34 A single-entry d uplex nozzle requ i res only a single fuel man ifold.
F I G U RE 1 2-35 A double-entry nozzle with a concentric fuel manifold used on the Pratt & Whitney
JT3D engine.
cause the valve to open, and fuel is allowed to flow in both Some models of the AlliedSignal Lycoming T-53 and T-55
manifolds and/or nozzle orifices to widen the fuel spray pat and others use devices called vaporizing tubes [Fig. 1 2-38(a)
tern. As engine rpm/fuel pressure continues to rise, the spray and (b)] instead of injector nozzles. The vaporizing tube is
angle narrows (since spray angle is inversely proportional to essentially a U-shaped pipe whose exit faces upstream to the
fuel pressure) until it is again correct. compressor airflow. Excellent mixing of the fuel and air
Most modern nozzles have their passages drilled at an results from this arrangement.
angle so that the fuel is discharged with a swirling motion in
order to provide low axial air velocity and high flame speed.
OTHER FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
In addition, an air shroud surrounding the nozzle cools the
nozzle tip and improves combustion by retarding the accu
Fuel Fi lters
·mulation of carbon deposits on the face. The shroud also
provides some air for combustion and helps to contain the All gas turbine engines will have several fuel filters
flame in the center of the liner (Fig. 1 2-37). Extreme care installed at various points along the system. It is common
must be exercised when cleaning, repairing, or handling the practice to use at least one filter before the fuel pump and
nozzles, since even fingerprints on the metering parts may one on the high-pressure side of the pump. (See chap. 1 3 on
produce a fuel flow that is out of tolerance. the complete fuel system for the location of the filters in
PR IMARY TUBE
F I C E CON E
NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
F I G U R E 1 2-36 The flow divider and nozzle a re an i ntegral unit on the General Electric J85 (CJ 6 1 0).
Notice that the flow divider is located outside the hot combustion area.
(a)
(b)
J
o•�O© �
Bypass valve
Cover
F I LTER SCR E EN
D R A I N PLUG
(a)
(b)
(c)
. - FUEL OUTLET
-
DRAIN PORT
INLET
FUEL INLET
F I G U R E 1 2-41 Pressurizing and d ra i n valve for the General Electric CJ805 (J79) engine.
Drain
E nergized Deenergized
The General Electric CJ610 fuel-manifold drain valve performs the increasing use of PFA 55MB, an anti-icing inhibitor and
the same function but works when fuel pressure drops below a biocidal agent (see chap. 1 1 , page 265).
specified minimum (see Figs. 13-1 and 1 3-4).
Most manufacturers install a pressure-operated valve in the REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
combustion-chamber section. When the pressure in the burn
ers drops below a specified minimum, usually a few pounds 1. What is the relationship among the operator, fuel
per square inch, this valve will open and drain any residual control, and e n g i n e in the control of power?
fuel remaining after a false start or normal shutdown. (Refer to 2. List the basic i n p uts to a fuel control .
Fig. 1 3-3 to see where this drain valve fits into the system.) 3. N a m e two g roups (types) o f f u e l controls.
4. D iscuss the essential req u i rements of any fuel con
tro l .
Flow Meters 5. What is t h e p urpose o f t h e servo system used i n
Most fuel systems incorporate a flow meter as a measure many modern f u e l controls?
of fuel consumption in pounds per hour. While the flow 6. Why i s an acceleration l i m it system needed on the
meter is usually an airframe-supplied accessory, it is includ fuel control ?
ed here to show its location in the system, which is general 7. What a re two ways t o meter f u e l ?
ly after the fuel control. (Figures 1 3- 1 , 1 3-3, and 1 3-5 show 8. Exp l a i n briefly the operation o f the following fuel
the placement of this unit.) controls: DP-F2, AP- 8 3 , 1 307, and the full a uthori
ty d i g ital electron i c contro l .
9. What type o f f u e l p u m p is used on most turbine
Fuel Oil Coolers
e n g i nes?
Some engines use fuel as a cooling medium for the oil. 1 0. Describe the operation of a typical d o u b le-element
Refer to Figs. 1 3-1 and 1 3-5. For a more detailed look at fuel p u m p with i nteg ra l booster i m peller.
fuel oil coolers refer to Fig. 1 5-8. 11. Exp l a i n what is meant by " series " a n d " pa ra l l el "
p u m p operation .
12. Why i s i t necessary to use d up l ex fuel nozzles o n
Fuel Heaters
many e n g i nes?
Many models of General Electric engines, Pratt & . 13. What i s a flow divider? Where may i t b e located ?
Whitney engines, and others may incorporate an additional 1 4. What device is used in place of the fuel nozzle?
unit to reduce the possibility of ice crystals forming in the Exp l a i n how it works.
fuel. The fuel heater consists basically of an air-to-liquid 1 5. Name t h ree types of fuel fi lters.
heat exchanger and a thermostatically controlled valve to 1 6. What is the p u rpose of the press u rizing a n d drain
regulate airflow. The thermostatic valve is responsive to the valve?
temperature of the outgoing liquid. The liquid is turbojet 1 7. What is the pu rpose of the fuel heater used on
engine fuel, and the air is compressor bleed air supplied by some e n g i nes?
the engine (see Fig. 1 3-5).
The need for the fuel heater has been reduced because of
Pressure- s e n s i n g l i n e
Inlet-guide-vane and
bleed-valve actuators
Combustion
chamber
Fuel i nlet
/
meter i n g
valve Pressure
Boost
sensing
element Gear line
element
Manifold
Main pump Main co ntrol dra i n
C o m b u st i o n
t
chamber
Control a n d pump drain drai n
B y pass flow
Low pressure 6 d ra i n
High pres s u re
Dash lines indicate a i rframe equipment
314
• Fuel pressurizing valve then opens the pressurizing valve and closes the manifold
Fuel Control
Fuel Nozzles
The fuel control is mounted on and driven by the fuel
pump. The control incorporates a hydromechanical comput Twelve fuel nozzles, mounted on the main frame, spray
er section and fuel-regulating section to operate the control atomized fuel into the combustion chamber. The fuel nozzle
servos. Parameters of engine speed, power-lever setting, • incorporates a flow divider; a primary and secondary flow
compressor inlet temperature, and compressor discharge passage; and an air-shrouded, spin-chamber-type orifice.
pressure are used in the computer section to schedule the During starting, low-pressure fuel in the primary passage
operation of the fuel-metering valve and the VG servo sprays a mixture adequate for ignition. As the engine accel
valve. The fuel-regulating section meters fuel to the engine erates, increased fuel pressure opens the flow divider and
under all operating conditions. additional fuel flows into the secondary passage to the spin
chamber where it merges with the primary passage fuel
flow. The air shroud sweeps air across the nozzle orifice to
Overspeed Governor prevent carbon formation. (See Fig. 1 2-36.)
The isochronous overspeed governor is mounted on and
driven by the accessory gearbox. Fuel is supplied to the gov
Actuator Assembly (VG)
ernor bypass section from the fuel control and to the gov
erning section from the fuel pump. Overspeed governing is Two variable-geometry actuators, mounted on the com
controlled by bypassing the fuel, when it is in excess of pressor casing, position the inlet guide vanes and interstage
engine maximum limiting speed requirements, to the fuel bleed valves. They are linear-travel, piston-type actuators
pump inlet port. hydraulically actuated by high-pressure fuel from a servo
valve in the fuel control. The actuator piston rods are con
nected to bellcranks that position the inlet guide vanes and
Fuel-Oil Cooler interstage bleed valves. A feedback cable is connected from
For a description of the fuel-oil cooler, refer to chap. 1 5 . the bellcrank assembly to the fuel control and supplies the
fuel-control servo valve wiih a position signal.
SECONDARY
0 PUMP-INUT PAliiUfU
"UIIUAE D IOOIT•ITAQl PREIIUIU
IWITCH
D MAIN-STAGE ,..UIUIU
[ll�,B�� INLET
AIIII:CA-"Fl
FILTER
MAXIMUM
AND
IDLE
TRIMMERS
F I G U R E 1 3-2 JT3 D engine fuel system . (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp.)
loaded open and was originally designed to drain the prima 501-013 FUEL SYSTEM
ry fuel manifold at engine shutdown. It is closed by a fuel
pressure signal from the fuel-control unit. The other valve in The 501-013 system (Fig. 13--4 on p. 319) consists of the
the housing, the pressurizing valve, is spring-loaded closed. following components:
This valve limits starting fuel flow to the primary manifold.
• Engine-driven fuel-pump assembly
As the engine is accelerated to higher power settings, the
pressurizing valve is forced open by the steadily increasing • Paralleling valve
fuel pressure. When the valve opens, fuel will be allowed to • High-pressure fuel-filter assembly
flow into the secondary manifold. This flow will supplement • Low-pressure fuel-filter assembly
the flow in the primary manifold to satisfy engine fuel • Pressure switch
requirements at higher power settings. (See Fig. 12--42.)
• Fuel control
• Primer valve
Fuel Manifold Spacer
• Temperature datum valve
The fuel manifold spacer, or adapter, interconnects the • Fuel manifold
pressurizing and dump valve and the fuel manifolds. It pro • Fuel nozzles
vides both primary and secondary passages for the two man
• Drip valve
ifold halves and a connector for the fuel-control P, signal.
PRESSURE
SWITCH
I
I
I
I
I
L-L:J
I
WATER
SIGNAL
LIGHT
wmmmn
FUEL-PRESSURE
WATER INJECTION FLOW SIGNALS
MAIN FUEL TANK
W ATER TANK ====:::J �������:liTER-PRESSURE
F I G U RE 1 3-3 An early-model Pratt & Whitney engine showin g the water-injection system (see chap. 9).
DE ENERGIZED
TEMPERATURE
DATUM VALV E
FUEL NOZZLES
FUEL NOZZLE
("\
::::r
OJ
"'0
.....
ro
.....
-<'
"'0
;:::;·
OJ
"T1
c
ro
VI
'< FUEL CONTRO L
�
ro 0 METERED FUEL
3
"'
FUEL FILTER
0 AIC BOOST PUMP FUEL
0 FILTERED FUEL
0 ENGINE BOOST PUMP AND BYPASS FUEL
0 COMPENSATED FUEL
1.1.1
.....
\0 F I G U R E 13-4 50 1 -0 1 3 fuel system schematic. (Allison Engine Company)
Fuel leaving the high-pressure fuel filter may take two can be delivered to the fuel manifold on the next starting
paths. One path enters the fuel control and flows through the attempt by using the primer system. The primer system must
fuel-metering section. Here the fuel volume is corrected to be "armed" by the cockpit primer switch. If the primer sys
120 percent of engine demand. This correction is for rpm, tem is armed, the primer valve will open at 2200 rpm due to
throttle, and air-density variations. The second path enters speed-sensitive control and ignition relay operation. When
the fuel control through the primer valve and bypasses the the pressure in the fuel manifold exceeds approximately
metering section. The latter path is used only during the ini 50 psi, a pressure switch, connected to the fuel manifold,
tial phase of the starting cycle when the use of the primer opens an electrical circuit that will cause the primer valve to
system is selected by a manually positioned cockpit primer close. When the primer valve is open, fuel will flow through
switch. the primer valve to the upstream side of the fuel-control cut
off valve. Functionally, the primer valve is in parallel with
the metering section of the fuel control.
Fuel Control
The fuel control (see Fig. 12-1 1) delivers metered fuel to
the temperature datum valve, which provides further correc
tion to the fuel flow. The temperature datum valve is part of THE GENERAl.. ELECTRIC CJSOS-23
the electronic fuel-trimming system, and the fuel-flow cor (J79) FUEL SYSTEM
rection made by the temperature datum valve is established
by the temperature datum control (not pictured). The elec Figure 13-5(a) shows a typical fuel system for the
tronic fuel-trimming system compensates for variations in General Electric CJ805 commercial engine, while Fig.
fuel density and Btu content. The temperature datum valve 13-5(b) shows the fuel system for the General Electric J79
receives more fuel from the fuel control than it delivers to military engine. With some minor modifications, both sys
the fuel manifold and is always bypassing fuel. The amount tems are similar, since the J79 and CJ805 engines are simi
of fuel bypassed is determined by the position of a bypass lar. The text· description refers to the commercial CJ805
control needle that varies in response to an electrical signal engine.
from the temperature datum control (amplifier). The ampli This fuel system consists of the following components:
fier determines this electrical signal by comparing a desired
• Fuel filter
turbine inlet temperature signal to the actual turbine inlet
• Fuel heater
temperature signal provided by a parallel circuit of 18 ther
mocouples located in the turbine inlet. (See Fig. 12-16.) • Fuel pump
• Fuel nozzle
• Pressurizing and drain valve
Fuel Manifold
• Inlet-guide-vane actuator
Fuel flow from the temperature datum valve is delivered
• Fuel control
to the fuel manifold through an aircraft-furnished flowme
• Inlet-guide-vane mechanical feedback assembly
ter. The fuel manifold distributes the fuel to six fuel nozzles
that atomize and inject the fuel into the forward end of the • CIT sensor
six combustion liners. A drip valve, located at the lowest • Variable-stator-reset mechanism
point of the fuel manifold, is used to drain the fuel manifold
at engine shutdown. During the starting cycle, a solenoid is
Fuel Pump
energized to close the drip valve, and fuel pressure holds the
drip valve closed during normal operation. At shutdown, a The pump consists of three elements, two gear-type in
spring opens the drip valve. parallel to each other and one boost-type, arranged in series
Fuel bypassed by the fuel control and temperature datum to both parallel elements. All three pumping elements are
valve is returned to the fuel-pump assembly by way of the driven by coaxial shafts and incorporate individual shear
high-pressure fuel-filter assembly. Any fuel leakage past the sections so that failure of one pumping element will not
seals of the fuel-pump assembly and fuel control is drained adversely affect the operation of the remaining two pump
overboard through a common manifold. ing elements. A gear train is also provided in the pump to
drive the boost pump at a higher speed than the gear pump
ing elements. In addition to the pumping elements, the
Primer System
housing also contains a check valve, located at the outlet of
During an engine start, it is desirable to fill the fuel man both gear elements, which serves to prevent counterflow
ifold rapidly so that an internal high pressure to the fuel noz through a sheared gear pump element. A pressure-relief
zles will allow the nozzles to better atomize the fuel, thus valve is also incorporated in the housing and is set to open
ensuring a better light-off during engine starts. The sec at 900 to 1000 psig [6206 to 6895 kPa] discharge pressure.
ondary and primary fuel pumps are placed in parallel during Four ports are provided in the pump. These are inlet, boost
a start to ensure sufficient fuel flow to fill the fuel manifold bleed, bypass, and outlet. Three pressure taps are incorpo
rapidly. If a starting attempt is not successful, additional fuel rated in the pump to measure pressure. (See Fig. 12-27.)
OVERB0ARD
FUEL-FLOW
TRANSMITIER
FUEL NOZZLE
OVERBOARD
DRAIN
(a)
SENSING
REFERENCE PRESSURE INLET
COIL
TEMPERATURE
FUEL NOZZLES
AMPLIFIER
COOLING FUEL
� f;(;:}t{·J
@:W
MAIN FUEL LINES DRAIN LINES
BYPASS &
FUEL LINES
REFERENCE
SERVO FUEL LINES IW!m CDP LINE FLEXIBLE CABLE
(b)
F I GURE 1 3-5 Fuel system for the General Electric CJ805/J79 engine.
(a) Com mercial engine.
(b) M i l itary engine.
The fuel filter, which is in the fuel line between the fuel
heater and the fuel control, protects the fuel controller from Pressurizing and Drain Valve
contaminants in the fuel. Fuel enters the filter and surrounds
This valve is a pressure-operated valve designed to pre
the filter screen. The fuel passes through the screen into an
vent flow to the engine fuel nozzles until sufficient pressure
inner chamber, then flows out the discharge port. If the fil
is attained in the fuel control. The valve operates to drain the
ter becomes clogged, fuel is bypassed through the relief
fuel manifold at engine shutdown but will maintain pressure
valve. The filter screen is constructed of sinter-bonded,
between the fuel.control and the fuel nozzle. There are five
stainless steel wire cloth and filters out 98 percent of all par
ports on the valve: reference pressure, two fuel outlets, fuel
ticles larger than 43 J.I. At the base of the filter is a drain port
inlet, and drain port. (See Fig. 12-41.)
to facilitate draining the filter prior to removal for cleaning
or replacement.
Fuel Nozzle
The fuel nozzle is a fuel-metering device. It produces a
Fuel Control
conical fuel spray of fine droplets, uniform density, and uni
The fuel control maintains engine rpm according to form thickness over its entire range of operating pressures.
the throttle schedule, schedules maximum and mini [See Fig. 12-32(a).]
mum fuel rate limits, reduces maximum rpm limit in
the low-engine-inlet-temperature region, controls the
position of the inlet guide vanes ( IGV ) b y providing THE ALLIEDSIGNAL LYCOMING
control fuel for the inlet-guide-vane actuators, and T 53 FUEL SYSTEM
provides fuel shutoff that is separate from the throttle
schedule. To enable the control to perform the above The T53 fuel system (Fig. 13-6) consists of the follow
objectives, there must be inputs in addition to the ing components:
supply of fueL The inputs include the compressor
inlet temperature (CIT), the compressor discharge • Fuel regulator
pressure P3, and the speed of the main shaft. These • Overspeed governor
three inputs, referred to as parameters, and a power • Starting fuel solenoid shutoff valve
lever (throttle) setting determine the outputs of the • Main and starting fuel manifolds
controL The air inlet temperature is sensed by the
• Igniter nozzles
CIT sensor. The outputs of the control include a con
trolled fuel supply (W1) to the combustion chamber of • Fuel vaporizers [see Fig. 12-38(b)]
the engine and control fuel pressure signal for the • Combustion-chamber drain valve
inlet-guide-vane actuators.
System Operation
Compressor-Inlet-Temperature Sensor Fuel enters the engine fuel regulator and, after metering,
goes to the starting and main discharge ports. The starting
The CIT sensor is a temperature sensor and transducer fuel flows to a solenoid shutoff valve, wired· in conjunction
unit for the fuel regulator. It responds to the engine air inlet with the ignition system. Energizing the ignition system acti
temperature and positions the temperature transducer differ vates the solenoid valve, allowing starting fuel to enter the
ential servo of the main regulator. starting fuel manifold and combustion chamber through five
igniter nozzles. Two igniter plugs initiate the flame. Main
fuel is delivered from the fuel regulator to the main fuel sys
Variable-Stator-Reset Mechanism
tem when the engine rpm is great enough to deliver mini
The variable-stator-reset mechanism is a feedback bias mum fuel pressure. After combustion occurs and ignition is
mechanism used to alter the schedule of the inlet guide deenergized, the solenoid valve shuts off the flow of starting
vanes and variable stator vanes of the engine during certain fuel. The igniter nozzles are self-purging and remove excess
operating conditions. fuel automatically. Main fuel flow is maintained as the
I I -
_J L -.:::::-
AIRFRAME
r I r-------- ----------------------------------,
FUEL REGULATOR
l I
BOOST IGNITER
PUMP I I
I
NOZZLES
L-, r...J I
B l I
'A' I
SHUTOFF
V ALVE 1 I
I I I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
L-----;- .._,.
L-------+-.,.,., .,...
-""""""--
I
r-----,
FUEL
VAPORIZER
I TUBES
I
I
COMPUTER DECELERATION
I
CONTROL
I
GAS-PRODUCER
I
SPEED GOVERNOR
I
L------------ ------------- -- - ------ ---- - --- -- �
I POWER-TURBINE POWER-TURBINE
L
I SPEED SELECTOR SPEED-SELECTOR
____ _j
LEVER POWER
COCKPIT
--a,,_.. TURBINE
CONTROLS
GOVERNOR
F I G U R E 1 3-6 Fuel system for the AlliedSignal Lycom in g T53 incorporating separate controls for the
gas-producer and power turbines of the engine.
engine flame is propagated. An electrical cable is connected The inlet pressure sensor biases the fuel flow at the main
to the starting-fuel-solenoid shutoff valve and to the engine metering valve through a multiplying linkage. The inlet tem
fuel regulator. After engine shutdown, the pressure-actuated perature sensor biases the fuel flow for acceleration, decel
combustion-chamber drain valve opens automatically and eration, and maximum permissible steady-state speed
drains unburned fuel from the combustion chamber. The through the rotation of a three-dimensional cam that is trans
engine is designed to use JP-4 fuel. lated as a function of gas-producer speed. The control in
sensing these parameters monitors fuel flow, preventing
temperature limits from being exceeded.
Fuel Control
The overspeed governor is a flyball, droop-type gover
The fuel control itself consists of a fuel regulator for the nor. This governor acts as a topping device by limiting fuel
gas-producer section and an overspeed governor for the flow in the event the power turbine tends to exceed· the
power turbine section. An integral, dual fuel pump and an power turbine rpm selected.
emergency control system are incorporated into the fuel reg
ulator. For emergency fuel system operation, a special emer
gency valve is connected to the power-lever control. THE TELEDYNE CAE J69 FUEL
The fuel-regulator is of the hydromechanical type incor SYSTEM
porating an all-speed flyball governor for acceleration and
deceleration control and a droop-type governor for a steady The CAE 169 system (Fig. 13-7 on p. 324) contains the
state speed control. following units:
Inputs to the regulator consist of a speed selector lever,
• Fuel pump
compressor inlet pressure and temperature, and gas-produc
er speed. The compressor pressure and temperature sensors • Fuel filter
act to limit fuel flow to prevent the turbine inlet temperature • Fuel control, consisting of a starting fuel system and a
from exceeding the limits under all operating conditions. main fuel system
I
l
to the pressurizing valve and thence into the engine fuel tube.
:.r FUEL PUMP
r------ (MER-BYPAsS�
VALVE
The acceleration control is designed to influence fuel input
I I
I I during acceleration and also to compensate for changes of
I I
I
I altitude or other ambient air conditions. The governor valve
I
I influences flow to hold the speed called for by the throttle
FUEL
����T
lever setting. The governor valve is servo operated and
����A�-:
T L----- :-,---<li;;;;ro;;;m/-,.rl
responds to pressure signals developed in the "speed-sens
ing" element. The latter also sends pressure signals to the
,-- -- ---
bypass valve. The function of the bypass valve is to maintain
1
I a design-pressure differential across the metering elements
I
I
(which are the acceleration control and the governor valve).
I
I
This pressure differential is maintained by bypassing fuel
I back to the fuel-pump inlet. Since the design-pressure differ
r�1,Fij-TE:tl10N
I
ential must change with speed, the bypass valve is made
I AIR responsive to a signal from the speed-sensing element. The
I
FILTER
R pressurizing valve is designed to open only above a mini
I �?s�����lo_ -
1 AIR-PRESSURE
I mum pressure and so prevents "dribble" of fuel or drainage
I
I
of the control unit when the engine comes to a stop.
I
I
The fuel control also contains check valves, "trim" pro
I
I
visions, and passages for return of fuel bleed-off or seepage.
I The fuel control is the key element affecting engine con
IL
I
I trol. Provided the proper volume and pressure of fuel are fed
---� I
J into the fuel control unit, it regulates and meters engine fuel
___ -------------------------
ELECTRICALLY
CONTROLLED
AIR VALVE
AIR
EXHAUST
OVERBOARD
HYDRAULIC
PUMP
DISCHARGE
N2 SENSE
MAIN PUMP
DISCHARGE
FUEL
CONTROL
FUEL
VAPOR-VENT CONTROL
CONNECTIONS OPERATING
LEVERS
�����FUEL DRAIN �METERED FUEL FLOW
PUMP-INTERSTAGE PRESSURE -INLET-AIR-TEMPERATURE SENSE
t t I BLEED-AIR SUPPLY
�ENGINE-BURNER PRESSURE -PUMP INLET PRESSURE
AIRCRAFT
FUEL TANK
-HYDRAULIC-STAGE DISCHARGE PRESSURE
-MAIN-STAGE DISCHARGE PRESSURE � SHUTOFF VALVE
FIGURE 1 3-8 The Pratt & Whitney JT9D basic fuel system .
Fuel Pump to its fuel-control function, is used with the engine .vane con
trol to regulate the thrust output of the engine. Inputs consist
The engine-driven fuel pump is located on the forward
of the following:
face of the main gearbox. The fuel pump is a three-stage
pump consisting of a boost stage, main stage, and hydraulic • Engine speed N2
stage. The pump housing also contains a fuel filter and a fuel • Ambient pressure Pamb
deicing system. • Burner pressure Ps4
A new feature of this fuel pump is its hydraulic stage. The
• Inlet total temperature T12
pump supplies boosted fuel pressure to act as the hydraulic
agent for engine variable-stator-vane control. The variable
stator vanes are a part of engine airflow control.
With the fuel shutoff valve open, fuel flows first to the Fuel-Flow Meter
fuel pump boost stage. The boost stage increases fuel pres
The fuel-flow meter is actually the transmitter portion of
sure and pumps the fuel through an external fuel heater,
the fuel-flow indicating system. The transmitter is located
back through the fuel filter to the main and hydraulic stages
on the right side of the engine, just below the fuel-oil cool
of the pump. Notice that the fuel normally flows through the
er. The fuel-flow transmitter measures the fuel-flow rate and
heater, even when the heater is not being used. Both the
converts it to electrical pulse signals. The pulse signals are
heater and the fuel filter are equipped with bypass valves.
processed in the fuel-flow electronics modules in the main
Clogging of either unit will not result in engine fuel starva
equipment center and sent to the indicators.
tion. A bypass valve is also incorporated into the boost
surge-pump circuit. If the boost stage fails, the bypass valve
will open, allowing the main and hydraulic stages to contin
ue normal operation. Output of the main stage will be suffi ' Fuel-Oi l Heat Exchanger
cient for cruise power, and maybe even takeoff power, under
this condition. From the flow meter, the metered fuel flows through the
·fuel-oil cooler. The fuel-oil cooler is the standard heat
exchanger type. Its primary purpose is to use engine fuel as
Fuel Fi lter a cooling agent to reduce the temperature of engine oil. The
fuel-oil cooler is located on the right side of the engine, just
The fuel filter is integral with the fuel pump-that is, the
above the fuel-flow transmitter.
filter housing attaches directly to the fuel pump. A drain
plug is provided that allows purging of the fuel lines with
boost-pump pressure. The filter has a bypass that allows
passage of fuel if the filter becomes clogged. Pressurizing and Dump Valve
The filter differential pressure switch is mounted on the
fuel-filter housing. It monitors the icing condition of the fil From the fuel-oil cooler the fuel flows to the pressurizing
ter by sensing an increase in differential pressure across the and dump valve, or P&D valve. During engine operation the
filter. This pressure can be created by ice or an accumulation P&D valve supplies fuel only to the primary nozzles until
of foreign matter in the filter element. In either event, the demand is sufficient to require both primary and second �
switch closes and turns on the amber filter-icing light on the nozzles. The dump valve section drains the fuel from the
flight engineer's panel. The icing light indicates that the fil fuel manifold into the drain tank at engine shutdown.
ter is clogging up, which normally means that the fuel
requires heating. When fuel icing conditions are present,
15th-stage compressor air is used for deicing.
Fuel Nozzles
From the P&D valve the metered fuel flows through two
Fuel Heater manifolds to the 20 fuel nozzles. There it is sprayed under
The fuel heater is located with the fuel pump on the right fuel-control-unit metered pressure into the annular combus
side of the engine. It is connected between the boost and tion chamber. The 20 duplex fuel nozzles are located around
main stages of the pump. The heater consists of a core of air the forward end of the combustion chamber. They are
tubes and a series of baffles. Fifteenth-stage air passes mounted to fuel nozzle supports on the diffuser case. They
through the core air tubes, and fuel is baffled around the are referred to as duplex nozzles because the primary and
tubes. The airplane is equipped with a fuel-temperature secondary nozzles are in the same housing. If water injec
measuring system. tion is used, the water is injected at the fuel nozzle. (See Fig.
9-2.)
WARNING LIGHT 0 0 �
9
y
4
LOW-PAESSUAI! FUEL-FLOW
POWER LEVER
ONOOCATOR
i
FUEl
TEMPERATURE
i
.1
�
GAGE
FV,CAND
• IGNITION
, SWITCH
! ����
iI
: GROUND
T
0
1
SWITCH 0
-- HP
SPRAY
NOZZLE
c:::::!> LPFUELFLOW
cooler, fuel filter, and fuel-flow transmitter to a gear-type,
FUEL FLOW
FIGURE 1 3-1 1 The Genera l Electric C F6 engine fuel system fu nctional diagram.
EPR
FUEL-DRAIN
COLLECTOR
Ps4
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
OUTLET
+
REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
CJ610, JT3 D, 501-013, CJ805-23, T53, J69, and
1. What is the p u rpose of a n y fuel system?
JT9D .
MIL-L-23699 (Type I I)
MIL-0-6081
Several companies have developed a Type II lubricant
MIL-0-6081 is a narrow-cut (see the section on fuels), meeting the Military Specification No. MIL-L-23699. Type
light mineral oil containing additives to enhance oxidation II oil, which is produced under various trade names, such as
resistance and improve viscosity-temperature properties. It Mobil Jet Oil II, Exxon 2380, Aeroshell 500, and Castrol
generally has a low pour point, low viscosity at low temper 5000, uses a new synthetic base and new additive combina
atures, and reasonable stability in the presence of heat and is tions to cope with the more severe operating conditions of
noncorrosive to metals commonly used in engines. It was the second and third generations of jet engines (Fig. 14-1 on
used in applications where the bearing temperatures were p. 330). It is being widely adopted by military and civilian
about 300°F [148.9°C] or less. At elevated temperatures this operators. The new oil's chief advantages over Type I oils
oil suffers large evaporation losses and inadequate viscosity are as follows:
and causes large coking deposits. The lubricant is processed
1. Higher viscosity (5 centistokes versus 3 centistokes)
from crude oil obtained from various parts of the world. The
and viscosity index
crude oil can be broadly separated into two groups-paraf
2. Higher load-carrying characteristics
finic oils and naphthenic oils. The division is based on the
3. Better high-temperature-oxidation stability
way the hydrogen and carbon atoms are lioked together. The
4. Better thermal stability
paraffinic oils are relatively stable at high temperatures,
have a high viscosity index (see the following section for a MIL-L-7808 may be mixed with MIL-L-23699 since they are
definition of terms), and contain a high percentage of dis required by specification to be compatible with each other,
solved wax. Naphthenic oils are less stable at elevated tem but this practice should be avoided since the MIL-L-7808 oil
peratures, but they have little or no wax and therefore tend tends to degrade the MIL-L-23699 oil to the MIL-L-7808
to remain liquid at low temperatures. The viscosity index of level and nullify the new oil's benefits as listed above.
329
Synthetic l ubricant M I L-L-7808
specification
TAB LE 14-1
Viscosity, centistokes:
2 1 oaF 3.0 m i n
1 00°F 1 1 .0 m i n
-65°F 1 3,000 max
Viscosity change, -65°F, % at 3 h ± 6.0 max
Pour point, °F - 7 5 max
Flash point, °F 400 m i n
Neutralization n o .
SOD lead corrosion, 32 5°F, m g/in 2 i n 1 h 6 . 0 max
450°F corrosion, mg/i n 2 :
C opper 3.0 max
Si lver 3.0 max
347°F corrosion and oxidation stabil ity,
m g/cm 2 :
Copper ± 0.4
Magnesiu m ±0.2
Iron ±0.2
Alu m i n u m ±0.2
(a)
Si lver ±0.2
% viscosity change, 1 00°F -5 to + 1 5
Neutralization n o . i ncrease 2 . 0 max
Evaporation loss, 400°F, % 35 max
" H" rubber swell, % 1 2 to 35
Panel coke, 600°F, mg 80 max
Deposition no. 5.0 max
Foam test Pass
72-h low-temperature stability, - 6 5°F,
centistokes 1 7, 000 max
C om patibility with M I L-L-7808 oils Pass
Ryder gear test, relative rati ng, % 68 m i n
TYPE I l l OIL
A newer Type III oil, manufactured as Mobil Jet Oil 254
and Aeroshell 560, is basically the same as Type II, with an
additive to improve high-temperature performance by
reducing carbon formation and coking on hot spots in the
engine. The oil has been approved for some of the smaller
Allison, AlliedSignal Garrett, and AlliedSignal Lycoming
engines. This additive makes the Type III oil darker when (b)
new; it should therefore not be mistaken for old or deterio
rated Type I or Type II oils, since in general, when synthet FIGURE 14-1 The high thermal sta b i l ity of Type II oils results
ic oils age, they become more viscous and darker. in reduced deposits.
(a) Type I oil.
(b) Type I I oil.
[878] r-------��--
1 600
[ 766] r-------1:3::83f--f:S:�--,.""""�
1 400
u 1 200
L [654] r----��f-----��-���
u..
� [ 542] r-----���--��-�-+--
0 .,· 1 000
"'
li:;
800
E l43o] r-��--���---p��--+-�r---�-+--
.,
1- 600
[31 8] r-��-�--�-4-�-+--4--+--�
400
[ 206]
200
[ 94]
0 ��-L-�-L-� -L-��-_L��
[ 1 8] Grease -
Dry F l u id Gases Liquid
films l u bes metals
Scavenger Pumps
Pressure Pumps
Scavenger pumps are similar to the pressure pumps but
Both the gear- and gerotor-type pumps are used in the are of much larger total capacity. An engine is generally pro
lubricating system of the turbine engine (Fig. 1 5-2). The vided with several scavenger pumps to drain oil from vari
gear-type pump consists of a driving and driven gear. The ous parts of the engine. Often one or more of the scavenger
rotation of the pump, which is driven from the engine acces elements are incorporated in the same housing as the pres
sory section, causes the oil to pass around the outside of the sure pump (Fig. 1 5-3). Different capacities can be provided
gears in pockets formed by the gear teeth and the pump cas for each system, despite the common driving shaft speed, by
ing. The pressure developed is proportional to engine rpm varying the diameter or thickness of the gears to vary the
up to the time the relief valve opens, after which any further volume of the tooth chamber. A vane-type pump may some
increase in engine speed will not result in an oil-pressure times be used.
FILTER SCREENS
FIGURE 15-1 This tank, used on the General Electric CJ805 engi ne, i ncorporates a separate oil sup
ply for the constant-speed d rive (CSD). The CSD enables the alternator to produce a constant elec
trical freq uency regardless of engine rpm within the l i m its of the d rive. Note: Electronic
constant-frequency-controlling devices a re being tested to elimi nate the need for the CSD.
C7'
c:
"'
P r e s s u r e-r e l i e f
valve
B y pass
In
One
4 revolu t i o n 5
(b)
Pump inl et
(a)
FIGURE 1 5-2 The two basic types of oil p u m ps used on gas turbine engi nes.
(a) Gear oil pump.
(b) Gerotor o i l pump.
F I LTER HEAD
FIGURE 15-3 Schematic of a double-element pressure and FIGURE 1 5-4 C a rtridge-type oil filter. The valve wi l l open if
scavenger l u be pump i n a common housi n g . the element becomes clogged.
¢ ---
7
3 3
---- 8 4 4
RELIEF-VALVE
5
RETAIN ING PLUG
AND SEAL
2 RELIEF-VALVE
S P R I NG - 6
3 R E L I EF-VALVE
POPPET
4 F I LTER HEAD --- 9
5 SEAL
7
6 PLASTIC SEAL
SEAL
8 F I LTER ELEM ENT
9 F I LTER BOWL c;;;;l�--- 1 0
7
1 0 SEAL
11 DRAIN PLUG
��---- 1 1 8
7
1 OUTLET PORT 6 FILTER TUBE
FIGURE 15-5 A screen-type filter with a bypass (relief) valve.
2 CHECK VALVE FILTER-TUBE OIL-INLET
3 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SLOTS
4 IN LET PORT 8 DRAIN PLUG
5 F I LTER DISK
I
(•Ji:;:;t?I._,. _,�Oe>O@@Il/ I
Perforated tube
Filter disk
FIGURE 15-6 I n this disk-type filter, installed in the 50 1 -0 1 3 (see Fig. 1 5-1 4), a check valve pre
vents oil from flowing from the ta n k i nto the accessories section when the engine is stopped. The
bypass valve is located elsewhere in the system .
Fuel Out
to Fuel Oil
Nozzles Return
to Tank
Oil-Temperature
Control Valve
(Shown in Partial
Bypass Position)
fUEl IN
(b)
Fuel
From
(a) Controller
F IGURE 1 5-8 The fuel-oil cooler is widely used in gas turbine engi nes.
(a) A d iagram of a typical fuel-oi l cooler.
(b) An actual fuel-oil cooler.
Chapter 1 5 Lubricating Systems 337
.
'·,
� 1 ',
• _.
r;::���=:J��;:;;�.u AMBIENT
AIR PRESSURE
1 TANK-PRESSURIZING
VALVE
2 SUMP VACUUM
VALVE
3 SUMP AND TANK
PRESSURIZING VALVE
4 NINTH- OR SEVENTH-
STAGE AIR
S BEARING AIR-OIL
�·
.,
SEALS
6 SCAVENGE PUMPS
7 SUMP-VENT CHECK
VALVE
8 DEAERATOR
(a)
PRESSURIZING
PORT
AIR SEAL
OIL SEAL
DRAIN HONEYCOMB
CONSTRUCTION
OIL DRAIN
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 1 5-10 (c) Labyrinth air seals used i n the turbine FIGURE 1 5- 1 0 (d) Labyrinth oil seals used i n the no. 2 bear
area of the Genera l Electric T58 engine. i n g area of the General Electric T58.
Ball
hundreds of variations, some of which are shown in Fig.
called a ring)
1 5- 1 2 (on pp. 342-343). Nonconventional bearings made
• il ·-- lnner race (also out of plastic or materials such as silicon nitride are also
called a ring)
now being used or are contemplated for future engines.
The main rotating component of a gas turbine, the com
pressor/turbine assembly, must be supported both axially
and radially. When the direction of a load is. at right angles
to the shaft, it is called a radial load, and when it is parallel
to the shaft, it is called a thrust or axial load. Radial loads
are due to rpm changes and aircraft maneuvering, while
axial loads result from thrust loads (forward and rearward)
from the compressor and turbine. A ball bearing will limit or
Straight Roller
support both radial and axial loads as shown in Fig. 1 5-1 3
on p. 345 , while a roller bearing will limit or support only
radial loads. Since there is always engine growth because of
temperature changes in the engine, one bearing supporting
the compressor must always be a ball bearing to absorb both
radial and axial loads, while the other must always be a
roller bearing to allow axial movement due to changing
Separotor (also
called a cage dimensions in the engine. This is also true for the turbine
or o retainer)
rotor in larger engines.
Bearings require special storage, cleaning, handling, and
installation. These procedures should be adequately covered
FIGURE 1 5-1 1 Basic bea ring types. ( General Motors Corp.) in the maintenance and overhaul manuals for the engine.
The Spherical Roller Bearing, d u e to the n u m be r, size a n d shape of the rol lers, a n d the
accu racy with which they a re g u ided, has u n excelled capacity. S i nce the bearing is
i n h e rently self-a l i g n i n g , a n g u l a r m i s a l i g n ment between the shaft and housing has no
detrimental effect a n d the full capacity is always ava i lable for usef u l work. The des i g n
a n d proportion a re s u c h that, i n addition t o radi a l load, heavy thrust l o a d m a y b e car
ried in either d i rection .
T h e Spherical Roller Thrust Bearing is desi gned t o carry heavy thrust loads, or combined
loads that a re predo m i n a ntly thrust. This bea ring has a s i n g l e row of rol lers that rol l on
a spherical outer race with full self-a l i g n ment. The cage, centered by an i n n e r ring
sleeve, is constructed so that l ubricant i s p u m ped d i rectly agai nst the i nn e r ring's
u n u s u a l ly h i g h g u i d e flange. This e n s u res good l u b rication between the rol l e r ends a n d
t h e g u ide f l a n g e . The spherical rol ler thrust bea ring operates best with relatively heavy
o i l l u brication .
S i nce t h e axes o f it£ rol lers and raceways form a n a n g l e with the shaft axis, t h e
Tapered Roller Bearing is especi a l ly s u itable f o r carry i n g rad i a l a n d axia l l o a d s acti ng
s i m u ltaneously. A bearing of this type usually m ust be adj usted toward a n other bea r i n g
c a p a b l e o f carrying th rust loads i n the opposite d i recti o n . Ta pered Roller Bea ri ngs a re
separable-th e i r cones ( i n n e r ri ngs) with rol l e rs a n d thei r cups (outer ri ngs) a re mou nt
ed separately.
The Angular Contact Ball Bearing supports a heavy th rust load i n one d i rection, some
ti mes combi ned with a moderate radi a l loa d . A steep contact a n g l e, assu ring the h i g h
est thrust capacity a n d axial rigidity, is obtai ned by a h i g h thrust supporti n g shoulder
on the i n ner ring a n d a s i m i l a r high shoulder on the opposite side of the outer r i n g .
These bea rings can be mounted s i n g l y or, w h e n the sides a r e f l u s h g ro u n d , i n tandem
for constant thrust in one d irectio n . They can a lso be mou nted i n p a i rs, when sides a re
flush g ro u n d , for a com bined load, either face-to-face a n d back-to-back.
The Double Row, Deep Groove Ball Bearing embodies the s a m e principle o f d e s i g n a s
the single row beari n g . However, the g rooves for t h e two rows o f ba l ls a re s o posi
tioned that the load l i nes through the balls have either an outwardly convergi n g or an
i nwardly converg i n g contact a n g l e . This bea r i n g has a lower axia l displacement than
occurs i n the single row desi g n , s ubstantial thrust capacity in either d i rection, a n d h i g h
radial capacity d u e t o t h e two rows o f balls.
ri
NT
�
FROM
Ill - - ./ •�n •
-
· - ·· ·
ND
_,
,...
It
I '
-
- -H
f j
Jl
-
�}
....
'
,...lk,
I I I
I' \
I ..._n
I I
E�l
1
/ I ··--
II 1...
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-- -
�------- --
, .
I
n
- -- - -- - - li!EtJ
·I
. L - I II I
-
,- I
_5\
�rr 1111 ..., �
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;@TL)
lQJJ '-
�"�!! ,- �
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I., ...I_!
rr-1
!;r � , �
......
.
��
.no: -
I
II FRONT TURBINE
SCAV P U M P _:::!/J1
-
�
l \
---- ---
\_
lj,
REAR TU BI NE
' = S C A V P U flj p
'- f---J
I: RE ULATING -1
I \
VENT I , . \ VENT
ILVE
J ��·J"'i
P SS:-
�L: CONTROL , FUE L PU MP-BRG
[
r· �
OIL I 1 I
A ND S PL I N E LUBRI CATION, AND
t�\ �
�
F I LT E R SPEED-sENSITIVE VALVE B R G. DIFFUSER
J( SCAV. PUMP
��._'
� ::==- SCAV. OI L FLOW
-
n
AIR FLOW - - - - - - - - - - - - �
-----
"-PRESSURE- GAGE TA P
:,
OJ FILTER BYPASS ""'-
""0
.-+
J VALVE CO<EC. VALVE I PIIEVENTS TANM
t1>
..., CAVENGE PUMP P R E SSURE FROM FORCI N G OIL
POW E R SECT I O N DUR I N G
Ul -\-
�;
SHUT D O W N )
r
I
-- -
c
0'"
..., \_R_SCAV RE S S U R E-
ACCESSO R Y HOU SING
I
;:::; · E L IE F VA LV E
OJ
� - OIL RETU R N
::J
lO
V>
'<
�
t1>
3
FIGURE 15-14 T h e All ison Engine Company 5 0 1 - 0 1 3 lubrication system .
V>
w
�
U1
r --- - - - - 1
-
I
I
I""
I
:
I O V E R BOAR D
R E L I E F VALVE
I TR ANSF E R G E A R B O X
I
L- -
OIL
F I LT E R
BYPASS V A L V E f
PI CKUP
HOT TAN K
O I L R ES E R VO I R
PR ESSUR E
COM B I N E D SCAV E N G E D I SC HAR G E G O ES
SCAV E N G E =
D I R ECTLY TO HOT TAN K
V E NT
L U B E - P U M P I N LET -
FIGURE 1 5-15 The G eneral Electric CJ6 1 0 oil system . The weighted oil pickup prevents the pump
from drawi ng air. Note the " hot tan k " oil system with the oil cooler on the pressure side of the
system .
Lube pump discharge pressure i s transmitted from a flange of the lube and scavenge pump. Included within the
pressure tap located on the lube pump housing, to the cock tank is a separate air chamber, a dwell chamber, and a sys
pit-lube-pump pressure indicator (airframe-furnished equip tem of vent tubes. The filler port is located on the rear face
ment). Pressure readings indicate lube · filter condition and of the tank, and the oil level in the tank is indicated by a dip
lube pump operation. stick graduated in pints to be added. A remote-filUine (air
Scavenge oil temperature is transmitted from a temperature frame-furnished) connection is available on the rear face of
tap in the left-hand scavenge ttibe to the cockpit scavenge the tank. When it is used, a vent line is required from tbe oil
oil-temperature indicator (airframe-furnished equipment). tank to the remote filler assembly. Oil that overflows during
Temperature readings indicate the operating conditions of the filling is collected in a scupper and may be drained over
lube pump, lube filters, oil cooler, and engine bearings. board through the scupper drain port. The oil tank, when
The oil filter assembly is mounted within the lube pump FULL is read on the dipstick, has a total capacity of 4.0 qt
housing at the bottom and is accessible for removal. It is a [3.78 L], of which 3.0 qt [2.84 L] are usable. There is ade
full-flow, in-line-type filter with a screen element of corru quate space allowed for expansion. The bottom of the tank
gated corrosion-resistant steel. The screen filters out con is formed into a concave well that provides a recess for
taminants over 40 J.I in size. A filter bypass valve is included mounting the tachometer-generator unit.
in the core of the filter element. If a pressure difference The oil cooler is a shell and tube heat exchanger mounted
between oil entering the filter and oil . leaving the filter on the front face of the oil tank at the right-hand side. Fuel
exceeds 20 to 24 psi [ 1 3 8 to 1 66 kPa] , the valve opens to flows through the tubing and absorbs heat from the hot
permit a direct flow of oil through the unit without filtration. engine oil flowing over the tube bundle. Oil enters and leaves
The fabricated-steel oil tank is mounted on the rear the cooler through ports located in the housing. A pressure
L u be pump
by13ass valve is designed to bypass oil around the cooler in thrust reverser and constant-speed drive systems. One ele
response to overpressure. If the cooler clogs, the pressure ment of the lube and scavenge pump receives oil at tank
valve control bypasses the oil when the pressure differential pressure and discharges oil at higher pressures to the lube oil
across the valve exceeds 20 (±4) psi [ 1 3 8 (±28) kPa] . filter. The two other elements scavenge oil from the nos. 3
and 4 bearing sumps. This oil is discharged to the scavenge
oil filter. The oil lube filter prevents the oil jet nozzles from
The Allison Engine Company J33 clogging by filtering the oil flowing from the lube pump.
The oil-pressure tap-lube-distribution manifold contains two
Although obsolete, the Allison J33 engine is shown in
calibrated orifices that work with a pressure-relief valve to
Fig. 1 5-16 as an example of a "wet-sump" oil system.
protect the oil-pressure transducer from extreme pressure
surges. The pressure-relief valve limits the maximum pres
sure sensed by the transducer and bypasses extreme oil pres
The General Electric CJ805/J79
sure surges from the lube-pump discharge back to the
In the CJ805/J79 system the main lube and scavenge lube-pump inlet. Supplied by the airframe manufacturer, the
pump supplies high-pressure oil from the engine-mounted oil-pressure transducer senses oil pressure and generates an
tank to the areas requiring positive lubrication, and four electrical signal for the cockpit indicator. The last parts in
scavenge pumps return the oil to the tank (Fig. 1 5- 1 7). the oil supply subsystem are the oil jet nozzles that spray
lubricating oil over the engine bearings, gears, and seals.
[Author's Note This description refers to the
The scavenge subsystem begins with the transfer-gearbox
commercial CJ805 engine. ]
scavenge pump, which scavenges used oil from the no. 1
Filters remove foreign material from the oil, and coolers bearing, front gearbox, damper bearing, and transfer gearbox
prevent the oil from rising to destructive temperatures. Air and discharges oil to the scavenge oil filter. The rear-gearbox
valves in the system maintain the correct pressure balance. scavenge pump scavenges oil from the no. 2 bearing and rear
The system supplies oil to lubricate the five rotor-support gearbox, and discharges this oil to the scavenge oil filter. The
bearings and the gears and bearings in the gearboxes. It no. 5 bearing scavenge pump scavenges used oil from the no.
scavenges, filters, and cools the used oil to prepare it for 5 bearing and aft fan tachometer-generator and discharges
recirculation through the system, and it regulates air pres this oil to the scavenge oil filter. The used oil received from
sure in the system to maintain a positive head of oil pressure the four scavenge pumps is filtered by the scavenge oil filter
at the inlet to the lube and scavenge pumps. It also estab and delivered to the engine fuel-oil cooler. The engine fuel
lishes a pressure differential across the bearing seals, thus oil cooler cools used oil received from the scavenge-oil filter
controlling oil consumption. The components required to by using engine fuel as the coolant. Oil discharged from the
perform the above tasks are divided into three functional cooler returns to the oil tank. An optional fuel-oil cooler sup
subsystems: the oil supply, the scavenge, and the sump and plied by the engine manufacturer cools the return oil from the
tank pressurization subsystems. constant-speed drive. Engine fuel is the coolant. Another
The oil tank is a two-compartment tank. Oil in one com optional air-oil cooler, supplied by the airframe manufactur
partment is for the oil supply subsystem. Oil in the other er, may also be used to cool used oil returning from the con
compartment is used for the hydraulic fluid used in the stant-speed drive.
J--
�1 1.
1 H-20
1 SUMP-VENT I NLET-PRES- 10 SUMP AND TANK PRES- 21 SUMP PRESSURE REFER- 33 SUPPLY OIL FILTER
SURE VALVE SURIZING VALVE ENCE TAP 34 REAR-GEARBOX SCAV-
2 TO OVERBOARD VENT 11 ANTI-C BAFFLES 22 FAN-SPEED TACHOMETER ENG£ PUMP
3 CSD AND THRUST-RE- 12 FUEL-OIL COOLER 23 NO. 1 BEARING AND 35 EDUCTOR
VERSER RETURN 13 ENGINE OIL DRAIN FRONT GEARBOX 36 EDUCTOR
4 TANK PRESSURIZING 14 THRU ST-REVERSER SUPPLY 24 PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE 37 NO. 5 BEARING S C AV-
VENT 15 OIL LEVEL 25 OIL-PRESSURE TAP ENG£ PUMP
5 DEAERATOR 16 OIL SUPPLY 26 NO. 2 BEARING 38 TRANSFER GEARBOX
6 TEMPERATURE REFER- 17 CSD SUPPLY 27 NO. 3 BEARING 39 TRANSFER-GEARB OX
ENCE TAP 18 SCUPPER DRAIN 28 N O . 4 BEARING SCAVENGE-PUMP
7 DEA ERATORS 19 CSD AND THRUST-RE- 29 NO. 5 BEARING 40 DAMPER BEARING
8 CSD AND THRUST RE- VERSER COMPARTMENT 30 BYPASS FLOW 41 REAR GEARBOX
VERSER COMPARTMENT DRAIN 31 ORIFICE BLOCK 42 LUBE AND SCAVENGE
9 SCAVENGE-OIL FILTER 20 DOWNCOMER TUBE 32 CHECK VALVE PUMP
The final subsystem contains the sump and tank pressur on p. 350). The output of the pressure pump is led through an
izing valve, which regulates pressure in the bearing sumps, antileak valve to the main oil filter. This filter system incor
oil tank, gearboxes, and connecting pipes. Also incorporated porates a pressure-regulating arrangement as well as bypass
in this subsystem is the sump-vent check valve, which vents provisions to pass oil beyond the filter element if it should
sump air pressure to the tank yet prevents reverse oil flow. become clogged. From the oil filter output, oil for the rear
bearing is carried by an external hose. Another external hose
picks up return oil from the rear bearing to carry this oil to
The Teledyne CAE J69
the rear-bearing scavenge section of the oil pump. The rear
In the CAE J69 system, oil from the engine oil tank (not bearing housing incorporates a vent passage as well as pas
supplied with the engine) is led to the main oil pump, where sages to feed the oil to and from the rear bearing. At the front
the pressure section develops main oil pressure (Fig. 1 5- 1 8 of the engine, oil is led from the main oil filter output through
OIL
TANK
TANK
PRESSURIZING
VALVE
SCAVENGE
FilTER
TO OIL PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
LUBE PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
�
MAIN LUBE AND
HYDRAUliC PUMP
ORIFICE
BLOCK
FROM
NO. 1
BEARING
TO NO. 3 TO NO. 2
IIAaoiG
(ra*1111!12liflm;l�
BEARING
t
�8·Rik,�·b:···::!l·E:m:::l:,¢El::&:m;:j'
FROM
- LUBE SUPPLY
MiMI SCAVENGE
-
.....
PRESSURIZATION
FILTER SCII!N
passages to the front bearings and front-end gears. Oil is also pump located on the accessory gearbox. The two-element,
.
fed to the accessory gear train that fans out across the lower gear-type oil pump is driven by a single, splined drive shaft.
part of the compressor housing. Oil from the front bearings One element is used to supply main lubricating oil pressure,
and upper gears drains down to the accessory case from the other to return scavenge oil to the aircraft oil tank. A pres
which one scavenge section of the oil pump pulls return oil. sure-relief valve in the oil pump is adjusted to deliver
All scavenge sections of the oil pump lead return oil back to between 60 and 80 psi [41 4 and 552 kPa] oil pressure. This
the engine oil tank. The front-end section is vented by a pas setting is rated for a maximum inlet oil temperature of 200°F
sage to the top of the upper gear housing. (See chap. 24.) [93°C] and an oil flow of 3300 lb/h [ 1 497 kg/h] at sea level
and 3000 lb/h [ 1 36 1 kg/h] at 25,000 ft [7620 m] . Pump pres
sure is directly proportional to compressor rotor speed at
The AlliedSignal Lycoming T53
pressures below the relief-valve setting. From the oil pump,
In the T53 system (Fig. 1 5-19 on p. 3 5 1 ), engine lubri the engine oil flows through internal passages to the oil fil
cating oil supplied from the aircraft oil tank enters the oil ter. The oil filter is a wafer-disk type. A bypass valve, set at
f\/'i/{.':j Ta n k
O i l- v e nt t a n k
connection flow
'
I
'
_j
R e a r- b e a r i n g
air vent
P r e s s u re o i l to
drain rear bearing
O i l i n c o n n e ct 1 o n f r o m t a n k
Accessory case
ll>
drain
D e n ot e s p a s sage h a s p i pe plug
O i 1 - p r e s s u r e - r e g .-va I v e
O i l- p r e s s u r e c o n n e c t i o n
O i l- f i l t e r bypass valve
a differential pressure of between 15 and 20 psi [ 1 03 and 1 3 8 breather system, interconnecting the individual bearing
kPa] , allows oil flow t o bypass the filter elements and supply compartments and the oil tank, completes the engine lubri
emergency lubrication to the engine in the event the filter cating system. The engine requires a synthetic lubricant.
becomes clogged. Filtered oil is directed into two flow paths. The engine oil tank on most models is mounted in the
One path flows internally through passages in the accessory upper right quadrant of the intermediate case by two straps
drive gearbox to the inlet housing to lubricate the output attached to brackets on the front and rear flanges of the inter
reduction carrier and gear assembly, torquemeter, overspeed mediate case. On some models the oil tank is supplied by the
governor, tachometer drive support and gear assembly, airframe manufacturer. Strips of resilient material serving as
accessory drive carrier assembly, sun gearshaft, and no. 1 vibration isolators are installed between the tank and the
main bearing. The second path flows externally and leads to engine, and the tank and the straps. The tank has a capacity
the nos. 2, 3, and 4 main bearings. Scavenge oil is drained by of 6.0 gal [22. 7 L] , with a minimum usable quantity under all
paddle pumps through various internal passages and external operating attitudes of 3.25 gal [ 1 2.3 L] . Internally, the tank
lines to the accessory drive gearbox, where the main scav incorporates a flow deaerator, which is so located that the
enge pump picks up the oil and sends it first to the oil cool outlet is submerged even at low tank levels to prevent reaer
er, and then to the tank. A more detailed examination of this ation of the oil. Various holes in the tank permit the tank to
system and its components is given in chap. 22. breathe and the oil to enter and leave. There are also other
holes for draining, cleaning, and inspection.
Oil is supplied to the inlet of the spur gear pressure
L+-1
booster pump
I
I -
--�
Planet
gears
.,
I
and
I
output
I
gearshaft
I
governor and
takeoff
I
tachometer
6I
accessories
I
drive gears ,
I
bearings and
I
driveshaft
I I
(upper part)
I I
II
Planet
I -A
gearshafts
-I
I I / ',
-
and
I
I
sun
I
gearshafts
I I a, P ,
I I �
I I I
I
'
I I
1
I I
Overspeed
I r II
'y//
-
--�
l
governor and
1 I II
u
t a c h o m eter-
1 pump
!
Output
I
P l a net d r i ve
I
r e d u ction E x te r n a l s u p p l y
I
g ears , forward
--,I
gears
I I1
scavenge lines
f
I
M
bearings
I I I
I I
---- I n t e r n a l supply
I I
1 Overspeed passages
r
1 Sun
�
l
governor a nd
I
gearsha ft _
---- Inte r n a l s c a v e n g e
L------.----------��;,;---tf��;�;�L
t a c h o m e t e r-
I
splines •
!
passages
1
drive
1
I
External scavenge
�
scave nge
i r
I
()
pump lines
I
::::r ( l o w e r p a rt)
<"-:-J
OJ 1
Output L i n e s m o u nted
"0 1
g arshaft
1
t
""
1
a n d s u p p l i e d by
.-+
T
e a nngs
<====J
g���
0'"
::::! . O i l strainer
n 0 0 0
OJ
!:!".
::l
,I , lo ol Pump
0
10
L----
VI L _ _ _ __
'< Pa d d l e p u m p
�
�
ID
scavenge
3
pump
Bypass valve
"'
w FIGURE 15-19 The AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 l ubrication system with centrifugal-type paddle pumps.
U1
.....
I.AJ A G PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE
U1
MAIN OIL PUMP
B H
N
PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE TEMPERATURE BYPASS
C OIL FILTER WITH CHECK VALVE
VALVE I V ENT TO NO. 4 AND NO. 5
D
-----l.
FILTER BYPASS VALVE BEARING CAVITY
V> E J
�
SCAVENGE PUMP (VENTED OIL-PRESSURE TRANSMIT
I NTO GEARBOX) TER ( V E NTED INTO GEAR
C1l
OIL TANK
F
3 I
CENTRIFUGAL AIR-OIL BOX)
"' I K
\ )
SEPARATOR SCAVENGE PUMPS
Ill
::J ' /
.I
! -\....__ _ /
c. '
/
� /
/
1"'\ ' ----
L.
1"'\ ' / �
-- -
C1l - --,
r:
/
I �. ;'L. . __j'LJ\..._
"' -.....-...
"'
0
:::! .
C1l
_
_
j fAZZZ/77777,
"'
�
r
s
� � � a-
P&WA
FUEL-OIL
� COOLER,
BOEING
l
ONLY
2l��
I
I
- -- -- - ----
I
. _/
1 - -- - -- _j
I
I AIRFRAME
SUPPLIED
I
COOLER,
DOUGLAS
: ONLY
L L _ _ _ _ _ _
J
_ _ _ _ _
�)SS�S$\SSSSS� :_j �
- � - - - -- -
�
PUMP INLET
D
PRESSURE OIL
�
I_ . - . -- · - - - - - - - SCAVENGE OIL
D
BREATHER
GEARBOX
No. 1 Bearing Compartment No. 2-3 Bearing Compartment No. 4 Bearing Compartment No. 5 Bearing Compartment
Augmentor Spraybars
Scave� Return
Oil Tank
Gas Generator l'bmes
"' "-
• Sight gage The engine oil system is provided with six oil coolers. The
• Deaerator (internal) four fan, air-oil coolers are of the plate-fin design and are
• Tank drain and remote-fill provision located in the fan duct. They are in series and use fan air as
J!
the coolant. The main fuel-oil cooler is of the tube, baffle,
• Overflow port
..
and shell design and uses gas-generator fuel as the coolant.
The oil tank and system capacities are as follows: The augmenter fuel-oil cooler is also of the tube, baffle, and
shell design, but it uses augmenter fuel as the coolant.
Tank maximum capacity (3.7 gal) [14 L]
Usable oil (2.5 gal) [9.46 L] (a quantity equal to 1 0
Breather Pressurizing Valve
times the maximum hourly oil consJ.Imption)
Unusable oil (0.4 gal) [ 1 .5 L] (the minimum amount The breather pressurizing valve is mounted on the engine
needed to provide oil, containing no more than 1 0 gearbox and is of the aneroid, bellows-spring, poppet-valve
percent b y volume entrained air, to the engine) type. From sea level to 30,000-35 ,000 ft [9 144-10,668 m], the
D
# 2 BEARING
•
BREATHER A I R
D
P R E S S U R E Oil
D
BYPASS Oil
SCAVENGE OIL
E N G I N E O i l SYSTEM
PRES SUR E-TRANS MITTE R
CONNECTION
ACCESSORY GEARBOX
FIGURE 15-22 The Pratt & Whitney Canada JT1 5D oil lubrication system schematic.
assembly. The two other pump elements operate in parallel Oil-Filter-Housing Assembly
to pump scavenge oil from the accessory gearbox and the ·
The two check valves in the system prevent gravity oil Scavenge Oi l System
flow when the engine is not running and also allow oil sys
The function of the scavenge oil system is to return used
tem components, such as filter and external transfer tubes
oil to the oil tank by allowing the oil from nos. 1 , 2, 3, and
downstream from the check valves, to be removed for ser
vicing without draining the oil tank.
3 1/2 bearings to drain into the accessory gearbox, aided by
the airflow from the bearing compartment labyrinth seals.
The no. 4 bearing scavenge oil is pumped by a separate
Oil Cooler
pump element in the oil pump assembly.
The JT1 5D- 1 engine oil cooler is essentially an oil-to The scavenge oil returned to the accessory gearbox col
fuel heat exchanger. The cooler is considered adequate to lects in a sump at the bottom of the housing. Sump oil is
handle all the cooling requirements of the engine, which has pumped out by a separate and larger scavenge pump ele
two hot bearing areas: nos. 3 &nd 3 1/2, which constitute one ment. This pump element returns both the no. 4 bearing and
Breather System
Pratt & Whitney JTSD Lubrication System
Air from the engine bearing compartments and the acces
sory gearbox is extracted from the air-oil mist and vented General
overboard through the action ot an aluminum-alloy,
The JT8D has what is referred to as a "hot tank" system
impeller-type centrifugal breather. The breather is mounted
(Fig. 1 5-23). This term refers to the technique of returning
on the main shaft assembly of the gearbox. The pressure dif
hot scavenge oil directly from the bearing compartments to
the deaerator located in the oil tank. In a "cold tank" system,
ference between the air in the gearbox and the ambient
atmosphere causes the air-oil mist in the gearbox to flow
the scavenge oil is passed through the oil cooler prior to
radially inward through the impeller. As the mist passes
being returned to the oil tank. The advantage of the hot tank
through the impeller, the oil particles adhere to the vanes
system is more efficient removal of entrapped air.
and are thrown radially outward by centrifugal force. The
relatively oil-free air passes through the hollow main shaft
Pressure System
to a breather adapter, mounted at the rear on the gearbox
cover. An airframe-supplied, overboard vent line must be The oil is gravity�fed from the tank to the main oil
connected to the gearbox breather adapter. pump via a transfer tube and a cored passage in the acces
sory gearbox. Pump discharge pressure is then directed to
MA I N O I L.
PR ESS. TEMP
I
, . ----,.____ _ ___,_ �
� ,___ � , _,____- · _____,.,_ . ___
J
- -
I -
I
I
t
bearing compartments and the accessory gearbox. Located 1. Com pare the o i l system req u i rements of the recip
in each of these compartments is a gear-type pump that rocati n g and gas turbine e n g i nes.
returns scavenge oil to the oil tank. Scavenge oil from the 2. Other than l ubricating, what j obs c a n the o i l do?
no. 1 bearing compartment is returned directly to the gear 3. List t h e several components contai ned i n a typical
box. Numbers 2 and 3 bearings scavenge to the gearbox gas t u rb i ne l ubricati n g system . D iscuss each u n it i n
via gravity and breather flow through the towershaft hous some deta i l .
ing. Gearbox lube oil and scavenge oil from the nos. 1 , 2, 4 . Very briefly descri be t h e l u bricati n g systems o f the
and 3 bearings is then returned to the oil tank via the gear 5 0 1 - 0 1 3 , CJ6 10, CJ805-2 3, J69, T53, JT3 D, F 1 00-
box scavenge pump. PW-1 00, JT1 5 D, and the JT8D e n g i nes.
}
I
PRESSURE FILL
CONNECTIONS
SCAVENGE FROM
................ ENGINE BEARING
I�I
MAGNETIC CHIP
DETECTORS
! ............. 1l on=-ll
- Anti-syphon line
- Pressure circuit
11:31 Scavenge circuit
Venting circuit
• Filter
, . Main scavenge
2. Lube supply
3. Scavenge
t><l Valve
4. Bypass
5. Retaining
6. Over pressure
<0 Pump
7. Scavenge
8. Supply
CJ Bypass indicator
• Magnetic plug
• Strainer
The advent of various types of jet engines toward the end Early jet engine ignition systems evolved using the tried
of World War II created an entirely new set of problems for principles that were developed for the reciprocating engine.
the manufacturers of ignition equipment. Some of these early systems employed a vibrator and trans
In conventional reciprocating engines, accurately timed former combination somewhat similar to the booster coils
sparks occur between the. spark plug electrodes when the used for starting purposes on reciprocating engines. Other
fuel-air mixture has been subjected to a pressur(( of about 5 units substituted a small electric motor driving a cam to pro
to 1 0 atm. Furthermore, the mixture has been heated by vide the necessary pulsating magnetic field to the primary
rapid compression and remains somewhat turbulent, coil of the transformer. Several variations appeared, all
although it is ignited when the piston velocity is nearly zero. using the same basic principle of high-voltage induction by
Under these conditions igniiion is relatively easy. a transformer to reach the necessary voltage capable of
The nearly ideal fuel-air ratios and essentially stable con causing an arc across the wide-gap jet igniter plug. A typical
ditions within the reciprocating engine's combustion cham unit of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 1 6--- 1 . An interesting
ber have been replaced in the gas turbine combustor by a variation of this transformer type of ignition system is the
very cold and considerably overlean (too much air in relation opposite-polarity system used on some models of the
to fuel) fuel-air mixture that rushes past the igniter plugs at a General Electric J47 (Fig. 1 6---2 ). In this circuit two elec
high velocity. This causes difficulty because, in order to start trodes extend into the combustion chamber. Each electrode
a fire, a mixture, in spite of its low temperature and excessive alternately becomes highly positively and negatively
air content, must be brought to a high temperature in the brief charged, thus causing a very high potential difference to
instant that it is adjacent to the igniter plugs. exist across the. electrodes.
In addition, spark plug fouling is a major problem. Since
gas turbine engine combustion is a self-sustaining process,
most ignition systems are required to operate only during MODERN CAPACITOR-TYPE IGNITION
the starting cycle. The spark plug or igniter is not able to SYSTEMS
keep itself clean by continuous arcing across its gap, as is
the case with reciprocating engine spark plugs. The lower In modem engines it is necessary to have not only a high
volatility of jet fuels, coupled with the extremely high alti voltage to jump a wide-gap igniter plug, but also a spark of
tudes and correspondingly low temperatures in which the high heat intensity for the reasons mentioned in the section
360
rates on the igniter plug electrodes would also occur
because of the heavy current flowing for such a compara
tively long time. Furthermore, much of the spark would be
wasted, since igilition takes place in a matter of microsec
onds. On the other hand, since heat is lost to the igniter
plug electrodes, and since the fuel-air mixture is never
completely gaseous, the duration of the spark cannot be
too short.
An example of the relationship between power and time
is shown as follows for a 4-joule (J) ignition unit (4 J
appearing at the plug).
Time, Seconds Power, Watts
1 4
C \,
O.Ql (hundredths) 400
0.001 (thousandths 4,000
Mounting
0.000 1 (ten-thousandths) 40,000
flange 0.00001 (hundred-thousandths) 400,000
.�wn ;n�
for gas turbine engines, because it provides both high voltage 0.000050 s).
2 8 V dc
and an exceptionally hot spark that covers a large area. R o d i o noise f i lter
Excellent chances of igniting the fuel-air mixture are ensured
at reasonably high altitudes.
The term high energy is used throughout this section to
describe the capacitor type of ignition system. Strictly
speaking, the amount of energy produced is small. The
intense spark is obtained by expending a small amount of
electric energy in a very small amount of time.
Energy is the capacity for doing work. It can be
expressed as the product of the electrical power (watt) and
time. Gas turbine ignition systems are rated in joules. The
joule is also an expression of electric energy, being equal to
Dual
the amount of energy expended in one second by an electric vibration
unit
current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm. The
relationship among these terms can be expressed by the for
mula:
£
W= and J = Wt Ignition Ignition
t coils coils
4
0.000050
= 80,000 watts (W)
�- - -� - - -- -l
Input
I
n
where = current (amperes)
E = voltage
I i * _j I
I I
_ _ _ __ _ _ _
If 5000 volts (V) are delivered to the spark plug, then Filter
I
I
I I
W
I=
I
I I
I
E
I
_j_l
Vibrator Vibrator
_j_l
I
80,000 w
I
5000 V
= 1 6 amperes (A) of current I
I
��
Breaker capacitor =
I
l
I
R ectif ier
I
Because of this high power and current, to prevent receiving tube
I
a lethal electrical shock from capacitors, avoid contact,
I
Storage
directly or through uninsulated tools, with leads, connec capacitor
I I
tions, and components until capacitors have been grounded Discharge
tube
I
and are known to be fully .discharged. All capacitor ignition
boxes are labeled with an appropriate warning to this effect.
I
I I
To review, the spark temperature (a function of the watts T rigger
value) is the most important characteristic of any ignition
I I
t r ansformer
I I
be considered before the effectiveness of any ignition sys
tem can be determined.
Spark Spark
IGNITION SYSTEM.S
(b)
Just as ignition systems for jet engines were divided into FIGURE 16-4 The exciter box can be made to conform to
induction- and capacitor-discharge types, the capacitor-dis the engi ne's shape.
charge type can be further divided into two basic categories: (a) General Laboratories Associates ignition u n it used on the
Al l ison 501 -D 1 3 engine.
1. High-voltage capacitor ignition system with DC or AC (b) Capacitor-discharge electronic ignition exciter; a DC i nput
input. , is used on this unit. (General Laboratories Associates, Inc.)
position, the flow of current through the coil produces a very high voltage in the secondary of the triggering trans
mag.netic field. This field exerts a force against the armature, former, which is connected to the spark igniter (7). This
which is mounted on a pivot. voltage is sufficient to ionize the gap and produces a trigger
The armature is pulled downward, and after a certain spark of approximately 5000 V.
degree of travel to acquire momentum, strikes the end of When the gap at the spark igniter is thus made conduc
the contact spring. With further movement the contacts are tive, the storage capacitor discharges the remainder of its
separated, the flow of current stops, and the magnetic field accumulated energy through it, together with the charge
(a) (b)
POWER
SOURCE
I
I
'
RECTIFIER TUBEs ..._--11--,
I
I I I
DISCHARGE TUBE
I
. I
I L
l_ _ _ _ _ _ _ j
_ _ __
I :
I I 1· I I I
I I -=- I
�
.
INTERMEDIATE
HIGH•TENSION
LEAD
SPARK IGNITER
�' I I
(a)
E�A�D;;=:=====::::
capacitor before discharge.
I NT E R M E D IATE-VOLTAG E L Typical specifications for this system are as follows:
Input voltage: Normal: 24 V DC
Operating limits: 14 to 30 V DC
(b)
Spark rate: 4 to 8 per second at each plug,
depending on input voltage
FIGURE 16-6 Some ignition systems requ i re two exciter
boxes and two ignition transformers per engine. Designed to fire: 1 igniter plug
(a) High-energy ignition system with a separate transformer Accumulated energy: 3J
and DC input.
(b) External appearance of the ignition system with the sep Duty cycle: 2 min on, 3 min off, 2 min on,
a rate transformer. 23 min off
3 64 Systems and Accessories
Two igniter plugs are mounted in the combustion section With each pulse the storage capacitor thus assumes a
outer case. The spark igniters are generally located in two greater and greater charge, which, by virtue of the action of
diametrically opposite combustion liners. The igniters the doubler capacitor, approaches a voltage approximately
receive the electrical output from the ignition exciter unit twice that generated in the power transformer. When this volt
and discharge the electric energy during engine starting to age reaches the predetermined level for which the spark gap
ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion liners. in the discharge tube X (the control gap) has been calibrated,
Figure 1 6-7 shows a typical high-voltage, high-energy, this gap breaks down, allowing a portion of the accumulated
capacitor-type ignition system using a motor-driven cam to charge to flow through the primary of the high-tension trans
operate the breaker points instead of a vibrator, and a motor former and the trigger capacitor in series with it. This surge of
driven, single-lobe cam instead of a sealed, spark-gap tube. current induces a very high voltage in the secondary of the
high-tension transformer, sufficient to ionize the gap in dis
charge tube Y. The storage capacitor immediately discharges
Two High-Voltage Capacitor Systems
the remainder of its accumulated energy through the· spark
AC Input
igniter. This produces a capacitive spark of very high energy.
As shown in Fig. 1 6-8(a) (on p. 366) power is supplied The bleeder resistors are provided to dissipate the resid
to the input connector of the unit from the 1 1 5-V, 400-cycle ual charge on the trigger capacitor between the completion
per-second (hertz, Hz) source in the aircraft and is first led of one discharge at the spark igniter and the beginning of the
through a filter that blocks conducted noise voltage from next cycle.
feeding back into the airplane electrical system. From the Typical specifications for this system are as follows:
filter, the circuit is completed through the primary of the
Input voltage: Normal: 1 1 5-V 400-Hz AC
power transformer to ground.
Operating limits: 90 to 1 20 V
In the secondary of the power transformer an alternating
vo1tage is generated at a level of approximately 1 700 V. Spark rate: Normal: 1 .50 to 2.75 per second
During the first half-cycle this voltage follows a circuit Operating limits: 0.75 to
through the doubler capacitor and rectifier tube A to ground, 5.00 per second
leaving the capacitor charged. During the second half-cycle, Designed to ignite: 1 spark igniter
when the polarity reverses, this circuit is blocked by rectifi Accumulated energy: 14 to 1 7 J
er tube A; the flow of this pulse is then through ground to the
Duty cycle: 2 min on, 3 min off, 2 min on,
storage capacitor, through rectifier tube B, the resistor, and
23 min off
the doubler capacitor back to the power transformer.
Figure 1 6-8(b) (on p. 366) shows a late model AC-input,
:���-��
high-voltage-output system used on the Pratt & Whitney
IQniter PlufiJ
JT9D engine. The ignition exciter is made up of a radio fre
quency noise filter, a power transformer, DC-voltage dou
bler section, tank capacitor and trigger capacitor, discharge
High-Altitude Terminals
tube, trigger transformer, and bleed resistors. AC power of
Q£'l!P_£_S_!!� -- �
Ignition
_
the proper voltage and frequency is brought into the exciter
I
I
I
through a connector. After passing through the radio noise
I
I filter, consisting of inductor-reactor L 1 and feed-through
I
I
capacitor C 1 , the power is applied to the primary of the
j ����-E��_!_" l
power transformer T1 • The network of inductance and
__ ___
I
I
I
I
I
capacitance prevents conducted radio noise from feeding
I
I
I
back into the aircraft power supply. Inductor L 1 also serves
Resistor
I
I as a power choke to limit the spark-rate variation over the
II
I
range of input voltage and frequency.
Condenser
Lorge Storooe I The AC current through . the primary winding of the
J
I
� power transformer T1 induces a high voltage on the sec
Rectifier
Stlenlu
II
I
ondary winding. This high voltage is rectified by rectifiers
�
I
�
I
I CR 1 - 1 and CR 1 -2. The resistors R 1 - 1 and R 1 - 2 serve to
"-llt--..----<
Low-T nslon
Transf rmer
limit the current passing through the rectifiers.
I
The output of the rectifier section charges the tank capac
I
itor c3 until the stored voltage reaches the ionization poten
I
I
-
F I LTER-TR ANSFO R M E R ASS E M B LY
- - - - - - - -
j
D ISCHAR G E TUBE Y
1
I
I
....,....._
STOR A G E
CAPACITOR _L I
I
TR I G G E R I I
CAPACITOR SPARK
l P N lTE R
I
_
I __
(a)
AIRFRAME-SUPPLIED
I NPUT LEAD O R HARNESS
r · · f
SPARK-IGNITER PLUG
(b)
The engine ignition system is capable of continuous grounds out radio interference entering or leaving the unit.
operation; however, provisions should be made to allow This prevents the ignition unit from disrupting the operation
intermittent operation of each of the two ignitor systems. of other 11ircraft electronic equipment and stabilizes the out
Such provisions will make it possible to attain maximum put of the unit itself.
ignitor plug life by limiting operation to periods of takeoff, At radio frequencies the choke coil (Ll ) blocks current
landing, and turbulent weather, when unstable inlet condi flow in either direction. Capacitors C l and C2 act as short
tions are most likely to be encountered. Either single or dual circuits to ground. Radio-frequency noise pulses, approach
ignition may be used under these operating conditions. ing the filter from either direction, are blocked by the coil
During all starting, both ignition units should be used to and shunted to ground through the capacitors.
provide proper flame propagation and to minimize the pos The choke coil (L l) passes aircraft DC easily, and the
sibility of hung starts that may result in excessive turbine capacitors (Cl and C2) now act as blocking devices to pre
temperatures. vent grounding out the current. Current flows through the
filter to the primary of the step-up transformer (L2).
The opposition to current flow varies because of the
Low-Voltage Capacitor System-De Input
change in reactance (resistance) of the choke and capacitor
(Less ·Than 1 000 V to the Plug)
when frequency changes. At radio frequencies, inductive
The basis of operation upon which the low-voltage, high reactance (resistance) of the coil is high and capacitive reac
energy ignition system (Fig. 1 6-9) is built is the self-ionizing tance of the capacitors is low. At low frequencies, the
feature of the igniter plug. In the high-voltage system a dou reverse is true.
ble spark is produced, the first part consisting of a high-volt When power is applied to the unit, current flows from
age component to ionize (make conductive) the gap between ground through the normally closed contacts of the vibrator,
the igniter plug electrodes in order that the second high-cur through the transformer primary winding (L2), the radio-fre
rent, low-voltage portion may follow. The low-voltage, high quency filter, and back to the power source.
current spark is similar to the above except that ionization is Current through the primary winding causes the nor
effected by the self-ionizing igniter plug discussed above. mally closed contacts of the vibrator to open, momentar
ily halting any further current flow. This action changes
the DC to a pulsating DC in the primary. The pulsating
DC induces a high-voltage AC across the transformer
secondary.
Capacitor C3, wired across the vibrator contacts, can be
referred to as a buffer capacitor. It protects or buffers the
contacts against a voltage arc that might occur during nor
mal operation. Such an arc develops carbon deposits and pit
marks on the contacts and reduces the service life of the
vibrator. The AC voltage developed across the transformer
secondary winding (L3) is next applied across the half-wave
rectifier formed by two diode gas-rectifier tubes (Vl , V2).
The rectifier circuit converts the AC voltage to a pulsating
DC. The rectifying action of this circuit depends on the cath
ode-to-plate polarity of diode tube Vl . When the top of the
secondary winding (L3) is positive, the plate of Vl becomes
positive with respect to its cathode. Diode Vl is ionized by
this potential and starts to conduct. At this point diode V2 is
ionized and also conducts. On the opposite half-cycle of the
AC voltage across the transformer secondary (L3), the volt
age at the top of the winding is negative. The plate of diode
FIGURE 16-9 Two com plete Bendix hig h-energy, low-volt Vl becomes negative with respect to its cathode, and neither
age systems in one case. rectifier conducts.
L �---�-.
1 cl
I C4
I TANK
Rl
I CAPACITOR
I
I
I .,.
I . I
L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J
FIGURE 16-10 High-energy, low-voltage system with a vibrator, used on the General E lectric J79.
The output of the half-wave rectifier is a pulsating direct Although the spark plug fires at relatively low voltage, a
current that flows from the tubes, down the transformer sec high-temperature spark is obtained from the speed at which
ondary winding (L3) to ground, and up from ground to the the energy is discharged across the gap. The spark is of very
lower side of the tank capacitor (C4). The current supplying short duration (40 ps), but momentarily expends a great
the diodes is derived from electrons leaving the top side of amount of power. Tank capacitor discharge current from the
C4 because of capacitor reaction to the charge building up main ignition unit surges to the spark plug electrodes, build
on the lower side. ing · a potential between the center electrode and ground
As the rectified current flows to the tank capacitor (C4), electrode. The semiconducting material shunts the elec
a charge of energy is built up across C4. Each time the tank trodes. When the potential between electrodes reaches
capacitor is ready to discharge, its voltage has reached the approximately 800 V, it forces enough current through the
ionizing potential of the sealed air gap. semiconductor to ionize the air gap between the electrodes.
The function of the sealed air gap G 1 is similar to that of The full tank-capacitor current arcs instantly across the ion
an automatic switch. While the gap is deionized, the switch ized gap, emitting a high-energy spark. Fig\lre 1 6-1 1 shows
is open and no ignition voltage can appear across the spark a typical low-tension system with AC input.
plug. Once ionized, the gap allows the tank capacitor volt
age to ionize the spark plug gap. With both gaps ionized, the
Combination or Dual-Duty Ignition
tank capacitor has a complete current path and discharges
, - --- l
I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
I
POWER INPUT 1
1 1 5 V AC 1
�
I I
�--+-� I
I
l ei
I
I
R2
I
BLEED
I RESISTOR
I �
I
I
L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- �
FIGURE 16- 1 1 High-energy, low-voltage system without a vibrator, used on some models of the General E lectric J79.
I Output
I
t-
I
_ -
4 0 0 - Hz
AC input
I
Do1ubler
capacitor : �
11 1 I
t
Discharge I
tube I
-j R ec�'f'1er )_,
I
I
T
�
I
Resistor Resistor I
I assembly I
I
*
-- --
I
-::!=-
I -
I
I
Rectifier
tube
I
I
I
I
Discharge
I te--
t e r m e_di-a_�
-ln_ v o l_
_ .._ l e_a_d_____..J
t a__,g:.e_
= === � =
r
L
-
_
tube Y
_ -
--� dutput
�arkNo.igniter
�--�----�r-���·-1
�
I I Inductor
Trigger capacitor I 1
Discharge
tube X
No. 1
I 1
Inductor
=
I t--:L
Trigger
I I
¢,'"' ''' '"
Resistors capacitor
I I No. 2
I Output
J
_I
Annular gop
(a)
Porcelain
i n s u laTor
(a)
(b)
�����.L
is rarely, if ever, taxed to its full capabilities by transport / e l e c "t r o d e
��- J� � � �\ I� - ,. ' H�
�w
out the life of the exciter age systems. (General Electric.)
�
�
U
�
.. Ob' . .
.· ·
LOW-VOLTAGE HIGH-VOLTAGE
HIGH-VOLTAGE HIGH-VOLTAGE HIGH-VOLTAGE SHUNTED- SHUNTED-
AIR GAP SURFACE GAP AIR-SURFACE GAP SURFACE GAP SURFACE GAP
AA63S
AA72S AGF2-5 FHE1 51 FHE1 9-6L
(glow plug) (CR1 04-2) FS89-1
Garrett Teledyne
AiResearch CAE
J 69
FHE- 1 1 8-1
AA1 6S FHE-60
AA37S
GE
CJ805-23 Garrett
p & WA
JT1 2
lJ
... lfl �
GE
CT-58
AiResearch
FHE-24-6
FHE-1 37A
AA-30S-1 AA-34S-1
Detroit
Diesel
Allison
501 -D1 3
HE-7
FHE-53-5
FS-89-1 FHE-1 00-6
FIGURE 16-18 A g reat variety of igniter plug types are used today. An application of each is indicated
next to the igniter. (Champion Spark Plug Co. )
• The advent of short-range jets, increasing the ratio of 4. Make a l i st of the i n p ut and output variations pos
sible with capacitor-d ischarge i g n ition systems.
ignition "on" time to engine operation and leading to
the development of dual systems, one of which was 5. What is the relationship among joules, watts, a n d
t i m e ? Of what s i g n ifica nce is this i n t h e d e s i g n of
described in this section
a gas turbine e n g i n e system ?
6. B riefly describe the operation of the fol l owi n g
capacitor-d ischarge g a s t u r b i n e i g n ition systems:
REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS high-voltage DC, h i g h -voltage AC, low-voltage
The purpose of any starter system is to accelerate the 3. Design features-Included in this area are such things
engine to the point where the turbine is producing enough as specific weight (pounds of starter weight per foot
power to continue the engine's acceleration. This point is pound of torque produced), simplicity, reliability, cost,
called the self-accelerating speed. The proliferation of gas and maintainability.
turbine starter types seems to indicate that no one starter The following is a list of the various forms of gas turbine
shows a definite superiority, for all situations, over other starters:
types. The choice of a starting system depends on several
• Electric motor starter
factors (Fig. 1 7- 1 ) :
• Electric motor-generator (starter-generator)
1. Length of starting cycle-For military equipment, • Pneumatic or air turbine starter
starting time may be of primary importance. In addi • Cartridge or solid-propellant starter
tion, the speed with which the starter can accelerate the
• Fuel-air combustion starter
engine to idle speed will influence not only peak
• Gas turbine starter (jet fuel starter)
exhaust gas temperatures, but also the length of time
the engine spends at these high starting temperatures • Hydraulic motor starter
(Fig. 1 7-2). Unlike the reciprocating engine starter, the • Liquid monopropellant starter
gas turbine starter must continue to accelerate the • Air-impingement starter
engine even after "light-off." Slower than normal • Hand-crank starter
accelerations or starters that "drop out" too soon may
Author's Note: Of these, the starter-generator and the air tur
cause "hot" or "hung" starts. (See chap. 19.) A hung
bine starter are the ones used most often in small and large
start is a situation where the engine accelerates to some
engines, respectively. The others have specific applications
intermediate rpm below idle and stays there. Hot starts
to specialized aircraft.
are, of course, what the name implies: a start where
turbine or exhaust gas temperature limits are exceeded.
2. Availability of starting power-Even small gas turbine ELECTRIC MOTOR STARTER
engines require large amounts of either electric or pres
sure energy. Large engines require correspondingly Electric motor starters (Fig. 1 7-3) are 28-V, series-wound
more. Some starting systems are completely self-con electric motors, designed to provide high starting torque. Their
tained, while others require power from external use is limited to starting smaller engines because of the very
sources. Many airplanes carry their own energy source large current drain (over 1 000 A for some models) and because
in the form of a self-contained, small auxiliary gas tur they are relatively heavy for the amount of torque they pro
bine engine that produces electric and/or pressure ener duce. The starter includes an automatic jaw-meshing mecha
gy. Power may also be taken from a running engine in nism, a set · of reduction gears, and a clutch. The straight
multiengine installations. In such a situation, one electric motor starter as a means for starting gas turbine
engine might be started using a starter requiring no engines has generally given way to the starter-generator in
external source of power, such as a solid propellant, or order to save weight and simplify accessory gear arrange
fuel-air combustion starter. The other engine(s) can ments. A typical electric motor starting system is illustrated in
then be started in tum with power taken from the run Fig. 1 7--4. It may have provisions for automatically engaging
ning engine. Starting power requirements for gas tur the ignition units when the starter switch is thrown. If the cir
bine engines differ from those of reciprocating engines. cuit is so arranged, the ignition system is constructed so that it
In the reciprocating engine, the peak load to the starter may be separately energized for air restarts. The starter system
is applied in the first moments of starter engagement, may also be equipped with a relay to "drop" the starter out
but because of the increasing compressor aerodynamic when a specified rpm has been reached or the starter load
load, the load on the turbine starter is actually increas reduced. Some systems incorporate a timing switch to permit
ing during engine acceleration prior to light-off. a gradual voltage bu·ildup as the starter gains speed.
374
F I G U RE 17-1 Typical starting characteristics. The portion of the curve from zero to light-off is the
torque required to motor the engine at any of these speeds. This torque is the result of the increas
i n g aerodynamic load of the compressor and the friction drag of the rotating components. When
l i ght-off occurs, and the turbi ne starts to produce power, starter torque requ i rements decrease.
(Pratt & Whitney United Technologies Corp.)
} \\__
_./1
� 500 /\ �_ 500 {' \
v
_/
�
'
I
"
::l
v II
300
"'
300
a.
a.
I
E
I
E "'
! +-
"'
200 I
"'
200
0 0
u
"' "'
t; i;;
"
"
w 1 00
0
w 100
0 .c
.c
v
" "
�5 0
0 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time Time , sec
C a r t r i d g e starter P n e u m a t i c starter
FIGURE 17-2 Exhaust-gas temperature versus starti ng time for a cartridge and pneumatic sta rter.
MOUNTING FLANGE
[6Too----�--v-o-,_,
24 V DC b u s On
1 .------t--1 8
I L>...
/\ .
P u m p w a r n i n g l i g ht
__
�
B o o s te r D i f f e re nt i a l
1�--� A �--+-4 A
__
1
pump
1
pres sure switch
Fu e l c utout 1
m a ster
0 switch '
o:Ou-----v
Off
switch
"-L__ _,
�
Off
Fu e l s y s t e m _____
relay
,-------{)
Normal _
'\1
'\1 Starter
E n g i n e start
master
switch 0 Off C r a n k switch
0 ott Sta r t e r u n d e r
c u rrent relay
().
On
lo Lf_.:::r
� A
valve
-
B
I gnition relay ___,
�'--'\1'----•
v
�
I Off
To t h o t t l e
4� N H------l1A
�
I v
�
- � ��-r----+---�
'--
--- ---1�
I V
I gn i t i o n s w itch D r i p valve
�
�-----------�
B
v
t
o"
={ ���
Ignition Compositors I g n it e r
(J33 -A-16
Li
exciter o n ly) plugs
�
I g n i t i on c u tof f
v '-------'
time delay c_____ p -
�
L- ------------
�
Landing g ea r
�
Q on
� deck
0 A ir b o r n e
switch relay
_
VI
'<
"'
.....
m
3
"'
OJ
:::l
a.
� I+
,..,
,..,
m
"'
"'
L
��
0
r
Starter
�. circuit b r e a k e r . � - - o o t- - �
m
f
"' \
a i r f r a m e f u r ni s h e d , - - - �
I
-
1 1
Airf.r a m e
: i
: Starter
�...::r:._
On
j£Tl I
_ ...�
1
L - - -
- -------0 1>---- �
furnished 1 relay
1
----- _ Reverse
cur r e n t
L-J �
Start - ·gn 1t1on I g nition
,
1
cutoff relay Engine f u r n i s h e d
AN 3025 100 I
· c � rc u 1 t 1 _
..J -
I +;; - -- �
breaker ___ L __ sw1tch
:
Start On '
S t a r t - run
�
1: :
I
�
: 1 Off 1
switch
air�r ame
:
\
lnd
: u::
furnished
App6 S w
� I I
o-t-·
__j
Start 1 On : Bat
_____
� Airf rame
I I I A t r frame
�
"' furnished
: A i r frame
\
::> ; furnished
_Q L _ _ _
Q f_f � f u r n is h e d
Generator
N CirCuit
1 b r e a ker
<:t A i r f ra m e
furni s h e d
Airframe
furnished
at�� ,-
- - - -, O f f Batt ery
: ,
Battery I SWitCh
<>-t----__L- L
relay : on
a i r f rame
f u rn1shed I I
J,_
L =-=-=-
1
I :
+ - .J
-=-
Atrframe � Battery
f urni shed
(b)
(a)
t
for main-engine
starting
500 Low-pressure
psi starting (normal
[345 kPa] operation )
Compressor
Regulating
and shutoff
valve
(c)
F IGURE 1 7-8 The Hamilton Standard Division, U n it'€d
Tech nologies Corp. Model PS700-1 starter designed for use
on the Pratt & Wh itney JT9D installed in the Boeing 747.
(d)
Valve
I ENGINE
N, TACH
(a)
l ENG
HOLDING CIRCUIT
O n-board
L---t--=---n---
tu rbocompressor
TO IGNITION SYSTEM
IGNITION
CONTROL
RELAY
J..
Starter
PRESSURE
REGULATOR
Pneumatic ground VALVE
service connection
(b)
(e)
PAWL RATCHETING
PAWL ENGAGED
OIL LEVEL
�
RATCHET
PAWL CARRIER
(a)
FIGURE 17-10 Starter engaging mechanisms are needed to transmit starter torque to the engine
and provide a means of disengaging the starter from the engine when starter operation is not
requ i red.
(a) Pawl-and-ratchet cl utch .
(b) Sprag clutch.
For self-contained starting, independent of ground support tridge-type starter have added the additional capability of
equipment, some systems use air supplied from storage bot starting with compressed air from an external source.
tles installed in the airplane. A line combustor may heat the air A charge, about the size of a two-pound coffee can, is
to 700°F [37 1 °C]. To minimize air consumption, water is inserted in the breech and ignited electrically. The relatively
injected during the starting cycle. (Refer to Fig. 17-9.) slow-burning propellant produces gases at approximately
An interesting variation of this form of starter, produced by 2000°F [927°C] and 1 200 psi [8274 kPa] to tum the starter
the AlliedSignal Garrett Company, is the constant-speed drive for about 1 5 s.
starter. The unit, installed in the British Aircraft Corporation In recent years the pneumatic-cartridge starter has achieved
(B.A.C.) One-Eleven transport, combines in one unit an air considerable use in the U.S. Air Force, primarily because of its
turbine starter plus constant-speed shaft power to drive the inherent characteristics of a lightweight, self-contained system
alternating current (AC) generator (see Fig. 1 7- 1 1 on p. 382). with the extremely high torque value of over 600 ft·lb
[814 N·m] plus the option of quick engine starts and simulta
neous multi-engine (gang) starts from the high-pressure, high
CARTRIDGE OR SOLID-PROPELLANT temperature cartridge gases, or from low pressure supplied
STARTER from a running engine, conventional ground support equip
ment, or airborne starting units (Fig. 17-1 3 on p. 383). A more
Originally, cartridge or solid-propellant starters (Fig. detailed examination of one make of pneumatic-cartridge jet
17-12 on p. 383) were constructed to operate solely by engine starter used in the McDonnell-Douglas F4C follows.
means of high-pressure, high-temperature gas generated by For a cartridge start, a standard Air-Force-type MXU-4
the burning of a solid-propellant charge. Changes in the car- cartridge (Fig. 17-14 on p. 384) is first placed in the breech
ENGINE I N PUT
SHAFT SPLINE
DI$CONNECT
DISCONNECT SOLENOID
(b)
In the event the clutch and spline shaft fail to operate and
FUEL-AIR COMBUSTION STARTER
the turbine is driven beyond burst rpm by the aircraft engine,
the containment clamp shown in Fig. 1 7- 1 3 provides addi
tional strength to the starter turbine area, preventing damage The fuel-air combustion starter (Fig. 1 7-15) is essential
to the aircraft. ly a small gas turbine engine, minus its compressor. It is
A vent (23) through the clutch and output shaft eliminates completely self-contained, as is the cartridge starter system,
internal pressure buildup. Centrifugal force caused by out but unlike the preceding system, requires no additional com
put rotation prevents oil leakage through the vent. ponents to function. All fuel, air, and electric power needed
The starter is lubricated by a splash system. Oil slingers for operation are carried on board the aircraft.
(25) attached to the clutch output race pick up oil from the In addition to the turbine, the system consists of an air
sump (26) and distribute it throughout the interior of the storage bottle, fuel storage bottle, and a combustion cham .
starter as the output spline revolves. A catching cup con ber, together with the necessary ignition and control compo-
Struction in the housing carries the oil into the overrunning nents. During flight, an engine-driven compressor maintains
clutch and other difficult-to-reach areas. Since the part to 3000 lb [20,685 kPa] of air pressure in an airborne bottle.
which the slingers are attached is constantly spinning, even This pressure permits engine starts without the necessity of
after the starter has completed its cycle, starter lubrication recharging the air system from an external source. The usual
continues as long as the aircraft engine is operating. The oil high-pressure bottle will provide enough air for two restarts
sump contains a magnetic plug (27) to collect contaminants. without recharging. Provision is also made to connect an
valve
Centrifugal
cutout switch
(actuates when
reducer
Engine starter
Starter
600-psi [ 4 1 3 . 7 - k P a ] ignition
air-supply connection unit
!�:····-£·:·:·:·:! Pressure supply ED'lllS 330-psi pressure [ 227.7-kPa] � 300-psi pressure [ 206.85-kPa]
external 600-psi [4 1 37-kPa] air supply. In either case, the with about 330 psi air pressure to ensure fuel flow to the
starter receives a reduced air pressure of 350 psi [24 1 3 kPa] . combustion chamber. The starter has a safety clutch, which
In a typical system shown in Fig. 17- 1 5 , the starter is acti automatically disengages the starter drive shaft from the
vated by a ground start switch in the cockpit. When the engine drive spline to prevent the engine from driving the
ground start switch is pressed, the starter air solenoid valve starter turbine to destructive overspeed. In case the starter
opens, admitting air from the storage bottle or from the exter clutch fails, the safety clutch must be manually reset, which
nal, 600-psi connection into the combustion chamber. At the necessitates removing the starter from the engine. An air
same time, the fuel valve opens to admit fuel from the accu motoring switch allows the air solenoid valve to open while
mulator, and the starter ignition system is momentarily ener bypassing the fuel solenoid valve and starter ignition circuits
gized, igniting the fuel-air mixture. This action causes a rapid for the purpose of motoring the engine to 4 to 6 percent.
expansion of air, which spins the starter turbine, which in
tum accelerates the engine through the reduction gearing and
clutch. When engine speed reaches about 2 1 percent rpm, GAS TURBINE STARTER
starter fuel is exhausted, resulting in a dropoff of burner pres
sure. The pressure switch actuates, opening the air duct to the The gas turbine starter (Fig. 1 7- 1 6 on p. 386) is anoth
fuel and air valves. If starter speed exceeds 22.6 percent er completely self-sufficient starting system. Relatively
engine rpm before fuel i-s exhausted, the centrifugal switch high power output is available for a comparatively low
will open, shutting off the fuel and air valves. Exhaust from weight. The starter is actually a small, free-power turbine
the starter combustion chamber is directed through an engine, complete with a gas-generator section containing
exhaust duct at the lower side of the starter and into the a centrifugal compressor, combustion chamber, and tur
engine air-guide section. A pressure reducer and an air-con bine to drive the compressor. It also contains its own fuel
�rol valve in the starter reduce the supply air pressure to control, starter, lubrication pump and system, and ignition
about 330 psi [2275 kPa] before it enters the fuel accumula system. The gases flowing through the gas-generator sec
tor and the combustion chamber. The fuel accumulator con tion drive the free turbine, which, in tum, drives the main
tains enough fuel obtained from the airplane fuel system engine through a reduction gear and clutch mechanism to
through a takeoff line at the engine fuel-flow divider to oper automatically engage and disengage the starter's free
ate the starter for about 4 s. The accumulator is pressurized power turbine from the engine. The starter is itself started
(a)
CLUTCH
POWER
OUTPUT
SHAFT
-
Exhaust
Reduction
gear drive
(c) (d)
From
r e c h arg i n g
pump
H ydra ul i c Tu r b i n e
sta r t e r e ngine
Reservo i r
b y using a small electric motor, compressed air, or A power-limited system (Fig. 17- 1 8 on p. 388) uses an
hydraulic power from the aircraft system. Typical specifi auxiliary power unit (sometimes a small gas turbine engine,
cations are as follows : which is itself started by an energy-limited system) to drive
a pump that supplies the correct amount of flow and pres
Type: Free-power turbine engine
sure to a variable-displacement hydraulic starter motor. The
Weight: 70 to 80 lb [3 1 .8 to 36.3 kg] variable-displacement motor permits high torque to be
Shaft speed: 0 to 8000 rpm applied without exceeding the power limits of the main
Performance: 20 to 30 s engine starting time engine at starter cutoff speed.
It is possible to adapt the hydraulic starter as a pump, but
Fuel: Same as used in aircraft
since the starter cutout speed is less than. 50 percent of the
Oil: Same as used in aircraft normal engine operating speed, a two-ratio gearbox is nee- .
Mounting: QAD essary to provide proper speed for both. pumping and start
ing. The hydraulic pump on the auxiliary power unit (APU)
Inherent inefficiencies of transferring starting energy to
can also be used to supply power to the aircraft.
the main engines through pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical
Figure 1 7-19 (on p. 388) shows two typical hydraulic
means are eliminated. The pilot has complete control of
starter installations in current use. The APU in the Sikorsky
engine starting from the cockpit and the gradual application
CH53A [Fig. 1 7-1 9(a)] is started hydraulically by means of
of starting torque extends the life of the main engine compo
stored energy in a 250 in3 [4.22 L] accumulator (4000 psi
nents. A further advantage of this system is that it can "cold
[27,580 kPa] maximum). The main engines receive their start
crank" or "motor" the main engine for 10 min at a time to
ing power from a pump mounted on the main accessory gear
permit checking fuel, hydraulic, and electrical systems.
box, which is shaft driven by the Solar T-62T- 1 2 APU. [See
Fig. 17-23(a).] The accessory pump also, provides power for
. H�DRA tJL.IG STARii'�RS · ·. the winch and other utility functions. The T-64 main engine
starters deliver 50 ft·lb [67.8 N·m] of torque at 3500 psi
Hydraulic starting systems fall into two categories: [24, 1 32 kPa] and 2 1 .5 gal/min [8 1 .4 Llmin]. Maximum
starter speed is 7300 rpm, and cutout is accomplished by a
1. Energy limited
mechanically actuated switch that senses motor displacement.
2. Power limited
The starting system used in ·the Vertol CH47A [Fig.
The energy-limited system (Fig. 1 7- 1 7) uses a highly 17 -1 9(b)] is somewhat similar to the one in the Sikorsky
pressurized accumulator and a large, positive-displacement CH53A in that the Solar APU is started by means of stored
motor. Examples of other starting systems that are also ener energy in a 200-in3 [3.28-L] , 3000-psi [20,685-kPa]
gy-limited are the electric motor, when supplied from a bat hydraulic accumulator, and the main engines receive their
tery, and the cartridge starter. The energy-limited system is starting power from a pump mounted on the main accessory
designed to complete the start in as short a time as possible gearbox. It is different in that the gearbox is driven by
in order to minimize the amount of stored energy required. hydraulic power from the APU starter operating as a pump,
The accumulator system is best suited to small engines up to driving a fixed-displacement motor mounted on the gearbox.
1 50 hp [ 1 1 2 kW] . During main engine operation, an overrup.ning clutch isolates
R eservoir
the accessory gearbox drive motor until the APU is again has been little operational installation of such equipment in
started for main engine starting or a system checkout. The this country.
accessory-gearbox-mounted, dual-pressure pump supplies
9 gal/min [34. 1 L/min] at 4000 psi [27,580 k:Pa] for starting .
the AlliedSignal Lycoming T-55 main engines on the ground, AIR-IMPINGEMENT STARTER
and 3000 psi [20,685 k:Pa] for air restarts. The variable-dis
placement, maximum starter speed is 2800 rpm, and cutoff is In many ways the air-impingement starter system (Fig.
accomplished by a tachometer signal from the engine. 1 7-20) is the simplest of all starter types, consisting essen
tially of nothing more than a duct. An air supply from either
a running engine or a ground power unit is directed through
LIQUID MONOPROPELLANT .
a check valve onto the turbine blades (most commonly) or
STARTER the centrifugal compressor. Engines using this starting sys
tem are the Fairchild J44, on which the air is fed to the com
In this system a charge of liquid monopropellant (a mono pressor, and some models of the General Electric J85 and
propellant fuel is one that requires no separate air supply to J79 (see chap. 2). In the latter two engines, air is directed
sustain combustion) is decomposed to produce the high onto the rear or middle turbine wheel stages (see Fig. 2 1 -9).
energy gas needed for turbine operation. Monopropellants Obviously, the advantage of this system is manifested in its
that can be used include highly concentrated hydrogen per extreme simplicity and light weight. It is best suited to
oxide, isopropyl nitrate, and hydrazine. All are difficult mate smaller engines because of the high-volume air supply nec
rials to handle, and principally because of this problem there essary for larger engines.
U t i l ity
Utility s y st e m
system
Accessory
Accessory
g e a r box
'I APU -
(a) (b)
----
(a)
FIGURE 17-20 The Genera l Electric J85 equi pped with an
air-impi ngement starti ng system .
HAND-CRANK STARTER
(c)
Electric Motor Self-contained starts possible for 1 Limited to starting small engi nes
small engi nes 2 Relatively heavy for torque pro
2 Engine may be motored for short d uced
periods without starter overheating 3 Reduction gears necessary
4 Engaging mechanism necessary
Air turbine starter High torque-to-weight ratio (5 to 1 High-vo l u me air supply requ i red
1 0 times higher than electric 2 Gearbox needed with self-con
motor) tained oil supply
2 Engine may be m otored at low or 3 Electrical connections and needed
high speed for speed control
3 C a n use a i r from a run n i n g engine
C a rtridge starter Self-contained starts possible for 1 C artridge needed for each start
large engines 2 Gearbox, clutch, and oil system
2 Very h i g h torque-to-weight ratio necessary
3 Quick starts a nd gang possible for 3 No motoring possible for system s
m i l itary aircraft checkout
4 Automatic starts possible
Gas turbine starter Completely self-contained starts One of the most complex of starter
possi ble types i n that it requ i res its own
2 High torque-to-weight ratio starter, a l l of the systems of the
3 Long periods of engine motorin g main engine plus an overru n n i n g
·
possible clutth
Air-impi ngement starter .1 Simplest of all types Requires a h igh-volu m e air supply
2 C a n be used to motor engine, but (3 to 5 times the pneumatic energy
only with cont i n uous air supply requ i rements of the air turbine
3 Extremely l ig ht
· starter)
4 C a n use a i r from a nother run n i n g
mai n engine
(a)
(c2)
FIGURE 1 7-22 These engi nes are i nstalled in the widely used MA- 1 A U . S.A. F. sta rting cart.
(a) All iedSignal G arrett GTC85-70- 1 .
(b) The M A- 1 A startin g cart.
(c) The Teledyne CAE 1 4 1 external and cutaway view.
(a)
(b)
crank. Typical of these units is the AlliedSignal Garrett gas small aircraft, some of which are shown in Fig. 1 7-24(a)
turbine compressor GTC85, an electrically started, self-suf through (e). See Fig. 1 7-25 (on p. 394) for the many aircraft
ficient unit with a two-stage radial compressor and a turbine that use AlliedSignal Garrett auxiliary power units.
driven by the exhaust products of a single, tangentially Auxiliary power units have been used to drive AC and
located burner. Air is bled off from the compressor section DC generators, hydraulic pumps and motors, other fluid
and supplied to the main engine starter from this unit at a pumps, and air compressors as well as provide pressurized
pressure ratio of approximately 3 : 1 and a temperature of air for starting, heating, and air conditioning. The airborne
350°F [ 1 76.7°C] . The unit is approximately 38 in [965 mm] units on conventional aircraft are usually located toward the
long and 1 8 in [457 mm] in diameter, and weighs 275 lb rear, but, as shown in Fig. 1 7-26 (on p. 395), can be install
[ 1 25 kg] . Although these engines can operate on a wide vari ed in any location.
ety of fuels, the units generally use the same fuel as the main Military aircraft, in particular, are using some of these
engines. small gas turbine engines as secondary power systems
The AlliedSignal Garrett Turbine Engine Company (SPS) linked either mechanically, pneumatically, or both to
makes an entire series of auxiliary power units for large and the main engine to provide a source of power for main
(d)
(b) (e)
(c) (f)
F IGURE 17-24 Five a uxiliary power u nits produced by AlliedSignal Garrett and one produced by
Pratt & Whitney Canada.
(a) AlliedSignal Garrett Series GTCP36 small APU . Notice the radial turbine.
(b) C utaway view of the AlliedSignal Garrett GTC P85 Series gas turbine APU.
(c) Cutaway view of the AlliedSignal Garrett GTCP660 APU for the 747
(d) C utaway view of the AlliedSignal Ga rrett TSC P700 APU used on the DC 1 0 and A300 aircraft.
(e) C utaway view of the AlliedSignal Ga rrett GTC P3 3 1 large APU for the Boeing 7 5 7/767, the
Airbus A300-600, and Airbus A3 1 0.
(f) C utaway view of a large APU PW90 1 A produced by Pratt & Wh itney Canada.
-·�
TSCP 7Q0-5 & GTCP 331 ·250F
i;;;fJJ"
TSCP 700·4B
C"
BOEING 737
BAC ONE-ELEVEN
c 0 ····-····
.
GTCP 85·1 29B,·1 29C
GTCP 85-1 15, 1 1 5C, 1 1 5CK
.
·······-
{!!
85·139H
�. .
TRIDENT I, II
BOEING 757/767
BAe 146 GTCP 331 ·200A
GTCP 36-100
EMBRAER 1 20
0''""�'"'"''"
FOKKER BOEING 747
u ..e:.. �
F-28 GTCP 66Q.4 ATR 42
GTCP 36-4A
Q",i · �
· l�
{]
�
A-1 0 • GTCP 36-50 C9A • GTCP 85-980
� Do �
C-130 • GTCP 85-71
C-130H • GTCP 85-1 80L
.
�
�:__.c-:--
A-70/H JFS100-13A
<(_O":§�fo
F-18 • GTC 36-200
c&.--.£!
TC4C • GTCP 85-134
VC-135 • GTCP 85-98
P3AIB/C • GTCP95-V3
�1/
CENTER I SOLATION DECOUPLERS AI RFRAM E - M O U NTED
GEARBOX (CGB) A 1 ACCESSORY DRIVE
AIRFRAME-M OUNTED "- 1
I
(AMAD) R.H.
ACCESSORY DRIVE (AMAD) L.H. I
I I
FIGURE 17-27 (a) Mechan ically l i n ked SPS for the F 1 5 fighter.
GEN
HYD
PUMP
ACCESSORY
GEARBOX
SHAFT·
DRIVEN
COMPRESSOR
HYD
PUMP
GEN
FIGURE 17-27 (b) Mechanically l i n ked SPS for the Army Attack Helicopter (AAH) AH64.
Il-
F-1 8 SECONDARY POWER SYSTEM
I F404 POWER TAKEOFF
1l FROM
I
L - - -� PAD.
MAIN
ENGINE BLEED
POWER TAKEQFF
SHAFT (PTO)
I
I PTO SHAFT
I DECOUPLER
I
AIRCRAFT· MOUNTED ACCESSORY I
DRIVE I AMAD
(AMAD) I
I
I
I
I
� jI nl
I
.,.
L..ll
:'- - -
VALVE r- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _
I FUEL BOOST PUMP
1
I I 1 HYDRAULIC P U M P
I
I
I I
I
GENERATOR IVSCF)
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I 1
I
1
I I .
I I
I I I
I I I SPS OPERATING MODES
I 1) MAIN ENGINE START (PTO COUPLED)
2) ACCESSORY GROUND OPERATION (PTO U N CO U PLED)
I I
I I I
I I 3) GROUND ECS OPERATION
I
L------------ � - - - - - - - - � - - -J
f
I
G R O U N D CART
CONNECTION �•
TO ECS
ATS1 00·395A
GTCP36·50 APU
FIGURE 17-27 (e) Pneu matically and mechanically l i n ked SPS for the B 1 B . There are two complete
systems, l i ke the one shown, in each aircraft.
REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS 3. List 1 0 types of starters. Very briefly describe each
starter type.
1. C o m pare the starting req u i rements for the recipro 4. M a ke a table l isti n g the advantages and d i sadvan
cating and gas turbine e n g i nes. tages of each starter type.
2. What . a re some o f t h e factors t h a t i nfluence t h e 5 . What form does the a uxi l i a ry or ground power
choice o f t h e starting system ? u n it take? How can this e n g i n e be used?
The length of time between overhauls (TBO) has Modern gas turbine engines are expensive, with some
increased from 10 hours for the German Jumo 1 09-004B versions costing over several million dollars. It is essential
manufactured in 1 945 to over 6000 hours for the Pratt & that the operators in the overhaul shops keep complete and
Whitney JT3D engine. It should be. kept in mind that accurate records to guarantee that a component be removed
between these major overhaul periods most engines are or modified when required, and, on the other hand, that parts
.
required to go through an intermediate "hot section" inspec are not discarded prematurely. In order to do this, most
tion. This large improvement in TBO has been accom engine parts must be identifiable. The marking methods take
plished in the main through significant improvements in several forms, determined by the desired permanency, the
engine design,metallurgy, manufacturing, overhaul, inspec type of material being marked, and the location of the part.
tion, and maintenance procedures. . Temporary marking methods include the following:
Previous chapters in this book have dealt mainly with the
• Several brands of marking pencils (It is extremely
design, metallurgical, and manufacturing aspects of the
important not to use any material that would leave a
engine. This chapter discusses the other three factors: over
deposit of lead, copper, zinc, or similar material on any
haul, inspection, and maintenance procedures.
hot section part, as this might cause premature failure
due to carburization or intergranular attack. This
OVERHAUL includes grease and lead pencils.)
• Chalk
The TBO varies considerably between engine types. It is • Several brands of ink
generally established for civil aircraft by the equipment • Soapstone
operator and the engine manufacturer, working in conjunc
tion with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). With Permanent marks may be accomplished by the following:
the exception of working with the FAA, the overhaul times • Electrolytic etch applied through a stencil or with a ·spe
for military aircraft are established in essentially the same
cial electrolytic pen (not the same as electric arc scrib
manner. Taken into account are sl!-ch factors as the type of
ing, which has been found unsuitable for the gas turbine
operation and use, the servicing facilities and experience of
engine. Electrolytic etch should not be used on anodized
maintenance personnel, and the total experience gained with surfaces.)
the particular engine. As a specific model engine builds up
• Metal stamping using a hammer, press, or roll (limited
operating time and is sent to the overhaul agency, the parts
to parts having less than a specific hardness)
are inspected for wear and/or signs of impending failure. If
• Vibration peening, which produces characters by a
the critical parts seem to be wearing well, an extension of
TBO may be approved. One of the most important factors in vibrating, radius-tipped tool
determining time between overhauls is the use to which the • Engraving with a rotating cutter or grinder
engine is put. Frequent starts and stops or power changes • Drag impression using a freely rotating, radius-tipped
(cycle changes), necessary on short-haul aircraft, result in conical tool
rapid temperature changes that, in turn, will affect the TBO. • Blasting with an abrasive substance through a stencil
On many modern engines, the number of cycles is automat • Branding used on nonmetallic parts such as plastic,
ically recorded, usually as a function of starts and stops, or
bakelite, etc.
an excursion to full power.
In all cases the manufacturer's recommendations must be
Most manufacturers have adopted a system of perma
followed.
nently marking critical parts of the engine, such as turbine
The actual overhaul of the engine can be divided into the
disks and blades, that are · subject to deterioration through
following stages:
cycle changes or time limits. A part must be removed from
service when either the number of cycles or the time reach 1. Disassembly
es the maximum limit. 2. Cleaning
400
3. Inspection to use the special tools. Appropriate warnings and cautions
4. Repair where necessary to minimize possible injury to the worker
5. Reassembly and damage to the engine are included. Special instructions
6. Testing are given for the many parts, such as the bearings and car
7. Storage bon seals, that require special handling. Other parts must be
reassembled in their original position, so they must be
tagged and marked accordingly. Seals, other than the car
Disassembly
bon-rubbing types, are not reused. Metal-type seals will
Disassembly can be accomplished on a vertical or hori have been crushed, and many rubber-type seals are m.ade to
zontal disassembly stand (Fig. 1 8- 1 ) . Some engines can be expand in contact with fuel or oil. Once this type of rubber
disassembled by using either method, while others lend seal has been removed, it will not fit back· into its original
themselves to a particular procedure. After the engine is
broken down into its major components, many of the sub
assemblies are then mounted on individual stands (Fig. 1 8-3
on p. 404) for further work. A large number of specialized
tools are necessary to ensure dismantling without damage to
the closely machined, highly stressed parts. A set of these
tools often may cost as much as the engine.
Every manufacturer issues a complete and detailed over
haul manual which must be followed, which gives a step-by
step disassembly procedure and also shows where and how
(b)
(a)
11
TURBINE CASING
HORIZONTAl FLANGE
COMPRESSOR CASING
HORIZONTAL FLANGE
c. Seventeen bolts ( 1 6 ) and 1 6 locknuts (17) secure h. Remove the junction box aft bracket, the after
the forward flange of the upper-half compressor casing burner control temperature (T r. ) amplifier aft bracket,
to the front frame aft flange. the 4 forward mounts and the 4 brackets.
Note
i. Install the stator casing lifting device and remove
the upper-half compressor casing. On J85-GE - 5 A
Five of the bolts were removed when the inlet
engines, remove the 2 locking keys ( 2 ) for the compres
guide vane actuator ring was removed. Two
sor vane segments. On ) 8 5 -GE-5 engines that have not
locknuts were removed with the spark genera
been retrofitted to the J85-GE-5A configuration, remove
tor forward bracket. Two locknuts were re
the 4 retainers ( 2 1 ) for the compressor vane segments.
moved with the anti-icing valve. One bolt hole
Position the compressor stator half vertical support ( 1 4 )
under the right-hand actuator is not used. Re
a t the 1 2 o 'clock position and secure the support t o the
move the remaining bolts, locknuts, the j unc
flange of both the mainframe ( 1 5 ) and front frame ( 1 3 )
tion box forward bracket ( 2 0 ) and the T,, am
with 2 bolts and nuts.
plifier forward bracket ( 2 1 ) .
4 - 1 3 2 . REMOVAL OF LOWER-HALF
d. Install the stator casing lifting device and remove COMPRESSOR STATOR CASING,
the upper-half compressor casing ( 2 8 ) . Remove the 4 YJ8 5 -GE-5. ( See figure 4-49.)
retainers ( 2 2 ) for the compressor vane segments. Posi
Note
tion the compressor stator-half vertical support at the
For special tools, see figure 3 - 1 , group 1 0 .
12 o'clock position and secure the support to the flange
of both the mainframe and the front frame with 2 bolts a. Twenty-six bolts ( 1 ) a n d 1 8 locknuts ( 2 ) secure t h e
and locknuts. a f t flange of the lower-half compressor casing ( 3 ) to
the mainframe. Four bolts and locknuts , used for secur
4-1 3 1 . REMOVAL OF UPPER-HALF COMPRESSOR
ing the trunnion brackets during shipping, were removed
STATOR CASING, )85-GE-5. ( See figure
when the engine was removed from the shipping con
4-48A.)
tainer. One bolt, locknut, and clamp were removed with
Note
the feedback cable. The 8 bolts that secure the forward
end of the 2 gearbox mounting brackets were removed
For special tools, see figure 3 - 1 , group 1 0 .
with the gearbox. Remove the remaining bolts, locknuts,
a. Remove 6 locknuts and 6 washers from t h e body 2 offset brackets ( 4, 5 ) , and the fuel drain valve bracket
bound bolts iocated i n bolt holes 1, 5, and 1 1 in the (6).
horizontal flanges of the compressor stator casing. b. Seventeen bolts (7) and 1 6 locknuts ( 8 ) secure the
b. Remove the 6 body-bound bolts and 4 washers forward flange of the lower-half compressor casing to
by using a plastic drift pin to drive the bolts out of the the front frame. Three of the bolts were removed when
holes. the inlet-guide vane actuator ring was removed. One
CAUT ION ! locknut and 2 cushion clamps were removed with the
actuator fuel lines. One locknut was . removed with the
left-hand actuator. One bolt under the left-hand actuator
Do not turn the bolt in the hole during re is not used. Remove the remaining bolts , locknuts, fuel
moval; this would enlarge the hole and impair filter support ( 1 0 ) and the check valve bracket ( 1 1 ) .
the alignment f�nction. c. Install the stator casing lifting device and remove
the lower-half compressor casing. Position the compres
c. Remove the remaining 1 6 bolts and 1 6 locknuts
sor stator half vertical support at the 6 o'clock position
from the horizontal flanges of the compressor stator
and secure the support to the flange of both the main
casing.
frame and the front frame with 2 bolts and nuts.
d. Remov� the 2 supports and washers for the syn
4 - 1 33. REMOVAL OF LOWER-HALF
chronizing cable conduit.
COMPRESSOR STATOR CASING, )85-G E - 5 .
e. Seventeen bolts and 16 locknuts secure the forward
( See figure 4-48A.)
flange of the upper-half compressor casing ( 1 ) to the
front frame ( 1 3 ) . Nine of the bolts were removed with Note
the inlet guide vane actuator ring. Four locknuts were For special tools, see figure 3 - 1 , group 1 0 .
removed with the T ,, �mplifier forward brackets. Three a. Seventeen bolts a n d 1 6 locknuts secure t h e forward
locknuts were removed with the anti-icing valve and
flange of the lower-half compressor casing ( 3) to the
stand-off bracket. One locknut was removed with the T:;
front frame ( 1 3 ) . Three of the bolts were removed with
amplifier lead clamp. One bolt hole under the right-hand
the inlet-guide vane actuator ring. One locknut was re
actuator is not used. moved with the left-hand actuator. One locknut was re
f. Remove the remaining locknuts and bolts, the junc moved with the afterburner high pressure filter clamp.
tion box forward bracket, and the 2 offset brackets from One bolt hole under the left-hand actuator is not used.
the upper-half compressor casing forward flange. Remove the remaining bolts, locknuts and fuel hose
g. Remove 26 locknuts and 26 bolts from the aft bracket from the lower compressor casing forward
flange of the upper-half compressor stator casing. flange.
���::::.::;:;;��-
5
(a)
(b)
(m-=-t�=- \()
MAGNETIC LINES
action between parts made of dissimilar metals. Usual
cause is galvanic action between dissimilar metals.
Erosion Carrying away of material by flow of hot gases,
�((\
grit, or chemicals. See guttering. Usual causes are flow of
(()
LONGITUDINAL 45° CRACK TRANSVERSE
corroding liquids, hot gases, or grit-laden oil.
CRACK WILL WILL SHOW CRACK WILL
NOT SHOW SHOW
Fatigue failure Progressive yielding of one or more local
RRENT i
Defects shown by. areas of weakness, such as tool marks, sharp indenta
E�IT
circular fleld
tions, minute cracks, or inclusions, under repeated stress.
���,-----+,------��\�
CU CURR As working stress on the piece is repeated, cracks devel
op, at ends of which are high concentrations of stress.
MAGNETIC LONGITUDINAL CRACK AT 45° TRANSVERSE CRACK
FIELD CRACK WILL
SHOW
WILL SHOW WILL NOT SHOW Cracks spread, usually from the surface, or near the sur
face, of the area. After a time, there is so little sound
F I G U R E 1 8-8 C racks will show best when in line with cur metal left, the normal stress is higher than the strength of
rent flow and at right ang les to the mag netic field. the remaining material , and it snaps. Failure is not due to
(Magnaflux Corp.) crystallization of metal, as many mechanics believe.
Chapter 1 8 Maintenance and Overh a u l Procedures 407
F I G U R E 1 8-1 0 Typical defects discoverable through visual i nspection .
Burning
Crack D e f o r m a -t i o n E ro s i o n F a -t i g u e failure
F l a k ing Flowing
Fracture F r e t t i n g c o r ro s i o n
408 Maintena nce and Testihg F I G U R E 1 8- 1 0 conti nued on the next page.
F I G U R E 1 8-1 0 (continued).
N ic k P ic k u p Pileup P iTTi n g
S co r i n g Spoiling
Appearance of a typical fatigue failure i s easily Flaking Breaking away of pieces of a plated or painted sur
explained. As failure proceeds severed surfaces rub and face. Usual causes are incomplete bonding, excessive
batter each other, crushing grains of material and produc loading, or blistering.
ing a dull or smooth appearance; the remaining unfrac Flowing Spreading of a plated or painted surface. Usually
tured portion preserves normal grain structure up to the accompanied by flaking. Usual causes are incomplete
moment of failure. The progressive nature of the failure is bonding, excessive loading, or blistering.
usually indicated by several more or less concentric lines,
the center, or focus, of which discloses original point or Fracture See break and chafing.
line of failure. Usual causes are tool marks, sharp comers, Fretting corrosion Discoloration may occur on surfaces
nicks, cracks, inclusions, galling, corrosion, or insuffi that are pressed or bolted together under high pressure.
cient tightening of studs or bolts to obtain proper stretch. On steel parts the color is reddish brown and is sometimes
meaningless.
those near the surface may be detected during magnetic
inspection by grouping of magnetic particles. Exam
ination of a fatigue fracture may reveal an inclusion at the
Repair
focal point.
Nick A sharp indentation caused by striking a part against All serviceable engine parts must be repaired using meth
another metal object. Usual causes are carelessness in han ods approved by the manufacturer. Repair techniques vary
dling of parts or tools prior to or during assembly, or sand widely. Welding is used extensively and is discussed in
or fine foreign particles in the engine during operation. chapter 1 0. Repairs on combustion chambers and many
Peening Deformation of surface. Usual cause is impact of a other parts of the engine are often made this way. After
foreign object such as occurs in repeated blows of a ham welding, it may be necessary to heat-treat the part in order
mer on a part. to remove the stress induced through welding and to restore
the original properties of the metal.
Pickup Rolling up of metal or transfer of metal from one
Other parts can be restored to their original dimensions
surface to another. Usual causes are rubbing of two sur
by plating (also discussed in chap. 1 0). Replating by elec
faces without sufficient lubrication, presence of grit
trochemical means or hard facing by plasma-sprayed coat
between surfaces under pressure during assembly, unbro
ings or by detonation flame coatings is used to build up hubs
ken edges of press-fitted parts, or incipient seizure of
and disks and to repair and protect parts of the engine that
rotating parts during operation.
chafe on each other. For example, combustion-chamber out
Pileup Displacement of particles of a surface from one
let ducts on many engines are permitted limited movement
point to another. Distinguished from pickup by the pres
to compensate for engine growth as the engine temperature
ence of depressions at the point from which the material
changes. Repair methods involve operations of all kinds,
has been displaced.
including grinding, blending, and other abrasive processes;
Pitting Small, irregularly shaped cavities in a surface from lathe work; boring; straightening; painting; etc. (Fig.
which material has been removed by corrosion or chip 1 8-1 1 ) . If the engine contains rivets, these are repaired or
ping. Corrosive pitting is usually accompanied by a replaced as required. The bushings to be found in the acces
deposit formed by a corrosive agent on base material. ·
sories section and other parts of the engine are replaced if
Usual causes of corrosive pitting are breakdown of the necessary. If any threaded holes are stripped, they are
surface by oxidation or a chemical, or by electrolytic repaired at this time by drilling and tapping and installing a
action. Usual causes of mechanical. pitting are chipping threaded bushing, an oversize stud, or a helicoil insert.
of loaded surfaces because of overloading or improper Once again, the overhaul manual gives a detailed and
clearance, or presence of foreign particles. approved repair procedure that must be followed to ensure a
Scoring Deep scratches made during engine operation by reasonable service life or TBO.
AREA AREA
c c
A-R A D I U S D-DEPTH
RB-RO U N D BOTTOM
JI
\ �:�
B LADES P E R E N G I N E .
T
T H E S E D I M E NS I O N S
CONTR O L LED B Y
�sss
DEPTH I:.I M I T
-�
ss�
E
c
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CROSS SECTION O F
FAN B LA D E ABOVE AREA AREA
PART SPAN SHROUD E E
THESE D I M E N S I O N S
CONTRO LLED B Y
DEPTH L I M I T
�·�� E
CROSS SECTION O F
F A N B LA D E B E LOW
PART SPAN S H ROUD
CAUTION
AREA
F
TH E LIMITS R EF ER R E D TO IN TH IS F IG U R E IN
AREAS "C", "E" A N D "F " PERTA I N TO LOCAL,
1- /2
ISO LATED, DAMAGED A R E AS O N LY AND M U ST
NOT BE I NTERPRETED AS AUTHORITY FOR
REMOVAL O F MATER I A L A LL ACROSS T H E TIP
A N D LEAD I N G OR TR A I L I N G E D G ES AS M I G H T
B E D O N E I N A S I N G L E MACH I N I N G CUT
AREA X
FRONT A N D REAR
F I G U R E 1 8-1 1 Repair-section i l l ustration showin g repair l i mits for a typical fan blade.
6. BENDING WIRE AROUND BOLT 7. TWISTING WIRE 8. BENDING TWISTED WIRE 9. CUTTING EXCESS WIRE
(a)
(b)
F I G U RE 1 8-1 2 Every part in a gas turbine engine must be safetied in some manner, for exa m ple,
by safety wiri ng.
(a) Steps i n applying safety wire.
(b) Typical safety wire patterns.
Lockheed Ll0 1 1 Tristar and others, are equipped with han ENGINE PERFORMANCE
dling rails that allow major engine modules to be changed MONITORING
while the engine is still installed in the aircraft (Fig. 1 8-14).
Maintenance practices differ little from those used on In recent years, a method of monitoring the gas turbine
reciprocating engines although cleanliness is more critical engine 's day-to-day condition has been adopted by many
for gas turbine engines. It is important that the engine com operators. In this system the EPR (engine pressure ratio),
partment be kept as clean as possible because the high-veloc rpm, F/F (fuel flow), EGT (exhaust gas temperature), and
ity airflow through the engine will tend to draw any foreign throttle position are used to determine the aerodynamic per
objects into the compressor. All small parts, such as loose formance of the engine, while vibration amplitude and oil
lockwire, nuts, bolts, etc., should be removed immediately. consumption (which may include periodic spectrometric oil
The exterior of the engine should be inspected to see that analysis) is used to evaluate mechanical performance.
all parts of the engine are secure and that there are no broken Although specific procedures will vary from operator to
safety wires. Tubing should be checked for security, nicks, · operator, in general, cockpit instrument readings are taken
chafing, dents, and leaks. Controls· should be checked for once a day or on every flight during cruise conditions. The
proper operation to ensure that they do not bind and if cable recorded data is then processed in a variety of ways and
controls are used, that there is cushion in the flight deck con compared with "normal" data established by the manufac�
trols. Cushion is obtained when the control lever on the unit turer or the operator as representing the normal performance
hits its stop before the control lever in the cabin hits its stop. of the engine. Trends in the operating parameters are then
Inspection of the gas turbine engine is made somewhat observable, as shown in Fig. 1 8-17 (on p. 4 1 8). The data
easier than that of a reciprocating engine because of the gas may also be collected automatically during the flight and
turbine's inherent cleanliness and the ready accessibility of then off-loaded for analysis by ground personnel.
many parts to visual inspection. The fan, if one is present, and Engine performance monitoring is proving to be a very
the first several stages of the compressor can be inspected for effective method of providing early warning information of
cracks with the aid of a strong light. Also readily open to visu ongoing or impending failures, thus reducing unscheduled
al inspection for heat damage is the exhaust duct and the last delays and more serious engine failures. Examples of several
WING PYLON
F I G U R E 1 8-1 4 Modular engine desig n of this Rolls-Royce RB2 1 1 allows a high degree of on-wing
repai rability.
U
- - -
LEFT SIDE
A P 2 R E A R-COMP R E SSOR M I DST AGE
AP 4 COMBUST I ON
CHAM B E R
I
K G F D C B A
I
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AP 6 FAN-DR IVE
TURBINE � ,.. <>
T l, :
AP 5 R EAR-COMPR ESSOR D R I VE-
TU R B I N E I N L ET VANE
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P..Jll
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RIGIIT SIDE
Port Location
Location Clock Position
Engine Between as Viewed
Port Flanges From Rear Nomenclature Borescope View
AP 1 C and D 6:30 Fan m idstage inspection port. Second stage compressor blades tra i l i n g edg e.
.
Third stage compressor blades lead ing edge.
AP 7 E and F 7 :00 Fan exit inspection port. Third stage compressor blades tra i l i ng edge.
AP 2 F and G 6:45 Rear compressor m idstage inspection port. Sixth stage compressor blades tra i l i n g edge.
Seventh stage compressor blades leadi ng edge.
AP 3 F and G 5:00 Rear compressor exit inspection port. Twelfth stage compressor blades tra i l ing edge.
Thi rteenth stage compressor blades lead ing edge.
AP 4 G and H 1 : 00 7 :00 Combustion chamber inspection port. Combustion chamber first stage turbine stator
(fou r ports) 5:00 1 1 :00 vanes lea d i n g edge.
Fuel nozzles.
Ign iter plugs G and H 4:30 7:30
(two ports)
AP 5 G and H 5:00 Rear compressor drive turbine i n let vane F i rst stage turbine rotor blades leading edge.
i nspection port.
AP 6 G and H 5:00 Fan drive turbine i nspection port. Second stage turbine rotor blades tra i l i n g edge.
Third stage turbine rotor blades leading edge.
F I G U RE 1 8-1 5 Borescope i nspection ports for the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engine showing the
location of the ports and the internal parts that can be viewed through these ports.
I R ON
R EA D OUT
I N T E R N A L E L ECTRON ICS
actual engine malfunctions that were detected using perfor case. This air may be discharged into the nacelle, overboard,
mance-monitoring techniques are shown in Fig. 1 8- 1 8 or in the case of the JT8D, into the fan duct. The magnitude
(starting o n p . 4 1 9). of change in the engine parameters is dependent on all the
aforementioned factors plus the size of the leak.
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+-f-++++-t-+-H-t-t+-H-1-t-+-H-+++-Hr-++++-1-t--H
VIB
FRONT 1
B
VIFRONT
I
r---�.·-·
VIB
REAR
r---- o w
1
� ��ss��!s����ss��
Problem: C racked 1 3th stage bleed duct Problem: Compressor contam i nation and water wash
Malfunction: This i l lustrates the monitor plot associated with Malfunction: This is an example of a mon itor plot associated
a 1 3th-stage bleed (anti-ice manifold) fai l u re. The assembly with compressor conta m ination. This engine was i nsta l led i n
broke around the weld bead that joins the mount flange to a n aircraft that was parked o n a ra mp near salt water for
the man ifold. two weeks because of an a i rline strike. Apparently impurities
from the a i r contaminated the compressor d uring this time.
Analysis: This fai l u re progressed gradual ly, as can be seen
from the mon itor plot, and fi nally resulted in the engine Analysis: Compressor conta mination was suspected when,
becoming EGT-Iimited on ta keoff, with the throttle on the after the engine had been out of service for two weeks, fuel
affected engine one knob ahead of the other two . flow and EGT i ncreased sign ificantly. A slight i ncrease in N2
Exa m ination of the plot show� little or no effect on N1 and was noted, with little or no change i n N1 . A water wash
an i ncrease in EGT, N2, and fuel flow. A slight engine m is restored engine performance.
match occurs when air is bled from the compressor, due to
both the change in turbine efficiency as the turbine i nlet
temperature changes and the change in the ratio of a i rflow
through the compressor to that through the turbine. In this
case, the m i smatch is such that the hig h-pressure compressor
does most of the additional work requ i red to regain EPR.
+H-+i++++H+ii-T-hlrl-H-t-'f"±-H---1'<H-t-:t-'t-H--J
tr. N I o
1%1
+<o-J-f-+
+-t-+++-t-1-++-t-t-++-t-1--++-f-t-t-++-i-++-+-+-1-H
.O.EGT
f�r o-t-1-++-t-+<H-t-:H-+-t-+H-.:lrl-++-t-t-t-++-i-++-+-t-1-H ('Cl o -+-1-++-1-++-+--f-J-++-i-++-f-t-t-+-t-1--++-t-1-++-f---1
20
ON2
,., tr.1%)N2 o -+-t-++--!i--'l'--HH--t-+--hi...!JL+-t-++++-t-+-H'--t-H+-t-+-H---1
, -t-++-t-1-+-H-+++-t-1-+-H-+++-t-1-++-t-t-+-++-i-+t-1
����:-1 +4oo ++-+
"oo-t-:1-+ [180.0[
+-t-+�����++��-+�
+H-+-l++-++H--H+t-++H-Hr+t-++H+lH
tr.FF {90.0[
LBIH
[ KG/7�4�]-t-t-+-H
[-=-r!���-t-:1-++-t-++-++1-++f-++-t-t-+-+-+--f-++-+-t-�
-t-++-t-1-'f-H-+++-t-1-++-t-t-++-t-H-+-t-t-1-H
VIB
FQONT ' -t-t-+-H-t-H-t-t-+-H+t-±-t-t-++-drt-H-±-:�+-t-t-t--H
VIB
REAR VIB
REAR
Problem: B u rned and Deformed Com bustion C ha m ber Problem: Fi rst-stage nozzle g u ide vanes fa i l u re
Outlet Duct
Engine: JT8D
Engine: JT8D
Malfunction: The· engine shown in this example was
Malfunction: This engine was removed entirely on the basis removed for i nspection because of the performance deterio
of the operator's i n-fl ight data-monitoring-program trend ration noted in the monitorin g plot. The teardown revealed
i m pl ications. Despite the marked deterioration of engine per that fi rst-stage nozzle g u ide vanes were excessively bu rned
formance, there had been no flight crew write-ups to i n d i and bowed . No other da mage was reported.
cate recognition of it. Investigation revealred that extensive
deformation occu rred in the engine i nner-combustion-cham Analysis: The depression in N2 a n d the i ncrease in EGT are
ber outlet as wel l as considera ble burning and bowing of characteristic of most h i gh-pressu re turbine fa ilures. The rate
fi rst-stage nozzle g u ide vanes. of deterioration in this case is the basis for the assu mption
that the problem i nvolves the grad ual decay of some compo
Analysis: The trend ind ications shown in this exa mple are nent i n the high-pressure turbine assembly. As the deforma
qu ite similar to others where a loss in turbine efficiency is tion of the g u ide vane progressed in this exa mple, the
i nvolved. The fai l u re first occurred in the combustion cham turbine in let area contin uously i n creased. This action general
ber and, for this reason, the exam ple is i ncluded i n this sec ly reduces the energy extracted per pound of air flow
tion of the report. However, it is felt that subsequent through the fi rst turbine because of the smal ler pressure
damage to the nozzle g u ide vanes was the domi nating influ drop across the turbine. The increased level of vibration
ence in the trend i n d ications. remains u nexpla ined by the i nformation available on this
example. It is assumed that the upset flow pattern around
the deformed guide vanes changed the vibration signature
of the insta lled engine. Note also the scatter of data as the
fai l u re started to develop. This condition often warns of an
i m pending fai l u re before any defin ite trends develop.
·+••+1-++H-+-1+-H++-++f-t-H++-t+H+t-t+i--t-t-i
-t-+-+-+-t-+-f-f-+-H-f-+-f-f-++-+-+++-f-++-1-f--H-+-+...J.�
.6.EGT
I°Cl
+W
O
�ff�����+4�+44L�� + 2o
-I-J.-1.-+-�-H-1-+4�+-+-+-I-+-H-1-+-t-+-t-+-+-H--H-t-t-1
20
"1!7l!r-t-±-;H-+i--t-t-t-+-t-t+<H--t-11-+-H-I-H'"?k-H-l-l-++-!
+I
AN2 o
•N2
l%1 l%1
-2
4FF 7�·�-
;��JITilrt-'+t-'f+f-+-H-f-t-t-i-H-f-H--l-f-++-f-f-+-f+H-+-!
���� o ��
4FF
LB/H
!KG/HI O--j-t-'t
[ 0.45] [0.45]
200
� H--H-t-+-+--t-+-++-t-+-t-t-+-H-1-+-+-++-++-++-+-i-1--H---1
,�;.�.� [ 90.0]
VIB
FRONT 1-f-H--t-H--H++-+++-++H--+-�-H-++-±�+4-1-��
VIB
REAR 1' -i--t-f-t-t-t-i-t-t-f-1-+-H-t--H-f-H-f-t+-+-i-++-11-++4-+-i
Malfunction: The turbine case became partially separated Malfunction: This engine was pu lled when a routine oil filter
from the nozzle guide vane case when 20 of the attaching check revealed metal on the screen.
bolts broke. Hot gases leaking outside the nozzle case rup
tured the i n ner fan d uct, a l lowing the gases to escape into Analysis: The a ircraft-vibration-monitor (AVM) change that
the fan exhaust stream . resulted from this fa-il u re was a decrease in vibration ind icat
ed on the turbine pickup, another good example of a change
Analysis: This example shows the familiar pattern of i n vibration indication toward a lower magnitude.
decreased N2 and increased EGT a n d W1 associated with a
high-pressure turbine efficiency loss. It is assumed that the
nozzle g uide vane sh ifted somewhat when the bolts sheared
and the changed flow direction on the turbine caused the
reduced efficiency. The mon itoring trends indicate that the
burn-through into the fan duct had m i n i ma l effect. Had the
effect been g reater, the trend wou l d have begun to resem
ble that of a high-pressure bleed loss.
-Hf+t+
+t+r-t-t++++H-+++t-+-1+++-+-l+H
with damage or abnormal wear, the number of particles
20+-if+t++++H-+++t+H-+++t-+-i++++J+H
•o and associated voltage spikes increase dramatically. The
technique will work with ferrous and nonferrous materials.
t•ct
�H4-f 1\V
�EGT
This same company also produces an Inductive Debris
f-+
f----20+-l
---J-+- H-
J-+-
++ +
-H'
+-i
f-+l �
-+--!-lrl=O!'-+..e-l-
bbJ.LoW EGT DUE TO WIRE t-+++++-+-i
..J..-.1 -i-+ LOOSE AT TERMINAL
Monitor (IDM) to detect small particles in fluids such as
those flowing in oil or hydraulic systems. The particles are
detected by a change in inductance as they pass through a
1%1
AN2 coil wrapped around the oil or hydraulic line.
,,:�.-+
1 -+-t-+-+++t-+-1-++++t-+-+-++++-1+-H-+++++i-+-l REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
+-!�t:;t:**:tJht:
200
�::H [ 90.0] [ ttti��titiilltttttit-H 1. Who determi nes the time between overhauls?
�.-f-+-t-+-+++f-+-t++-'f'-'f-'1'-4-1-+++4-J-+-f-++++++i.....J.-.l
to.4 l
!KG/HI
What factors a re· taken i nto consi deration in deter
200
I 90.01
mi n i n g the TBO?
�
���§�l�§�l�§�IIH�i�
VIB
2 . What is meant by a hot-section inspectio n ?
3 . Why is i t necessary t o mark gas turbine parts? List
FRONT 1
jiltl�ilH�IlH�ilHHiJ
#
some tem porary and permanent m a rking methods.
VIB
REAR 1
4. List the seven steps in the ove r h a u l of a ny gas tur
1----o
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b i ne e n g i n e .
5. What is conta i ned i n the overha u l m a n u a l that
ma kes it so i m portant to the overha u l process?
F I G U R E 1 8-1 8 (g) 6. Briefly outl i n e t h e d i sassembly process.
7. What d isposition is made o f a l l seals except the
Problem: EGT system , wire loose at term inal carbon-rubbing types?
8. Why m u st e n g i n e parts be cleaned?
9. List some clea n i n g materials and processes for
Engine: JT8D
Malfunction: The EGT system of this ai rcraft was exami ned clea n i n g the cold section of the engine; the hot
when the EGT readings became low and erratic. A wire was sectio n . What protective meas u res should be taken
found loose at a term inal. wh i l e using some k i n ds of clean i n g solutions?
1 0. What special precautions m u st be observed when
Analysis: A change in magnitude of a reading or erratic read
clea n i n g and h a n d l i n g gas turbine bea rings?
ings without substantiation from the other parameters often
indicates instrumentation problems. 1 1 . List some n o n d i mensional i n spection methods;
some d i mensional i nspection methods.
A second type of instrument malfunction is a bit more 1 2. Describe the magnetic-particle i nspection process;
subtle. This type affects more than one engine parameter the dye-penetrant i nspection process.
and, in some cases, can resemble the indications of an actu 1 3 . M a ke a l ist of some of the major conditions to be
al engine failure. The instruments in this category are mach fou n d by visual inspection . List the causes of these
meter, EPR, and total air temperature. conditions.
1 4. Briefly d iscuss several methods of repai r to gas tu r
b i n e parts .
SUMMARY 1 5 . What is the p u rpose of safety i n g ? List some safe
tyi n g devices.
As has been indicated ,pn the last several pages, cost and 1 6. What precautions m ust be observed when work
safety considerations have hastened the development and ing with synthetic l u b ricants?
adoption of a multitude of innovative maintenance and 1 7. What is meant by static and dynamic balance? How
inspection procedures. These techniques hav.e led to safer, are rotati ng pa rts of the gas turbine balanced?
cheaper, and more efficient operation, with the expectation 1 8. What marking systems a re used to denote turb i n e
of reasonably long service life. b l a d e weig hts?
Ongoing work with engine monitoring systems may 1 9. What i nfluence does the nozzle a rea have on
provide as much as 1 00 hours of warning before engine e n g i n e performance? How is the nozzle a rea
failure. The Electrostatic En.gine Monitoring System adjusted?
All manufacturers run their engines in test cells before encountered at very high Mach numbers and very high alti
sending them to the users. After the test the manufacturer tudes, and, in many cases, this has been as difficult as the
will usually disassemble one engine in several to ensure development of the engine itself. Partial testing of new
quality control. If an engine fails during a test run, that engines is sometimes done on existing aircraft.
engine and a specific number of prior engines are disassem Test-cell instrumentation usually includes temperature
bled to check for faults. As experience on an engine is gages to measure the following:
gai�ed, fewer and fewer engines are given the so-called
• Fuel and oil inlet temperature
green run, but all will still undergo a final run.
• Starter air temperature
• Scavenge oil temperature
• Compressor inlet temperature
THE TEST CELL
• Exhaust gas or turbine inlet temperature
• Wet and dry bulb temperature
Testing is done in a test cell or house (Fig. 1 9-1), fully
• Ambient air temperature
equipped to measure all of the desired operating parameters.
Some of the larger installations cost several million dollars. Pressure gages and/or manometers measure
The building is usually of concrete construction and contains
• Fuel inlet pressure
both the control and engine rooms, although in some instal
lations only the control or instrumentation room is enclosed. • Lubrication-system pressure
Most cells have silencers installed in the inlet stack for noise • Main and afterburner fuel-pump pressure
suppression and a water spray rig in the exhaust section for • Nozzle pump inlet and rod end pressure (179 engine)
cooling. Many modem test cells incorporate computers to • Starter air pressure ,
automatically record all instrument readings and correct • Barometric or ambient air pressure
them (see pages 427 to 429) to standard day conditions. • Sump or breather pressure
Testing of large modem engines has been a real problem
• Turbine pressure or engine pressure ratio (EPR)
in that the amount of air required by the engine or its com
ponents was not readily available with existing equipment. • Water pressure
New facilities have had to be built to simulate conditions • Turbine cooling air pressure
425
Additional instruments and controls include the following: the gas-generator (Ng) tachometer drive gear ratio on
the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engine is
• Power lever control and various other control switches
0. 1 1 2, and 4200/0. 1 12 37,500 Ng rpm when the
=
• Clock and stopwatch Figs. 1 9-2 and 20- 1 1 for another type of tachometer
• Tachometer-generator and readout device in actual rpm. system.]
• Fuel-flow transmitter and !lleter
• Thrust-measuring electronic or hydraulic load cell and When the engine is installed in the cell, a bellmouth inlet
readout, or torque readout and screen (Fig. 1 9-3) are attached. The bellmouth inlet is a
funnel-shaped tube with rounded shoulders that offers so lit
[Author's Note In an aircraft installation "percent" tle air resistance that the duct loss can be considered zero.
rpm is used rather than actual rpm because there is a The screen itself does offer some resistance and must be
large difference in the actual rpm of the many different taken into account when extremely accurate data must be
types and sizes of gas turbine engines. In all engines collected. Twenty-four-volt electric power is provided to
there is an inverse relationship between rpm and the operate the ignition system and any solenoid valves on the
diameter of the engine. Using percent rpm makes it engine. One hundred fifteen volts, four hundred hertz current
possible to have approximately the same percent rpm may also be provided for some •0nition systems and valves.
reading for the same power setting on a variety of Test schedules vary with different model engines and
engines. In the United States, percent tachometers are manufacturers but usually include instrument observations
designed to read 1 00 percent when the tachometer 's during starting and acceleration, and at the several thrust set
dri:re shaft is turning at 4200 rpm. To find the actual tings of idle, maximum cruise, maximum climb, and maxi
rpm of any engine, simply divide the engine's mum continuous takeoff. Acceleration time may also be
tachometer drive gear ratio into 4200. For example, recorded.
PERMANENT MAGNET
· Fan Speed (N1) Sensing System
F I G U R E 1 9-2 This fan, rpm-ind icating system is, in effect, a fan-blade-counting device, as opposed
to the alternate method of using a tachometer-generator to measure rpm. The sensor heads mou nt
ed flush in the fan shroud panel contain permanent m a g nets. The passag e of each fan b lade d i s
rupts the mag netic field set up by the sensor magnets, causing an electrical signal pulse. The
'
frequency of the pulses is equal to the n u m be r of blades times the rpm, thus g iving a signal frequen
cy proportional to fan speed. The signal i s a m plified, conditioned, and transmitted to the cockpit
i n d i cator to provide an N1 readout i n percent rpm. (See chap. 20 for a variation of this techn ique.)
1. rpm== 9465
2. EGT 5 1 0°C (950°F or 1 4 10°R). See note that fol
==
lows.
3. wf 4ooo lb/h [ 1 8 1 4.4 kg/hl
==
6. TSFC 0.400 ==
F I G U RE 1 9-3 A bell mouth i n l et a n d screen. Barometric pressure 30.3 inHg [ 1 02.6 kPa]
==
which is recorded the following data in addition to the Standard day temperature 59°F + 460° (5 l 9°R)
==
Yo= 1 .022
�
CORR. BARO. 3.?.14 30./3
SHEET NO.
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J.E- 00000
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FUEL CONTROL MFG'MODE�R OVERSPEED i:ELO
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NOTES: FUEL ANO OIL LEAKS, ETC. TER- �-� fNORMAL RATE! • ACCEPTED
I���TIME THI�S�TES�T���������HRS.������������ ��� I0/SMAINGOV.P.R.VCUT•. SETTIIN /01;379
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FIG URE 1 9-4 An AlliedSignal Lycom i n g T53 e n g i n e test log.
,
To correct the observed data gathered for the above Using the observed operating parameters given above,
engine, the following formulas are used. we find the corrected values to be
observed rpm
1. Corrected rpm = ---r======�====
Vtemperature correction factor 1.
rpmobs
--::-:-;=: =
9465
=
r pmcorr = -- 926 1 rpm
or V (} 1 . 022
_ _ E_G_T-- (-oR
o_b_se_ r_v_ed _ )
2. corrected EGT = __
- ' � '---
temperature correction factor wf,obs 4000
3. wf,corr = = = 3864 lb/h
or
oVe 1 .0 1 3 X 1.022
[ 1 752.7 kg/h)
EGTobs
EGTcorr =
(} wa,obsVe 200 X 1 .022
4. wa,corr= = 202 lb/s
(5 1 .0 1 3
3. Corrected fuel flow = [9 1 .6 kg/s]
Fn,obs 1 0,000
observed fuel flow
5 Fn,corr = = = 9872 lb [4477.9 kg)
(5
•
wf.obs 4000
or 6. TSFCcorr = � ;-;,
=
0.39 1
F nobs V (} 10,000 X 1 .022
Wf,corr = w f,obs
oVe If one knows the corrected values (given in the manufac
turer's performance specifications), engine operating
4. Corrected airflow = parameters for any pressure and temperature can be com
puted as follows:
observed airflow X Vtemperature correction factor
pressure correction factor J. rpmobs = rpmcorr Ye
or 2. EGTobs = EGTCOIT (}
3. wf,obs = wfcorr0Ve
wa,obs Ve
wa,corr =:_ wa,corr (5
(5
4. wa,obs
Ve
observed thrust
5. Corrected thrust = ------ 5. Fn,obs = Fn,corr 8
pressure correction.factor
6. TSFCobs = TSFCcorr F n,obs Ve
or
F n,obs
pn,corr = --
0 GROUND OPERATING PROCEDURES
6. Corrected TSFC = Although operation of the gas turbine engine has been
greatly simplified as a result of automated-starting-sequence
observed fuel flow
starting systems, more sophisticated fuel controls and engine
observed thrust X Vtemperature correction factor management systems, it is still possible to seriously damage an
engine or surrounding equipment through mismanagement of
or the engine's controls and improper positioning of the aircraft
W r,obs
(Fig. 1 9-5 on pp. 430 to 432). Before starting any gas turbine
T SFCcorr = engine, the operator must be familiar with the manufacturer's
Fn,obs Ye starting, operating, and stopping procedures and engine instru
mentation, controls, and limitations (Fig. 1 9-6 on pp. 433 to
TSFCobs
434). Turbine temperatures are especially important in this
Ve respect and are more fully discussed on pages 437 to 438.
Specific danger zones exist at the front and rear of the engine
Additional corrections for humidity and variable-specific (Fig. 19-7 on pp. 434 to 435). From a safety standpoint, gas
. heat fuels are also made on some engines. turbine operation is somewhat more hazardous than recipro-
Chapter 1 9 E ngine Testi n g a n d Operation 429
FIG URE 1 9-5 Hand signals used for safer operation of turbine a i rcraft.
•::-;;'"'-:""
J�::;-t;
-:--:·->-·
.. 0."
tips, to form the letter tically, as if coaxing up
ward.
"� .;�. ��
, -j...· -��::�jf:;
(either simultaneously
'!,:"
with the other hand when ·Holdup thumb and fore-
With the fingers extended calling for an up or down 1 -:-·.c· fing e r somewhat apart
and palm facing down, adjustment, or with the ;.-i+�·
··
( o t h e r f i n g ers curled),
move hand down (and up), same hand, immediately t h e n bring th.umb a n d
vertically, as if coaxing following the adjustment forefinger together i n a
signal).
v
downward. slow, closing motion.
\ I!!J {:'
finger pressed together
( o t h e r fingers c u r l e d),
then separate thumb and Hold up appropriate number of fingers of
forefinger in a slow, either one or both hands, as necessary, in
opening motion. numerical sequence (i.e., 5, then 7 = 57>.
NUMERICAL READING (of an instrument) INCREASE TRIM SETTING DECREASE TRIM SETTING
(or other adjustment) (or other adjustment)
* NOTE: To use as an "all clear to start" signal, pilot or engine operator initiates the signal from
the aircraft cockpit. Ground crewman repeats the signal to indicate "all clear to start engine."
(l
· �- \lL in1�\ rl/
.f��;� ·:. �i!!u��� INDICATOR AT IDLE THRUST
IAl Poiat to eye with forefinger.
IBl With the fingers cupped and held close to the lips, make a drinking
motion by tilting the head back.
READ FUEL FLOW INDICATOR AT MILITARY lOR TAKE·OFFl THRUST READ FUEL FLOW INDICATOR IN MANUAL OR EMERGENCY AT IDLE lfipter aircraft)
IAl Starting at sho4lder level, make circular motion up (A) Clasp the left wrist with the right hand.
ward with one hand, followed by full arm stretch. (Bl Point to eye with forefinger.
IBl With the fingers cupped and held close to the lips, (C) With the fingers cupped and held close to the lips, make a drinking motion by
•
make a drinking motion by tilting the head back. tilting the head back.
- "(t
palms of both hands to . (Bl AFTERBURNER NOZZLE OPEN: With both ,
gether, with the fingers arms extended horizontally in front of the ,2' >'1r.-· rf"..,-:-:c
J
1! _
- �� r
'
extended. Using the heels body, move the arms apart.
of the palms as a hinge, ICl AFTERBURNER NOZZLE CLOSED: With •" .;" j r--c;:..:-...-..
""'- "'· \ �
:�:� : � ��� � ����
n e he h both arms extended horizontally to the ·
REPLY:
IBl VALVE CLOSED lOR CLOSING): With the
fingers extended, slowly close·
the hand
to form a "fist."
ICl VALVE OPEN lOR OPENING>: W ith the
fingers forming a "fist," slowly open the
hand.
_._...
.... .__, ; ...,.; :;;---;
' ADVANCE THROTTLE TO JAM ACCELERATION
MILITARY lOR TAKE OFFl Short jab with clenched
THRUST fist, as in boxing.
""-- ( - . . ��
{
',�_\� ,�t(4
_
the body and rotate in a the ears, as if to protect
� · '.
circular motion. them from noise.
F I G U R E 19-6 (c)
2. Lear Jet 60 (Aviation Week and Space Technology)
F I G U R E 19-6 (c)
3. Canada i r Jet l iner
F I G URE 1 9-7 The gas turbine engine p resents a very large area of dan ger.
160
(45] Velocity in knots
tempereture in ° F [° Cl
:0: ;;; ;;; :0:
100
(301
i "'
60 � 0
(151 �
�"
s·
oc "1
(f)
0
g
"'
0
.
FIGURE 1 9-7 (a) Hazard a reas for a typical turb ojet engine FIG URE 1 9-7 (b) Hazard a reas for a typ ical low-bypass-ratio
at idle and full power (P&W JT3). tu rbofan engine at f u l l power (P&W JTBD)
EN TRY CORRIDOR TO
FAN STATOR AREA
rAJ
EXtiAUST WAKE DANGER AREA
65 MPH OR GREATER
A 210 TO 145
THROWN; AIRCRAFT WILL BE COMPLETELY DESTROYED OR
DAMAGED BEYOND ECONOMICAL REPAIR; COMPLETE
DESTRUCTION OF FRAME OR BRICK HOMES.
F I G U R E 1 9-7 (c) Hazard a reas for a typical h i g h-bypass-ratio turbofan engine at i d l e (GE CF6).
A cart was blown over a ten foot fence, cleared the fence by
another ten feet, and landed seventy-five feet beyond. The cart
weighed seven hundred fifty pounds.
The jet blast can also pick up and blow loose dirt, sizable
rocks, and other debris a distance of several hundred feet
and with considerable force.
The heat of the exhaust stream is serious only if the
F I G U R E 1 9-8 Two types o f ru nway and ra m p vac u u m
engine is operating at low rpm. The velocity of the jet blast
cleaners.
at higher power settings is so great that a person entering the
gas stream would be hurled a considerable distance without
being burned, but would suffer serious physical trauma. Of on the ignition system while the engine is in operation. If the
course the hot exhaust gases can have an irritating effect on system must be worked on soon after it has been in opera
lungs and eyes. tion, touch the end of the lead wire to the shell of the igniter
It is very important to correctly locate and position the to dissipate any residual energy. Caution must be exercised
airplane during ground operation. The aircraft should be run to avoid the chance of injury or death. Generally the system
on concrete surfaces, since fuel and oil spillage will severe should be off for approximately five minutes, depending on
ly damage asphalt-type surfaces. The hot exhaust gas will the type, before the igniter or leads are disconnected or
also deteriorate the asphalt, especially if the engines are removed. Many ignition systems incorporate radioactive dis
equipped with thrust reversers. An engine may occasionally charge tubes and/or beryllium oxide insulators in the igniters,
torch, a condition where excess fuel accumulates during a which should be disposed of in a special manner. No work or
starting attempt. It is not harmful to the engine if EGT lim inspection should be done in the area of the tailpipe for about
its are not exceeded, but it does point up the need to keep the 1/2h or longer to reduce the chances of injury from hot metal
area to the rear of the engine clear of flammable material. parts or from the flashing of residual fuel in the combustion
The airplane should face into the wind to reduce the dangers chambers or tailpipe. Spilled fuels and oils present a fire haz
of starting overtemperatures and to obtain faster, smoother ard, and direct contact may cause skin drying or other irrita
accelerations. Facing the airplane into the wind is a necessi tions on some people. Fuel and oil should be removed from
ty if any adjustments are to be made. the skin with soap and water as soon as possible.
Damage caused by foreign objects has been one of the Many engines are equipped with compressor bleed
principal reasons for premature engine removal. The axial valves (chap. 5). When checking bleed-valve operation or
flow compressor is particularly sensitive to this type of injury. doing other work on or near the compressor bleed while the
Foreign object damage (l<OD) has cost the U.S. Air Force engine is running, care should be taken to stand clear during
over fifty million dollars per year. Because FOD has been the period the bleeds are open. When the bleed valves open,
such a problem, military and civil airport operators have had high-pressure air at high velocity can be dumped overboard.
to retrain their personnel to establish new working habits. It is
no longer satisfactory to allow the end of a cotter pin or safe
ty wire to remain where it falls. Special cleaners (Fig. 1 9-8) ·
Caution: The ignition switch should not be turned on 11. Engine starter switch-DFF
until the compressor begins to rotate. 12. Ignition switch-OFF
When the N2 tachometer indicates at least 10 percent Caution: If the fuel is shut off inadvertently by closing·
rpm: the fuel-shutoff valve, do not reopen the fuel valve
again in an attempt to regain the "light". Whenever the
9. Fuel shutoff lever-DPEN. An engine light up will be
engine fails to light, shut off the fuel and ignition and
noted 6y a rise in EGT. The engine should light up
continue turning the compressor over with the starter
within 20 s or less, after it is pressurized by turning on
for 1 0 to 1 5 s to clear out trapped fuel or vapor. If this
the fuel.
is not done, allow a 30 s fuel-draining period before
Caution: Insufficient air pressure to either a pneumat attempting another start. Observe any starter cooling
ic starter or a combustion starter that is being used as period or ignition cycle limitation that may be
a pneumatic starter may not supply enough starter required. The starter may be reengaged at any time
torque to start the engine properly, resulting in a hot, after the compressor has decelerated to 40 percent rpm
hung, or torching start. Such a condition is highly or less.
undesirable and may normally be avoided. When air
Unsatisfactory starts can be categorized within the follow
bleed from another engine is used to operate the
ing three areas:
starter, caution is necessary to ensure that the operat
ing engine is turning over fast enough to provide an 1. Hot start-The EGT goes above the manufacturer's
adequate supply of pressurized air to the engine being specified limits as a result of a rich fuel/air ratio.
Improper ratios can result from a malfunctioning fuel
control, ice, or other restrictions at the front of the com
pressor. Most manufacturers will list degrees of overtem
perature in terms of time and temperature, rather than
stating one specific overtemperature point. Figure 1 9-10
I
(on p. 438) shows the starting overtemperature and time
limits for the Pratt & Whitney JT 12 (J60) engine
installed in the Lockheed Jet Star and North American
Sabreliner. Hot starts can often be anticipated through
experience by observing a greater-than-normal fuel flow
or a faster-than-normal EGT rise. The operator should be
prepared to abort the start, although some manufacturers
recommend that the engine be run for a 5-min cool-down
period unless it is obvious that the engine will be darn
aged by continued operation. A hot start may also be
caused by a false or hung start. (Se.e no. 2.) Experience
has shown that there is a definite relationship between
excessive exhaust gas temperatures and premature
engine removals. The engine control system is designed
so that exhaust gas temperature will normally be main
TIME-5ECONDS----� tained within a safe margin. However, no system can be
designed to compensate for operational malpractices. It
STARTER ON
is foolish to treat overtemperature lightly. The fact that
F I G U R E 1 9-9 Typica l starti n g sequence for a gas t u rb i ne the turbine does not fly apart or the engine "melt" away
engi n e. (Pratt & Whitney, United Technologies Corp.) is no reason to assume that the engine cannot be, or has
F I G U R E 1 9- 1 0 E n g i n e starting overte mperature l i m its for t h e P ratt & Whitney JT12A-8 engine.
not been, damaged. Several momentarily high overtem • EPR gage (turbojet or turbofan only)
peratures may have as profound an effect on the engine • Percent rpm gage
as a single prolonged one of a lesser degree. Excessive
• EGT or TIT gage
internal temperatures aggravate such conditions as creep
• Fuel-flow gage
or deformation of sheet metal parts and shorten the life
of the engine in general (Fig. 1 9-11 ). • Oil pressure and temperature gage
2. False or hung start-After light-off has occurred, the • Torquemeter gage (turboprop or turboshaft only)
rpm does not increase to that of IDLE but remains at • Starter switch
some lower value. The EGT may stabilize or continue • Engine master switch
to rise and again the operator should be prepared to
abort before temperature limits are exceeded. A hung
start could be the result of the starter receiving insuffi
cient power or dropping out too soon.
3. No s tart The engine does not light up within the
-
• Power lever
• Fuel shutoff valve or switch F I G U R E 1 9- 1 1 The result of overtem perature.
ufacturer for specific engine-operating conditions, atmo Lockheed L- 1 0 1 1 TriStar, the parameter used to indicate and
spheric pressure, and temperature. manage thrust is the integrated engine pressure ratio (IEPR).
Sudden throttle movements are to be avoided if possible This parameter is the integrated average of the fan and gas
.
in order to prevent cracking at the leading and trailing edges generator exhaust pressures (weighted by their respective
of the turbine blades. These parts of the blades are much nozzle areas) divided by the inlet total pressure. Rolls-Royce
thinner in cross-section than the mid-span areas and, as a feels that because IEPR is based on both the fan and gas-gen
result, heat and cool, and therefore expand and contract, erator exhaust pressure ratios, it is fundamentally related to
faster than the thicker areas. Quick throttle movements engine gross thrust, and that IEPR provides the most accurate
cause exhaust gas temperatures to change sharply and result indication of engine thrust when considering thrust, engine
in rapid expansions and contractions in the leading and trail ambient temperature sensitivity, altitude, and velocity, and
ing edges of the blades and slower changes in the thicker the effect of engine component deterioration as compared to
material: A 5-s acceleration would be better than a throttle fan-speed (N1), turbine gas temperature (TGT), fuel flow
burst and a slow deceleration is better than a throttle chop. (W1), and gas-generator pressure ratio (EPR). [See Fig.
Good operating techniques are as follows: 1 9-6(a).] Fuel flow (and therefore power) on the Pratt &
Whitney 4000 series engine is controlled by both EPR and
• Don't demand maximum power unless absolutely nec
rpm among other parameters. (See chap. 20.)
essary. (See Author 's note.)
• Start as fast as possible (high starter power) to eliminate
high temperatures for long periods of time.
• Warm up and stabilize engine temperatures for a few
ENGINE RATINGS
minutes at IDLE to prevent rubbing and other damage.
• Move the power lever slowly and smoothly.
Turbojet and turbofan engines are rated by the number of
• Operate at less than "limits" and save a lot of money.
pounds of thrust they are designed to produce for
• Cool the engine with a run faster than IDLE for a minute.
• Calibrate the instruments for accurate readings. • Takeoff
• Maximum continuous
[Author's Note Some aircraft operators are limit • Maximum climb
ing the maximum power to below the manufacturer 's • Maximum cruise ratings
maximum rated power in order to achieve extended
reliability and engine life.] The ratings for these operating conditions are published
in the Engine Model Specification for each model engine.
Early-model gas turbines usually used rpm as the sole Takeoff and maximum continuous ratings, being the only
engine-operating parameter to establish thrust, while many two engine ratings subject to FAA approval, are also defined
present-day engines use EPR (engine pressure ratio) as the in the FAA Type Certificate Data Sheet. Engines installed in
primary thrust indicator. On a hot day, compressor rpm for a commercial aircraft are usually "part-throttle" engines; that
given thrust will be higher than on a cold day. Furthermore, is, takeoff-rated thrust is obtained at throttle settings below
a dirty or damaged compressor will reduce thrust for a given full-throttle position.
rpm. EPR is used because it varies directly with thrust. It is "Part-throttle" engines are also referred to as being flat
the ratio of the total pressure at the front of the compressor rated, due to the shape of the takeoff thrust curves used for
�
standard day ( 1 5°C) plus l 6°C 3 1 °C, at which point
'' F U L TH ROTTL� NOT TO BE
=
'�USED BE LOW F LAT-RATED thrust becomes EGT limited. Any further increase in ambi
1---r l
RATED T H R UST AT
SEA-LEVE STANDARD
''
TEMPERATURE
!:
'' ent temperqture will cause a proportional decrease in thrust.
..
, At ambient temperatures below SL Std., the thrust is held
""
.J
�
a:
F LAT
G
""'
to the same maximum value as for a hot day. In this manner
a flat-rated engine can produce a constant rated thrust over
l: � :;;11� C -
1- (29°C)
FULL- a wide range of ambient temperatures without overworking
PART-THROTTLE I THROTTLE
RANGE RANGE the engine.
-10 0
I
10 STD 20 30 40
Tri m m i ng
AMBIENT TEMP - °C
444
AI Aluminum Alloy
�c+-1\-'�4Lintem>edl•te Case (c) Cast
S(cl. CM Cer Ceramic
CM Composite Material
Co Cobalt Base Alloy
Ni Nickel Base Alloy
S Steel-Corrosion Resistant Alloy
Ti Titanium Base Alloy
Turbine
High-Pressure
PW 4 0 0 0
face of the outer race elliptical and the inner surface of the . Bearing Supports
outer race round. Mounting this race in a round housing
The engine incorporates three main bearing support structures:
forces the inner surface to assume an elliptical shape, there
by creating a two-point preload of the bearing. The retainer 1. Intermediate case support
is a one-piece, silver-plated inner-land-riding cage. Cooling 2. Diffuser and combustion case support
oil is fed under the race and lubrication is provided by splash 3. Turbine exhaust case support
oil from the seal plates and scoop. B oth the LPC and HPC rotors are supported at the front
The no. 4 bearing is a standard, non-preloaded, cylindri by the intermediate case structure. The HPC and HPT are
cal roller bearing mounted aft of the front compressor drive supported by the diffuser case structure and the LPT is sup
turbine. Lubrication features are similar to the no. 3 bearing. ported by the turbine exhaust case structure.
2 12
I I I
I
I
HPT
F I G U R E 20-3 E n g i n e stations.
Chapter 20 U nited Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 445
NO. 4 BEARING
NO. 3 BEARING
DIFFUSER LOW
LOW-PRESSURE HIGH-PRESSURE AND PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR TURBINE
Bearing Compartment Seal Pressurization 3. No. 4 bearing compartment. The no. 4 bearing carbon
seal is a dry-face, ring seal pressurized by LPC station
The main bearing carbon seals are pressurized by com
2.5 air that enters the LPT shaft forward of the no. 1
pressor air to ensure that oil is not permitted to enter the
bearing [Fig. 20-5 (e)].
airstream as follows:
AP-1
4TH-STAGE
COMPRESSOR
AP-3
6TH-STAGE
COMPRESSOR
AP-2
5TH-STAGE
COMPRESSOR
C h a pter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 447
F I G U R E 20-6 (cont i n u ed). AP-6
1 2TH-STAGE
COMPRESSOR
AP-8
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
AP-7
4TH-STAGE
COMPRESSOR
AP-1 0
3RD-STAGE
TURBINE
Figure 20-6 (a) on p. 447 illustrates the borescope access • Use port AP- 1 1 to view the rear of the 1 st- and front of
ports for the left side of the engine: the 2nd-stage blades.
• Use port AP- 1 to view the 4th-stage blades.
Figure 20-6 (b) illustrates the borescope access ports for
• Use port AP-2 to view the 5th- and 6th-stage blades.
the right side of the engine:
• Use port AP-3 to view the 6th- and 7th-stage blades.
• Use port AP-5 to view the l Oth- and 1 1th-stage blades. • Use port AP-4 to view the 8th- and 9th-stage blades.
• Use port AP-8 to view the combustion liner and fuel • Use port AP-6 to view the 1 2th- and 1 3th-stage bliides.
nozzles. • Use port AP-7 to view the 1 4th- and 15th-stage blades.
J;
OUTER INNER
PLUG PLUG
I
R
1 0TH-STAGE 0 �m�
VANE
FLANGE K
(REFERENCE)
DIFFUSER
1 4TH-STAGE CASE
HPC VANE
REAR
CASE
AP-5 AP-7
AP-9
AP-11
The compressor inlet cone (Fig. 20-8 on p. 450) is an An LPC/LPT coupling (Fig. 20-1 1 on p. 450) connects
aerodynamic fairing that helps to create a smooth airflow the LPC rotor to the LPT shaft by means of splines and is
into the engine. The cone is made of Kevlar and is con supported by the no. 1 .5 bearing. An interesting feature of
.
structed in two pieces with 1 2 vent holes for anti-ice air this coupling is the incorporation of a motional pickup
equally spaced around the rear cone segment. wheel composed of 60 teeth that pass under the N1 speed
INTERMEDIATE
CASE
FAN BLADES
� LPC/LPT LOW-PRESSURE
COUPLING COMPRESSOR
lLPCI
TURBINE
NOZZLE
LOW-PRESSURE
TURBINE (LPTI
HIGH-PRESSURE
TURBINE (HPT)
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 449
--·;·-···-·-
ANTI-ICING
- �;'���[
INLET CONE
FRONT SEGMENT AIR HOLES
INLET CONE
REAR SEGMENT
NO, 1. 5 BEARING
INLET CONE INNER RACE AND ROLLERS
REAR SEGMENT
<!lP__.-@
INLET CONE
FRONT SEGMENT e ------ -
lllP-®- �
1 MOTIONAL PICKUP
WHEEL {60 TEETH)
The fan cases consist of the front fan case and the fan exit
case (Fig. 20-12). They are both part of the engine structure
that supports the nacelle inlet cowl, and they make a flow
path for the fan discharge air. The front fan case supports the
ANTI-ROTATION
PIN
inlet cowl, contains the fan bladetip rubstrips, and also pre
vents the fan blades from going out of the engine radially if
they break (known as fan blade containment). The fan exit
case contains 84 exit guide vanes made of composite mate
rial with metal leading edges. They connect the fan exit
inner and outer cases. The fan exit case also straightens the
' SPLIT-RING
discharge air before it goes into the thrust-reverser fan air
BLADE LOCK
LOCK REMOVAL duct. The 2.5 bleed valve is attached to the fan exit inner
HOLE
case at the LPC exit; it allows 2.5 bleed air to leave the fan
F I G U R E 20-9 Fan blades. exit inner case through the no. 1 4 slots to the fan air:stream.
l ntern1ediate Case
transducer (not shown in Fig: 20-1 1 ) , resulting in a signal
being sent to the FADEC (see chap. 1 2). The LPC/LPT cou The intermediate case (Figs. 20-1 3 and 20-14) is the pri
pling is also used to route fourth-stage air to anti-ice the mary structural component of the engine and has attachment
compressor cone, to cool the LPT and to pressurize the no. points for many engine parts. It also supports the two com
4 bearing carbon seal. A turbine shaft plug prevents airflow pressor thrust bearings (the LPC no. 1 bearing and the HPC
in an inappropriate direction. no. 2 bearing). The case includes the fourth-stage compres-
····;f:-;
· · ·.:}!":�·
c;
_
\,).Ji,SS,
FAN EXrT INNER CASE
F I G U R E 20-1 0 Low-pressure co mpressor (LPC). F I G U R E 20-1 2 Fan cases (front and fan exit).
���-.:;,,
stages are variable. The four-piece rotor is supported at the
front by the no. 2 bearing, and at the rear by the no. 3 bear
��-j=: ing. As shown in Fig. 20-4 the HPC is turned by tpe HPT
(front turbine) and, in tum, turns the tower shaft to drive the
angle gearbox. Bleed air from the HPC is used as follows:
Chapter 20 U nited Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 451
8TH-STAGE
BLEED PO
9TH-5TAGE
BLEED PORT
COMPRESSOR EXIT ST
FUELINJECTOR
MANIFOLD
� - - - - - --,.�
·----. J
DIFFUSER CASE
H i gh-Pressure Turbine
F I G U R E 20- 1 7 Tu rbi ne nozz le.
The two-stage HPT (Fig. 20-1 8) supplies the force to
tum the HPC. The 60 first-stage blades are made by using a.
Turbine Nozzle
single-crystal material, while the 82 second-stage blades are
The turbine nozzle guide vanes (Fig. 20-1 7) send the hot made of directionally solidified material (see chap. 1 0).
gases from the combustion chamber to the first-stage turbine Ceramic outer airseal segments surround the bladetips. The
. blades at the correct angle and speed (see chap. 7). A cool HPT includes the following:
ing duct in this area sends cooling air to the first-stage tur
• Case and vane assembly
bine rotor and blades. Also included in this build group are
• Two rotor disks and blade assemblies
the following:
• Rotating inner airseal
• Inner combustion chamber
Several of the parts are air cooled, including the following:
• First-stage HPT cooling duct
• Seventeen first-stage HPT nozzle guide vane cluster • First-s�age disk and blade assembly
assemblies (2 vanes per cluster) • Second-stage disk and blade assembly
1 ST-STAGE TURBINE
BLADE
OUTER
AIRSEAL
TURBINE VANE
SEGMENTS
COOLING AIR
ANNULUS
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 453
f
•
Twenty-one second-stage vane clusters (two vanes per
cluster), cooled by 1 2th-stage HPC bleed air
NO. 4 BEARING
• Inner airseal COMPARTMENT
Low-Pressure Turbine
LOW-PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR-DRIVE
TURBINE SHAFT
EXHAUST NOZZLE
TENSION STRAP
T-AING
HORIZONTAL
DRIVESHAFT
I LAYSHAFTI
C h a pter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 455
GEARBOX OIL STORAGE
CAVITY
MAIN OIL
FILTER
HOUSING
FADECIEEC ALTERNATOR
OIL TANK
MOUNT PAD
DEOILEA
REAR HYDRAULIC
PUMP DRIVE PAD
STARTER DRIVE
PAD
N2 CRANK PAD
(a) (b)
AIRCRAFT
AND ENGINE
INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS
FUEUOIL
COOLER AND
BYPASS
VALVE
FUEL INJECTOR
AND SUPPORT
(24 LOCATIONS)
FUEL
BYPASS
VALVE
DISCHARGE
INLET PRESSURE
(FROM AIRCRAFT
FUEL TANK)
UNIT
forming in the fuel, and at the same time, keep the maximum tank to the pump.
temperature of the oil within the correct limits. This engine The oil pump pressurizes the oil and sends it to the dis
is also equipped with an air/oil heat exchanger, which uses posable, 1 5-J.I (micron) main oil filter, which has provisions
fan air and 2.5 bleed air to prevent the fuel from getting too for bypassing the oil if the filter is clogged. The oil then
hot (Fig. 20-25 on p. 458). (See Fig. 20-26 on p. 459, oil flows to the FADEC-controlled air/oil heat exchanger,
system components, and Fig. 20-27 (on p. 460), oil pres which also incorporates a bypass if it is clogged or if the oil
sure, scavenge, and breather subsystem schematic.) is too viscous. The next unit in line is the fuel/oil cooler,
From the fuel/oil cooler, the fuel is returned to the fuel where once again, a FADEC-controlled bypass valve deter
pump, where it is filtered and sent to the main pump stage to mines how much oil will be allowed to bypass the fuel/oil
be further pressurized before it is sent to the fuel-metering cooler. A mechanical bypass valve will also open if the cool
unit, which actually does the metering on the basis of infor er is clogged or the oil is too viscous.
mation it receives from the FADEC. The fuel-metering unit From the fuel/oil cooler, some of the oil flows back to the
sends fuel to the fuel-flow transmitter, and then to the fuel tank through a classified oil pressure trim orifice in order to
distribution valve. (Servo fuel, used as an actuation pressure control the oil's flow rate. Oil not bypassed through the trim
to · some interface components, also comes from the fuel orifice flows through the last-chance oil strainers that are
metering unit.) Bypass fuel not sent to the fuel distribution externally mounted on the engine. These strainers protect
valve or servo supply is returned to pump interstage flow, the bearing oil nozzles from clogging if the oil filter is
From the fuel distribution valve, the metered fuel flows bypassed.
through the fuel manifolds to the fuel injectors. Pressurized oil now flows to the following:
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 457
FADEC EECBYPASSCOMMAND
COOLER VALVETOSOLENOI
FUEL/DOIL
AILOGIRCRAFTC SOL;.
------ I
=EXCHANGER' '
�
CONTROL
U1
00 AIRCRAFT Q . ¢ ENGINE
(FUELHEATED)OUT
;;JJ
I Ei ..�� ·
Ill
"'0
,
""'
Ill
"'
I
Ill I ...... .I
:::J
,...
OJ
,...
:;:: ·
Ill
GH POWER
:::J
1.0
:::J
Ill
"'
1
1� .. =
. ..
UELVALVE
BYPASS LEGEND
-SUPPLY
c:::J FUEL
tFMUNTERSTAGEFUEL
SUPPLYFUELFUEL
METERED
ENGI N E PRESS OI L
I ·· <I
-I D GSOI L
•·
I' 'I
ON/
FMUICONTROL O FF:
-
� jcoNDITION MOToRI OR -
I1 I I •
NDICATION I
I
FADEC/EEC
FUEL PUMP
PROBE @
IAINRDICRACATIFTON ���----------�������������il�ii�����iF�UE�L����_.--
(FT·2)
..JL--------------------1,-
...
1iPI ...��
I ._...
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 459
�
en
0
;;IJ
tl)
"0
..... (�
tl)
VI
tl)
::::l
..... � NO. J
Ql
.....
SCAVENGE OIL
;::: · 10. l, 1 . 5. 2 N O . 3 BEARING TE: M PERATURE
tl) BEARING BR EATH E R BREATHER RESTRICTOR SENSE P �•L....__
m
::::l PRESSURE PORT \. I .------...-
\0
::::l
tl)
VI
FUE L
FRO M
FUEL
PU M P F U E L lOGS OIL
BOOST FRO M FROM
STA GE F UEL IDGS
SERVO
PUMP
AIR/OIL
RETURN
HEAT
TO OIL
EXCHANGER
TANK
IDGS
OIL
TO
lOG
FAN AIR
¢ :J
p ENGINI:: AIR/
OR
OIL HEAT
2.5 A IR ,-J\.
EXCHANGER
¢ O I L TI'MPI'RATI
LV �
AND VALVE
LEGEND
ArTER FILTER
I=::J c::::J SCAVENGE OIL
PnRT-
SUPPLY OIL
llliiil!ll - BREA
ll
PRESSURE OIL AIR THEA
'=!:' �
H EA ,
DE OR PROVISION - ---
© CHIP TE CT
INPUT .
CONNECTOR
(a)
IGNITER
PLUG CONNECTOR
CERAMIC
INSULATED COOLING
TERMINAL AIR DISCHARGE
COOLING
AIR DISCHARGE
COOLING SHIELD
(4 LOCATIONS)
(b)
P
.
BOSS
• FADEC
• Fuel pump (for hydraulic supply)
KEY WASHER
• 2.5 bleed valve and actuator
• Ninth-stage (2.9) start/stability bleed valves and
IGNITER PLUG solenoid
• Ps3 filter
(c)
• Stability bleed pneumatic relay valve
F I G U RE 20-28 I g n ition system exciters, cable, a n d i g n itor • Variable stator vane bellcrank, actuator, and adjuster
plug. links
( a ) C a pacitor d i sc h a rge i g n ition exciters.
(b) C a ble. The 2.5 bleed valve bleeds fourth-stage air into the fan
(c) I g n iter p l u g . airstream, and the 2.9 bleed valve bleeds ninth-stage air into
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan E ngi n e 461
START/STABILITY
STABILITY BLEED BLEED VALVE SOLENOID ADJUSTER LIN K
PNEUMATIC RELAY VALVE (4 LOCATIONS)
9TH -STAG E
STABILITY
BLEED
VALVE (2.9)
(LEFT SIDE)
VARIABLE STATOR
9TH-STAGE VANE BELLCRANK
START
BLEED
VALVE (2.9)
(RIGHT SIDE)
VARIABLE STATOR
VANE ACTUATOR
the fan airstream. The 2.5 bleed valve operates with the 2.9 HPC Secondary Flow Control System
bleed valve during engine start and transient operation. The
The HPC secondary flow control system (Fig. 20-32 on
start bleed valve is open during start (with the 2.5 bleed
p. 464) is the third of three systems that the FADEC controls
valve). The stability bleed valve is open during transient
as a function of altitude and N2• Ninth-stage airflow to the
operation, and the variable vane system is commanded to
HPC rotor and turbine areas is used to cool the aft end of the
position the variable vanes.
HPC inner diameter and the forward side of the LPT. A feed
back signal tells the FADEC where the valves are.
Automatic Turbine Rotor Clearance
Control System
/_
DUCT
TCC AIR
SHUTOFF ELECTRICAL
VALVE (LPT) CONNECTOR
(FADEC/EEC
COMMANDS AND
FEEDBACK)
TCC LPT
MANIFOLDS
F I G U R E 20-30 Automatic turbine rotor clearance control system or turbine case coo l i n g system (TC C S ) .
Ps3
FILTER
ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR
(FADEC/EEC FEEDBACK)
TVBCA
VALVE
POSITION
TO 2ND-STAGE
SWITCH
TURBINE VANES
r!l TO 2ND-STAGE
TURBINE BLADES
Chapter 20 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 463
LEFT HPC SECONDARY FLOW
CONTROL VALVE SOLENOID/TURBINE
VANE AND BLADE COOLING AIR
VALVE SOLENOID
Ps3 FILTER
9TH-STAGE AIR (11 :00 O'CLOCK)
SUPPLY
FAN AIR
COOLING
LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE RIGHT HPC SECONDARY
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
The fan cowl doors (Fig. 20-34) give access to the fan
case-mounted accessories and thrust-reverser-actuator sys�
tern components. They are hinged to the pylon and are made
of aluminum honeycomb bonded to a composite outer skin.
APPLIED
AERODYNAMIC
LOAD
Cowl load Sharing NACELLE WITHOUT COWL LOAD SHARING
At takeoff rotation, aerodynamic loads caused by high,
inlet-air angle of attack and high fan airflows create a bend
ing force on an engine, causing the engine cases to deflect.
These case deflections cause the fan blades to machine
material from their rubstrips. There is also material loss in
the turbine area as the turbine blades machine into their tip
seals. The increased tip clearances, due to material loss,
reduce engine efficiency, causing a specific fuel consump
tion increase of up to 1 .5 percent. When the rubstrips and/or
seals have been damaged, the only way to restore engine
efficiency is to replace or refurbish the fan rubstrips and tur
bine seals.
APPLIED "V" GROOVES
The cowl load sharing (Fig. 20-35) is accomplished by AERODYNAMIC
LOAD
using the thrust-reverser doors to form a stiff "case" that sur
NACELLE WITH COWL LOAD SHARING
rounds the engine cases. The thrust-reverser doors must be
properly adjusted to ensure that cowl load sharing is main
tained. The adjustments integrate the engine, the pylon, the F I G U R E 20-3 5 Cowl load shari n g .
Chapter 2 0 U nited Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 465
FORWARD
THRUST
REVERSE THRUST
FORWARD
THRUST
exhaust nozzle, and both thrust-reverser doors into the rigid trolled by the pilot through the thrust-reverser control lever
structure required to maintain desired clearances and engine movement.
operating efficiency. The adjustment procedure also ensures
that the reverser doors will close without interfering with the
Thrust-Reverser Doors
engine or engine build-up and that aerodynamic smoothness
requirements are met. The thrust-reverser doors [Fig. 20-37 (a) and (b)] form
With the doors properly rigged and latched, the "case" the fan discharge duct; give access to the core engine, main
formed by the thrust-reverser doors is matched to the engine gearbox, and accessories; and, as pointed out in the preced
at the load-sharing "V" grooves on the fan and intermediate ing section, establish load paths for cowl load sharing. The
cases, and at the aft load-sharing T-ring on the exhaust noz left and right doors are located around the engine from the
zle. The T-ring provides a flat surface for the thrust-reverser rear fan case flange to the exhaust nozzle forward t].ange.
doors to bear on, while allowing for the different rates of
axial thermal growth or expansion between the doors and F I G U RE 20-37 T h rust reverser.
the engine.
AFT CIRCUMFERENTIAL
TOGGLE LATCH
(2 LUIOAIIU'NS) I
The thrust reverser system (Fig. 20-36) turns the fan air
forward to produce a reverse thrust. On this high bypass
ratio turbofan engine only the secondary or fan airflow is
reversed. Primary air is not reversed, since a minimum FORWARD
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
amount of air is produced by the core airflow. The thrust LATCHES (NOT SHOWN)
LOCATIONS)
1.
LOWER LATCH
Stowed-the normal flight position
2. Deployed-during landing rollout, if desired
When the thrust reverser is deployed, a section of the engine THRUST� THRUST�REVERSEA DOOR
REVERSER DOOR CENTER LATCHES
cowl moves aft. Fixed cascades and blocker doors [shown in (3 LOCATIONS)
Fig. 20-38 (a) and (b)] rotate across the fan cowl exhaust
stream. Normal fan exhaust flow is blocked and forced to
flow through the cascades at a forward angle. As engine
F I G U RE 20-37 (a) Doors.
power is increased, this airflow becomes reverse thrust and
slows the aircraft. The amount of reverse thrust can be con- F I G U R E 20-37 conti nued on the next page.
MANUAL
HANDLE
AFT
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
LATCH
KING LATC
REMOTE
ACTUATION
DRIVE li;il::"' FORWARD
HOLD-OPEN
ROD
DOOR OPENING
ACTUATOR OUTER V-BLADE CENTER
CENTER
MANIFOLD LATCHES LATCHES
INNER
V-BLAOE
HINGE
BLOCKER DOOR
(6 LOCATIONS
ON EACH
REVERSER DOOR)
LINK (6 LOCATIONS
ON EACH
REVERSER DOOR)
Chapter 20 U nited Technologies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series Turbofan Engine 467
F I G U R E 20-38 (conti n ued).
iV
The primary structure is aluminum and titanium with alu 4. G ive a brief description of the engine operation
minum honeycomb panels. The secondary structure and part and a i rflow.
of the outer skin is composite material. As shown in Fig. 5. Why a re fou r turbi nes necessary to drive one of the
20-37 (b), the doors contain and support several compo spools, wh i l e two a re needed to d rive the other?
nents. 6. How is the chance for com pressor sta l l reduced on
this engine?
7. What type o f combustion chamber i s used?
Thrust-Reverser Blocker Doors, Links, and Describe its general construction .
Cascade Vanes 8. Describe the FADEC and EEC system used on this
e n g i n e (see cha p . 1 2).
During forward thrust operation, the blocker doors are 9. Briefly describe t h e construction features o f t h e
stowed and fan air is allowed to flow rearward to the fan fol l owi n g engine parts:
nozzle exit area. When reverse thrust is desired, the blocker a. Front case
doors are deployed, and fan air is directed through the cas b. Front a n d rear com p ressor rotors and cases
cades to be turned in a forward direction. c. D iffuser
The blocker doors are attached to the thrust-reverser
d. Combustion chamber and case
doors with blocker door links [Fig. 20-38 (a)] , which move
e. Tu rbine nozzle and case
the blocker doors into position when the translating sleeve
f. Exha u st nozzle
on the engine cowl moves to the "stow" or "deployed" posi
tion. The cascades [Fig. 20-38 (b)], which are designed to g. Accessories section
change the direction of the fan air, are covered by the trans 1 0. How many m a i n bea rings a re used ? Name them,
lating sleeve during forward thrust operation and are uncov and g ive their locati o n .
ered during reverse thrust operation. The 32 cascade vanes 1 1 . Briefly describe the fol lowi ng e n g i n e systems:
are made of composite material. a. Anti-ice
b. Fuel
c. Oil
REVI EW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
d . I g n ition
1. Name several different a i rpla nes using the U nited 1 2 . Discuss the pu rpose of the turbine case coo l i n g
Technolog ies Pratt & Whitney 4000 Series tu rbofan system .
engine. 1 3 . What is cowl load sharing, a n d what i s its pu rpose?
2. List the e n g i ne's major specifications. 1 4. What is the p u rpose of the borescope ports a n d
3. Where is the fa n located? How is it d rive n ? locate t h e m on Fig . 20-6.
Turbojet Engine
The General Electric J79 (Fig. 2 1 - 1 ) is a highly produced The J79 is an axial-flow turbojet engine with variable
engine currently used in the McDonnell-Douglas F-4 series afterburner thrust. It incorporates a 1 7 -stage compressor, of
and formerly in the Lockheed F- 1 04 and the North American which the angles of the inlet guide vanes and the first six
RA-5C (Vigilante). Since so many models of this engine are stages of stator vanes are variable; a combustion system,
in use, and since they all have a similar construction, the which consists of 10 individual combustion liners situated
description that follows is for the J79 jet engine in general. between an inner and outer combustion casing; a three-stage
turbine rotor, which is coupled directly to the compressor
rotor; and an afterburner system, which provides afterburn
SPECIFICATIONS er thrust variation through fuel-flow scheduling and actua
tion of the variable-area, convergent-divergent exhaust
nozzle. The rotors are supported by three main bearings.
Number of compressor stages: 17
Number o f turbine stages: 3
Number of combustors: 10 ENGINE OPERATION
Maximum power at sea level: 1 5 ,000 to 1 8,000 lb
[66,786 to 80, 1 43 N] During engine operation, air is drawn or rammed into the
Specific fuel consumption at inlet, where it is directed onto the first-stage rotor blades by
maximum power: 2.0 lb/lbt/h the inlet guide vanes. The successive stages of the compres
[203.9 g/N/h] sor increase the pressure of the air, while forcing it to the
· Compression ratio at rear. The angles of the first six stages of vanes and the inlet
maximum rpm: 1 2 : 1 to 1 3 .5: 1 guide vanes are variable to maintain the efficiency of the
compressor over a wide range of operating conditions.
Maximum diameter: 39 in [99 em]
The pressure rise of each stage of compression depends
Maximum length: 202 to 208 in [5 1 3 to on the speed of rotation of the rotor, which is reflected by
528 em] engine speed; the density of the air, which is reflected by
Maximum dry weight: 3600 lb [ 1 634 kg] CIT (Compression Inlet Temperature); and the angle at
1 ANTI· ICED INLET CASE A N D STRUTS 4 AFTERBURNER 7 COMBUSTION CANS 10 TRANSFER GEARBOX
2 VARIABLE STATOR STAGES 5 VARIABLE-AREA CONVERGING 8 REAR GEARBOX 11 FRONT GEARBOX FOR CARTRIDGE
3 SPLIT COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR, DIVERGING EXHAUST NOZZLE 9 MAIN AND AFTERBURNER FUEL , OR PNEUMATIC STARTER
AND TURBINE CASINGS 6 THREE-STAGE TURBINE CONTROL
469
F I G U RE 2 1 -1 (contin ued). nozzle and onto the front face of the first-stage turbine blade
shanks.
Air enters through louvers in the combustion rear liners
to keep the flame from contacting the inner surface and
through thimble holes to ensure complete combustion.
Combustion is completed at a point early enough to prevent
the flame from being directed onto the first-stage turbine
nozzle. The air surrounding the combustion liners cools the
outer surface of the transition liner, and some of it passes
through louvers between the ports.
Air flows through the baffles on the rear flange of the
combustion liners and along the inner surface of the transi
tion-liner ports. It al.so enters a baffle on the rear of the tran
sition liner and flows over the inner and outer bands of the
first-stage turbine nozzle.
Some air enters the outer end of the first-stage nozzle
vanes, passes inward through the vane, and is directed onto
the front of the first-stage turbine blade shanks. Some air
continues to flow rearward through holes in the inner rib of
the turbine casing and inward through second-stage turbine
nozzle vanes. It is directed onto the rear of the first-stage
turbine blade shanks.
The first-stage nozzle vanes increase the velocity of the
F I G U R E 2 1 -1 (b) Left and right side views.
gas stream from the combustion section and direct it onto
the first-stage turbine blades. The second-stage vanes reduce
the swirling, again increase the velocity of the gas stream,
which the air strikes the blades and vanes. The position of and direct i� onto the second-stage blades. The third-stage
the vanes during any engine-speed/CIT condition is estab vanes reduce the swirling, accelerate the gas stream, and
lished by the main fuel control. direct it onto the third-stage blades. The energy extracted, as
As the air travels to the rear, some of it bleeds inward a reaction to the high-velocity gases striking the blades, pro
through holes in the seventh-stage rotor spacer and some duces the rotary motion that drives the compressor.
outward through holes in the ninth-stage stator vane bases in Turbine shrouds and turbine seals prevent excessive leak
the upper casing half. The seventh-stage air extraction is age of gases around the tips of the blades and over the torque
used as pressure-equalization air in the compressor rotor and rings of the rotor. Strut covers, surrounding the struts of the
turbine-cooling air. The ninth-stage air extraction becomes turbi�e frame, reduce the swirling of the gases entering the
sump cooling air for the three bearing sumps. exhaust section. The turbine frame diffuses the gas stream as
·
As the air leaves the rear of the compressor, it is straight it enters the tailpipe.
ened by the outlet guide vanes to prevent swirling in the Thermocouples, mounted in the turbine frame, produce a
combustion section. The compressor rear frame is a diffuser signal that is proportional to the temperature of the turbine
that decreases the air velocity and increases its static pres discharge (exhaust gas) temperature. The signal is used for
sure. The rear frame contains air extraction manifolds to cockpit indication and for control of the exhaust-nozzle
supply air to the aircraft. area.
The air within the combustion section supports the com The air then flows to the afterburner section where it is
bustion of fuel and cools the combustion liners and other diffused between the inner rear cone and the forward
engine parts. A snout on each of the combustion liners exhaust-duct liner. The air is divided into cooling air, which
directs air into the outer liners. The vanes in the snout dis flows between the liners and the duct, and .exhaust air, which
tribute the air uniformly around the domes of the inner lin flows through the liners. The cross-section of the airstream
ers. Some of the air passes through the cowls on the fuel changes from annular to circular within the duct.
nozzles to hold the flame away from the nozzle tips, some ·Spray bars, extending into the exhaust-gas stream, add
through the louvers in the dome of the liners to atomize the fuel that is ignited to augment the thrust of the basic engine
fuel, and some through louvers in the liner to separate the when afterburner operation is selected. The flameholder
flame from contact with the surface of the liner. Thimble produces a turbulence that enhances burning of the fuel. The
holes in the inner liner direct the air inward to center the torch igniter, receiving its air supply from the outer com
flame. bustion casing, maintains the flame.
The remainder of the air continues to flow to the rear, sur The cooling air between the liners and the ducts passes
rounding the combustion liners. A small amount flows inward through louvers in the liner to shield its inner surface from
through holes in the inner casing, to cool the turbine shaft. It direct contact with the flame. It also flows along the inner
flows across a baffle on the inner rim of the first-stage turbine surface of the primary nozzle flaps and seals.
COMP R E SSOR R E A R CA S I N G
F I G U RE 2 1 -2 C o m pressor assembly.
( Compre ssor
front-frame
strut num bers
OF
SECTION AA
F I G U R E 2 1 -3 E n g i n e orientation .
The outer shell of the frame contains three mounting pads halves can be removed as one piece if the front casing must
to permit variations in aircraft mounting configuration, a be removed. The front casing assembly contains the six
gearbox mounting pad at the six o'clock position (Fig. 2 1 -3 ) stages of the variable stator vanes and their actuating link
t o support the transfer gearbox, and 2 0 evenly spaced holes age and the seventh-stage stator vanes, which have a fixed
that retain the spherical bearings assembled to the outer angle. The outer ribs of the casings provide mounting adap
trunnions of the inlet guide vanes. tors for engine accessories.
The inlet gearbox assembly, which is attached to the front The shanks of the variable stator vanes protrude through
face of the hub, becomes an integral part of the no. 1 bearing holes in the front casing; plastic bushings on the inside and
sump. A split-inlet guide vane, inner support is attached to the outside of the casing provide an airseal and bearing surface
rear face of the hub and retains the spherical bearings assem for the vanes. The first four stages of stator vanes are shroud
bled to the inner trunnions of the inlet guide vanes. A mani ed at the inner end to reduce vibration and air leakage.
fold cover spans the space between the inner support and the The levers, which are attached to the vane shanks, are
no. 1 bearing oil seal to enclose the anti-icing air manifold. pinned to half-rings. The two half-rings of each stage are
The front frame struts provide passageways for sump connected at the horizontal lines to form a complete circle.
cooling air, anti-icing air, supply-and-scavenge-oil tubes, and Each circle is linked to two bellcranks. All of the bellcranks
the radial drive shaft to the transfer gearbox (Fig. 2 1 --4). The on each side, including the inlet-guide-vane bellcranks, are
no. 1 strut encloses a tube that ducts ninth-stage air to the oil interconnected by a master rod so that the stator bellcrank
seal. The no. 4 strut encloses tubes that duct oil supply to and master rod assemblies actuate all stages of vanes simul
and scavenge oil from-the no. 1 bearing sump. Strut no. 5 taneously. The bellcranks are mounted on supports that are
encloses the radial drive shaft and provides a free.-flow path bolted to casing ribs, one at the 4 o'clock and the other at the
for scavenge oil from the no. 1 bearing sump. Struts 2, 3 , 7, 1 0 o'clock position on the casing.
and 8 duct anti-icing air into the hub; struts 1 , 4, 5, and 6 con The second-stage bellcrank on each support is attached to
tain a chamber near the leading edge that conducts the anti a vane actuator, which moves the stator vanes using high
icing air outward. The no. 1 strut contains a central pressure fuel scheduled by the main fuel control. A perma
passageway that is an extension of the no. 1 bearing sump. nent, vane position indicator is attached to the fourth-stage
actuating linkage at the seven o'clock position. The indica
[Author's Note All struts are numbered in a clock
tor is used to check the vane position and to rig the stator
wise direction beginning with the number 1 at the top
linkage.
or immediately to the right of the top, as the observer
The front casing has a manifold that conducts anti-icing
looks at the rear face of the frame.]
air to the outer trunnions of the first-stage vanes. The air
flows inward through the hollow trunnions and out through
slots in the inner end of the vanes. Channel ribs near the rear
Compressor Casing Assembl ies
flange of the front stator casing restrain the bases of the sev
The compressor casing assemblies consist of two cylin enth-stage stator vanes. Each vane consists of an airfoil sec
drical, stainless steel casings, split along a horizontal line for tion welded to a hollow, T-shaped base.
removal. Their flanges interlock such that the rear casing The rear-compressor casing assembly includes the last 1 0
half must be removed before the front; however, both casing stages of stator vanes and one stage of exit guide vanes.
COMPRE SSOR
REAR TURBINE
F RAME FRAM E
•
- SCAVENGE OIL
Each stator vane consists of an airfoil section welded to a T seventh-stage air baffle and ducts; 4 torque cones; and a rear
shaped base, similar to the seventh-stage vanes. An exit stub shaft The front stub shaft is bolted to the front of the
guide vane is mounted on the same base as each 1 7th-stage first-stage disk and provides a surface for the no. 1 bearing
vane. The bases of the vanes slip into, and are restrained by, and seal inner races. The hub of the shaft is internally
ribs in the casing. splined to provide power to the accessory drive section.
The upper half of the rear casing has an air collection The rotor blades are secured to the disks by single-tang
manifold. Ninth-stage air flows through holes in the casing dovetail connections. They are held in the dovetail slots by
and into the manifold, from which it is piped externally to a blade retainer at the front of the rotor, the spacers through
the three bearing areas for sump cooling. The lower casing out the rotor, and the 17th-stage airseal at the rear. The spa -
half contains mounting lugs for the rear gearbox. ers transmit the torque forward from the 1 1 th stage and
rearward to the 16th and 1 7th stages. The spacers betwee
the 1 1th- and 15th-stage disks do not transmit torque. b
Compressor Rotor
continue the smooth contour of the rotor. The first four spa -
The compressor rotor (Fig. 2 1 -5 on p. 474) consists of a ers form a mating surface for the shrouds on the stator vanes
front stub shaft; 1 7 disks, spacers, and sets of blades; a to form an airseaL
SPACERS
lnH-STAGE
AIR SEAL
nH-5TAGE
All BAFFLE
All DUCTS
F I G U R E 2 1 -5 C o m pressor rotor.
Holes through the seventh-stage spacer permit air to manifolds are used to extract compressor discharge air for
enter the rotor. An air baffle, bolted between the seventh7 aircraft use. The sump is discussed in the Bearing Area
and eighth-stage disks, causes the air to continue rotating at Assembly section.
the speed of the rotor. Air ducts allow the air to flow through The struts support the bearing sump and provide various
the rotor to equalize the pressures on both sides of the disks service passages (see Fig. 2 1 -4). Nos. 2, 4, 7, and 8 serve as
and to duct it rearward through the stub shaft to cool the tur passageways for extraction air for aircraft purposes. Nos. 3 , 8,
bine rotor. and 10 vent 1 7th-stage seal leakage air overboard. No. 1 con
The torque cones transmit the torque from the small tains a pair of concentric tubes, one of which conducts sump
diameter at the 1 5th-stage disk outward to the large diame cooling air from the sump, the other conducts ninth-stage air
ter of the 1 1th-stage disk. They also provide structural sup
SUMP-COOLING
port for the larger disks and separate the different air AIR TUBE
pressures within the rotor. The rear stub shaft is bolted to the
rear face of the 1 5th-stage disk. The inner races for air and
oil seals and for the no. 2 bearing are assembled to the stub
shaft. The shaft is internally splined and threaded to receive
the turbine shaft and turbine bolt.
The 1 7th-stage airseal is bolted to the rear face of the
1 7th-stage disk to prevent compressor discharge air from
leaking into the area behind the rotor. The seal consists of a
double, grooved-type race (labyrinth) that mates with the F U E L
seal on the front flange of the compressor rear frame. NOZZLE
PAD
NO. 8 STRUT
that mates with the 1 7th-stage airseal of the rotor and two TUBE
manifolds on the inner surface that strengthen the shell. The F I G U R E 2 1 -6 Compressor rear frame.
INNER
COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION LINER
CASING
COMPRESSOR
J
REAR FRAME
FIRST-STAGE
TURBINE NOZZLE
OUTER COMBUSTION
CASING
COMBUSTION LINER
F I G U RE 2 1 -7 Combustion sectio n .
into the sump cooling cavity. The no. 5 strut also contains a duce a uniform distribution around the dome of the inner
pair of concentric tubes, one of which conducts an oil supply liner. A slot in the snout permits the fuel nozzle to extend
to the sump, the other conducts scavenge oil from the rear into the inner liner dome. The no. 4 liner has an igniter hole
portion of the sump. The no. 6 strut contains a tube that cone through the inner and outer liner. The adjacent liners are
ducts scavenge oil from the front portion of the sump. joined near the front end by cross-ignition tubes and the
flanges of adjacent liners are held by V-band clamps to form
a sturdy assembly. The liners are restrained by pin bolts in
COMBUSTION SECTION the compressor rear frame.
The rear liners are oval shaped at the rear and are oblique
to facilitate their removal. They fit into the inlet ports of the
Combustion Outer Casing
annular transition duct and are supported by it. The liners
The combustion outer casing (Fig. 2 1 -7) is split on the have thimble holes through which air is introduced to com
horizontal line to permit easy removal for inspection and plete the combustion, and louvers that provide a flow of
removal of the liners. The upper half contains a port at the cooling air along the inner surface of the liner.
1 2 o'clock position for extraction of anti-icing air. The
lower half contains two spark plug bosses-the one at the
no. 4 liner is used-and a combustion system drain. The
drain allows excess fuel to drain from the combustion sys
tem. A port near the rear flange allows air to flow from the
combustion casing to the pilot burner. A locking strip, which
fits along the inside of the horizontal flange, strengthens the
flange and prevents air leakage.
Combustion Li ners
'
F I G U RE 2 1 -9 Tu rbine sectio n .
TU R B I N E /COM P R E SSOR B O LT
RATC H E T T E E T H
LUGS I N N E R BAF F LE
The turbine bolt is cylindrical and contains coarse The inner exhaust cone bolts to the rear flange of the frame
threads, which engage threads within the compressor-rotor inner cone. The no. 3 bearing front airseal and spill baffle
rear stub shaft; fine threads, which engage threads within the bolt to the front of the sump housing; the no. 3 bearing rear
turbine shaft; serrated locking fingers, which engage serra airseal and the turbine cooling air baffle bolt to the rear.
tions within the turbine shaft to lock the bolt; and lugs on the All seven struts of the turbine rear frame (see Fig. 2 1 -4)
inside that permit the locknut wrench to tum the bolt. (Refer duct turbine cooling air to the engine compartment and, in
to Fig. 2 1-10.) Since both sets of threads are engaged at the addition, the no. 2 strut encloses a tube that conducts ninth
same time, turning the bolt gradually pulls the shafts togeth stage air to the sump cooling cavity. A tube in strut no. 6
er into a solid coupling. vents the sump to the oil tank. A tube in strut no. 3 conducts
lubricating oil to the sump. Strut no. 4 has a tube that con
ducts scavenge oil from the scavenge pump.
Turbine Frame
FLAMEHOLDER
I
�:p
}
_
)
• •• 0
��
�� ,jl
TORCH
IGNITER
NO. 3 LINER
HO. 2 LINER
NO. 4 LINER
EXHAUST EJECTOR
NOZZLE ASS'Y
GEARBOXES
Front Gearbox
Transfer Gearbox
�
RADIAL DRIVE SHAFT ---� 1
HORIZONTAL SHAFT (fRONn
Drive Shaft Support Bearing pressor variable vanes, which govern the amount of airflow
through the compressor, and (2) prevent afterburner system
The horizontal drive shaft support bearing (see Fig. 21-14)
operation until engine speed and throttle position are prop
is spline-connected to the front and rear horizontal drive
er. The system also supplies servo fuel at regulated pressure
shafts to prevent deflection of the shafts. The bearing housing
to the nozzle area control and provides fuel for the after
is bolted to the bottom of the compressor front casing.
burner-system torch igniter.
The path of fuel through the main fuel system is as follows:
Rear Gearbox The fuel flows from the airplane fuel supply system, through
the engine inlet connector, and into the main fuel pump. The
The rear gearbox (see Fig. 2 1 -1 4) is attached to the bot
pump filters the fuel and delivers it at high pressure to the main
tom of the compressor rear casing and is hinge-mounted to
fuel filter. The fuel flows from the filter to the main fuel con
compensate for the difference in the rates of expansion of
trol, which regulates the amount of fuel that will be used( to
the casing and the rear gearbox. It supplies power to drive
operate the engine and bypasses the excess fuel back to the
the engine oil pumps, a nozzle hydraulic pump, an oil scav
main fuel pump. The metered fuel flows from the control
enge pump, and the main fuel control. It receives power
through the fuel-flow transmitter, the main oil cooler, the pres
from the transfer gearbox through the horizontal drive shaft.
surizing and drain valve, and the fuel nozzles. The nozzles
spray the fuel into the combustion section of the engine.
The main fuel system (Fig. 2 1_:_ 1 5 on p. 482) regulates pressure for use in the main fuel system. ·
the flow of fuel that is sprayed into the combustion section The pump consists of an impeller-type boost pumping
of the engine. In addition to regulating fuel flow, the system element, a low-pressure filter with a bypass valve that
produces signals that ( 1 ) schedule the position of the com- allows fuel to bypass the filter if filter inlet pressure exceeds
"-...J��ttj�!ZiE:���-:::ll:�
COIL REFERENCE PRESSURE INLET
FROM NOZZLE AREA CONTROL
TEMPERATURE FUEL NOZZLES
AMPLIFIER FUEL COM
COOLING FUEL INLET PRESSOR
INLET
TEMPERATURE SENSO
filter discharge pressure by 33 psi [227.5 kPa] , a gear-type inward through the filter and into the main pumping ele
main pumping element, and a pressure relief valve that lim ment, which discharges the fuel at high pressure. A small
its pump discharge pressure to 1 1 25 psi [7756.9 kPa] above amount of fuel at main-pumping-element inlet pressure is
the main-pumping-element inlet pressure. ported from the pump to cool the temperature amplifier.
Fuel flows through the pump inlet into the boost pump Excess fuel that is bypassed by the main fuel control is
ing element; the impeller increases the pressure and delivers returned to the main-pumping-element inlet for recirculation
the fuel to the outside of the low-pressure filter; it then flows through the fuel system.
FILTEll ELEMENT
FIGURE 2 1 - 1 6 M a i n fuel p u m p .
MAIN
SPARK PLUG
---+-- ELECTRICAL
LOCKNUT
CENTER
ELECTRODE
COOLING
HOLE
GROUND ELECTRODE
!SPARK PLUG BODY)
SEMI CONDUCTOR
F I G U RE 2 1 -1 8 M a i n spark plug.
inlet valve is open, discharges the high-pressure fuel to the sures are maintained to prevent vaporization within the
AB fuel filter. The fuel flows from the filter into the AB fuel spray bar tubes. Each pressurizing valve ports fuel to a fuel
control. manifold, which delivers fuel to the 21 spray bars.
The control regulates the amount of fuel for AB operation The AB fuel-air mixture is ignited by a torch igniter,
and divides its output into two separate flows, core and which extends into the forward exhaust duct. The flame of
annulus. The core fuel from the control flows through the the torch igniter is provided by combining fuel piped from
AB oil cooler to the pressurizing valve. The annulus fuel the main fuel system, air piped from the outer combustion
flows from the control directly to the pressurizing valve. casing, and ignition provided by the AB ignition system.
The fuel-pressurizing valve consists of four valves that Continuous ignition is provided during AB operation to
divide the core fuel flow into primary core and secondary ensure satisfactory burning.
core and the annulus fuel flow into primary annulus and sec Torch-igniter fuel is scheduled or interrupted by the ON
ondary annulus. This division ensures that adequate pres- OFF ,valve in response to AB pump discharge pressure
TEMPERATURE AMPLIFIER
COOLING RETURN LINE
OIL
INLET
FROM
MAIN FUEL
�
MANIFOLD
- SERVO FUEL
- ����:�� B��T FROM
AB
E COMBUSTION
SPARK
CASING
• I I I I II II"' FLEX.IBLE CABLE PLUG
FUEL I N LET
AB ON-OFF
SIGNAL PORT
PUMP IMPELLER REFERENCE
PRESSURE PORT
increase or termination. The fuel is metered within the ON ject to an equal pressure, the actuator spring moves the pis
OFF valve and is routed through a check valve prior to enter ton and closes the valve. The inlet valve is fully closed when
ing the torch igniter. the fuel pressure differential on the piston decreases to less
than 20 psi [ 1 37.9 kPa] _
Afterburner Fuel Pump
Afterburner Fuel Control
The AB fuel pump (Fig. 2 1-20) is located at the seven
o ' clock position on the rear face of the transfer gearbox. The The AB fuel control (Fig. 2 1-2 1 ) is located at the eight
gear-driven, impeller-type pump supplies fuel, under pres o'clock position on the compressor front casing and regu
sure, to the AB fuel system. lates fuel flow for the AB as a function of throttle angle and
A valve, located in the inlet of the pump, regulates the CDP.
passage of fuel from the fuel supply system into the pump. The AB fuel ccmtrol regulates AB fuel flow between the
The valve, in tum, is controlled by an actuator, which is minimum necessary for combustion and the maximum
positioned according to pressure differential across the pis allowable, and divides the flow into core and annulus sup
ton. When the differential exceeds 80 psi [55 1 .6 kPaJ, the plies. The fuel control varies fuel flow by regulating the area
valve opens to allow fuel to enter the pump. of a metering orifice while maintaining a constant pressure
When AB operation is terminated, the main fuel control differential across the orifice. Core fuel from the control
vents the actuator high-pressure (ON-OFF) signal line to ref flows through the AB oil cooler and to the pressurizing
erence pressure. Since both sides of the piston then are sub- valve.
PRESSURE
REGULATOR
& ANNULUS
SHUTOfF VALVE
BURNER UNER
DRAIN T O SUMP
VENT L I N E
TEMPERATURE
AMPLIFIER
;-
NOZZLE
FEEDBACK
CABLE
I -
Q U I C K D I SC O N N E C T AND
M I C R O AD J U ST U N I T
TO N O Z Z L E POSITION
I N DICATOR !COCKPIT)
NOZZLE NOZZLE
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
FILTERS
H Y D R A U LIC PRES S U R E
NOZZLE
R E L I E F VALVE
ftri=�·!';l··,···:m·'·'··i±J�
ACTUATOR
D FUEl
D R E T U R N Oil
-- ElECTRICAl W I R I N G
H Y D R A U L I C OIL
� FlEXIBlE CABlE
INLET
IMf'UT SIGNAL
TO ALUMIL
TIMf'IUTUII
AMf'LIPIII CHIOMIL
TO COCKPIT CHIOMIL
TIMPI UTUII
IMOICATOI ALUMIL
F I G U RE 2 1 -2 5 Thermocouple system .
AFTERBURNER ASSEMBLY
CONNECTING FLANGE
DRAIN RETURN
TUBE
HEAD-END TELESCOPIC U N IT
R EAR-NOZZLE
SUPPLY TUBE
FEEDBACK CONDUIT
L_
CIT-SENSING
I
V A R I A B L E STATOR ACTUATOR
COIL
- ELECTRICAL W I R ING
� flEXIBLE CABLE
fEEDBACK ACTUATOR
m
.....
:l
;T////7/// 77/////L
.....
Ql
:;:: ·
Cll
m
:l
lC
���::::-· .,,,,,_ ,� .;(.'7:'·'
·.·:;:: ;1 ..--;-- ··; -... . ··' --- •
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r - --�
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l
VI
9 I
� L. '][- J
I I D 'a
1-. - - __.
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II
� �
'\.'\.'\.'\.'\.'\.'\
"'\.'\.'\.'\.
�
CSD FILTER lA/C)
1 0.
�
A I R / O I L COO L E R IA/Cl
25 11. DAMPER BEARING
1 2.
�"'!i • • • • • "! 777h 1 3.
O I L -PRESSURE TRANSMITTER (A/Cl
7777 1 8.
"'/// 1 9.
LUBE AND H Y DRAULIC FILTER
LUBE AND HYDRAU LIC PUMP
20.
27
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
21 . NOZZLE ACTUATOR (TYPICAL OF 4)
22. NO. 3 BEARING
1. SCAVENGE FILTER 23. NO. 3 BEARING SCAVENGE PUMP
2. 24.
�
C H ECK VALVE MAIN O I L COOLER
3. AB O I L COOLER 25. LUBE PRESSURE - RE L I E F VALVE
4. A B FUEL PUMP 26. TAN K - PRESSURIZING AND SUMP
5. TRANSFER-GEARBOX SCAVENGE PUMP VACUUM RELIEF VALVE
6. TRANSFER GEARBOX 27. OIL TANK
r7777� "7///// �77777/// � 7. CONSTANT- SPEED DRIVE IA/Cl 28. SUMP-VENT CHECK VALVE
Scavenge-Oil Fi lter
Lube Pressure-Relief Valve
The scavenge-oil filter, which is located near the nine
The lube pressure-relief valve, which is attached to the o ' clock position on the compressor front casing, removes
lube oil inlet fitting of the lube and hydraulic pump, protects contamination from the scavenge oil before it flows to the
the aircraft-furnished oil-pressure transmitter from high oil aircraft-furnished air-oil cooler.
pressures. When the engine is started during cold weather, Oil from the three scavenge pumps and the nozzle actua
lube oil pressure is high due to the increased viscosity of the tors flows into the filter inlet, through the filtering ele!llent,
oil. If the differential between lube pump inlet and discharge and out the discharge port. If the filtering element becomes
pressures exceeds 95 psi [655 kPa] , the relief valve opens to clogged, a relief valve opens and allows unfiltered oil to
prevent the pressure in the transmitter line from damaging flow out the discharge port. A check valve, which is assem
the transmitter. However, the relief valve has little effect on bled into the discharge port of the filter, prevents oil from
actual system pressure, because a restriction in the fitting at flowing from the oil tank into the scavenge system while the
the lube filter allows very little oil to flow into the transmit engine is shut down.
ter line. When the oil warms and becomes more fluid, the
relief valve closes and the transmitter measures actual lube
Afterburner Fuel-Oil Cooler
system oil pressure.
The AB fuel-oil cooler is mounted on the compressor rear
casing near the nine o'clock position. Fuel that is discharged
Transfer-Gearbox Scavenge Pump
from the "core" outlet port on the AB fuel control is used in
The transfer-gearbox scavenge pump, which is mounted the cooler to reduce the temperature of the scavenge oil.
on the rear side of the transfer gearbox at the six o'clock The fuel enters the fuel inlet port, flows through thin
position, contains two positive-�isplacement, gerotor-type walled tubes and out the fuel outlet port. Scavenge oil enters
pumps. The no. 1 pump element, which is nearest the drive the oil inlet port, flows around the fuel-filled tubes and out
shaft end, has a capacity of 1 1 gal/min [38.3 L/min] . It scav- the oil outlet port.
OIL
TANK
SUMP-VENT
CHECK VALVE
NO. I
BEARING
SUMP AND '------,
FRONT GEARBOX
9TH 9TH
STAGE STAGE
AIR ___,... AIR
NO. 2 NO. 3
BEARING BEARING
SUMP SUMP
SCAVENGE PUMPING
ELEMENTS
DISCHARGE HOLES
FIRST- STAGE
ANTI-ICING
MANIFOlD
t
TYPICAl
STRUTS
NO. 1 , �.
5, AND 6
TO ANTI-ICING
SWITCH
STRUT TO
NO. 2 BU L L ET-NOSE
FROM
STRUT NO. 1
-- · - - ·
HUB
TO MANIFOLD
ANTI-ICING
INDICATOR
LIGHT
ANTI-ICING
INDICATOR
SWITCH
Lm "�"""
PRESSURE
t
FRONT
FRAME
FLANGE AIR IN
THROTTLE
GEARBOX
AND AB
IGNITION ...._�.....- -
SWITCH
NOZZLE AlltEA
CONTROL TO
NOZZLE- PUMP
LINKAGE
NOZZLE PUMP
MICRO
CSI ADJUSTMENT
UNITS
The nozzle area control to nozzle pump linkage consists Anti-Icing Air
merely of the ball-socket-joint coupling that is screwed onto
The anti-icing air prevents or removes ice formation in
the output rod of the nozzle area control and the bolt, wash
the e�gine inlet (see Figs. 21-4 and 2 1-30). The air is
er, and nut that connects the coupling to the lever arm on the
extracted through a port at the top of the outer combustion
nozzle pump.
casing. It is piped to the anti-icing valve, which regulates the
flow and pressure. It is piped from the valve to the first
stage-compressor-vanes anti-icing manifold and to pads on
AIR EXTRACTION
the front frame, where it is ducted into the hub by four struts.
The air is confined by a manifold cover in the hub of the
Air is extracted from the compressor for many uses (see frame and is distributed through the "hollow shanks of the
Fig. 21-4). It is piped or ducted to supply air for turbine inlet guide vanes and the remaining four struts of the front
cooling, anti-icing, and for airplane uses. Some air passes frame. A port at the top of the gearbox casing conducts anti
inw.ard through holes in the seventh-stage rotor spacer. It is icing air to the aircraft nose dome.
ducted throughout the rotor to equalize the air pressures on
the disks. It passes through the rear stub shaft and into the
turbine shaft to cool the shaft and the front of the first-stage
R EVI EW AND STUDY QU ESTIONS
turbine wheel. The air flows through the center of the first
stage wheel, outward on the rear face of the wheel, across 1. Name severa l a i rplanes using the Genera l Electric
the inside of the first-stage torque ring, and inward on the . J79 turbojet eng i n e .
front face of the second-stage wheel. The air flows through 2. List t h e engi ne's major specifications.
the center of the second-stage wheel, outward on the rear 3. G ive a brief description of the eng i ne operation
face of the wheel, across the inside of the second-stage and a i rflow.
torque ring, and inward on the front face of the third-stage 4. Very briefly describe the construction features of
wheel. The air flows through the center of the wheel; into the fol lowi ng engine parts: front fra me, com p res
the turbine cooling air baffle; and outward, through all seven sor rotor a n d cases, diffuser, combustion l i ner a n d
struts of the turbine frame, into the engine compartment. cases, turbine stator a n d rotor, afterburner, and
Cooling air for the three bearing areas flows outward variable-area exhaust nozzle.
from the compressor into the ninth-stage air manifold. It is 5. How is the chance for com p ressor sta l l reduced on
externally piped to a tube in the no. 1 strut of the compres this e n g i n e ?
sor front frame, to a tube in the no. 1 strut of the compres 6. How m a n y m a i n bea rings does t h e engine have?
sor rear frame, and to one in the no. 2 strut of the turbine 7. How i s excessive o i l consu m ption i n the bea ring
frame. The air minimizes oil leakage from the bearing compartment control led?
sumps, surrounds the no. 2 bearing sump to prevent the heat 8. B riefly describe the fol lowi n g systems: a nti-ici n g ,
of the compressor discharge air from being transmitted to o i l , f u e l , a n d ignitio n .
the sump, and surrounds the no. 3 bearing sump to prevent 9. List the fu nctions o f t h e f u e l contro l .
the heat of the turbine discharge air from being transmitted 1 0. Describe the operation of the afterburner.
to the sump. The air that leaks across the oil seals enters the 1 1 . What is the p urpose of the vane closure va lve?
bearing sumps. Why is it needed?
The sump cooling air is confined in the compressor rear 1 2 . Describe how a n d why the fuel flow, th rottle posi
frame cavity by the no. 2 bearing front and rear airseals. The tion, afterbu rner operation, and nozzle position
seal-leakage air enters the 17th-stage seal-leakage air cavi are a l l i nteg rated .
ty. The cooling air is confined in the turbine frame cavity by 1 3 . Where is a i r extracted on this engine? For what
the rear turbine airseal at the front and the no. 3 bearing p urpose is the a i r used ?
500
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
19 18
20 17 16 15
Front End of engine from which output power is extracted. ENGINE MAJOR ASSEMBLIES
Rear End of engine from which exhaust gases are expelled.
Right and left Determined by observing the engine from The major assemblies of the engine (Fig. 22-4 on p. 503)
the exhaust end. include the following:
Bottom Determined by location of accessory drive gearbox. •
Inlet housing
Top Directly opposite, or 1 80° from, the accessory drive
•
Overspeed governor and tachometer drive assembly
· gearbox. (The hot-air solenoid valve is at the top of the
engine.)
•
Accessory gearbox assembly
I I '
COMBUSTION GAS FLOW
the output reduction carrier and gear assembly, the output IN LINE
VALVE
COMBUSTION
SECTION
SECONO·STA.GE
Drive Assembly
20
Accessory Drive Gearbox Assembly housing to the impeller housing. "Customer" air is available
from this adapter assembly, which also directs engine anti
The accessory drive gearbox assembly (6) is mounted at
icing air through a port in the impeller housing.
the six o'clock position on the exterior of the inlet housing.
It is driven by a shaftgear mated to a driving gear on the
compressor rotor. The gearbox provides the drive for the 0il Compressor Rotor Assembly
pump, fuel control, compressor rotor tachometer-generator,
The compressor rotor assembly (8) consists of five com
and starter-generator (not part of the engine). A magnetic
pressor rotor disk and blade assemblies, five compressor
chip-detector drain plug is installed in the bottom of the
rotor spacers, and one centrifugal-compressor impeller
gearbox.
assembly, all r�tained on the compressor rotor sleeve. The
first-stage turbine rotor is mounted on the rear-compressor
Output Reduction Carrier and Gear shaft. The compressor rotor assembly encloses, but is not
Assembly connected to, the power shaft.
The output reduction carrier and 'gear assembly ( 1 ),
mounted at the front of the inlet housing, consists of the sup Diffuser Housing
port housing, carrier. assembly, three planet-reduction-gear
assemblies, a torquemeter, and power-output gearshaft. The The diffuser housing (9) conducts air from the compres
sun shaftgear, which is splined to the power shaft, drives the sor to the combustion chamber. It supports the no. 2 main
three helical planet-reduction gears mounted in the carrier bearing (compressor rotor rear bearing) and the first-stage
and gear assembly. The reduction gears, in turn, drive the turbine nozzle imd flange assembly. Air is bled from the aft
power-output gearshaft. The rear plate of the torquemeter is face of the diffuser vanes, through a connecting manifold, to
attached to the carrier. supply anti-icing and "customer" bleed air.
r-0
TORQUEMETER
MAI N 1•0 TO 160 PSI
BOOSTER PUMP
L.. ... .J
IfAliNG
I
'LANET
....D
GEA.IS
I
OUTI'UT .,
---1 GEAUMAFT
I
POWU
---1
GOVERNOR AND TAKEOFF
TACHOMETER ACCESSORIES
OliVE GEARS.
DAIVESHAFT
IEARINGS AND
(UPf'U PUT)
ACCf550RY
CARRIER GEARS
I
"-ANE'T
I
AND tEARING
....o
GURSHAFTS
-1 I
I
5U"'
TAKf Of'
)..
' '
I'()Wfl GU.RSHAfT
/ '
6
DtiVf GfARS I
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AN� llA111NG5
(")
:; •
OJ I ' / ' /
"0 I I ' / '
,-+ /
OUTI'\IT
I
OVERSPEED
m ---1
REDUCTION
...., y
G.QVElNOR AND
GfAIS. lfA2
'
y
I
OUT,UT
N I
TACHOMETER
N , I I
lfAIIINGS REDUCTION IUNfT DIIVE
�
LEGEND
GEAI$, FOIWAID GEARS SCAVENGE
UAIING$ •
�
l'UMP
TAC_,-yfl I
a;· I I ...
a. --�
DtiV! GlAH EXTfiNAL SUPP\. Y LINES
I I
I SUP'Pl.Y
OVEISPfED I
en I --.....
ANO llAIINGS
II
.J TA.C H OMfTEI
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5UN GOVEINOI AND
I II
INTEINAl ,A$SAGf5
ca· GEAISHAFT
I
::J I I I II
INTERNAL SCAVENGE 'ASSAGfS.
I
5Pl1Nf5 DlttVE
e!.. • I
I I I I
SCAVENGE
I '
411FIAMI M.ANUfACT�EI
::J
I!AIINGS
I I
KlEEN AND
(C _ ..... �
�
L..---·- -·- METERING ORIFICE
TUIE
-I
ACCfSSOIY-DtiVf
_J
01
GfAIIOX YfNT
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INLET- HOUStNG
000
!MOUNTED AND SUI'P\l!D
I
5TIUT
fi
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2 000
000
.J
______ _ _ _ __ OIL STIAINEI
__ _ _ _ _ _____ _
[I]
a- I
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<<:
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(MOUNTfD AND __ PADOlE
m LL---
1 r"
SUI'PllfD 1Y AlltfiAMf
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CHIP
Oll-TEMP'f.IATUif lULl
U1
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NESSUIE K)ll 0
U1 F I G U R E 22-5 Lubrication system schematic.
the accessory drive gearbox by an external scavenge-oil overspeed governor and tachometer drive assembly. Each
line. Scavenge oil from nos. 3 and 4 bearings, aided by two element is an individual pumping unit and draws oil from a
impellers located in the bearing housing, returns to the separate source. The pressure element receives engine-lubri
accessory drive gearbox through an external scavenge-oil cating oil at 60 to 80 psi [4 1 3 .7 to 55 1 .6 kPa] and delivers
line and an oil tube that extends through the bottom of the it, through a filter, to the torquemeter valve at a pressure of
exhaust diffuser. The scavenge oil flows from the accessory 1 40 to 1 60 psi [965 .3 to 1 1 03 kPa]; excess oil flows back to
drive gearbox through the aircraft oil cooler and back to the the inlet side of the pump. A relief valve in the overspeed
oil storage tank. governor and tachometer drive assembly sets the outlet pres
sure. The scavenge element receives oil from the overspeed
Torque meter governor and tachometer drive gear housing and delivers it
to the oil return passages in the inlet-housing assembly.
The torquemeter is a hydromechanical, torque-measuring
device located in the reduction-gearing section of the inlet
Chip Detector
housing. The torquemeter uses lubricating oil but is not part
of the lubrication system. It consists of a stationary plate, a A chip detector is installed in the lower right side of the
movable plate attached to the planet gear carrier, and 1 8 steel accessory drive gearbox. The chip detector will provide an
balls positioned in conical pockets located in both plates. indication of the presence of metal particles in the engine
Rotation of the planetary gears causes the carrier-mounted lubrication system when a continuity check is performed.
plate to rotate slightly. The torquemeter balls are displaced
from their individual pockets, forcing the rear torquemeter
plate to move rearward. The rearward motion of the plate Internal Cooling and Pressurization
unseats a spring-loaded poppet valve that allows high-pres
The internal cooling system provides cooling air to inter
sure oil to enter the torquemeter cylinder chamber, equaliz
nal engine components and pressurizes the nos. 1 , 2, and 3
ing the force exerted by the displaced carrier. Torquemeter
main bearing and intershaft oil seals (Fig. 22-6).
oil pressure from the cylinder and gearbox air pressure are
Compressor bleed air from the centrifugal compressor sec�
dire.cted to the aircraft torque-pressure transmitter, which
tion flows through internal passages to the front of the no. 2
indicates differential torque oil pressure in pounds per square
bearing housing, then under the air deflector to the rear of
inch. The differential torque oil pressure is proportional to
the bearing housing to pressurize the rear seal on the no. 2
the torque delivered to the output gearshaft.
main bearing. Some of the air flows out through openings to
cool the forward face of the first-stage turbine rotor. It then
Oil Pump
passes into the gas stream.
Some model engines use a two-element, gear-type lube Some of the compressed air, bled from the centrifugal
and scavenge-oil pump, driven by a single, splined drive compressor, flows through holes in the compressor-rotor
shaft. One element supplies main lubricating oil pressure; rear shaft into the space between the compressor-rotor shaft
the other element returns scavenge oil to the aircraft-mount and the power shaft. The air bleeds rearward between the
ed oil tank. Others use a power-driven rotary lube and scav shafts, then up across the rear face of the first-stage tu�bine
enge pump (vane type). The vane-type pump can also be rotor. A part of the air passes through the second-stage tur
used as an alternate for the gear-type pump. A common bine sealing ring, upward across the forward face of the sec
splined shaft drives both elements. A pressure-relief valve in ond-stage turbine rotor, and into the exhaust stream.
the oil pump is adjusted to deliver a minimum of 60 to 80 The remainder of the compressed air (bled from the cen
psi [4 1 3 .7 to 55 1 .6 kPa] oil pressure (measured at the oil fil trifugal compressor), passes through holes in the compres
ter discharge port) at sea level, normal rated power. This set sor-rotor rear shaft into the space between the
ting is rated for a maximum inlet oil temperature of 200°F compressor-rotor sleeve and the power shaft. Some of this
[93°C] or 2 1 0°F [99°C]. At pressures below relief-valve set air flows forward into the center of the seal behind the no. 1
ting, oil pressure is directly proportional to compressor rotor bearing and to the intershaft seal located forward of the no.
speed. Oil pressure also varies with altitude. 1 bearing. The remainder of this air flows into the power
shaft. This air flows rearward through a hole drilled in the
Oil Fi lter power shaft throughbolt and then into the hollow interior of
the second-stage turbine rear shaft. The air bleeds through
The wafer-disk-type oil filter is bolted to the accessory
holes in the second-stage turbine shaft to pressurize the seal
drive gearbox. The filter contains a bypass valve, set to open
in front of the no. 3 bearing.
at a 15 to 20 psi [ 1 03 .4 to 1 37.9 kPa] differential pressure,
The rear face of the second-stage turbine rotor and the .
that allows the oil flow to bypass the filter elements and sup
housing for nos. 3 and 4 bearings are cooled by ambient air
ply oil to the engine if the filter is clogged.
entering between the exhaust-diffuser support cone and inner
cone. The air moves forward through holes in the exhaust-dif
Torquemeter Booster Pump
fuser support cone, through exhaust-diffuser struts, into the
The torquemeter booster pump, containing the pressure area around the nos. 3 and 4 bearing housing. The air moves
and the scavenge elements, is mounted on and driven by the forward around the nos. 3 and 4 bearing housing baffle, around
+-'
c
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=·
PIPING FOR STARTING-FUEL -
FUEL
SOLENOID VALVE
I !
TANK
STARTING FUEL
L --1 ,-- J
I I AIRFRAME -
L -
r_j : r----------
FUEL REGULATOR
I
BOOST STARTING FUEL
.J 1
PUMP NOZZLES
L-, I I ( 2)
B SHUTOFF II
'f1 VALVE I
I I
I
I I
I
I I
I 200-MESH
I SCREEN
I L
L- - ---- -+-.....,.""""'--•
____ _
I DUAl-ELEMENT
I HIGH-PRESSURE
t FUEL PUMP
FUEL
VAPORIZER
TUBES
(11)
)- - - ---. AIR-BLEED
GAS-PRODUCER
-------!Ji
SPEED GOVERNOR
IL --, .--.J
! cONTROL VALVE
L------------ ------------ .J
(T5311A)
___________
POWER-TURBINE POWER-TURBINE
SPEED SELECTOR
L ____ _j
SPEED·SELECTOR SIGNAL T O IN TERSTAGE
LEVER
AIR-BLEED ACTUATOR
COCKPIT
CONTROLS
The main-fuel system (see Fig. 22-7) delivers metered Starting-Fuel Nozzles
fuel from the fuel regulator to the main-fuel manifold where
Two starting-fuel nozzles, located at the four and eight
it is discharged through 11 fuel vaporizers into the combus
o'clock positions in the rear of the combustion-chamber
tion chamber. Main fuel is ignited by the burning starting fuel.
housing, deliver atomized fuel to the combustion chamber
during starting. A ball check valve permits air from the com
Fuel-Control Assembly bustion chamber to purge the nozzle when starting fuel stops
flowing.
The-fuel-control assembly consists of a fuel regulator,
which incorporates an emergency (manual) control system,
Fuel Vaporizers
and an overspeed governor. The fuel regulator is a hydrome
chanical device containing a dual-element fuel pump, com Eleven, equally spaced fuel vaporizers deliver main fuel
pressor-rotor-speed governor, an acceleration and to the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizers receive fuel
deceleration control, an airbleed signal mechanism, and a from the main-fuel manifold, combine it with compressed
fuel shutoff valve. Functionally, the fuel regulator is divided air, and deliver vaporized fuel and air to the combustion
into a flow-control section and a computer section. The chamber. Some model' engines use 22 fuel nozzles to per
flow-control section consists of the components that meter form this function.
engine fuel flow. The computer section comprises elements
that schedule the positioning of the metering valve of the Combustion-Chamber Dra i n Valve
flow-control section as a function of the input signals to the
The combustion-chamber drain valve is located at the six
regulator. The overspeed governor provides the fuel control o'clock position on the combustion-chamber housing. The
with an N2 speed signal. Fuel flow is then metered to main drain valve is spring loaded open to allow drainage of resid
tain the desired N2 speed plus or minus 50 rpm. The over ual fluids after engine shutdown. Internal combustion cham
speed governor also serves as an override mechanism to ber pressure during engine operation keeps the valve closed.
reduce fuel flow in case of a free-power turbine overspeed.
(See Fuel Control System that follows for a more detailed Fuel-Control System
discussion on the fuel control.)
The fuel-control system (see Fig. 22-7) consists of a pri
mary control for the gas-producer section and an overspeed
Starting-Fuel Solenoid Valve governor for the power-turbine section. An integral, dual
The starting-fuel solenoid valve is mounted on a bracket fuel pump and an emergency (manual) control system are
that is secured to the compressor housing at the 10 o'clock incorporated in the primary control unit. The fuel control
position. When energized, the valve allows starting fuel incorporates acceleration and deceleration controls and a
from the fuel control to flow to the starting-fuel nozzles. droop-type governor for steady-state speed control. The
Under normal conditions, the starting-fuel solenoid valve is main metering valve of the fuel regulator is the controlling
energized until ground idle speed is reached. unit by which the main fuel flow is metered to the engine.
Its positio� is determined by the action of the gas-producer
speed governor, the power-turbine overspeed governor, or
Starting- and Main-Fuel Man ifolds
the acceleration-deceleration control, depending on engine
The starting- and main-fuel manifolds are bracketed requirements. In regulating the main metering valve, the
together and mounted at the rear of the combustion-chamber governor or control that demands the least fuel flow over
housing. The starting-fuel manifold receives fuel from the rides all others, except the deceleration control, to ensure a
fuel regulator, through the starting-fuel solenoid valve, and minimum fuel-flow rate.
delivers it to the starting-fuel nozzles. The main-fuel mani The functions of the gas-producer speed control are to
fold receives fuel from the fuel regulator, through the main- govern ground and flight idle operations, to limit the maxi-
Fuel enters the dual fuel pump after passing through the
inlet screen. It is then pumped through the check valves and
the outlet screen to the transfer valve. With the transfer
Electrical System and Main Wiring
valve in the normal position for au . tomatic operation, fuel
Harness
flows to the main metering valve at a pressure controlled by
the main pressure-regulating valve. The position of the main The main wiring harness (Fig. 22-8) contains connec
metering valve and hence the flow of fuel is automatically tions for the ignition unit, hot-air solenoid valve, starting
controlled by the computer section of the fuel control. The fuel solenoid valve, inlet-oil temperature bulb, fuel-control
metered fuel flows through the open shutoff valve and the transfer solenoid valve, and power-turbine and gas-produc
fuel discharge port to the engine main-fuel manifold and the er tachometer-generators. Quick-disconnect plugs are incor
fuel vaporizer tubes in the combustion chamber. When the porated on the harness.
transfer valve is in the emergency position, fuel flows
through and is metered by the emergency (manual) metering
valve. Fuel pressure is controlled by the emergency pres Ignition System
sure-regulating valve, and fuel is delivered through the open
The high-energy, medium-voltage ignition system (see
shutoff valve to the fuel discharge port and to the engine.
Fig. 22-8) consists of an ignition unit, an ignition lead and
The area of the valve opening and the resulting flow of fuel
coil assembly, and igniter plugs. The system requires 1 4-V
are determined by the position 0f the power lever controlled
DC minimum input at 3.0 A.
from the cockpit.
The ignition unit is attached to a bracket located at W
o'clock on the impeller-housing rear flange. The ignition
unit converts low voltage through a vib.(ator transformer to
Operation of the Emergency (Manual) Fuel System
a high voltage that passes through the ignition lead and coil
If the automatic .fuel-control system fails, a changeover assembly. The high voltage that is produced ionizes a gap in
to the emergency (manual) fuel system should be made in each igniter plug to produce a spark.
accordance with the airframe instructions (see Fig. 22-7). The ignition lead and coil assembly transmits high volt
,.
...:� When the emergency system is in operation, the main
...,
age from the ignition unit to the igniter plugs in the come
metering valve is bypassed and fuel is metered to the bustion chamber. The spark splitter coil, located below the
engine by the manual-system metering valve, which is ignition unit, distributes electric current equally to each
positioned from the pilot's compartment by the power igniter plug.
lever. Acceleration and deceleration cqntrol is not provid Two igniter plugs are installed in receptacles in the aft
ed in the emergency system; therefore the power lever end of the combustion chamber at the four and eight o'clock
should not be moved rapidly when the emergency fuel sys positions. The igniter plugs produce high-voltage sparks to
tem is in operation. Engine overspeed or possible flameout ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber.
J
}
generator indicator
Gas-producer tachometer
generator indicator
} Inlet-oil-temperature indicator
Exhaust
Starting- thermucouple
fuel- solenoid indicator
receptacle shell
_/
H K L M
Line
E F G
Cr
AI r::-----+-
___J
I gnition
Cr
unit r--+--7----.,
A B A B
Gas
producer
tachometer
generator
Starting-fuel- Normal/manual Inlet-oil- Exhaust
plug
solenoid fuel-transfer temperature thermocouple
va I ve valve solenoid valve bulb harness
Igniter plugs
FIGURE 22-8 Electrical system schematic. Note: Typical a i rframe wiring d iagram is shown above
l i n e A. The engine wiring diagra m is shown below l i n e A.
I n let-Oil Temperature-Sensing Bulb open at speeds below 70 percent N1 speed at standard day,
sea level conditions as directed by the sensors in the fuel
An inlet-oil temperature-sensing bulb (see Fig. 22-8) is
control. On some engines, the bleed bands are closed at
installed in the main oil pump. This bulb is connected
speeds above 7 5 to 80 percent N1•
through the wiring harness to a cockpit indicator.
The airbleed actuator (see Fig. 22-9) is mounted on the 1 . What airplanes use the Lycoming T-53 engine?
right side of the compressor-housing assembly. Air" pressure 2 . List the engine's maj or specifications.
for operation of the airbleed actuator is obtained from a 3. Give a brief description of the engine and its opera
bleed port on the right side of the air-diffuser housing. tion.
The airbleed valve (some models) is mounted on the air 4. Very briefly describe the construction features of
bleed actuator and senses the ratio of compressor discharge the following parts: inlet-housing assembly, acces
pressure to the compressor-inlet air pressure. When the ratio sories section, compressor rotor and housing, dif
reaches a preset point, the airbleed valve provides compressor fuser, combustor, and turbine assembly.
discharge air pressure for operation of the airbleed actuator. 5. How many main bearings are used?
The bleed band assembly consists of two band halves 6. How is the chance for compressor stall reduced in
bolted together. It is positioned around the rear portion of this engine?
the axial-compressor housings and secured by clips bolted 7. Briefly describe the following systems: oil, fuel,
to the compressor housings. The looped ends of the bleed ignition, torquemeter, and anti-icing.
band assembly are attached to the airbleed actuator.
51 2 Representative E n g i nes
Allison Engine Company
·so1-D13 Turboprop Engine
The Allison Engine Company has produced the 5 0 1 -D 1 3 The Allison 501 -D 1 3 engine is rated at 3750 eshp at stan
(Fig. 23-1 ) in various configurations for several years. It dard day conditions with an rpm of 1 3 ,820 ( 1 00 percent), and
was used in the Lockheed Electra and Convair Conversion, a turbine inlet temperature of 1 780°F [97 1 °C] . The engine
while a more powerful version, the T56, is currently consists of a power section, a reduction gear, and a torque
installed in the Lockheed C 1 30 and P-3B. meter assembly. The power section and reduction gear are
connected and aligned by the torquemeter assembly, and
added rigidity is provided by two tie struts. The propeller is
SPECIFICATIONS
mounted on a single-rotation, number 60A propeller shaft.
F I G URE 23-1 The Allison Eng ine C om pany 50 1 -D 1 3 (T56) tu rboprop engine.
513
F I G U RE 23-1 (conti n ued).
inlet housing, secured to the forward end of the compressor The pickup-assembly signals are directed to a flight-deck
casing, receives air from the aircraft duct and directs this air torquemeter indicator that registers the torque in shaft horse
to the compressor rotor. Provisions are made for the anti power delivered into the reduction-gear assembly.
icing of the air inlet-housing struts and the inlet anti-icing The reduction gear incorporates a single propeller drive
vanes that guide air into the rotor. A compressor diffuser, shaft, a negative-torque signal system, a thrust-sensitive sig
secured to the rear end of the compressor casing, guides the nal system (auto feather), a propeller brake, a two-stage
air from the rotor into the combustion assembly. reduction-gear train, an accessories-drive gear train, and an
The accessory-drive-housing-assembly gear train independent dry-sump oil system.
receives its drive from the compressor extension shaft. The overall reduction-gear ratio of the two stages of
Through a gear train, the power section rpm is reduced to reduction is 1 3.54: 1 , and thus the propeller rotates at an effi
that required to drive certain accessories. The speed-sensi cient rpm. Aircraft accessories are mounted on the rear side
tive valve, speed-sensitive control, and oil pump are mount of the reduction-gear assembly, as are an engine-furnished
ed on the front cover of the accessory-drive-housing reduction-gear oil pump and filter assembly.
assembly. The fuel control and fuel pump are mounted on
the rear side of the accessory-drive housing.
The combustion assembly, attached to the compressor dif
fuser, incorporates six cylindrical-shaped combustion liners DIRECTIONAL REFERENCES AND
positioned between inner and outer combustion casings. The DEFINITIONS
combustion liners mix the fuel and air, support combustion,
and guide the exhausting gases into the turbine assembly.
The turbine assembly, attached to the inner and outer Front The propeller end.
combustion casings, consists of a four-stage turbine rotor Rear The exhaust end.
and vane assembly encased in the turbine inlet casing, tur Right and left Determined by standing at the rear of
bine vane casing, and turbine rear'bearing support. The rotor the engine and facing forward.
absorbs the necessary energy from the expanding exhaust Bottom Determined by the power-section accessories
gases to drive the compressor rotor, accessories, reduction drive housing, which is located at the forward end of
gear assembly, and propeller. The turbine inlet casing sup the power section.
ports the turbine front bearing and �hermocouples, and Top Determined by the breather located at the forward
houses the first-stage turbine vane assemblies. The turbine end of the power section.
vane casing houses the second-, third-, and fourth-stage Rotation The direction of rotation is determined when
vane assemblies. The turbine rear bearing is supported and standing at the rear of the engine and facing forward.
retained by the rear bearing support that guides the exhaust The power-section rotor section turns in a counter
ing gases into the aircraft tailpipe. clockwise . direction, and the propeller rotation is
The torquemeter assembly, attached between the air-inlet clockwise.
housing and the reduction-gear assembly, consists of a hous Accessories rotation Determined by facing the mount
ing and shaft assembly. The housing serves as the structural ing pad of each accessory.
support that aligns the power section with the reduction-gear Combustion-liner numbering The combustion liners
assembly. The two tie struts provide the necessary rigidity to are numbered from 1 through 6 in a clockwise direc
maintain this alignment. The shaft assembly transmits torque tion when viewing the engine from the rear. The no.
from the power section to the reduction-gear assembly. A 1 liner is located at the top vertical center line.
pickup assembly, attached in the forward end of the housing, Compressor- and turbine-stages numbering
detects the torque transmitted through the shaft assembly. Numbered beginning from the forward end of the
r COVER
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... / �cYCLONIC BREATHER
�� P S S O R- A I R- I N L ET H O U S I N G
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E X TENSION SH AFT
O I L J ET
VANE ASSEMBLY
I
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C O M P R E S S O R- E X T E N S I O N
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S H AFT H O U S I N G
DISTRI BUTOR TUBE
UTH-STAGE
WHEEl ASSY.
SEARING
RETAINER RING
to unload the compressor during the start and acceleration, or struts also support the inner cone that provides the mounting
when operating at low-speed taxi idle. (Refer to chap. 5.) for the rear compressor bearing (ball), the seals, the rear
The compressor diffuser, of welded-steel construction, is compressor bearing-oil nozzle, the diffuser scavenge-oil
bolted to the flange at the aft end of the compressor-housing pump, and the forward end of the inner combustion cham
assembly. It is the midstructural member of the engine (Fig. ber. Air is extracted from ports on the diffuser for anti-icing
23-5). One of three engine-to-aircraft mountings is located and operation of the 5th- and 1 Oth-stage bleed-air valves and
at this point. Six airfoil struts form passages that conduct the 1 4th-stage bleed-air valve. During the starting cycle, air
compressed air from the outlet of the 1 4th stage of the com is bled from the diffuser through the 1 4th-stage bleed-air
pressor to the forward end of the combustion liners. These valve to promote better starts. Bleed air is also extracted
00
'
S TATOR V A N E A S S Y S .
H O R I ZONTAL
SPLIT LI N E C SPL I T L I N E B
COMPR ESSOR TO A I R - I N LET SPLIT L I N E
V I EWED FROM F R ON T
5 T H - S TA G E M A N IFOLD 1 0 T H - S TAGE M A NI F O L D
GR APH-AllOY
THRUST WASHER SEAl
C O M P R E S S O R - R EAR- ----.,
B E A R I N G O U T E R AIRSEAl
P U M P ASS E M B l Y
D I F F U S ER SCAV E N G E
from this point by the airframe manufactmer for aircraft flame propagates to the remaining liners. Liners, which do not
anti-icing and for cross-feeding from one engine to another use an igniter plug, have at the same location a liner-support
for engine starter operation . The six fuel nozzles are mount assembly that positions the combustion liner and retains it
ed on and extend into the diffuser, and a fire shield is pro axially. The outer combustion chamber provides the support
vided at the rear splitline. ing structure between the diffuser and the turbine section.
Mounted on the bottom of the outer combustion chamber are
two combustion-chamber drain valves, which drain fuel after
Combustion Assembly
a false start or at engine shutdown.
The combustion assembly (Fig. 23-6) consists of outer
and inner combustion chambers that form an annular chamber
Turbine-Unit Assembly
in which six combustion liners are located. Fuel is sprayed
continuously during operation into the forward end of each The turbine-unit assembly [Fig. 23-7(a) on p. 5 1 8] in
combustion liner. During the starting cycle, two igniter plugs, cludes six major items: turbine inlet casing, turbine rear
located in combustion liners no. 2 and 5, ignite the fuel-air bearing support, turbine rotor, turbine scavenge-oil pumps,
mixture. All six liners are interconnected near their forward turbine vane casing, and turbine vane assemblies.
ends by crossover tubes. Thus, during the starting cycle, after The turbine inlet casing is attached at its forward end to the
ignition takes place in nos. 2 and 5 combustion liners, the outer and inner combustion chambers. It is designed to locate
O IL-
RING
. Ji
0"""'""� L-'
DRAIN VALVE
lH TIT
TERMINAL BLOCK
T I T
TEMPERATURE·DATUM-CONTROL CIRCUIT
- ALUMIL
AfT
CHIOMIL
GAS
DUAL OUTLET
J U NCTIONS
I N LET
GAS
F I G U RE 23-7 Tu rbine-unit assembly.
(a) Turbine u n it.
(b) Thermocouple assembly showi ng the thermocouple ( b)
harness and a typical thermocouple.
4TH-STAGE TURBINE
BLADE
1 ST-STAG E TURBINE BLADE
BALANCE RING
(segmented and used
as required)
TURBINE SHAFT
SE.A.LS
Anti-icing solenoid valve The prime function of the reduction-gear assembly (Fig.
Anti-icing air valves (2) 23-12) is to provide the means of reducing power-section
5th- and l Oth-stage compressor bleed-air valves (8) rpm to the range of efficient propeller rpm. It also provides
1 4th-stage starting bleed-air valve pads on the rear case for mounting and driving the follow
1 4th-stage bleed-air-control valve ing aircraft-furnished accessories:
Starter
Ign iter System
Cabin supercharger (engine nos. 2 and 3)
Ignition exciter Alternator ( 1 1 5 V, 400 Hz)
Ignition relay Tachometer-generator
Igniter plugs (2) Propeller alternator (engine-propeller rpm signal)
Hydraulic pump or DC generator (if required)
Oil System
Note: In addition to the aforementioned accessories,
Oil filter (power section) there is an engine-furnished oil pump, which is mounted on
Oil filter (reduction gear) the rear case.
CHECK VALVE
OIL Fll
SPARE DRIVE
PRESSURE-REDUCING
PLUG
PRESSURE
.a._"'>,�)
r�
Oil-PUMP
11
ASSEMBLY PAD
I•
TACHO METER
GENERATOR PADS
PAD •
TERN A TOR
CABIN
SUPERCHARGER
SPEED-SENSITIVE
CONTROL
SPEED-SENSITIVE
VALVE
The reduction gear has an independent lubrication sys • Containing the engine in the minimum frontal area.
tem, which includes a pressure pump and two scavenge • The ability to use an electronic torquemeter.
pumps. Oil supply is furnished from an aircraft-furnished
tank that also supplies the power section. The reduction-gear housing is a magnesium-alloy casting.
As mentioned previously, the reduction-gear assembly is It has an overall reduction-gear ratio of 1 3 .54: 1 , accom
remotely located from the power section and is attached by a plished through a two-stage stepdown. The primary stepdown
torquemeter housing and two tie struts. The remote location is accomplished by a spur-gear train having a ratio of 3 . 1 25 : 1 ,
offers a number of advantages, which include the following: and the secondary stepdown is done by a planetary-gear train
with a ratio of 4.333 : 1 . The propeller shaft, size SAE 60A,
• Better air-inlet ducting, which increases engine efficien rotates in a clockwise direction when viewed from the rear. In
cy and performance. addition to the reduction gears and accessories drives, the
reduction-gear assembly includes the following major units:
• The opportunity of readily mounting the gearbox offset
up or down for high- or low-wing aircraft. • Propeller brake Used to stop windmilling of a feath
-
• The advantage of additional space for mounting driven ered propeller and to reduce time for the propeller to
accessories without affecting frontal area. come to rest after ground shutdown.
PLA N ET GEAR
PROP
---../
SUN GE1�R
RELEASED
APPUED --,JJoo-1
LOCKED --�
Safety Cot,� pling and the helical splines move apart. This action disengages the
power section from the reduction gear. The safety coupling is
· The safety coupling (Fig. 23-16 on p. 524) could readily be
designed to reengage when power-section and reduction-gear
classified as a backup device for the NTS system. It has a neg
rpm are approximately the same.
ative-torque setting of approximately 1500 hp [ 1 1 19 kW] . In
the event that the NTS system or propeller would not function
Torquemeter Assembly and T ie Struts
properly, the safety coupling would uncouple the reduction
gear from the power section. By so doing, the drag effect The torquemeter housing provides alignment, and two tie
would be greatly reduced. The safety coupling is located and struts provide the necessary rigidity between the power sec
attached to the forward end of the torquemeter shaft, which tion and the reduction-gear assembly (Fig. 23-1 7 on p. 524).
transmits power-section horsepower into the reduction-gear The tie struts are adjustable through two eccentric pins
assembly. During normal operation, the safety coupling con located at the reduction-gear end. These pins are splined to
nects the torquemeter shaft (power being produced by the enable a positive locking method after proper alignment is
power section) to the reduction-gear assembly by helical established by the torquemeter housing. The torquemeter
splines. Aiding in the normal windup of these splines, as provides the means of accurately measuring shaft-horse
induced by power input and direction of rotation, is a set of power input into the reduction-gear assembly. It has an indi
four springs. When negative torque occurs, in excess of the cated accuracy of ±35 hp [±26. 1 kW] from zero to
preset value, an unwinding force overcomes the spring force maximum allowable power, which represents ±1 percent
AL RETAINING R I N G
INNER
TORQUEMETER MOUNTING
PINION INPUT G E
SHAFT
I N P U T SHAFT OIL-LUBE TU
EXTERNAL SPHERICAl R I N G
INTERNAL SPHERICAL R I N G
DECOU PLED
lOCATING KEY
INTERMEDIATE BEARING
O U T E R SHAFT E X C I T E R W H E E L
C Y C LO N E SCA V E N G E
BR EAT H E R R E L I E F VALVE
(226-254 P S I )
;--':'Y�����=3!!!====:3;..::::=-;L� [ 1 558-1 751 kPa]
F I LTER
PR ESSUR E-
\
R E G U LAT I N G P R E SSUR E \
VA LVE PUMP M AG N ET I C P LU G
F I G U R E 23-1 8 (a) Power-unit oil system with i nternal scavenge pumps. F I G U RE 23-1 8 continued on the n ext page.
.....,...
IIJ f-.--
T U R B I N E R EAR
SCAV E N G E P U M P
on the bottom of the accessory-drive housing and another at tion gear after engine shutdown. A relief valve, which is set
the scavenge-oil outlet on the forward side of the accessory at 1 80 psi [ 1 24 1 kPa] to begin opening and to be fully open
driv� housing. at 250 psi [ 1 724 kPa] , prevents excessive system pressure.
This valve is not a regulating valve, as its only function is
that of limiting pressure.
Reduction-Gear Lubricating System
The location of the scavenge pumps provides for scav
The reduction-gear lubricating system (Fig. 23-19) enging in any normal attitude of flight. The output pf the
includes the following, with each of their respective loca two scavenge pumps returns the oil by a common outlet to
tions as indicated: the aircraft system. A relief valve, which is set at the same
values as the one in the reduction-gear pressure system, lim
Pressure pump Located on the left rear side of the
its the maximum scavenge pressure. A magnetic plug, locat
reduction gear.
ed on the bottom rear of the reduction-gear assembly,
Filter Located in the pump body assembly.
provides a means of draining it.
Filter bypass valve Located in the pump body assembly,
Check valve Located in pump body assembly.
Two scavenge pumps One located in the bottom of the Anti-Icing System
rear case; the other in the front case below the prop
The system includes an anti-icing solenoid valve located
shaft.
on the top of the compressor housing, two anti-icing-valve
Two pressure-relief valves One for the pressure sys
assemblies located one on either side of the compressor-air
tem, the other for the scavenge system. The scavenge
inlet housing, and the necessary lines and passages from the
relief valve is located in the common outlet of the
compressor. diffuser to the anti-icing valves (Fig. 23-20).
scavenge pumps, the other in the rear-case housing ·
The system is entirely manual in operation, being selected
near the oil-filter outlet.
by the crew from the flight deck by a switch called the
Oil flows from the pressure pump through a filter and to engine air scoop and inlet vanes anti-icing switch. When
all parts within the reduction gear that require lubrication. In selected, compressor-discharge air, which has been heated
addition, oil pressure is used as hydraulic pressure in the due to compression, will flow to the two anti-icing valves.
propeller-brake assembly. A filter-bypass valve guarantees From this point, the air flows to the inlet anti-icing vane
continued oil flow in the event that the filter becomes con assembly, the compressor-air-inlet-housing struts, the fuel
taminated. A check valve prevents oil flow into the reduc- control temperature-probe deicer (located in the air-inlet
- O I L-PUMP A N D FILTER
ASSEMBLY
PROP SHAFT
PROP BRAKE A S S E M B L Y
SUN GEAR L U B E T U B E
OIL SCREEN
SCAVENGE-OIL-PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE
@!Jl'EI'---M AGNETIC PLUG
��!i!iiii!
@ PRESSURE OIL • SCAV E N G E OIL
housing below the left horizontal strut), and the upper half ward side of the accessories housing assembly, and the nec
of the torquemeter housing shroud. The fuel-control total essary manifolding and plumbing. The bleed-air valves at
pressure probe, located in the left horizontal strut of the air the fifth stage are manifolded together, with the outlet being
inlet housing, is anti-iced by heat conduction. Whenever provided through the nacelle, forward of the engine baffle
engine anti-icing is selected, each engine will be indepen assembly (firewall at diffuser). The tenth-stage bleed-air
dent of the other, since each will have a switch. During anti valves empty into another manifold, which is ducted to the
icing, approximately I percent of air will be bled, which will aft side of the engine baffle assembly. The speed-sensitive
result in a horsepower decrease of approximately 3 percent. valve is a flyweight type, which responds to engine rpm.
When running at less than 13 ,000 rpm, the valve is so posi
tioned that all bleed-air-valve piston heads are vented to the
Fifth- and Tenth-Stage Bleed-Air System
atmosphere. This venting allows the compressor 5th- and
(Acceleration Bleed System)
l Oth-stage pressures to move the pistons to their open posi
The acceleration bleed system (Fig. 23-21 on p. 528) is tion, bleeding air overboard. When running at 1 3 ,000 rpm or
an entirely automatic system that bleeds air from the fifth better, the speed-sensitive valve directs 1 4th-stage air to the
and tenth stages during engine start and acceleration and at bleed-air-valve piston heads. Since 1 4th-stage pressure is
low-speed taxi. It is used to unload the compressor from 0 to always greater than 5th- or l Oth-stage pressures, the bleed
1 3,000 rpm in order to prevent engine compressor stall and air-valve pistons move to the closed position, thus prevent
surge. The system includes four pneumatically operated ing airbleed from the 5th and l Oth stages. During low-speed
bleed-air valves located at the fifth stage and four located at taxi operation, the 5th and l Oth stage bleed-air valves will
the tenth stage, a speed-sensitive valve mounted on the for- be in the open position, thus bleeding air.
TEMPERATURE
PROSE DEICER
T O R Q U E METER
A I R VALVE ANTJ.JCING SHROUD
TO VANES
VfNT TO
ATMOSPHERE
B L E ED-VALVE
A C T U ATOR L I N E
P R E S S U R E FR O M 1 4T H S T A GE S P E E D- S E N S I T I V E V ALVE A S S Y .
(a)
VALVE
BLEED-VALVE
ACTUATOR LINE
(b)
• The electronic fuel-trimming system is changed from The fuel system must deliver metered fuel to the six fuel
temperature-limiting with a maximum temperature of nozzles, as required, to meet all possible conditions of
87 1 °C to temperature-limiting with a maximum temper engine operation either on the ground or in flight. Some of
ature of 977°C. these requirements are as follows:
I
• The maximum possible take of fuel by the temperature 1. The capability of starting under all ambient conditions.
datum valve is reset to 20 percent, rather than the previous 2. Requirements for rapid changes in power.
50 percent. (See the Electronic Fuel-Trimming System 3. A means of limiting the maximum allowable turbine
pp. 289-292 for an explanation of the word take.) inlet temperature.
4. A system that will enable the operator to select a desired
Ignition System power setting (turbine inlet temperature) and have it
automatically maintained regardless of altitude, free-air
Ignition is required only during the starting cycle, since temperature, forward speed, and fuel Btu content.
the combustion process is continuous. Once ignition takes 5. A system that incorporates an rpm-limiting device in
place, the flame in the combustion liners acts as the ignition the event of propeller governor malfunction.
agent for the fuel-air mixture. 6. A system that must control fuel flow during the rpm
This ignition system is classified as a condenser-dis range in which the engine compressor is susceptible to
charge, high-energy type. The system includes an exciter stall or surge.
and an ignition relay that are mounted on the top of the com 7. A system that coordinates propeller-blade angle during
pressor housing, the lead assemblies, and two igniter plugs. ground operation (taxi range-start, taxi, and reverse-
It operates on 14 to 30 V DC input. Actually, there are two 0 to 34° coordinator quadrant) with fuel flow.
independent systems, as the exciter is a dual unit with indi 8. A system capable of operating, if necessary, on the
vidual leads going to the two igniter plugs. During the start hydromechanical fuel control. However, if this is nec
ing cycle, as rpm reaches 2200, the speed-sensitive control essary, closer monitoring of throttle and engine instru
automatically completes an electrical circuit to the ignition ments will be required.
relay. This closes the circuit to the exciter, thus providing
electric energy to the igniter plugs. When engine rpm reach Rather than attempt a flow description, each accessory or
es 9000, these circuits are deenergized through the action of component will be covered in a normal sequence of flow.
the speed-sensitive control. Operation of the ignition system Since a few of the units are not associated with flow, these
requires that the fuel and ignition switch in the cockpit be in will be brought up in a logical sequence.
the ON position. (Refer to Fig. 1 6--4.)
Fuel Pump and Low-Pressure Fuel Fi lter
Fuel System Fuel is supplied to the engine fuel pump from the aircraft
system. It enters into a boost element and is then directed to
The fuel system (see Fig. 1 3-4) includes the following,
the low-pressure filter (see Fig. 1 2-22).
and their locations are as indicated (Fig. 23-22 on p. 530).
The low-pressure fuel filter is a paper-cartridge-type fil
• . Fuel pump-Located on the right rear side of acces ter that incorporates two bypass valves (relief-safety valves)
sories housing. that open in the event of unusual fuel contamination. The
• Low-pressure fuel filter-Attached to the right for paper cartridge is of the type that must be replaced at certain
ward side of compressor-housing assembly. inspection periods.
The fuel-pump assembly includes, in addition to the • Filters the output of the primary and secondary pumps.
•
boost element, two spur-gear-type, high-pressure pumps Connects the two pumps in parallel during the starting
(Fig. 23-23). These pumps are commonly referred to as the cycle (2200 to 9000 rpm).
primary and the secondary elements. During normal opera
• Connects the two pumps in series during normal opera
tion, they are in series. However, during engine starting
tion, with the primary pump supplying high-pressure
(2200 to 9000 rpm), the pumps are placed in parallel by the
fuel flow to the power section.
action of a paralleling valve in the high-pressure filter. The
• Automatically enables the secondary pump to "take
paralleling of the pumps is used to increase fuel flow during
over" upon failure of the primary pump.
low rpm. Failure of either the primary or secondary pump
• Provides a means of checking primary- and secondary
will not affect normal operation, as either pump has suffi
cient capacity of fuel flow for takeoff power. pump operation during the starting procedure.
• Provides a means of indicating primary-pump failure
Hig h-Pressure Fuel Fi lter (by the engine fuel-pump light).
BOOST-PUMP DRIVE-GEAR T R A I N
S H A F T SEAL DRAIN
MOUNTING PAD
F I G U RE 23-23 Fuel p u m p .
HIGH-PRESSURE
PARAlLEliNG
F U E l FilTER
VALVE
OW-PRESSURE fiLTERED
fUlL AND IY PASS fUlL
• Changes fuel flow with factors affecting air density as es manifold fuel pressure, breaks the electrical circuit to the
sensed at the engine inlet. primer-valve solenoid when the fuel pressure reaches 50 psi
• Meters fuel flow during starting (in conjunction with [344.8 kPa] . An electrical interlock in the control system
the temperature-datum valve). prevents energizing of the primer system after the engine is
once started.
• Meters fuel flow during engine acceleration to aid in
preventing compressor stall or surge and is scheduled to
Coord inator
prevent excessive turbine inlet temperature.
• Controls power available in reverse. This mechanism (see Fig. 23-25) coordinates the fuel con
• Meters fuel to assist in controlling rpm during low- and trol, propeller, and the electronic fuel-trimming system. The
high-speed taxi. operation of the coordinator is controlled by mechanical link
age from the flight deck, normally through the throttle, and,
• Provides an overspeed governor for ground operation
for special conditions, by the emergency-shutdown handle.
and for flight operation in the event of propeller govern
The coordinator includes a discriminating device, two
ing malfunction.
microswitches, a temperature-datum-control-scheduling
• Provides for manual selection of power (turbine inlet
potentiometer, a coordinator lock, and the necessary gears and
temperature) by movement of the throttle.
electrical wiring. Throttle movement controls the main shaft
• Permits any selection of power in the flight range and . of the coordinator, which, in tum, controls the following:
turbine inlet temperature (34 to 90° coordinator control)
• Amount of fuel flowing from the fuel control under any
to be automatically maintained regardless of altitude,
free-air temperature, and forward speed. given set of conditions (by mechanical linkage to the
fuel control).
• Meters 1 20 percent of engine fuel requirements, based
• Propeller blade angle during all ground operation (taxi
on compressor-inlet-air temperature and pressure, rpm,
and throttle setting. range: 0 to 34° on coordinator quadrant); accomplished
by mechanical linkage to the propeller.
• Allows cutoff of fuel flow manually or electrically.
• Potentiometer output signal from 65 to 90° (coordinator
quadrant), which schedules turbine inlet temperature.
Primer Valve and Manifold Pressu re Switch
• Two microswitches that are set, one at 65° and the other
The fuel primer system includes a primer valve that is at 66°. The 65° switch transfers the electronic fuel
solenoid actuated, a manifold pressure switch, and neces trimming system from temperature limiting to tempera
sary aircraft wiring and primer switch (Fig. 23-25 on ture control. The one set at 66° arms the temperature
p. 532). This system may be used during the starting cycle. trim switch, which permits locking of the temperature
It is placed in operation by the spring-loaded primer switch datum-valve brake, thus enabling the operator to "lock
on the flight deck. If the primer system is used, it will pro in" a fuel correction with any power setting above 66°.
vide an increased initial fuel flow by permitting fuel to flow
• Propeller beta follow-up mechanism.
through the primer valve, bypassing the metering section of
the fuel control and entering just prior to the fuel-control The discriminating device permits the use of the same
cutoff valve. This fuel flows through the cutoff valve and is mechanical linkage between the coordinator and the propeller
directed through the temperature-datum valve, then to the for throttle or emergency-shutdown-handle operation. The
manifold find fuel nozzles. The pressure switch, which sens- discriminator allows the throttle to position the propeller
LOW-PRESSURE
FUEL FILTER
(18)
THERMOCO U P L E
ASS E M B L Y
..
T-'�EATHEil
) GOYERNINt;
TSS
SWITCH
P R O PE LL E R
R EG U L AT O R
TEMPERATURE A U T O -F E A T H E R
DATUM CONTROL A R M IN G S W I T C H
linkage at all times other than emergency shutdown. When • Provisions for "locking in" a fuel correction prior to
the emergency-shutdown handle is pulled, the propeller link landing for a more balanced power from all engines.
age will always be actuated to feather by means of the dis
The system trims the 1 20 percent fuel flow from the fuel
criminator, regardless of throttle setting.
control as required for any condition of engine operation.
There are two ranges of operation, namely, temperature lim
E lectronic Fuel-Trimming System iting and temperature control.
Temperature limiting serves to prevent the possibility of
The electronic fuel-trimming system contributes the
exceeding critical turbine-inlet-temperature limits during
following:
starting or acceleration. Whenever operating with the throt
• Provides positive overtemperature protection during tle in the 0 to 65° position (coordinator quadrant), the engine
starting and acceleration. is operating in limiting. Temperature limiting also occurs
• Allows engine to operate closer to the maximum turbine when operating with a locked-in fuel correction above 65°
inlet temperature because of accurate monitoring of fuel (coordinator quadrant).
scheduling. Two different limits are required: a lower one of 87 1 oc is
• Permits selection of any desired turbine inlet tempera needed below 1 3,000 rpm when the fifth- and tenth-stage
ture in the control range 760 to 97 1 oc to be automati compressor-bleed-air valves are open; a higher temperature
cally maintained without any throttle change. limit of 977°C permits locking-in of a fuel correction at any
throttle setting . above 65 ° (coordinator quadrant) without
• Permits use of kerosene, Allison-specification EMS-
having an overtemperature signal. Thus, the following oper
64 A or JP-4 fuel without requirement for rerigging or
ational conditions exist:
recalibration of the fuel control.
• Permits use of power-unit bleed air for anti-icing pur • Temperature limit of 87 1 oc when starting and accelerat
poses without the necessity of changing power settings ing up to 1 3,000 rpm.
to avoid the possibility of overtemperature. • Temperature limit of 87 1 °C when operating at low
• Trims fuel flow to compensate for erroneous compres speed taxi.
sor-inlet-air temperature or pressure sensing by the fuel • Temperature limit of 977°C during high-speed taxi.
•
control caused by aircraft installation. Temperature limit of 977°C up to 65° (coordinator
• Provides a more uniform throttle setting for all engines. quadrant).
TOitQUEMETER
PICKUPS
2
�
>
.,
MOTOR GENERATOR
VENTURI ---r.H
Relay Box The temperature trim light (see Fig. 23-25) will be on
from 0 to 65 ° (coordinator quadrant), indicating operation in
The relay box contains the relays required by the engine
the temperature-limiting range. From 65 to goo (coordinator
for proper sequencing of all control components.
quadrant), it will be off, indicating operation in the temper
ature-control range. It will also be off from go to 0° (coor
Thermocouples dinator quadrant) when the temperature-datum-valve brake
There is a total of 1 8 dual thermocouples [see Fig. is in the locked position. However, if an overtemperature
23-7(b)], forming two individual circuits. One circuit pro condition occurs with the temperature-datum-valve brake
vides turbine inlet temperature to the flight-deck instrument, locked at any power setting, the light will come on. When
and the other provides an actual-temperature indication to the temperature trim light is off, it indicates that the elec
the temperature-datum control. Due to the fact that each cir tronic fuel-trimming system is making a fuel-flow correc
cuit is a parallel one made of 1 8 thermocouples, the temper tion (put or take); and when tpe light is on, it indicates that
ature indication is an average of all 1 8 . no correction (null) is being made or there is an overtem
perature condition. Note: If the engine-temperature-datum
control switch is in emergency NULL or OFF, the light
Coordi nator Potentiometer and Microswitches indication should be disregarded.
The coordinator potentiometer is a variable one that
provides the desired turbine-inlet-temperature signal to the Engine-Temperature-Datum-Control Switch
temperature-datum control in the range of 65 to goo (coor
The engine-temperature-datum-control switch (see Fig.
dinator quadrant-approximately 760° to g7 1 °C). The vari
23-25) must be placed in the NORMAL position for the elec
able signal is a result of throttle movement on the flight deck
·
tronic fuel-trimming system to function. When placed in
positioning this potentiometer.
emergency NULL, the system is inoperative and the
The micros witch, set at 65 °, transfers the electronic .
temperature-datum valve returns to the null position, bypass
fuel-trimming system from temperature limiting to tem
ing 20 percent of the 1 20 percent furnished by the fuel con
perature control. The one at 66° arms the temperature trim
trol. The metering of fuel is now accomplished solely by the
switch, which allows locking of the temperature-datum
fuel control. Closer monitoring of turbine inlet temperature
valve brake.
should be done, and the operator should remember that
overtemperature protection is lost. The switch has a third
Speed-Sensitive Control (1 3,000-rpm Switch) position, namely, OFF. When in this position, the same condi
At 1 3 ,000 rpm, the speed-sensitive control deenergizes tions apply as in the emergency NULL position, except for the
the solenoid-operated control valve in the temperature fact that the temperature-datum valve is locked into whatev
datum valve, thus switching from a maximum take of 50 er position it was in prior to the switch being moved.
percent to one of 20 percent. [Author's Note The switch should always be turned
on before engine starting. The switch should always be
Th rottle placed in the OFF position after engine shutdown.]
The drip valve (see Figs. 23-1 1 and 23-22) is located at Ground idle: 9°
o
the lowest point in the fuel manifold. It is designed to drain Flight idle: 34
the manifold at engine shutdown, thus preventing fuel from Takeoff: 90°
draining into the combustion liners after the fuel-control
cutoff valve is closed. The drip valve is a solenoid-operated Coordinator-quadrant degrees are usually called throttle
valve, which is closed by completion of the electrical circuit degrees since the throttle actually sets the coordinator at any
by the 2200-rpm switch in the speed-sensitive control. At setting that it may have. The cockpit throttle quadrant has
9000 rpm, the electrical circuit is broken and fuel manifold less than 90° travel and, therefore, measuring the degrees
pressure, acting on the valve, continues to hold it in the that the throttle moves in the cockpit will not correspond to
closed position. At engine shutdown, when manifold pres the throttle degrees that one may read about in the publica
sure drops to a value of 8 to 1 0 psi [55.2 to 68.95 kPa] , the tions of the engine manufacturer.
valve opens due to spring force. The coordinator-quadrant degree indications for th� var
ious ranges are as follows:
Dra i n Valves High-speed taxi range: 0--3 4°
There are two drain valves located at the forward and aft Low-speed taxi range: 9-30°
ends on the bottom of the outer combustion chamber (see Flight range: 34-90°
Fig. 23-1 1 ) . These v�lves are set at 2 to 4 psi [ 1 3.8 to
Temperature-limiting range: 0-65 °
27.6 kPa] air pressure, and are held closed by combustion
chamber air pressure during all engine operation. At engine Temperature-control range: 65-90°
shutdown, these valves open and thus prevent accumulation [Author's Note Power-unit rpm in the low-speed
of fuel in the outer combusti'on chamber after a false start or taxi range is 10,000 (+30/- 1 0), and power-unit rpm in
engine shutdown. the high-speed taxi range is in excess of 1 3,000. To
obtain low-speed taxi, the coordinator pointer must be
Throttle Position between 9 and 30° and the cockpit low-speed taxi
The throttle (see Fig. 23-25) provides the means of switch must be in the low position.]
selecting the following:
• Ground idle-A blade angle and power setting that 1. List several airplanes that use the 50 1 -D 1 3 tu rbo
requires a minimum of wheel braking. prop engine.
• Maximum reverse-The throttle is in the full aft posi 2. Give a brief description of th is engine and its
tion, which produces a blade angle and power setting operation.
for a maximum aircraft braking after touchdown. 3. Very briefly describe the construction features of
Movement of the throttle forward and toward the start the fol lowing parts: compressor assembly, combus
blade angle produces lesser amounts of braking force. tion assembly, turbine-unit assembly, and accessory
drive assembly.
• Taxi range From the maximum-reverse position to the
-
flight-idle detent. At this time, the propeller is a multipo 4. Discuss the reduction-gear assembl y, including the
description of the propeller brake, negative-torq ue
sition, selective blade-angle propeller. For each and every
change of the throttle, a new blade angle is selected. system, th rust-sensitive signal, and safety cou pling .
5. What is the functi�m of the torquemeter? Describe
• Flight range From the flight-idle detent to the full-for
-
its operation.
ward position. In this range, the propeller is a nonselec
6. How many main bearings does this engine have?
tive, automatic rpm governor. The throttle in this range
7. Briefly describe the following systems: lubrication
serves primarily as the means of changing fuel flow.
(reduction gear and main), anti-icing, bleed-air,
The throttle is connected by aircraft linkage to the engine ignition, and fuel, including the electronic trim
coordinator control, and any movement of the throttle will system.
move this linkage. The coordinator control then coordinates 8. Describe the coordinator control and its
the operation of the fuel system with that of the propeller. operation.
The coordinator has a quadrant marked off from 0 to 90° 9. List t h e throttle positions and tell what mode of
with the following markings: engine operation each position selects.
The construction of the Teledyne CAE J69-T-25 engine The J69 engine consists of the following sections, acces
(Fig. 24- 1 ) is somewhat different from the larger turbojet sories, and parts (Fig. 24-2 on p. 538):
engines in use at this writing, due principally to the novel
• Accessory case
design of the combustion chamber and fuel-distribution sys
• Compressor housing
tem, and in this respect is simi:liar to several of the Williams
• Turbine housing
International and French Turbomeca designs. Two J69s are
installed in the Air Force 's primary trainer, the Cessna T-37. External accessories (Fig. 24-3 on p. 539) include the
Other models of this engine are installed in several target following:
drones and special-purpose aircraft.
• Starter generator (airframe supplied)
• Starting-fuel system
• Ignition system
SPECIFICATIONS • Fuel pump
• Fuel control
Number of compressor stages: • Oil pump
Number of turbine stages: • Oil filter
Number of combustors: 1 In addition to these parts, there are fuel, air, and oil lines.
Maximum power at sea lev�l: 1025 lbt [4559 N] The engine is mounted with one top mount at the rear and
two front mounts, approximately on the shaft axis.
Specific fuel consumption at
maximum power: 1 . 1 4 lb/lbt/h
[ 1 1 6.2 g/N/h] OPERATION
Compressor ratio at maximum
rpm: 4: 1 [Author's Note All numbers refer to Fig. 24-4
Maximum diameter: 24.9 in. [632 em] (on p. 540).
Maximum length: 50 in. [ 1 27 em] In starting, the starter-generator drives through
Maximum dry weight: 364 lb [ 1 65 kg] gears to spin the turbine-shaft assembly ( 1 ). Air
537
1 ELECTRICAL CABLE 7 OIL-FIT.. TER ASSEMBLY SHAFT AND FRONT BEAR- INLET-NOZZLE GROUP
GROUP 8 OIL-PUMP DRIVE GROUP lNG CAGE GROUP 16 TURBINE AND COMPRES-
2 IGNITION GROUP 9 STARTER-GENERA TOR 13 COMPRESSOR HOUSING SOR SHAFT ASSEMBLY
3 FIREWALL AND HOSES DRIVE GROUP GROUP 17 TURBINE HOUSING
GROUP 10 ACCESSORY CASE GROUP 14 RADIAL DIFFUSER AND GROUP
4 FUEL PUMP GROUP 11 EXHAUST DIFFUSER AND COMPRESSOR COVER 18 COMPRESSED AIR-FILTER
5 FUEL CONTROL GROUP REAR-BEARING GROUP GROUP ASSEMBLY
6 OIL-PUMP GROUP 12 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR- 15 COMBUSTOR SHELL AND
drawn into the inducer and compressor-rotor ( 1 1 , the combustion chamber to mix with fuel. The mix
1 2) sections of the single centrifugal compressor is ture bums in the presence of the previously estab
flung outward radially into the radial and axial dif lished flame so that the cycle is continuous. After
fusers ( 1 4 , 1 6), which convert the velocity of the air the engine is working under continuous-flame opera
into pressure. This pressure developed at the inlet to tion (3500 rpm), the starting-fuel solenoid valve and
the turbine housing (2 1 ) forces the air into the com the ignition system must be deenergized. The starter
bustion chamber (20). Main fuel sprays from the is cut out at about 5000 rpm. The hot products of
fuel distributor (2) into the combustion chamber to combustion pass. through the exhaust diffuser (29)
mix with this air. When ignition of the air-fuel mix and through the aircraft tailpipe to produce thrust.]
ture takes place, the hot gases flow out through the
combustion chamber and. are then directed by fixed An ignition system and a separate fuel system are pro
vanes of the turbine inlet nozzle (24) to impinge on vided for starting. Fuel is fed from the fuel control through
the blades of the turbine rotor (25 ) . The resultant a solenoid valve to the starting-fuel nozzles ( 1 7) installed
torque speeds up the turbine-shaft assembly to draw in the lower portion of the turbine housing. Adjacent to
in and compress additional air. This new air enters each of the two nozzles is an igniter plug ( 1 8), which is
I I 12
1 MAIN SHAFT ASSEMBLY 9 AIR INLET 18 IGNITER PLUG 26 REAR BEARING HOUSING
2 FUEL DISTRIBUTOR 10 COMPRESSOR HOUSING 19 AIR INLET TUBE SUPPORT
3 FRONT BALL BEARING STRUT 20 COMBUSTION CHAMBER 27 OIL PASSAGE
4 FUEL SEAL 11 INDUCER ROTOR 21 TURBINE HOUSING 28 STREAMLINE STRUT
5 ACCESSORY GEAR TRAIN 12 COMPRESSOR ROTOR 22 OUTER COMBU STOR 29 EXHAUST DIFFUSER
6 ACCESSORY CASE 13 COMPRESSOR COVER SHELL 30 REAR ROLLER BEARING
7 STARTER-GENERATOR 14 RADIAL DIFFUSER 23 INNER COMBUSTOR 31 TUBULAR AIR PASSAGE
DRIVE 15 COMPRESSOR HOUSING SHELL
8 START ER-GEN ERATOR 16 AXIAL DIFFUSER 24 TURBINE INLET NOZZLE
REPLACEMENT COVER 17 STARTING- FUEL NOZZLE 25 TURBINE ROTOR
F I G U R E 24-4 Sectional view. Note: The starti ng-fuel nozzle ( 1 7) a n d the igniter p l u g ( 1 8) a re in the
lower part of the engine but a re shown on top to fac i l itate sectioni n g .
. .
·
Within the fuel control there are two separate fuel paths:
ENGINE SYSTEMS
1. From the flushing-valve outlet, starting fuel is led
through a starting-fuel filter to a pressure regulator,
Oil System
then to the starting-fuel solenoid valve. From this
Oil , from the engine oil tank (not supplied with the valve, starting fuel passes through adjustable bleed
engine) is led to the main oil pump where the pressure sec valves to the external piping that leads the fuel to the
tion develops main oil pressure (Fig. 24-5 on p. 542). The starting-fuel nozzles.
output of the pressure pump is led through an antileak valve 2. The main fuel path feeds to the acceleration control, to
to the main oil filter. This filter system incorporates a pres the governor valve, then to the cutoff valve from
sure-regulating arrangement as well as bypass provisions to which flow goes to the pressurizing valve and thence
pass oil beyond the filter element if it should become into the engine fuel tube. The acceleration control is
clogged. From the oil-filter output, oil for the rear bearing is designed to influence fuel input during acceleration
carried by an external hose. Another external hose picks up and also to compensate for change of altitude or other
return oil from the rear bearing to carry this oil to the rear ambient air conditions. The governor valve influences
bearing scavenge section of the oil pump. The rear bearing flow to hold the speed called for by the throttle-lever
housing incorporates a vent passage as well as passages to setting. The governor valve is servo-operated and
feed the oil to and from the rear bearing. At the front of the responds to pressure signals developed in the speed
engine, oil is led from the main oil-filter output through pas sensing element. The latter also sends pressure signals
sages to the front bearings and front-end gears. Oil is also to the bypass valve. The function of the bypass valve
fed to the accessory-gear train that fans out across the lower is to maintain a design pressure differential across the
part of the compressor housing. Oil from the front bearings metering elements (which are the acceleration control
and upper gears drains down to the accessory case from and the governor valve). This pressure differential is
which one scavenge section of the oil pump pulls return-oil. maintained by bypassing fuel back to the fuel-pump
All scavenge sections of the oil pump lead return-oil back to inlet. Since the design pressure differential must
the engine oil tank through an antileak valve. This valve pre change with speed, the bypass valve is made respon
vents tank oil from draining back into the engine after sive to. a signal from the speed-sensing element. The
engine shutdown. The front-end section is vented by a pas pressurizing valve is designed to .open only above a
sage to the top of the upper gear housing. minimum pressure and so prevents "dribble" of fuel or
drainage of the control unit when the engine comes to
a stop.
Fuel System
The fuel control also contains check valves, "trim" pro
The aircraft fuel system includes the fuel tanks, booster
visions, and passages for return of fuel bleed-off or seepage.
pump(s), a fuel strainer, a shutoff valve, and fuel flowmeters
in the flow of fuel up to the engine (Fig. 24-6 on p. 543).
The engine fuel system starts with the fuel pump. This
Engine Control
pump, driven off the accessory-gear train, has a centrifugal
booster stage intended to provide boost pressure if the boost The fuel control is the key element affecting engine con
provisions in the aircraft system should fail. It also reduces trol. Provided the proper volume and pressure of fuel are fed
vapor effects by raising total boost pressure. The centrifugal into the fuel-control unit, it regulates and meters engine fuel
booster stage feeds two gear-pump pressure sections operat input to cover all operating conditions automatically. The
ing in parallel. Either section will provide full pressure and following main conditions are controlled:
U1
--
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VENT
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m ::::
• • • • • TANK FLOW
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VI
j
OIL-SEAL REAR-BEARING
OIL JETS
�i:;:__s�
��---N-l��_...�.:·_L: _·'-�
PRESSURE OIL
REAR-BEARING
ACCESSORY- CASE
_...
LEAK VALVE AIR VENT
SCAVE NGE _ _ _
OIL-RETURN CONNECTION
TO TANK
l
ACCESSORY-CASE DRAI N
PRESSURE OIL TO
OIL-PRESSURE CONNECTION _____ __; (t> OENOTES PASSAGE HAS PIPE PLUG
Mom f u e l
distributor
Receptacle
to aircraft
elect system
Compressor· inlet·
Mom air press. Starting fuel
fuel nozzle
ompressor- discharge- a i r
p r e s s . ( f r o m turbine H S G I
�
Air f i lter A cc e s s o r y electrical cable ossy
Firewoll
D i f ferential press .
i n d i c ator
� Fuel f i l t e r s
( 1 nternol l
S t a r t e r - generator terminals
• Starting-The separate starting-fuel path sets up fuel incorporated in the fuel control; the tachometer; and the
flow to the starting-fuel nozzles. The fuel-control, start accessory-electrical-lead ·assembly. The remaining elements
ing-fuel solenoid valve opens this path and closes it in that constitute the complete electrical system are provided
response to signals from a control element not supplied by the aircraft manufacturer.
with the engine.
• Acceleration to idle-The acceleration control sets up
fuel flow to the main fuel distributor to speed the engine REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
up from starting speed to idle without surge or overtem 1 . What airplane uses the J69-T-25 turbojet engine?
perature. As the engine reaches the speed set by the 2 . List the engine's major specifications.
throttle-lever position, the governor valve will come 3 . Give a brief description of the engine and its oper
into action to hold the speed as set. ation.
• Above idle-The acceleration control is designed to 4. How many main bearings does this engine have?
control fuel input for all changing conditions for all 5. Very briefly describe the construction features of
operations from idle up to full speed without allowing the following parts: accessory case, compressor
surge or overtemperature. It compensates for accelera housing and rotor, diffuser, combustor liner, tur
tion, for change of altitude, and for other changes of bine housing, turbine and shaft, and exhaust dif
ambient air characteristics. The governor valve, in all fuser.
cases, acts to hold engine speed to the value set by the 6. What provision is made to reduce compressor
throttle-lever position. stall?
7. Briefly describe the following systems: lubrication,
i gnition, fuel, and electrical.
Electrical System
The basic design of the General Electric CF6 is based on Number of fan stages: 2
the TF39 engine shown in chapter 2. Comparative cross -sec Number of compressor stages: 16
tion views of the TF39/CF6-6 and the CF6-6 and CF6-50 are Number of turbine stages: 2 plus 5
shown in Fig. 25-2. The core for the two engines is nearly
Number of combustors: 1
identical. The CF6-6 five-stage, low-pressure (LP) turbine is
similar in mechanical design to the six-stage TF39 turbine. Maximum power at sea level: 4 1 ,000 lbt [ 1 82,368 N]
The differences (five stages versus six stages) are required Specific fuel consumption at
to properly match the smaller CF6-6 fan. maximum power: 0.35 lb/lbt/h
The CF6-50 engine represents the growth version of the [35.68 g/N/h]
CF6. A 25 percent increase in takeoff thrust with the same Compressor ratio at maximum
frame size is achieved by increasing the overall pressure rpm: 24.7: 1
ratio of the fan component. A three-stage LP compressor is
Maximum diameter: 94 in [239 em]
added and the pressure ratio for the fan, plus compressor, is
increased to 2.35. The overall . compressor ratio (fan, LP Maximum length: 1 8 8 in [478 em]
compressor, and high-pressure [HP] compressor) is Maximum dry weight: 7765 lb [3525 kg]
(a) (b)
544
C F 6·6
TF39
CF6-6(rF39 Comparison
(a)
THRUST SPOILER
0
ACCESSORY DRIVE
F I G U R E 2 5-3 The G . E . C F6 engine can be disassembled i nto engine maintenance u n its (EM Us) .
This modular design permits both sectional ized repair and overhaul either on the aircraft or at l i n e
maintenance stations.
[Author's Note At the time of this writing newer Fan Thirty-eight, wide-chord titanium blades, individu
versions of this engine including the CF6-80 series is ally replaceable on the wing, provide tolerance to ero
capable of producing over sixty thousand pounds of sion and foreign object damage (FOD). Controls and
thrust.] accessories are mounted on the fan case for improved
maintenance and a cooler environment. The fan
assembly for the CF6 engine is shown in Fig. 25-5 .
ENGINE SECTIONS High-pressure compressor The single-rotor, HP com
pressor has variable stator vanes for high efficiency
Basically, the engine consists of a fan section, compres and rapid accelerations, and it operates with a large
sor section, combustion section, turbine section, and acces stall margin to avoid compressor stalls. The horizontal
sory-drive section. These basic sections are shown in Fig. flange compressor casing design permits access to the
25-4. The following presents a general description of the compressor blades and vanes by removing a compres
engine by sections. sor casing half without complete engine disassembly.
ACCESSORY DR I VE SECHON
Fan
(a) (b)
F I G U R E 25-6 One of the essential differences between the C F6-6 and C F6-50 eng i nes.
-------"--�
is a thrust bearing to provide greater safety in the event of [ 1 20.8 kg/s] physical airflow) at 1 2 : 1 pressure ratio ( 1 3 .0 at
shaft malfunction, allowing the LPT rotor to move aft to the design point).
engage with the stator, thus avoiding hazardous overspeed All of the CF6 HP compressors are designed for an oper
ing. The rear bearing is a roller bearing. ational life of 30,000 hours. The HP compressor incorpo
The CF6 fan consists of 38 titanium fan blades that have rates the following features :
2 1 or 22 drilled holes at the tip to reduce weight and to
• Split casings for easy removal for inspection, repair, or
ensure that critical system resonances occur outside the
blade replacement.
engine operating speed range. The rotor and stator have also
• All stages of stator vanes and rotor blades can be
been designed to minimize noise.
I replaced by removal of a compressor casing half.
• Corrosion-resistant titanium-alloys are used through
Fan Material
out the compressor.
The fan rotor is made of forged titanium blades, titanium • The rotor has a minimum of bolted joints, and these are
disks, aluminum platforms and spacers, and a forged and joined with close-fitting rabbets for excellent rotor sta
machined steel stub shaft. Conventional dovetail-type blade bility and low vibration.
attachments modified to permit individual blade removal are
used. These parts are shown in Figs. 25-7 and on p. 550, The HP compressor uses variable stators on the inlet
Fig. 25-8. guide vanes and first six stator rows to maintain a generous
The rotor shaft, disk, and spacers are attached by close stall margin over the entire operating range. This gives the
fitting dowel bolts whose alignment and long-time rotor sta engine good transient characteristics and makes it tolerant to
bility capabilities have been successfully proven in the TF39 inlet distortion.
engine fan and the J79 compressor. The first-stage hub-radius ratio of 0.48 was used to per
mit a high flow per frontal area, resulting in a smaller-diam
FOD Resistance eter, lightweight compressor. At t�e same time, the
hub-radius ratio is sufficiently high to prevent hub-stalling
The CF6-6D/-50A inlet systems are designed to provide tendencies at the low corrected speeds where the front
optimum protection against foreign objects entering the stages have to operate at higher aerodynamic loadings.
main engine inlet duct. The ability to separate foreign Since efficiency is mostly a function of tip clearance/blade
objects is the result of the following: height ratio, the low-radius ratio is beneficial in obtaining
• The slope of the fan hub flow path in relation to the high efficiency because the blades are longer than for a
main compressor inlet, which makes it difficult for for high-radius-ratio compressor having the same flow.
eign objects t? enter, the main compressor inlet duct The aerodynamic blade and vane loadings are low in the
front stages. The loadings gradually increase through the
• The rotation of the fan, which imparts a force on the
first stages to a moderate level and then remain about con
foreign objects and centrifuges the objects toward the
stant through the remaining stages. The loading level of the
outside of the fan flow paths (This centrifugal force,
last stage is slightly higher than the rest of the compressor,
due to the angular velocity imparted by the fan blades,
but well within the limits of demonstrated good operation.
forces solid particles to travel outward across the
The moderate aerodynamic loadings of the compressor
streamline to a point where very few are captured by the
are conducive to good stall margin and high efficiency, and
HP compressor inlet, even if the particles are introduced
enhance the ability of the HP compressor to tolerate inlet
at the root of the fan inlet blades.)
distortions.
Water, ice, birds, etc., have been ingested by the CF6 with The HP compressor rotor (Fig. 25-9 on p. 5 50) is a
no hazardous or unreliable consequences to the engine. combined spool and disk structure using axial dovetails
(stages 1 and 2) and circumferential dovetails for the
CF6 Compressor remaining stages. Compressor rotor blade installation is
shown in Figs. 25- 1 0 and 25-1 1 (on p. 550) .
The CF6-6D HP compressor is a 1 6-stage, 1 6.8 : 1 -pres
sure-ratio component at the design point (35 ,000 ft
[ 1 0,668 m] , Mach = 0.85). The pressure ratio is 1 5 : 1 at S.L.
Com pressor Material
takeoff and 84°F [32SC] . The aerodynamic efficiency is
greater than 86 percent, and it has ample stall margin (over Blading materials for the CF6-6 series are various alloys
20 percent) with a corresponding broad tolerance to inlet of titanium. Blades for stages 1 0- 1 4 are made of steel. The
distortion during takeoff, landing, and reverser operation. rotor is designed so that individual blades can be replaced
The takeoff-rating corrected airflow is 1 3 1 lb/s [59.5 kg/s] without rotor disassembly.
( 1 85 lb/s [84 kg/s] physical airflow). The 1 4-stage spool/disk structure on the CF6-50 series
The CF6-50A HP compressor is aerodynamically and and the 1 6-stage spool/disk on the CF6-6 series consists of
structurally similar to the CF6-6. The compressor contains seven major elements connected with three rabbeted flange
1 4 stages and provides (at sea level, static, 84°F) a correct joints. Forward disks are made of titanium and rear disks are
ed airflow at takeoff power of 1 33 lb/s [60 kg/s] (266 lb/s made of steel.
�
MIDSPAN SHROUD
STA GE-2 SLADE
�
u ���"�·
� '
·
(a)
BALANCE WEIGHT
�� BLADE
I
__ ,
(b)
NO. 2 W:AIING
INNUUCE
NO. 4R BEARING
ROTATING AIRSEAL
F I G U R E 25-8 Fan rotor for the C F6-6 engine. F I G U R E 25-9 The C F6-6 comp ressor rotor assembly.
Compressor Stator
F I G U R E 25-1 1 Compressor rotor blade i n stal lation for stage-3 and onwa rd (circumferential
doveta i ls).
(a)
F I XE D VANE
STAGE·13
AIR
MANIFOLD
STAG E-9
AIR
MAN I F O L D
SEALS
(b)
FIGURE 2 5-1 2 The C F6-50 series engi n e stage-8 customer air i n corporates a split compressor case
design for easier ma intenance.
(a) Assembled view of the front stator assembly.
(b) Compressor front and rear casing components split a long the parti n g surface.
Cowl Assembly
552 Representative E n g i n es
(a) (b)
the fuel-air mixture in the primary zone of the combustor, Combustor Ski rts
which helps eliminate the formation of the high-carbon
The inner and outer skirts, a section of which is shown in
visible smoke that normally results from overrich burning
Fig. 25-17 (on p. 554), comprise the combustion liners of the
in this zone. The dome is continuously film cooled. The
unit. Each skirt consists of a series of circurnferentially
cooling flow path is shown in Fig. 25- 1 6 (on p. 554).
stacked rings joined by resistance-weld and brazed joints.
The liners are continuously film cooled by primary combus
FUEL-
tion air that enters each ring through closely spaced circum
ferential holes. The primary-zone hole pattern is designed to
admit the balance of the primary combustion air and to aug
ment the recirculation for flame stabilization. Three axial
planes of dilution holes on the outer skirt and five planes on
the inner skirt are employed to promote additional mixing
and to lower the gas . temperature at the turbine inlet.
Combustion liner/turbine nozzle air seals provided on the
trailing edge of the skirt allow for thermal growth and
accommodate manufacturing tolerances. The seals are. coat
ed with wear resistant material.
In addition to the smokeless combustion achievement, the
CF6 combustor system represents accomplishments in aero
dynamic and mechanical design. The principal aerodynamic
achievements lie in the combustor-inlet-diffuser design.
Large-radius turns and smooth wall contour are used to min
imize diffuser total pressure losses and to provide uniform
and consistent exit flow patterns. The diffuser design concept
avoids flow separation during normal operating conditions,
and during conditions when the nominal flow patterns are
disrupted by large compressor bleed extractions or when the
compressor-discharge-velocity profile changes. Variations in
circumferential flow patterns due to compressor rear-frame
strut wakes are minimized by design of the strut profiles,
F I G U R E 2 5-1 5 Combustion l i ner installation . cowl leading edges, and combustor passage contours.
� replacement.
These welds are partial-penetration welds (50 percent) to
,
allow easy separation of the two vanes for repair and replace
'-/7; 'f{;'))�!J . �
��'?1
J9� ...
(i\__\.._ '\ �vt
ment of individual halves. The vanes are cooled by compres
sor discharge air that flows through a series of leading-edge
l't
;� 8 holes and gill holes located close to the leading edge on each
', '"U J'
'
<['�
. , · ?f
side. Air flowing from these holes forms a thin film of cool
__
air over the length of the vane.
Internally, vanes are divided into two cavities. Air flow
ing into the aft cavity of the CF6-6 is discharged through
trailing-edge slots. Aft cavity air exits the CF6-50 vanes
through trailing edge slots and a row of pressure side holes.
NOZZLE
SUPPORT
NOZZLE
SUPPORT
\,
AIR BAFFLE
CF6-6
1 6TH-STAGE -��....
AIR IN
� I
I
I
CF6-50
1 4TH-STAGE -Iiili!�
! ...
AIR IN
DI MPLES
1 4TH-STA G E
AIR I N
F I G U R E 25-2 1 The stage-1 high-pressure turbine nozzle vane for the C F6-6, and C F6-50 engi nes.
TRAILING
EDGE
. O UTER
BAND
TRAILING
EDGE
I NNER
BAND
CF6-6
� HPT-ROTOR
COOLING A I R
A I R-TU BE �
BO S S "f:Y
� COLLAR
� l O TH-STAGE
AIR I N
�
TRA I LI N G
E DG E
HO LES
CF6-50
H PT-ROTOR
CO O L I N G A I R
AIR
AIR SEAL
COUPLING NUT
REAR SHAFT
PRESSURE TUBE
FORWARD SHAFT
BALANCE SEAL
STG. 2 DISK
CATENARY THE
CF6·6
CF6·50
.·:· . .··
F I G U R E 2 5-25 (b) Cooling a i rflow detail for the h i gh-pressure turbine used in the C F6-6 engine.
NOSE HOLE S
'
'
i
I
- - 1'
;_.-..
,
I
1
<'
<'
J
LEADING BLADE
CFG-6
TIP-CAP HOLES
SQUEALER Tl P
TIP CAP
�
A
BLADE
PLATFORM
SEAL L I P
(80TH SIDES)
.. t t
F I G U R E 25-26 Details of the stage-1 high-pressure AIRFOIL AIR-INLET HOLES
turbine blades.
(a) The stage-1 b ucke;t, high-pressu re turbine for (a) CF6·50
the C F6-6 and C F6-50 eng i nes.
G I LL HOLES
NOSE HOLES
SEAL STR I P
DOVETA IL
SERRATIONS
(b)
F I G URE 25-26 (b) Stage- 1 high-pressure-turbine blade pair and damper seal for the C F6-6 engine.
The catenary-shaped thermal shield contains turbine The primary rotor structure is Inco 7 1 8 . This nickel-base
rotor cooling air and provides the rotating portion of the alloy provides strength and ductility to metal temperatures in
interstage seal. The seal is rabbeted to the rotor structure to excess of 1 200"F [648.9"C]. The catenary, or heat shield,
reduce bending stress at the flange neck. between the stage 1 and 2 turbine disks is Rene 4 1 . This alloy
The rear shaft, which bolts to th� second-stage disk, sup was chosen because of its higher temperature capabilities and
ports the aft end of the turbine rotor. The shaft incorporates the possibility that it could be exposed to higher temperatures
integral air seals. than the disk. The basic stator structure is also Inco 7 1 8. The
The blade retainers serve two primary functions: they stage 1 nozzle vane is cast of X-40, a cobalt-base alloy.
prevent the blades from moving axially under gas and Experience with aircraft engines has shown that life is
maneuver loads, and they seal the forward face of the enhanced when the airfoil surfaces have protective oxida
first-stage rim dovetail and the aft face of the second tion and corrosion coatings. The blades and vanes are coat
stage rim dovetail from the leakage of cooling air. An ed with Codep (General Electric trademark). Codep is one
additional function is to cover the rotor bolt ends at the of a series of G.E.-developed coatings used specifically for
rotor rim, thus preventing a substantial drag loss. These blades and vanes. This is a coating that can be used and
retainers are a single piece and are held on by the same applied by the airlines on General Electric parts.
bolts that attach the forward shaft and thermal shield to All flange surfaces and dovetail attachments in the high
the turbine disks. pressure turbine are shot-peened to provide fretting resis
The pressure tube serves to separate the high-pressure tance and improved cyclic life capability. The turbine
rotor internal cooling-air supply from the region of the fan shroud has a Bradalloy rubbing surface. Bradalloy has a
midshaft that is concentric to the rotor. It is threaded into the microballoon structure of nickel and aluminum, which pro
front shaft and bolted to the rear shaft. vides a smooth, low-aerodynamic-loss surface to the gas
stream that can·sustain blade rubs without loss of capability.
SQUEALER Tl P
CF6·6 AIR-DISCHARGE
HOLES
..,
' r
'
I
I
I I
I
I I
CA p
I
I
I
t
I
' t
t '
t
'
; t
t
' . J '· t
It
'
t'J . JJ)j
MATING
SURFACE
DOVETAIL
SERRATIONS
-, .77' 7
AIRFOIL AIR·
LEADING BLADE TRAILING BLADE
INLET HOLES
CAP
SQUEALER TI P
.r
8 I { :"\
1 t
1 j
I j
BLADE
PLATFORM CF6-50
DOVETAIL
SERRATIONS
SQUEALER TIP
BLADE
PLATFORM
BLADE SHANK
DOVETAI L
SERRATIONS
F I G U RE 25-27 (b) Stage-2 high-pressu re-turbine blade pair a n d dam per seal for the C F6-6 engine.
Dirt Ingestion effectiveness before entering the root of the blades. A portion
of this same cooling air is directed to the root of the second
HP compressor discharge air and bleed air are used to cool stage blades. This tortuous flow path coupled with the dust
the vanes and blades of the HPT. The HP compressor dis bleed holes in the bladetips prevents plugging of the turbine
charge air flowing around the outside and inside diameter of cooling holes.
the combustor is used to cool the first-stage nozzle guide Thirteenth-stage HP compressor bleed is used to cool the
vane. Contaminants in the outside diameter air are filtered by CF6-6 second-stage stator vane (the CF6-50 uses l Oth-stage
a screen wrapped around the case above the vane. Smaller air) before it is finally discharged into the gas stream.
contaminants are allowed to flow through this screen and are
discharged through the trailing-edge cooling holes that are of
Turbine: Low-Pressure Turbine Assembly
sufficient size to easily pass these contaminants.
The HP compressor discharge air flowing around the The LPT (Fig. 25-28 on p. 564) for all CF6 series engines
inside diameter of the combustor will be measurably cleaner, uses the same technology and design concepts, but the differ
but additional steps have been taken to provide that the cool ent aerothermodynarnic conditions and work output require
ing air to the rotating blades has contaminants of very low ments of the CF6-6 and CF6-50 turbines result in design
micron rating. The flow path takes two 1 80° turns before differences.
entering the "static spiral separator" adjacent to the rotating Both CF6-6 and CF6-50 LPTs use a rotor supported
HPT shaft. The "separator" is a series of small nozzles that between roller bearings mounted in the turbine midframe
swirl the cooling flow in the direction of rotation, and, as a and the turbine rear frame. A horizontally split LPT casing
result, any contaminant particles are centrifuged to the outside containing stator vanes is bolted to these frames to com
of the stream where small holes are provided to duct them plete the structural assembly. This assembly provides a
overboard before they pass into the primary rotor structure. rigid, self-contained module that can be precisely and
These turns and the separator reduce the contaminant levels rapidly interchanged on the engine without requiring a sub
significantly. The contaminants that are discharged through sequent engine test run. The LPT shaft engages the long,
the separator reenter the gas stream in front of the first-stage fan drive shaft through a spline drive and is secured by a
rotor. In its passage from the separator to the individual lock bolt. The forward flange of the turbine midframe is
blades, the air passes through a number of dirt traps that use bolted to the aft flange of the compressor rear frame, after
the centrifugal field to collect and disperse any particles installation of the HPT, to complete the engine assembly.
before they reach the blades. The cooling air to the blades Common elements of the CF6-6 and CF6-50 modules
must now flow under the first-stage rotor. The centrifugal include the turbine midframe (not including the liner), "C"
field of the rotor accelerates the cooling air to the same veloc sump and the no. 6 bearing, and the "D" sump and no. 7
ity as the first-stage blades in order to gain maximum cooling bearing.
LPT RO TOR
A SSEMBLY
C F6-50
F I G U R E 25-28 The low-pressu re turbine section for the C F6-6 a n d CF6-50 engi nes.
HORIZONTAL
First-Stage LPT Nozzle Assembly
COOLI NG
MANIFOLD
FIGURE 25-29 Stage- 1 LP nozzle vane segment for the F I G U R E 25-30 Low-press u re turbine stator assembly for the
C F6-6 and C F6-50 engi nes. C F6-6 and C F6-50 engi nes.
CF6-6
lPT STATOR
ASSEMBlY TRF ASSEMilV
CF6·50
F I G U R E 25-3 1 Low-pressure turbine rotor for the C F6-6 and F I G U R E 25-32 The low-pressure turbine rotor for the C F6-6
C F6-50 e n g ines. and C F6-50 engines (sectioned view).
SUPPORT STRUCTURES
BORE SCOPE
IN SPECTION
PORTS
CF6·6
FRONT FLANGE
"'-::�:1--
11\f-.. -\-\fl,-- PRESSURE BALANCE
SEAL
PADS
COMBUSTION-LINER
MOUNTING-PIN BOSS
F I G U R E 25-34 Compressor rear frame for the C F6-6 and C F6-50 engines.
568 Representative E n g i n es
FIGURE 25-34 (co nti n ued).
ST R U T O RI E N TATIO N
8
CUSTOMER BLEED- ..
4 '- �cuSTOMER BLEED
5 #( COP LEAKAGE
SCAVENGE OIL "
COP LEAKAGE. 1 '- SEAL DRAIN
( LP RECOUP) OIL IN (HP RECOUP)
CDP LEAKAGE (H P RECOUP)
AFT LOOKING FORWARD
REAR FLANGE
FUEL-NOZZLE
PAD
FRONT FLANGE
CF6-50
HUB AND
HUB STRUT
SECOND-STAGE NOZZLE
COOLING-AIR PORT
AFT-SEAL
PRESSURIZING
AIR HOLES
I
IGNITER PAD
FIGURE 25-34 Compressor rear frame for the C F6-6 and C F6-50 engines.
Turbine Midframe major parts of the frame may be replaced or repaired with
out disturbing any structural · welds. The inner structural
The turbine midframe (Fig. 25-35 on p. 570) consists of ring or hub is an open U-shaped, one-piece casting with
the outer casing reinforced with hat-section stiffeners; the flanges provided to support the bearing cone, stationary
link mount castings; strut and castings; cast hub; eight semi seals, liner support cones, and eight gussetted pads
tangential bolted struts; the C sump housing; and a one between the sides of the U for attaching the struts. The
piece, flow-path liner. The frame casing and cast hub outer ring consists of eight castings, butt-welded into the
operate cool enough (less than l l OO"F) [593.3 "C] at all con outer casing skin, between which are fabricated sheet
ditions to permit the use of Inco 7 1 8. metal, hat-shaped sections. These hat sections are butt
The eight, partially tangential frame struts are secured welded to the casting and seam-welded to the casing. The
to rings by bolts. The tangential struts are used to control hats then essentially become continuous structural rings.
thermal stress in the structure itself (thermal differentials The outer ends of the struts are bolted through these cas
between the struts and outer and inner rings produce rota ing castings. The outer casing itself is a conical shell with
tion of the hub, which imposes bending moments about a machined flange butt-welded on each end. The forward
the strut minor axis). Because each strut is relatively flex flange supports the HPT casing and the rear flange sup
ible around its minor axis, lbads and stresses are low at the ports the LPT casing.
strut ends compared with radial strutted frames for the The bearing support cone and sump housing for the no. 5
same thermal gradient. Because of the bolted feature, all and no. 6 bearings is bolted to the forward flange of the
OUTER-
�
. -
�
·
S T R U T CAP
GASKET
CASE
The assembly of the turbine rear frame is similar to the
turbine midframe, but without bolted struts. Although there
are significant maintainability advantages for a bolted struc
LI N E A
F RONT
�� ture, it is used only where there is a distinct configuration
�_£
SUPPORT requirement because of the inherent weight penalty of the
mechanical joints. This turbine rear frame is a welded Inco
7 1 8 structure with eight equally spaced, partially tangential
struts supported on two axially spaced rings at both the hub
.
.I"Ooi-- N O Z Z L E S U P P O RT and outer ring. With the tangential struts and 500oF
-'\--+--- ST R U T [277.8oC] lower gas temperature than the turbine midframe,
(����--- HUB the rear frame can be designed without flow-path liner or
f{��� S UM P H O U S I N G strut fairings. The main advantage of this type of construc
tion is the accessibility of structural welds for visual inspec
tion without disassembly.
STRUT E N D
CAS I N G
- O UTER
REAR
F LA N G E
Al A S E A L
CENTER-VENT
TUBE SUPPORT
LPT-SEATING
SPACER RINGS
572 Representative E n g i n es
GRO U N D
HAN D L I N G &
S H I PP I N G
POI N T
GROUND HAN D L I N G
& S H I PP I N G PO I N TS
SWAY L I N K
(USED O N TAI L E N G I N E O N LY)
(b)
Maintenance Considerations
A pressurized, dry sump system is used for lubricating
the accessory-drive gears and bearings. The system uses The constant speed drive and alternator units are sepa
engine oil from the main lube pump to jet-lubricate critical rately mounted on the gearbox, thus permitting individual
gear meshes and bearings. The bevel gear meshes are lubri removal of the components and reducing the amount of
cated on both the incoming and leaving sides, where practi overhung moment.
cal, to ensure adequate lubricant and cooling flow for proper The location of the accessory drives and the position of
operation. Jet lubrication is used on the more heavily load the engine and airframe accessories were optimized for
ed bevel-gear bearings. On the more lightly loaded spur engine maintenance and installation performance considera
gear bearings, mist and splash lubrication from oil directed tions. Gearbox and accessory removal from the engine is
at the gear meshes is used. readily accomplished.
AFT FACE
I. HYDRAULIC - 3599
4. STARTER - 9827
5. CSD · 8353
T hrust-Reverser System
�-::�-::-:
==- .:-=:J· · ·
= =-
thrust of 40 percent of maximum takeoff forward thrust.
This reverse thrust is achieved by two systems: a core
engine turbine reverser that provides 5 percent reverse of
core engine thrust on CF6-6 engines and about 30 percent - /�
--====-
�J
-
REVERSE
THRUST POSITION
reverse thrust on CF6-50 engines, and a fan reverser that
provides about 48.5 percent reverse thrust of the fan stream F I G U R E 25-45 Fan-reverser positions.
or secondary exhaust system.
In the forward-thrust mode, the fan and turbine reversers
must function as exhaust nozzles and have inherently high fan exhaust is then directed radially outward and forward
thrust coefficients, thus requiring smooth and properly con through the vanes, thus providing a reverse-thrust force. The
toured flow paths with minimum drag and leakage losses. cowl translation (Fig. 25-46) is accomplished by rotating
Their importance is illustrated by the fact that a 1 percent ball screws that are driven through flexible shafts connected
penalty in fan-nozzle thrust coefficient results in a 2.2 per to a pneumatic motor mounted in the pylon.
cent increase in specific- fuel consumption at cruise flight The engine noise suppression requirements include the
conditions. treatment of the fan-reverser/nozzle flow path with a siz
The fan and turbine reversers are modular units that can able surface area of sound suppression material. This
be assembled and rigged off the engine and aircraft. In addi requirement was a factor in defining the length of the fan
tion, the engine can be removed and replaced without reverser/exhaust nozzle system. Because of the nozzle
· length, servicing of the core engine requires access behind
removing the fan reverser from the aircraft. The fan revers
er is split at the bottom and can be opened like the cowling (or inside) major elements of the reverser. Thus, a split-fan
for easy access to the core engine. reverser employing a bifurcated duct was selected. This
feature permits ready access to the core engine, as shown in
Fig. 25-47 .
Fan Reverser Quick-release handles operating latches at the bottom
This fan-reverser design (Fig. 25-45) is being used on and at the top forward support structure are the only fan
both the CF6-6 and CF6-50 series engines. As shown, a reverser-related fasteners that must be manipulated to open
series of airfoil-shaped turning vanes are mounted in cas a reverser duct half. As a further aid to maintainability the
cades around the outer circumference of the fan nacelle. split fan-reverser ducts are opened by a power actuation sys
These vanes are surrounded by a cowl that provides a smooth tem, and the fan-reverser transcowl actuation system can be
flow path for both internal fan exhaust flow and the external completely rigged off the engine. .
airstream. The outer cowl extends aft and, in conjunction The translating cowl that surrounds the static structure is
with the cowl around the core engine, forms an annular con also split into halves. During forward-thrust operation, the
vergent plug nozzle. Aft translation of the outer cowl uncov outer cowl forms the basic pressure vessel in conjunction
ers the turning vanes, and a series of doors ( 1 6 total), with the duct side wall, the inner cowl, and forward outer
flush-mounted by hinges to the cowl and attached to links static structure.
extending from the inner cowl, are automatically pivoted The fan reverser, with the exception of the areas having
inward to block the flow through the fan exhaust nozzle. The noise treatment, is composed primarily of aluminum sheet
and honeycomb, with castings and extrusions being used in
transition and concentrated-load areas.
GEARBOX, ANGLE
CORE COWL
FAN REVERSER
TURBINE
REVERSER
FAN COWL
TU R N I NG VANE BEAM
TRANSLATING COWL
'
NOISE TREATMENT
DEPLOYED POSITION
(a)
TRANSLATING
COWL
(b)
VARIABLE STATOR - - -,
VANE ACTUATOR {2) I
MASTER ACTUATOR I
LEVER {2) I
I
I
I
I
I
FUEL/O I L HEAT
EXCHANGER
FUEL F I LTER
LOWER PY LON
F I RE SEAL
MA I N ENGINE CONTROL
S I GNAL TUBE
of the fuel pump where the fuel enters and exits through two Feedback-Cable Reset Actuator
adjacent ports on a common flange. The design and location
The feedback-cable reset actuator transiently repositions
of the heat exchanger eliminates the requirement for a fuel
the VSV feedback cable during engine acceleration. When
heater on the CF6. Operation of the heat exchanger is auto
takeoff power is set, the VSV s are reset CLOSED initially and
matic and requires no pilot actuation or airframe interface
then gradually returned to the scheduled position. This reset
(see Fig. 25-58 on p. 586).
action provides partial compensation for the inherent ten
dency of exhaust gas temperature to overshoot until the tur
Mai n Engine Control
bine reaches stabilized operating temperature.
The main engine control is a hydromechanical unit that
meters combustion fuel flow to maintain the desired engine Fuel Fi lter
speed selected by the throttle. The unit also controls the
The fuel filter (Fig. 25-54 on p. 5 82) is a lightweight,
position of the variable stator vanes (VSV) (and the variable
high-pressure unit with aluminum head and bowl and dis
bypass valves on the CF6-50) by scheduling high-pressure
posable filter element. The filter head houses a bypass relief
fuel to the VSV actuators.
valve and the bowl houses the disposable filter element. The
The control is an isochronous-speed governor that main
bypass relief valve is designed to ensure fuel flow in the
tains constant core speed N2 at constant power-lever angle
event that the element becomes clogged. Positioning the fil
in spite of variations in ambient conditions. The fuel sched
ter on the fuel pump renders the filter most accessible for
ule is controlled by maintaining a fixed pressure drop
replacement of the element.
across a variable-orifice, fuel-metering valve. The response
of the control-to-power demand inputs is continuously
Pressurizing and Dra i n Valve U n it
biased by CIT, CDP, and core engine rotor speed N2• Core
speed is controlled and limited by the fuel control, while The pressurizing and drain valve (Fig. 25-55 on p. 5 82)
control of the low-pressure rotor speed N1 is accomplished serves three purposes: it ensures that adequate fuel servo
indirectly by controlling N2• A flight/ground idle solenoid is pressure is maintained in the fuel control and that the
provided to obtain CIT-biased ground or flight idle sched metered fuel pressure is sufficiently high to actuate the vari
ule. Ground idle provides the low thrust requirement to able stator vanes and variable bypass valves, and it serves to
minimize aircraft braking during taxi operations. Flight idle drain the fuel manifold upon engine shutdown to prevent fuel
provides the higher initial power setting that enables rapid from leaking into the combustor and to prevent fuel coking
in-flight acceleration. The solenoid is energized manually in the nozzles. During engine operation, the drain valve is
by an airframe electrical signal to obtain ground idle. The held closed by a metered-fuel-pressure signal. During the
solenoid is, therefore, fail-safe to flight idle. Internally the engine shutdown, the signal pressure drops and a spring
control has a self-washing filter that requires no mainte force unseats the valve, causing fuel from the manifold to
nance between overhauls. drain through the outlet port to an airframe-furnished drain
OUT PORT
RELIEF VALVE
DRAIN
REFERENCE PORT
:::0
Ill
.....
-c
Ill
"'
Ill
::J
..... '- SUMP VENT EXIT
QJ WITH FLAME
.....
<"
ARRESTER
Ill
"D" SUMP LUBE NOZZLE
m
::J
lO
::J
"'
Ill
FLANGE FOR
OIL-TANK
(EVER SENSOR
OIL
I
SCAVENGE INLET SCREENS WITH
LUBE-SUPPLY PROVISIONS FOR MAGNETIC CHIP
PRESSURE TAP COlLECTOR OR TEMPERATURE
(WITH .093·.098 SENSOR (.030 x.030 SCREEN)
OJA. ORIFICE) 1
/
LUBE
ANTISTATIC LEAK SUPPLY TRANS
�
OVERFILL PORTS
�
COLD START BYPASS
OIL-SUPPLY SCAVENGE-OIL (300 PSID MIN LUBE OIL TANK
TEMPERATURE TAP TEMPERATURE TAP CRACKING PRESS.)
(20 685 kPa]
& DRAIN
VALVE {40 PSIO) OIL-TANK SCUPPER
(276 kPa]
SHUTOFF VALVE
RING
INLET
()
::T
OJ
""0
.....
....
(J)
N
V1
G\
(J)
:::l
....
(J)
OJ
m
(J)
::::.
:::::! .
n
()
"T1
en
ct
.... FILTER BOWL
C""
0
....,
OJ
:::l
m
:::l
1.0
:::l
(J)
U1
00
Ln
I
Ln
N
w
0:::
:::>
\9
u::
MO UNTI N G F LA N GE
.
B SUMP SCAVENGE I N LET
MAGNETIC CHIP
DETECTOR --
i� -
' 1
0 R I NG
I NLET SCREEN
(TYPICAL AT A L L I N LETS)
! TYPICAL ) · . ·
I - ____.
SCAVENGE I N LETS
SCREEN-SERVICE
S HU T O FF VA LVE
S PL I N E LUBE SU PPLY
F I G U R E 25-59 The C F6-6 lube and scavenge pump external view and i nternal schematic.
• Each scavenge element of the integral lube and scav Tl?ls section describes engine components (Fig. 25-62 on
enge pump is fitted with a 26-in mesh inlet screen for p. 593) that rely on electricity for their operation. Included
fault isolation. Provisions are also made for a magnetic as electrical equipment, however, are the following items,
chip detector in each element. where ( 1 ) indicates systems not included in engine standard
• The scavenge oil is directed to a common line upstream equipment, (2) indicates airframe-furnished equipment, and
of the scavenge filter, and this filter is equipped with a (3) indicates parameter available for indication but not used
bypass valve to ensure oil flow should the element by airframer:
become clogged. Check valves permit removal of the
• Ignition system
filter without loss of oil. A master chip detector is also
• Exhaust gas temperature
provided upstream of the filter for early detection of
• Fan speed sensor
metal particles in the engine oil.
• Core speed sensor ( 1 )
Oil Seal Pressurization Subsystem • Fuel pump interstage pressure (2)
• LPT inlet pressure Pt5.4
The oil seal pressurization subsystem consists of the
plumbing and air passages that route fan discharge air to the • EPR (2)
main shaft oil seals. The pressurized air is used to prevent • Oil supply pressure (2)
the oil from leaking through the seals and to cool the bear
ing sumps (Fig. 25-60).
The fan discharge air is extracted at the leading edge of
PRESSURIZATION AIR
the compressor front frame and is diffused and distributed
I
internally to each engine oil seal. The air in the sumps is
removed directly by the sump vent subsystems, while air
that is mixed with the oil is removed by the vortex deaera O I L SEAL
.....
""S.
It)
N
V1
C\
It)
::'I
It)
.....
QJ
m
- FAN DISCHARGE SUMP &
....�.
It)
PRESSURIZATION COOLING
"'"
"T1
n
P:.; 'i):{J SUMP VEN_T AIR
"'
2 \
c
.....
o
....,
QJ
::'I
m
::'I
\0
::'I
It)
"A" Sump
U1
00
'-0 F I G U RE 25-61 The A sump a rea. FIG U RE 25-61 conti nued o n the next page.
U1 ..,
\D Ci
0 FAN-DISCHARGE & SUMP-PRESSU RIZATION COOLING c
c:=J
;:lJ
m
SUMP VENT AIR N
i :.�}[j
U'1
fi! i�¥
;:lJ
en
(!)
I
....,
"0 LOW-PRESSURE RECOUP AIR
VI
� ;!J
(!)
-;::;-
(!) H I GH-PRESSURE RECOUP AIR 0
::l ::l
.-+
!::!'.
QJ
.-+
:;:: ·
� COMPRESSOR-DISCHARGE C U STOMER ::l
c
(!) (!)
m .e-
::l
1.0
::l
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FIGURE 25-61 The D sump area.
ENGINE MOUNTED
CONNECTIONS ..-
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IGNITER PLUG
EXCITER
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IGNITION
IGNITER PLUG
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FAN SPEED SENSOR
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LP TURBINE INLET THERMOCOUPLES-T54
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STANDARD EQUIPMENT
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OIL-PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
- - - - - - -- - - - - - ---- - -- - ,
1
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�---------+-+----------i. OIL-TEMPERATURE SENSOR
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- - - - - --- - - - -
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AC POWER
28VDC
SPARK
IGNITION IGNITOR A
CONTROL
SWITCH
AC POWER -- �5<�����----��-r--4--rt--J
2 3
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28 VDC
G
ENG. START
ON
0
FUEL
AC POWER
OFF
Igniter Plug the detection of open circuits and the locating of hot streaks
in the engine. The EGT-indicating system uses a common
The igniter plugs are mounted in the compressor rear
junction and is geometrically balanced. The resultant out
frame at the four and five o ' clock positions and extend into
put signal of the four harnesses represents the average tem
two combustion liner swirl cups. The plugs are mounted on
perature of the LPT inlet gas.
a threaded adapter that receives the lead end.
The plugs deliver 2 J per spark at 1 00,000 W peak power.
Fan Speed Ind icator
Their construction is a surface-gap-type with a large center
electrode (0.200 to 0.240 in) [0.06 to 0.072 em] . Estimated The N1 speed sensors (see Fig. 1 9-2) are eddy-current
continuous-duty sparking life is 1 00 h. type, self-contained units mounted at the 1 0 o'clock and 2
Shown in Fig. 25-63 is a schematic of the dual ignition o'clock positions on the fan case. The sensor provides a pri
system with its cockpit control. Alternating between sys mary signal for cockpit readout of fan speed and a sec
tems l and 2 is recommended to prolong the life of the ondary !/revolution signal to identify the passage of one
igniter plugs and thus reduce the maintenance requirement. modified fan blade on the fan rotor for "on engine" balanc
ing of the fan rotor.
The N1 speed sensor is mounted on the fan case and pen
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
etrates the rub strip material in the plane of blade rotation.
The EGT-indicating system consists of four thermocou The passage of each fan blade disrupts the flux field set up
ple harnesses (Fig. 25-64) and probe segments and two · by the sensor, causing an electrical signal pulse. These puls
thermocouple leads. Three of the thermocouple harness es are equal in frequency to the number of blades times the
segments (Fig. 25-65 on p. 596) have three dual-immersion rpm, thus giving a signal frequency proportional to fan
probes and a fourth segment has two dual-immersion speed, with no inaccuracy. This signal is then amplified and
probes. The aft thermocouple lead has four electrical con conditioned to provide a 0 to 1 0 V signal to the cockpit indi
nectors for attachment to the four thermocouple segments cator. The input power requirement for the N1 speed sensor
and one electrical connector for attachment to the forward is 28 V DC.
lead. The forward lead has an electrical connector for The secondary signal pulse results when a slug of special
attachment to the aircraft lead that leads to the EGT indica material (located in the tip of one fan blade) passes through
tor in the cockpit. The thermocouple probes are located the flux field. This pulse occurs only once per fan rotor rev
through the turbine midframe, spaced around the engine olution and differs from the primary pulse because the slug
circumference. The circuitry of the thermocouple harness material has higher conductivity and/or permeability than
permits the reading of individual probes, which facilitates the fan blade material.
J
AFT FLANGE
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U1 FIGURE 2 5-64 Thermocouple ha rness.
GUIDE SLEEVE
DETAIL OF THERMOCOUPLE
The N2 or core-engine-speed-indicating system consists The LPT inlet pressure probe (Pt5_4) is a single-tube,
of a bearingless-tachometer-type core speed sensor that gen closed-end probe with four equal-diameter orifices equally
erates an electrical signal to a cockpit core-engine-speed spaced along the working length of the probe. The four ori
readout. This signal is generated by a 3 1 -tooth rotor. It pro fices permit averaging the LPT inlet pressure. The probe is
vides at 1 00 percent N2 a frequency approximately equal to mounted on the outside of the turbine midframe for easy
the fan speed sensor output at 1 00 percent N1 • This permits · accessibility, and the positron of the probe is fixed by locat
use of a common speed readout for N1 and N2, except for ing lugs on the probe flange.
dial marking. The pressure probe extends into the gas stream in the
The N2 or core-engine-speed-indicating system incorpo LPT inlet. The Pt5 A pressure is transmitted to the airframe
rates a generator that emits a single-phase AC signal. The furnished pressure-ratio transmitter to be compared with
generating unit is mounted on the forward end of the lube fan-inlet total pressure (Pt2). Fig. 25-66 shows the relation
and scavenge jlump and is driven by an extension of the lube ship of the various transmitters and probes.
and scavenge pump drive shaft.
RESET
t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • · · · · �
REVIEW AN D STUDY QU ESTIONS 7. Briefly explain the construction features of the fan and
turbine reversers.
1. What aircraft use the General Electric CF6 turbofan 8. In addition to the control of fuel, what other function
engine? does the main engine control have?
2. Why does the LPT have five stages on the CF6-6 9. List all the parameters used· to indicate correct engine
model and four stages on the CF6-50 model engine? operation.
3. Discuss some of the new technology that has been 1 0. List the CF6-6 and CF6-50 engines' major specifica
used on this engine to allow higher TIT. tions.
4. Name and discuss some of the features incorporated 11. Give a brief description of airflow through the fan and
into this engine to make inspection, maintenance, and core portions of this engine.
overhaul easier. 1 2. List the number and location of the main bearings.
5. Smokeless combustion is a feature of this engine. How 1 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the vari
is this accomplished? able-geometry compressor used on this engine?
6. The labyrinth seal is used extensively in this engine.
Discuss the philosophy behind this method of sump
sealing.
FIGURE 26-1 Cutaway view of the Pratt & Whitney JT8D tu rbofan engine.
598
5 & 1D 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11
_t I I .\ I
I I I I \ /u
22 21 20 11
stage turbine rotors and is mechanically independent of the with one thicker vane at the bottom carrying engine tubing,
high-pressure system, which consists of the rear compressor direct air to the face of the compressor.
rotor and the first-stage turbine rotor. The engine is mount The no. I bearing front support assembly is mounted in the
ed from two points. The front mount is located at the fan center of the compressor-inlet case. Behind the front support
discharge intermediate case. The engine rear mount is is the no. 1 bearing rear support. Mounted on the front of the
located at the turbine-exhaust-section outer duct. inlet case, in the center, is the front accessory-drive support.
The fan-inlet case contains 1 9 equally spaced vanes, 1 8
of which have 2 internal ribs running the length of the vane.
These ribs divide the hollow portion of the vanes into three
ENGINE SECTIONS passageways. The vane at the six o'clock position also con
tains the two internal ribs running the length of the vane;
Air-Inlet Section however, in this instance all three passageways are used to
conduct tubing. The center passageway of this vane is filled
Fan-Inlet Case Assembly
with a rubber compound to dampen tube vibration.
The air enters the engine through the compressor-inlet The vanes are brazed between titanium inner and outer
case [Fig. 26-4(a) on p. 600] . The inlet case and its vanes, shroud cases. A welded ring, brazed in place, adds structural
HIGH-PRESSURE LOW.PRESSURE
FIGURE 26-3 Pri mary and secondary airflow. DRIVE TURBINE DRIVE TURBINE
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 599
rigidity and ·forms the outer wall of the outer case. Studs in holds an aluminum, multistepped seal ring behind the bush
the rear flange are engaged by locknuts to hold the case to ing. The seal ring is secured in place by a flange near the
the front compressor case. front and a flared lip at the rear. Holes in the front flange of
Five tubes [Fig. 26-4(b)] are routed through the three the support accommodate the oil and anti-icing air tubes.
passageways between the outer and inner case in the vane Behind the front support is the no. 1 bearing rear support
at the six o'clock position: the no. 1 bearing oil-pressure (see Fig. 26-39), cast from aluminum alloy in the shape of
tube; no. 1 bearing-oil-scavenge tube; no. 1 bearing an open dish. This unit snap-fits on the rear side of the front
breather tube; the tachometer conduit tube; and the com support and is bolted and lockwired to the rear flange of the
pressor-inlet-air pressure tube, which senses P12 from the inlet-case inner shroud. It shares the supporting loads of the
airframe nose cone . no. 1 bearing with the front support. Three puller lugs on the
A five-passage tube connector is secured to the bottom of ID of the rear flange provide a means of removing the sup
the case, as is a water-drain screen and plug assembly. port from the inlet case.
Two bosses (four studs each) are located on the outer
case near the bottom, one on each side. The engine pressure Front Accessory-Drives Support
probe is located in the boss on the right and the temperature
Mounted on the front of the inlet case, in the center, is the
probe boss is located on the left.
front accessory-drives support. This magnesium support
There are two anti-icing air bosses (three studs each), at the
incorporates a four-stud N1 tachometer pad on the upper
approximate 1 0 and 2 o'clock positions, brazed in the outer
front face. A pressure-oil passage in the support carries oil
wall of the case. Anti-icing air passages are formed within the
from the rear of the outer flange into the center, then rear
case to permit the air to flow between the outer wall and outer
ward through the no. 1 bearing oil nozzle. A scavenge-oil
shroud and inward through the hollow vanes, and to discharge
passage carries oil from a pump boss, on the lower rear face
forward through the front of the inner shroud case.
of the support cavity, back toward the outside of the support,
then to another opening in the rear of the outer flange.
No. 1 Bearing Front and Rear Support
The front accessory-drives support has a machined flat
The no. 1 bearing front support assembly (see Fig. on the lower mounting lugs to accommodate a bracket
26-39) is mounted in the center of the compressor-inlet ·assembly to be used for the N1 tachometer equipment.
case behind the front accessory-drive support. It holds the The N1 tachometer-drive gearshaft and the scavenge
no. 1 bearing outer race secured in a steel bushing in its pump gearshaft are driven by the front accessory-drives gear
inner diameter (ID) by a nut and a flared rivet. Three puller shaft located in the front hub of the front compressor rotor.
slots in the rear lip of the bushing facilitate removal of the The no. 1 bearing oil-scavenge pump mounts on the
bearing outer race. The support, of cast aluminum, also pump boss inside the front accessory-drives support.
5 4
(a) (b)
FIGURE 26-4 E ng i ne i n l et.
(a) Fan i n let case and no. 1 bearing front s upport.
(b) Fan i nlet master vane.
1 FAN INLET AIR (P12, T,.) 4 LOW-PRESSURE COMPRES-· 6 HIGH-COMPRESSOR (N2) 9 HIGH-PRESSURE COMPRES
2 LOW-PRESSURE COMPRES SOR DISCHARGE AIR {P13, T13) 7 ANTI-ICING AIR SOR-DISCHARGE AIR (f\4, T14)
SOR{N1) 5 LOW-PRESSURE {N1) BLEED 8 EIGHTH-STAGE BLEED AIR
3 FAN-DISCHARGE AIR AIR
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 601
between the vanes.) Stages 4 and 5 are steel, with a box-type
outer shroud. AU of stages 1 through 5 are of continuous-ring
construction.
The stators are designed to resist the torque loads trans
mitted by the aerodynamic forces along the vanes and to
absorb the bending moments imposed by the pressure dif
ferentials across the vanes. The vanes decrease in size from
front to rear and the angle at which they are mounted is set
to feed air into the following row of rotor blades to give best
compressor efficiency at operating speed.
feed this air into the diffuser case and combustion section. The front compressor rotor has a front hub (which serves
The rear compressor rotor is driven by the first stage of as the first-stage disk), a rear hub (which serves as the
the turbine through the rear compressor-drive turbine fourth-stage disk), four rotor disks, six stages of blades
(short) shaft. The turbine shaft splines onto the rear com secured in the hubs and disks, five rotor disk spacers, and
pressor rear hub and is retained by the turbine-shaft cou two sets of tie-rods. Some models have only four separate
pling. rotor disk spacers. The third-stage disks of these models
incorporate an integral spacer. This rotor is driven by the
Front and Rear Fan Cases front compressor-drive turbine rotor.
Behind the inlet case and enclosing the fan section are
the front and rear fan cases, of decreasing diameter from
front to rear. Both cases are constructed of steel, and the
rear case has a shoulder at the front to accommodate the
first-stage vanes. Antirotation positioning pins in the
flanges ensure correct positioning of the cases in the
engine.
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1 RING-LOCKRING RETAINING SOR ROTOR. REAR t--r--· · -- ·
2 LOCK 6 COUPLING
3 RING RETAINING 7 SPRING-REAR
4 RING RETAINING
5 HUB-FRONT COMPRES-
8 SPRING-FRONT
9 LOCKRING"
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Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 603
the outer wall of the basic inner engine from the fan-discharge The compressor intermediate fan case incorporates
vanes to the diffuser-case front flange. streamlined struts between the intermediate case and the
The sixth-stage steel vanes and the no. 3 bearing hous outer diameter of the engine. The larger six o' clock posi
ing are welded inside the case. The no. 2 bearing housing tion strut accommodates the accessory-gearbox main
is bolted to the front face of the case. A steel support and drive shaft.
a support bushing below it are positioned at the bottom The front mounting points of the engine are on the outer
center of the case to accommodate the main accessory flange of this case. The accessory gearbox is secured to it at
drive gearshaft bearing housing. Positioned inside the the bottom.
bearing housing is the main accessory-drive bevel gear
shaft, in a roller bearing at the top and a ball bearing at the Main Accessory-Drive Bevel Gearshaft and Bearing
bottom.
The main accessory-drive bevel gearshaft is driven by the
gearbox-drive bevel gear, which is inside the no. 3 bearing,
Fan-Discharge, Rear Compressor-Section Inner splined to the front hub of the rear compressor rotor and
Duct rotating at N2• The main accessory-drive bevel gearshaft, in
Riveted to the rear of the compressor intermediate case is tum, rotates the gearbox driveshaft through the splined
the fan-discharge, rear compressor-section inner duct. This driveshaft coupling.
cylindrical steel duct forms the inner wall of the fan-dis
charge air passage at this location, and the flanges are fabri Rear Compressor Section
cated on the inside surface to accommodate the airflow. The The purpose of the rear compressor (Fig. 26-10) is to fur
rear flange of this case is equipped with self-locking nuts ther compress the air delivered by the front compressor and
flared securely in place. to then feed this air into the diffuser case and combustion
Two double-hole, low-pressure airbleed bosses are near section. The rear compressor rotor is driven by the first stage
the front, each approximately 45" above the horizontal cen of the turbine through the rear compressor drive turbine
ter line. At the rear are two single-hole, eighth-stage airbleed (short) shaft. The turbine shaft splines onto the rear com
bosses, each approximately 45' above the horizontal center pressor rear hub and is retained by the turbine shaft coupling.
line. On engines equipped with an eighth-stage bleed sys
tem, a boss is provided for an eighth-stage bleed valve at the ·
Rear Compressor Rotor and stator Assembly
six o'clock position on the inner duct.
The rear compressor uses a rotor having seven stages of
disks and blades, separated by disk spacers, and six stator
Compressor Intermediate Fan Case
vane stages. The blade stages are numbered 7 through 1 3
Secured to the rear flange of the front compressor-sec from front to rear. The vane stages are numbered corre
tion outer duct is the compressor intermediate fan case. The spondingly behind their blade stages, 7 through 12 in the
compressor intermediate fan case is an integral part of the rotor and stator assembly, with the 1 3th stage and compres
outermost diameter of the compressor (intermediate) case. sor-exit vanes in the front end of the diffuser case.
c_ ---- ----
The 7- through 1 2-stage stator assemblies are each of The function of the diffuser section is to straighten the air
single-piece, continuous-ring construction incorporating flow from the rear compressor and to diffuse the flow to the
box outer shrouds and stainless-steel vanes. The outer proper velocity for entry into the combustion chamber. The
shroud of each stage extends forward around the blades. The air passes through the last row of rear compressor blades at
inner shroud has an airseal ring that provides a mating sur a fast rate of speed that is both rearward and circular in pat
face for the knife-edge airseals of the rotor. tern around the engine. Two rows of radial, straightening
Three locking straps retain the lOth-, 1 1th-, and 1 2th exit-guide vanes, made of steel and located at the entrance
stage vane shrouds at their OD. The seventh, eighth, and of the diffuser case, slow the circular pattern and convert the
ninth stages are retained securely in position by lockwired whirl-velocity energy to pressure energy. After passing
stator locks on the shroud lugs (or lockwired lugs) and an through these straightening vanes the air still has a strong
extended rear flange on the ninth-stage outer shroud. A tube rearward velocity. This velocity is so high that it would be
and baffle on the ninth-stage stator directs eighth-stage air nearly impossible to maintain a flame in the air stream. A
into the no. 4 bearing seal air system. gradually increasing cross-section of the air passage
At the 1 3th-stage compressor exit, vanes are secured in decreases the velocity of the airflow and at the same time
the exit stator assembly mounted in the forward end of the converts the velocity, or dynamic pressure energy, to static
diffuser case. These vanes are aerodynamically part of the pressure energy.
rear compressor, but because of their location are described
with the diffuser case.
Twelve tie-rods fasten the disks, spacers, and front and rear
hubs together axially. The front hub is positioned at the ninth
stage disk so that the seventh- and eighth-stage disks are can
tilevered forward. Knife-edge airseals on the disk spacers are
positioned just inside an airseal ring on the inner shroud of
each corresponding vane stage . A triple knife-edge airseal is
,
secured to the front of the seventh-stage disk and a four-edge
airseal is integral with the rear of the 1 3th-stage disk.
Blade attachment to the disks is accomplished by a dove
tailed lock at the blade root, with the exception of the sev
enth stage, which uses a pin-joint attachment.
The seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-stage blades of the rear
compressor rotor are titanium. The lOth- through 1 3th
stage blades are steel. The rear compressor rotor disks are
steel except for the 1 3th-stage disk, which is made of nick
el alloy. The 1 3th-stage disk incorporates an airsealing
configuration on the rear having four knife-edges that
match the steel 1 3th-stage airsealing ring positioned inside
the diffuser case.
An oil-sealing sleeve extends from the rear of the front
hub ID to a steel bushing in the bore of the rear hub. Metal
seal rings are positioned in two grooves in the rear end of the
sleeve inside the bushing.
The rear compressor is balanced dynamically as a unit.
5
Counterweights may be riveted to the front of the seventh
stage disk, the front hub, and to the OD of the rear hub adja
cent to the point of attachment.
The no. 4 bearing inner races and oil baffle are secured
on the OD of the rear hub by an inner-race-retaining nut
locked in place with a keywasher. The no. 4 and 5 bearing
1 OUTER DIFFUSER CASE
oil-suction-pump drive gear is held on the rear of the hub by 2 INNER DIFFUSER CASE BOLT CIRCLE
two lockrings. 3 DIFFUSER-CASE AIR MANI 5 DIFFUSER-CASE STRUT
FOLD 6 NO. 4 BEARING AIRBLEED
The rear compressor rotor is driven by the first stage of 4 NO. 4 BEARING SUPPORT TUBE OPENING
the turbine through the rear compressor-drive turbine (short)
shaft. The turbine shaft splines onto the rear-compressor
rear hub and is retained by the turbine shaft coupling. FIGURE 26-11 Diffuser c ase constructio n .
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 605
Diffuser Case No. 4 Bearing Compartment and No. 4 Bearing
Seal Air System
The main structural member of this section is the steel
The compartment (see Fig. 26-4 1 ) houses the no. 4 bear
diffuser case (Fig. 26-1 1 on p. 605). The forward part of this
ings in its ID-positioned bearing support. Heat shields are
case houses the rearmost portion of the rear compressor.
bolted and lockwired in front of the no. 4 bearing compart
The exit stator assembly is bolted to flanges in the front
ment to minimize the temperature within. In addition, a tub
openings of the diffuser case. This unit contains an inner
' ing system brings eighth-stage discharge air to the annulus
shroud, outer shroud, and small vanes brazed in place.
between the second and third labyrinth seal units, and bleeds
Located in the divergent section of the case are nine hol
air from the annulus between the first and second labyrinth
low struts having small circular openings on either side that
units to the fan-discharge path. The tubes, secured to the
supply compressor-discharge air to a manifold around the
openings in the no. 4 bearing, airseal ring assembly, hold
diffuser case. The manifold provides the discharge air for
down the bearing-compartment temperature by bleeding hot
anti-icing and airframe use through two ports (upper left and
air before it can reach the compartment.
upper right) on its outer perimeter.
Between the nine hollow struts, located radially near the No. 4 and 5 Bearing Oil-Scavenge Pump
rear of the case, are nine fuel-nozzle-support mounting pads.
Behind the mounting pads are nine mounting lugs for the The no. 4 and 5 bearing oil-scavenge-pump assembly
front of the individual combustion chamber. located inside the diffuser case has two stages driven by a
The pressure-sensing boss is located at approximately gear mounted on the rear compressor rear hub.
the two o ' clock position on the right outer surface of the
No. 4 Bearing Housing
diffuser case. Locknuts are incorporated on the rear face
of the intermediate front flange, and gangnuts are riveted Positioned in the center of the diffuser case, within the
to the inner rear flange to facilitate assembly and disas bearing compartment, is the no. 4 bearing housing. The no.
sembly. 4 bearing outer races are held in the ID bore of the housing
by a large retaining nut, riveted in place. The rear portion of large circular plate has nine openings around a single,
the housing encloses the no. 4 and no. 5 bearing oil-scav larger central opening, and it holds the rear of the indi
enge pump. vidual combustion chambers in place. The rear outer
flange is equipped with bolts held to the support by stops
and rivets.
Combustion Section
Fitted behind the support are the combustion-chamber
In the combustion section (Figs. 26-1 2 and 26-1 3), fuel inner and outer outlet ducts, which feature air-deflector
is mixed with air at the proper ratio, and the resultant fuel ducts that divide the cooling air in both the inner and outer
air mixture is burned, adding energy to the air passing duct into two streams. The hot gases pass through the nine
through the engine. The fuel is routed through left and right support openings and are guided to the first-stage nozzle
semicircular manifolds secured around the outside of the between the outlet ducts.
diffuser case at the rear. Nine individually supported nozzles
inside the diffuser case deliver fuel into the combustion
Turbine Shafts and No. 41/2 Bearing Heat Shields
chambers.
Located within the combustion-chamber inner case and
Combustion-Chamber Inner Case bolted to the rear of the no. 4 bearing support are the tur
bine-shaft heat shields (Fig. 26-1 4 on p. 608). The oil-scav
The combustion-chamber inner case is secured to the dif
enge-pump shield is cylindrical in shape and is held in
fuser-case inner rear flange and to the outer flange of the no.
place by the same bolts holding the no. 4 1/2 bearing heat
5 bearing housing. It forms the inner wall of the combustion
shield assembly inside it.
chamber and serves to position the no. 5 bearing through the
The no. 41/2 bearing heat-shield assembly is equipped
bearing housing.
with support tubes around its OD and has a reinforced
wasp-waist shape. It is designed to accommodate axial
Combustion-Chamber Rear Support and
movement of the bearing-supporting structure. Self-locking
Outlet Ducts
nuts are riveted to the rear flange. A pin in the rear flange
Positioned inside the rear of the combustion-chamber and an offset hole in the front flange ensure correct posi
area is a welded combustion-chamber rear support. This tioning in the engine.
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D T urbofan Engine 607
. ...
Combustion-Chamber Outer Case the front of the case. The case is constructed of corrosion
and heat-resistant steel, with nickel-cadmium and baked-on
The combustion-chamber outer case is secured to the rear
aluminum enamel at the flanges to ensure against corrosion.
flange of the diffuser case and the front flange of the tur
bine-nozzle case and encloses the combustion chamber. It
Combustion Chambers
forms the inner wall of the annular duct at this location.
The fuel-drain valves are located on the bottom center line Nine one-piece combustion chambers (or cans) (Fig.
of the case, one at the front and one at the rear. A fuel-drain 26-15) are located between the combustion-chamber outer
manifold carries any drain fuel to the outside of the outer case and the combustion-chamber inner case in a can-annu
duct. Both flanges of this case turn inward, and the front lar arrangement. Chamber no. 1 is at the 1 2 o'clock position,
flange is scalloped. Two bosses, each with a single, threaded and the chambers are numbered clockwise around the
hole, are located at the four and eight o'clock positions near engine as viewed from the rear.
Chapter 2 6 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 609
The first-stage turbine-rotor outer airseal damper (a Except for necessary bearing support they are not mechan
gapped steel ring), between the first-stage outer airseal and ically connected. They are aerodynamically coupled, since
the turbine case, controls cooling airflow through this area. the gases that exhaust from the first-stage turbine rotor pass
through the second, third, and fourth stages.
Second-Stage Turbine Nozzle
There are 95 second-stage vanes. The vanes are No. 5 Bearing Housing
installed in a grooved shoulder in the ID of the turbine Secured to the rear flange of the turbine shaft's inner heat
case, held in place by pins in the groove. In front of the shield is the no. 5 bearing housing (see Fig. 26-42) and the
vanes, at the outer end, is the gapped, second-stage vane no. 5 bearing seal support assembly. The steel no. 5 bearing
retaining ring, against the rear of the first-stage outer housing holds the no. 5 bearing outer race in its ID bore with
airseal. To the rear of the vanes' outer end is the second a retaining nut and rivet. The housing is attached to the rear
stage turbine-vane lock plate. Behind the lock plate is the flange of the combustion-chamber inner case, the front
second-stage outer airseal ring and turbine damper. This flange of the turbine-nozzle inner case and seal assembly,
ring has two stepped platforms that match the two knife and the inner rear flange of the turbine shaft's heat shield.
edge seals on the outer shroud of the second-stage turbine The outer front flange of the housing also provides a point
blades. of attachment for the inner flange of the nine-hole combus
At the inner end, the vanes seat in slots in the second tion-chamber support.
stage turbine-vane inner shroud assembly. At its ID, this
shroud assembly has three knife-edge seals, two of which Rear Compressor-Drive Turbine Rotor
match the ID of a flange on the second-stage disk and one of
which matches the OD of an inner flange on the rear of the In early engines, the rear compressor-drive-turbine rotor
first-stage turbine rotor. Another airseal is mounted on the (Fig. 26- 1 8) consisted of an integral rear compressor-drive
front portion of the shroud ID and matches the OD of an turbine shaft and first-stage disk. In later engines, this shaft
outer flange on the rear of the first-stage turbine rotor. and disk are separate and are held together by 1 8 equally
spaced tie-bolts, tabwashers, and nuts. In all engines the
first-stage blades are held in fir tree slots by rivets and wash
Third-Stage Turbine Nozzle
ers. Later engines, and some others that incorporate a back
The 79 third-stage vanes are held in the turbine case, as up carbon seal at the no. 5 bearing, are equipped with a
the second-stage vanes are. There is a gapped retaining ring spacer and an airsea1 between the seal face plate and the
in front, a lock plate behind, and a stepped third-stage outer shoulder of the turbine shaft. Counterweights may be
airseal ring to the rear of the lock plate. secured to the rear flange of the shaft to obtain optimum
At the inner end, the third-stage vanes seat in slots in the rotor balance.
turbine-rotor third-stage inner airseal ring assembly. At its At assembly, the turbine shaft splines onto the rear com
ID, this assembly has a double-platform ring that matches pressor rear hub and is retained by the rear compressor
the knife-edge seals on the OD of the turbine-rotor second drive-turbine shaft coupling. Turbine position in the turbine
to-third-stage inner airseal. case is determined by a ring-shaped spacer that is between
·
the rear face of the compressor rear hub shaft and an inter
Fourth-Stage Turbine Nozzle nal shoulder in the turbine shaft.
There are 77 fourth-stage vanes positioned in the rear of
the turbine case. These vanes mount on pins in the case and
Rear Compressor-Drive-Turbine-Shaft Coupling
against a gapped retaining ring in front. They are held A steel rear compressor-drive-turbine-shaft coupling
against a rear shoulder in the case by the fourth-stage tur secures the rear compressor-drive-turbine shaft to the rear
bine-rotor outer airseal ring, which is secured to the rear compressor. The rear compressor rear hub has an OD spline
flange of the turbine case by flathead screws. The ring has that mates with the rear compressor-drive-turbine shaft
platforms to match the two seals on the outer end of the front ID. The coupling has a left-hand thread at the front
fourth-stage turbine blades. and a shoulder that holds the shaft to the rear compressor
At the inner end, the fourth-stage vanes seat in the tur rear hub. It has a wrench spline in its ID and multiple oil
bine fourth-stage inner airseal assembly. This inner airseal holes at the rear. The coupling is silver plated to prevent
ring assembly has a double-platform inner airseal ring that seizing.
matches the knife-edge seals on the OD of the turbine-rotor
, third-to-fourth-stage inner airseal. Front Compressor-Drive-Turbine Rotor
61 0 Representative E ngines
3 4
2 I 7
QQO®l
1
I I
5 6
r�l
a�o�
8
� 10-�
·; J. 9
'
"-3
o--\
I \
16 1 L--tf 12
15
1 NO. 5 BEARING INNER- 9 COUNTERWEIGHT
RACE RETAINING NUT 10 COUNTERWEIGHT
2 SEAL SEAT 11 RIVET
3 BEARING SPACER 12 TIEBOLT
1 NO. 5 BEARING INNER BLADE 4 LABYRINTH SEAL 13 KEYW ASHER
·RACE NUT 7 WASHER S FIRST-STAGE TURBINE 14 TIE-ROD NUT
2 SEAL SEAT (PLATE) 8 TURBINE BLADE RIVET DISK 15 POSITIONING PLUG
3 NUT RETAINING SCREW (2) 9 REAR COMPRESSOR- 6 WASHER 16 TURBINE SHAFT SPACER
4 SPACER DRIVE TURBINE SHAFT 7 FIRST-STAGE TURBINE 17 REAR COMPRESSOR-
S AIRSEAL 10 POSITIONING PLUG BLADE DRIVE-TURBINE SHAFT
6 FIRST-STAGE TURBINE 11 TURBINE SHAFT SPACER 8 RIVET 18 RETAINING SCREW
(a) (b)
FIGURE 26-18 Two vari ations of the re ar compressor-dri ve-turbine rotor.
(a) Re ar compressor-dri ve-turbine rotor (integr al h u b and s h aft).
(b) Re ar compressor-dr ive-turbine rotor assem bly (se p ar able h u b and sh aft).
bearings/pressure- and scavenge-oil tubes assembly is posi and is identified by an adjacent dimple, and nine counter
tioned inside the shaft. weight holes.
The blades are secured in the disks with rivets: 88 blades The third-stage disk, manufactured of steel, has 92 fir
in the second stage, 92 blades in the third stage, and 74 tree-serrated slots around the OD. The disk has 1 2 tie-rod
blades in the fourth stage. Provisions are made for rotor holes, one of which is offset and is identified by an adjacent
counterweights on the front face of the second-stage disk dimple. Twelve counterweight holes are located between the
and the rear face of the fourth-stage disk. tie-rod holes. The disk has shoulders near the OD for the
The second-stage disk has 88 fir-tree-serrated slots around mating inner airseals and spacers.
the OD. The disk is made of steel and has a scalloped flange Lugs on the second- and third-stage turbine-rotor inner
on the front that accommodates rotor counterweights. A airseals mate with slots on the second- and third-stage disks
flange on the rear has 12 tie-rod holes, one of which is offset and prevent rotation between the disks and seals.
At the fourth stage, the turbine-rotor rear hub, made of
3
steel, incorporates an integral disk having 74 fir-tree-serrated
slots around the OD. The hub has 1 2 tie-rod holes (one offset)
and 1 2 counterweight holes through the thick portion of the
disk web. A scalloped flange at the rear has holes for mount
ing rotor-balance counterweights. There are eight equally
spaced threaded holes on the rear face of the hub used to
secure the no. 6 bearing oil-scavenge gearshaft in place.
The no. 6 bearing spacer mounts on the small diameter of
the hub with the no. 6 bearing behind it. Both are held on the
1 FRONT COMPRESSOR hub by the oil-scavenge gearshaft, bolted and locked with
'
DRIVE TURBINE SHAFT keywashers.
2 SECOND-STAGE TURBINE
DISK AND BLADES
3 THIRD-STAGE TURBINE Front Compressor-Drive-Turbine Rotor and
4
DISK AND BLADES Stator Assembly (Unit Turbine)
4 TURBINE REAR HUB (FOURTH-STAGE DISK) AND BLADES
Later engines and some others are equipped with a front
FIGURE 26-19 Front compressor-dri ve -tu rbine rotor. compressor-drive-turbine-rotor and stator assembly (unit
turbine) (Fig. 26-20). This turbine differs from a standard Turbine-Bearings/Pressure- and Scavenge-Oil
turbine in that the turbine case parting surfaces are arranged Tubes Assembly
so that the low-pressure turbine may be assembled and This unit, shaped like a long, slender trumpet, is posi
installed in the engine as a unit. The assembly includes a tioned inside the front compressor-drive-turbine rotor. Two
rear turbine case; the second-, third-, and fourth-stage tur long scavenge tubes and a shorter pressure tube carry oil
bine vanes and inner stator shrouds; the front compressor between the no. 4l/2 and no. 6 bearing areas as described for
drive-turbine shaft; second- and third-stage turbine disks the lubrication system.
and blades; fourth-stage hub and blades; shaft-to-third- and
third-to-fourth-stage spacer; and airseals between the disks.
Front Compressor-Drive-Turbine-Shaft Coupling
The front compressor-drive-turbine shaft is made of
Arrangement
steel. It is a long shaft positioned inside the rear compressor
drive-turbine shaft that extends from the second-stage tur The front compressor-drive-turbine shaft splines into the
bine disk to the front compressor-rotor rear hub. front compressor-rotor rear hub. The shaft and hub are secured
I
�
�
4
_ 6
�-5
1 TURBINE-EXHAUST CASE 4 NO. 6 BEARING SUPPORT !1
2 NO. 6 BEARING HOUSING ROD BOSS
3 TURBINE-EXHAUST DUCT 5 LOCKING NUT
AND FAIRING ASSEMBLY 6 NO. 6 BEARING STRUT
61 2 Representative E ngines
together by the arrangement described for the front compres gearbox assembly is mounted beneath the engine, secured to
sor-rotor rear hub coupling in the compressor section. the fan-discharge intermediate case flanges and, at the front,
to another flange. Power is supplied to the gearbox from a
Turbine-Exhaust Case bevel gear splined to the front of the rear compressor-drive
turbine-rotor shaft. An oil-pump assembly is located in the
At the rear of the basic inner section of the engine, bolt
bottom of the gearbox, left of center, that contains both pres
ed to the rear flange of the turbine case, is the welded-steel
sure and scavenge sections. The gearbox incorporates
turbine-exhaust case (Fig. 26-2 1 ). This case decreases in
pinned, carburized (surface-hardened) bearing liners except
diameter from front to rear, has a double-flange mount ring
for the towershaft drive-gear roller-bearings liners, which
encircling it near the center, and has outer flanges at the
are retained by bolts.
front and rear. The front flange has a snap diameter and bolt
holes, with one hole offset next to the six o'clock position.
Gearbox Protective Coating
The rear flange is scalloped and has locknuts held securely
in place by rivets. Gearbox assemblies are painted in two ways. Early mod
Eight thermocouple inner bosses are welded on the OD els were painted with gray lacquer; subsequent models are
of the case just behind the mount-ring flanges, and strut sprayed with the recommended aluminized epoxy paint, sil
retaining pin bosses are located at the three, six, and nine ver in color.
o'clock positions. An oil-pressure-tube boss is located
behind the mount-ring flanges at the 1 2 o'clock position. Six Accessory- and Component-Drives Gearbox Rear
pressure-probe bosses are located forward of the mount-ring Housing
flanges. The case incorporates an internal grooved ring near
On the rear face of the gearbox rear housing is a starter
the front flange that engages and locks the rear edge of the
drive pad on the left; a 1 0-in., constant-speed drive (CSD)
· fourth-stage turbine-rotor outer airseal ring.
and alternator drive pad in the center; and a hydraulic
The turbine average-pressure-sensing manifold is mount
pump drive pad on the right. On the right end of the gear
ed around the turbine-exhaust case, forward of the mounting
box housing is a standard four-stud pad for the N2
flanges. It connects to the pressure probes bolted to the case
tachometer drive.
and, at the outer end, to a fitting near the bottom of the fan
Near the bottom of the housing, to the left of the oil
discharge, turbine-exhaust outer duct.
pump, is an oil-pressure-relief valve. The main oil strainer
is located to the left of the oil-pressure-relief valve. An oil
Turbine-Exhaust Strut Assembly
strainer bypass valve is located in the center of the main oil
The steel turbine-exhaust strut assembly, an inner strainer assembly. An integral boss is provided on the side
exhaust duct with four turbine-exhaust struts welded to its
outer surface, is positioned inside the turbine-exhaust outer
case. The inner exhaust-duct rear flange is equipped with
anchored locknuts that facilitate assembly and disassembly.
Four no. 6 bearing support rods pass through the struts
and through holes in the turbine-exhaust case, and are
secured in strut supports between the exhaust-case mount
ing flanges· at the 12, 3, 6, and 9 o' clock positions. The
rods are held securely by a dual-nut locking arrangement
in the strut supports. At the inner end the rods thread into
the no. 6 bearing support and are held securely with key
washers.
At the 1 2 o 'clock position, to the rear of the support rod,
the no. 6 bearing pressure-oil tube passes from outside the
exhaust case through the strut to the no. 6 bearing support.
The no. 6 bearing oil-scavenge pump is bolted to the rear
of the no. 6 bearing support (see Fig. 26-44).
1 DRAIN 7 DRAIN
2 STARTER DRIVE PAD 8 DRAIN
3 OIL COOLER TO RELI EF 9 DRAIN
Accessory- and Component-Drives VALVE TUBE (OIL PRES 10 GEARBOX MAIN OIL
Gearbox Housing Section SURE SIGNAL) DRAIN
4 CONSTANT-SPEED- DRIVE 11 MAIN OIL PUMP
ALTERNATOR MOUNTING 12 O I L PRESSU RE
Accessory- and Component-Drives Gearbox PAD REGU LATING VALVE
Assembly 5 HYDRAULIC-PUMP 13 OIL STRAINER
MOUNTING PAD 14 OVERBOARD-BR EATHER
The accessory- and component-drives gearbox assembly 6 N2 TACHOMETER DRIVE MOUNTING PAD
PAD
(Fig. 26-22) consists of the gearbox housing, the gearbox
rear housing, and . the internal gears and shaft gears. The FIGURE 26- 2 2 Accessory- and component-drives gearbox.
Accessory- and Component-Drives Gearbox Front Fan-Discharge Case Assembly (and Fan-Discharge
(Cover) Housing Vanes)
The engine-fuel pump mounts on a six-stud circular pad Bolted to the rear flange of the fan rear case is the fan exit
on the right front face of the main gearbox cover, and the case, extending from flange D to E. This case incorporates
fuel control mounts on the front of the fuel pump. The oil matched upper and lower halves of aluminum, bolted togeth
tank (optional) mounts on the left front face of the gearbox er. Each half has 28 aluminum vanes brazed to an inner shroud
front housing. and the outer case wall, with aluminum plugs at the outer end.
A rectangular hole at the mating surfaces, nine o 'clock
Power-Lever Cross Shafts and Linkage position, of the case matches a pin flared in place on the rear
flange of the front compressor case.
A power-lever outer cross-shaft assembly, which is hol
low and has an inner shaft running through it, is mounted in
Fan-Discharge Front Compressor Outer Duct
bushings at the top of the gearbox housing cover. The fuel
control power linkage arm is secured on the outer shaft at the The aluminum fan-discharge, front compressor outer duct
right and, further outboard, the fuel-control shutoff arm is is secured to the rear of the fan-discharge front cases and
held securely on the inner shaft. A stop plate and locking forms the outer wall of the annular duct from flange E to F.
plate are mounted on the housing. The airframe-control arms Forming the inner wall is the front compressor section, fan
or pulleys may be mounted on either end of the cross shafts. discharge inner duct extending forward from, and integral
LETTERS ARE
FLANGE D£SIGNAliONS
Bolted into the diffuser-section outer duct, one between The engine fuel distribution and control system (Fig.
the ten and eleven o' clock positions and another between 26-27 on p. 6 1 8) of the JT8D engine consists basically of an
the one and two o'clock positions, are two similar diffuser engine-driven fuel pump and fuel control, an optional fuel
air-supply manifolds (Fig. 26-25). Each steel manifold has anti-icing system, a fuel-pressurizing and dump valve, and a
a single opening with a ring groove at the inner end to fit split fuel manifold delivering fuel to nine individual fuel
into the diffuser case, and each divides into two openings nozzles.
12 11 11 10
1 BLEED-AIR-TRANSFER LINERS 7 EXPANSION-JOINT LINER TUBE
TUBE, TWO REQUIRED AT 4 COIL SPRING 8 FRONT FAIRING 12 REAR COMPRESSOR
EACH SIDE OF ENGINE. S REAR COMPRESSOR IN 9 BLEED MANIFOLD, ONE OUTER-FAN DUCT (BE
2 SEAL RING, TWO TO EACH NER-FAN DUCT AT EACH SIDE OF ENGINE TWEEN FLANGES G AND
TRANSFER TUBE 6 EXPANSION-JOINT SLEEVE 10 BLEED-MANIFOLD COVER H)
3 SEAL RING, ONE EACH FOR (RIVETED TO INNER-FAN 11 TRANSFER-TUBE RETAIN
BLEED MANIFOLDS AND DUCT) ING RING, ONE TO EACH
FIGURE 26-24 Rear com pressor a i rbleed man ifolds and tubes.
61 6 Representative Engines
4 5
9
'--_jl_Lr'\'J;IiiE:� 1 0
----=====!
1 DIFFUSER INNER DUCT 5 NO. 4 BEARING TUBES OUTER CASE FAN DUCT
2 NO. 4 BEARING BREATHER FAIRING 8 IGNITER PLUG 1 1 . DIFFUSER-SECTION
MANIFOLD 6 DIFFUSER FAN DUCT 9 LEFT IGNITER-PLUG-CA OUTER DUCT
3 OIL-PRESSURE LINE STRAP BLE FAIRING 12 REAR COMPRESSOR
4 OIL-SCAVENGE LINE 7 COMBUSTION-CHAMBER 10. COMBUSTION-SECTION OUTER-FAN DUCT
-- FUEL-OIL
COOLER
' ..... ..... ...... ..... ADDITIONAL
' EQ!JIPMENT
......
'\
\
\
I
I
BURNER PRESS.
SENSE
CROSS-SHAFT
ENGINE
SUPPLIED
AIRFRAMI:
SUPPLIED
�.
'
I
I
AIRFRAME - FURNISHED
�
a
r METER FUEL PRESS.
61 8 Representative E ng i nes
Engine Fuel Distribution System boost stage. A cartridge-type relief valve is incorporated to
limit the pressure rise across the gear stage. The unit provides
Fuel pump-Fuel is supplied from the tanks through the
a rigid mounting-pad arrangement and a rotational splined
necessary strainers and valves to the engine-driven fuel
drive for the fuel control. An integral fuel filter containing a
pump supplied with the engine. From here it is pumped to
replaceable, micronic-barrier filter element is located
the fuel control, where it is metered in the proper quantities.
between the discharge of the centrifugal stage and the inlet of
Excess fuel is returned to the pump. A fuel filter is integral
the gear. stage. Should the pressure drop across the filter
with the pump.
exceed a predetermined limit, a bypass valve directs flow into
Fuel anti-icing system (optionai)-The optional fuel
the gear stage. A mounting pad is provided on the filter hous
anti-icing system is located between the boost and main
ing to permit the use of a remote-reading, differential-pres
stages of the engine-driven fuel pump and consists primari
sure warning device. An accessible and removable cover
ly of an air-fuel heater, air-shutoff valve, differential fluid
forms the lower portion of the sump area of the filter housing.
pressure switch, and the necessary tubing. The differential
This cover contains a plug-type valve for draining both the
fluid-pressure switch provides a means of indicating icing
sump and center tube of the filter element. In the event of a
conditions or a clogged filter. The fuel anti-icing system pre
malfunction of the boost stage, a bypass valve opens into the
vents the restriction, or even stoppage, of fuel flow caused
inlet passage of the pump to direct flow into the gear stage.
by the formation of ice within any of the components of the
This valve is normally held closed by a light spring force and
fuel system through which fuel may subsequently pass.
remains closed due to boost-stage pressure. Outlet and return
(Refer to pages 620 to 623 and 637 for additional informa
ports are provided between the boost-stage discharge and the
tion on the fuel and anti-icing system.)
filter inlet for installation of an external fuel heater. A drive
Fuel-pressurizing and dump valve--From the fuel con
shaft seal drain is located in the lower extremity of the mount
trol, the fuel flows through the fuel-flow meter and the fuel/oil
ing flange.
cooler to the pressurizing and dump valve. The pressurizing
valve schedules flow to the secondary fuel nozzles as a func
tion of pressure drop across the primary nozzles. The dump Pressurizing and Dump Valve
valve is a two-position valve hydraulically operated by prima
The fuel-pressurizing and dump valve (Fig. 26-29 on
ry fuel pressure during engine operation. At shutdown the ·
+ PR I ""'RY FLOW
(a)
FIGURE 26-29 Fuel-pressuri zi n g and d u m p v alve schem atic.
L-CONTROL
IMPELLER DISCHARGE
BYPASS VALVE-...... TO FUEL CONTROL)
DISCHARGE PRESSURE
RELIE F VALVE
(b)
N O Z Z L E C R O S S S EC TI'O N
DETAIL OF FUEL
1
MANIFOLD
2 METAL GASKET
3 FLANGE J
4 PACKING HOLDER
5 FAN-DISCHARGE
DI FFUSER-SECTION
OUTER DUCT
6 FLANGE H
7 FUEL-MANI FOLD
I NLET TUBE
ASSEMBLY
8 FAN-DISCHARGE
DI FFUSER SECTION
INNER DUCT
9 METAL GASKET
(LARGE)
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Tu rbofan Engine 621
3
are positioned inside the front of the diffuser case, with heater switch is activated, an electrically actuated air-shutoff
each nozzle facing rearward into its combustion chamber valve located in the bleed-air line at the inlet of the heater
(Fig. 26-3 1 on p. 621 ). opens to permit high-temperature, compressor-discharge air
to flow through the heater.
Fuel -Deicing System The fuel-deicing heater and filter are installed in the fuel
The optional fuel-deicing system (Fig. 26-32) consists system between the boost and main stages of the engine
primarily of an air-fuel heater, air-shutoff valve, differential driven fuel pump. All of the engine fuel flow passes through
fluid-pressure switch, and the necessary tubing. In this sys the fuel-deicing heater at all times. The fuel is heated, how
tem, hot compressor-discharge air is piped forward from the ever, only when 'the air-shutoff valve is opened, allowing
diffuser-section airbleed-manifold rear openings (on the dif high-temperature, compressor-discharge air to flow through
fuser-section outer duct) through a deicing manifold on the the air side of the heater (Fig. 26-33).
top of the engine to an electrically operated air-shutoff valve
and actuator on the right of the engine. After leaving the Fuel-Deicing Heater
valve, the air is piped down to the fuel-deicing heater, adja
The fuel-deicing heater (Fig. 26-34) is located between
cent to the fuel pump, and then vented overboard.
the boost and main stages of the engine-driven fuel pump.
The pressure-drop warning switch mounted on the fuel
The fuel-deicing heater functions as an air-fuel heat exchang
filter indicates when the filter is iced. When the cockpit fuel
er to protect the engine fuel system from ice. It consists of a
FUEL
OUT
:
F U E L COMPRESSOR
L12518 AIR -
D E I C I NG
HEATER
FUEL +
AIR <>
FUEl �
FIGURE 26-33 Fuel-deicing system schem atic. FIGURE 26-34 Fuel-deicing h e ater.
C LA M P T Y P E A S SEM B L Y
...
SEC T I O N C - C
T Y PICA L G R O M M E T VIEW
' '
� - . - - - - - . . . .•
- --- -
:
- - - -,,
--
� - --.
r:
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D T urbofan Engine 623
en
N
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:::0
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(J)
"0 -THROTTLE YAL.Vt
I'OSITIOH AO.I
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,...
QJ SHUT on
,... -
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Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 625
The compressor-discharge pressure-sensor assembly con adjustable stop set near the zero speed position to eliminate
sists essentially of a pair of matched bellows, the evacuated feedback to the speed-governor pilot valve. The 3D cam then
and the motor bellows, and a sensor lever. The motor bellows places the limiting linkage at the "j/P54 ratio corresponding
is externally exposed to compressor-discharge pressure and is to the value selected for this failure condition.
referenced to an evacuated bellows of equal size to produce a Acceleration control is provided by adjustment of the
resultant force proportional to absolute compressor-discharge roller-positioning linkage to effect a maximum Hj/P54 ratio
pressure. This force is transmitted through a sensor lever to a stop for a particular value of speed and compressor-inlet
set of rollers whose position is proportional to the required temperature. The maximum "j/P54 ratio value at the stop is
"f/P54 ratio. These rollers ride between the sensor lever and a controlled by a 3D cam that is translated by a signal pro
multiplying lever. The force is transmitted through the rollers portional to engine speed and rotated by a signal propor
to the multiplying lever. Any change in the roller position or tional to compressor-inlet temperature. The 3D cam is
the compressor-discharge-pressure signal results in an unbal contoured to define a schedule of "j/P54 versus compres
anced torque that will displace the rotating throttle-valve pilot sor-inlet temperature that is used as a limiting value for
valve from its hydraulic null position, thereby repositioning each speed throughout the acceleration transient. This com
the throttle valve. The movement of the throttle valve extends bination will permit engine acceleration within the
or relaxes the throttle-valve feedback spring, which will return overtemperature and surge limits of the engine. When the
the multiplying lever to its equilibrium position when the acceleration-limiting lever is in operation to control the
throttle valve reaches the required fuel-flow position. Both the maximum value of the "j/P54 ratio, it overrides the speed
motor and evacuated bellows are located in a chamber vented setting linkage.
through an orifice to ambient pressure so that, in the event of Deceleration control is provided by the constant-radius
an evacuated bellows failure, the fuel-flow error is only the portion of the droop cam and by adjustment of the roller
difference between the flow required for the absolute-pressure positioning linkage to limit the travel of the rollers toward
reading and that required for a gage pressure reading. In the decreasing fuel flow, thereby effecting a minimum "j/P54
event of a motor bellows failure, compressor-discharge pres ratio. This provides a linear relationship between fuel flow
sure will be sensed on the external surface of the evacuated and compressor-discharge pressure that results in blowout
bellows, and the system will continue to function. free deceleration.
The compressor-discharge-pressure limiter group con Engine speed control is accomplished by comparing the
sists of a clevis housing, spring housing, linear ball bearings, actual speed, as indicated by the position of the speed servo,
rolling diaphragm and piston, pushrod, two adjusting with the desired speed value required for the power selected
setscrews, transfer tube, limiter lever and spring, clevis-sup by the pilot through a power lever positioning the speed-set
port flexure, and a bellows clevis rod. At values of P54 below cam. The power lever actuates the speed-set cam to select a
the limiting pressure, the compressor-discharge-pressure governor droop line. The position of the droop line is biased
limiter spring forces the diaphragm retainer against the by compressor-inlet temperature. The deviation of desired
pushrod housing. When P54 exceeds the limiting value, the speed from the actual speed (speed error) causes movement
spring force is overcome, and the diaphragm retainer of the speed servo, which is transmitted through a lever and
becomes unseated. results in the repositioning of the droop cam. The roller� in
The pushrod, which is attached to the diaphragm retain the multiplication system are positioned through the action
er, then engages the compressor-discharge-pressure limiter of the droop cam to be a function of the speed error. The
lever, which in tum engages the compressor-discharge-pres repositioning of the rollers then provides the required.
sure bellows-stem clevis, thereby reducing the bellows out steady-state "j/P54 ratio setting.
put force. The temperature-sensor bellows assembly consists of the
The speed-sensing governor consists essentially of a rotat motor and compensating bellows unit, a feedback lever, a
ing pilot valve, flyweights, and flyweight head. The engine pilot valve, an output lever and pushrod, a compensating
speed signal is transmitted from the engine-driven driveshaft lever and pushrod, and the temperature-sensor housing.
through a gear train to the centrifugal-type flyweight gover Compressor-inlet temperature is sensed by a liquid-filled
nor. This governor controls movement of the speed servo bulb mounted in the compressor inlet and connected to a
(three-dimensional or 3D cam) by displacing the rotating liquid-filled bellows in the control. The liquid expands with
pilot valve from its hydraulic null position. When the speed increased temperature, and the extra volume travels through
changes, the flyweight force varies and the pilot valve is dis a capillary tube to the liquid-filled motor bellows in the con
placed, causing motion of the speed servo. This motion of the trol. The bellows length changes and, through levers, dis
speed servo repositions the pilot valve, through the action of places a four-way pilot valve that results in movement of the
a feedback lever working on a spring, until the speed-sensing temperature servo piston. The servo piston is connected
governor returns to null position at the new speed-servo posi through a linkage to a rack that meshes with the spline on
tion. The position of the speed servo is, therefore, indicative the 3D cam, and motion of the piston rotates the cam. The
of actual engine speed. The 3D cam is contoured to protect feedback lever is attached to the rack, and as the rack moves
against the condition of a broken speed-sensing driveshaft. In to rotate the cam, it also repositions the pilot valve in order
the event of such a failure, the speed servo bottoms in its bore to return the valve to the steady-state position. The rotation
while the pushrod on the speed servo bottoms on an of the 3D cam, acting through a linkage, resets the governor
626 Representative E n g i n es
droop and acceleration line. Any ambient air or fuel temper Engines equipped with an oil-dampened no. 1 bearing
ature variation that acts on the motor bellows and capillary configuration have a larger bearing outer race (ring), lugs
tube also acts on a compensating bellows and dead-end cap on the front face for locking with a retaining plate, and
illary tube, causing the fixed pivot of the motor-bellows grooves in the o uter race OD to hold metal seal rings. The
lever system to move to a new position so that the net result outer race is held by four bolts rather than bearing retain
of the variation is not sensed at the pilot valve. ing nuts.
The main shaft thrust bearings (no. 2 and no. 4) are used
in tandem pairs in order to obtain a better safety margin. The
MAIN SHAFT BEARINGS bearings are manufactured in matched pairs and assembled
in the engine in a manner to obtain the best possible distri
The front compressor system (low pressure), with its bution of load for this type of arrangement. The bearing oil
related three-stage turbine rotor, is supported by four baffle, which is positioned between the bearing outer races,
antifriction bearings-one (no. 1 ) in front of and one (no. 2) serves to ensure the proper distribution of oil to each of the
behind the front compressor rotor, and one (no. 41/2) in front two bearings and also, in case of failure of one bearing, pre
of and one (no. 6) behind the front compressor-drive-turbine vents a flow of chips into the second bearing. The inner
rotor (Fig. 26-37). The no. 2 bearing assembly consists of a races of each bearing are split to permit a maximum ball
matched pair of ball-thrust bearings, and it locates the front complement as well as a one-piece cage.
compressor system axially.
The rear compressor system (high pressure) and related
single-stage turbine rotor are mounted on three antifriction Main Shaft Oil and Airseals
bearings-one (no. 3) in front of and one (no. 4) behind the The main shaft seals for the nos. 1 , 2, 3, and 4 bearing
rear compressor rotor, and one (no. 5) in front of the rear locations are labyrinth type. Split-ring seals are used at the
compressor-drive-turbine rotor. The no. 4 bearing assembly no. 41/2 and no. 6 bearing locations. A face-type seal with
consists of a matched pair of ball-thrust bearings, and it two expanding metal seal rings is used at the no. 5 bearing
locates the rear compressor system axially. location.
The main accessory-drive gearshaft rotates inside the The main shaft seals are listed by companion bearing
upper roller and lower ball bearing inside the intermediate number and type as follows:
section of the compressor case. See Fig. 26-37 for the loca
tion of all the main shaft bearings and Figs. 26-39 through Number Location
Type
26-45 for details of each bearing arrangement.
1 Labyrinth seal Rear of no. 1 bearing
2 Labyrinth seal Forward of no. 2 bearing
Structure
3 Labyrinth seal Rear of no. 3 bearing
All the roller bearings employ a one-piece cage, a recessed 4 Labyrinth seal Forward of no. 4 bearing
race ring, and a plain raceway ring. Either the inner or the outer
4 1/2 Split-ring seal Rear of no. 41/2 bearing
ring of a bearing may be the recessed race ring, the determin
ing factor being assembly and disassembly requirements. The 5 Face-type seal Rear of no. 5 bearing
rollers in the bearings are crowned in a conventional fashion. 6 Split-ring seal Forward of no. 6 bearing
::t1
Ill
___.-JI.-- - _,___L_ _ ---.....____
-o
:· ---,._ _ -'1----t__ _ �.� .
l
, _ _,...__-- -
Ill
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Ill
:J
.... ..._ _.....
OJ
....
:;:: ·
,,,,0,,"
Ill
m
:J I
lC
:J
th
Ill NO.
"'
NO . .4
..._
-� -LF-�.J
CD
G DE OIL E R
® H OVERBOARD BREATHER
C O L L E CTIVE POINT
1 NO. I ·BEARING HOUSING 6 OIL SLINGER 1 RETAINING PLATE BEARING OUTER RACE
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 629
support, into the accessory-drives gearshaft. It moves to the the ID of the no. 2 bearing. Flow through the gearbox-drive
outer wall of the gearshaft and through holes in that wall, bevel gear holes carries oil to the ID of the no. 3 bearing.
then through holes in the front hub and inner-race-retaining Mounted on the front compressor rotor rear hub (forward
nut to the front of the no. 1 bearing. of the no. 2 bearings), from front to rear, are a multiple
At the no. l bearing, a stainless-steel seal with multiple knife-edge airseal, a multiple knife-edge oil seal, and an oil
knife-edges is mounted on the front hub of the front-com baffle. The oil seal is cantilevered forward so that it is con
pressor rotor. This seal rotates inside an aluminum multi centric and outside the smaller airseal.
platform seal ring positioned inside the no. 1 bearing front Both the oil seal and airseal rotate inside stationary,
support. In front of the knife-edge seal, a steel oil slinger stepped seal rings, riveted to the front of the no. 2 bearing
is positioned behind the no. 1 bearing inner race on the seal ring support. At the bottom of the seal ring support, an
front hub. airbleed boss accommodates the no. 2 bearing airbleed tube,
which vents into the nos. 2 and 3 bearing seal air system.
The oil baffle and oil seal oppose the action of the oil to
No. 2 and No. 3 Bearings Lubrication Seals
come through the labyrinth. The air pressure behind the
and Air Tubes
labyrinth airseals further opposes the oil. Any oil that may
Oil enters the no. 2 and no. 3 bearing compartment [Fig. seep by the seals will be carried off as oil vapor through the
26-40(a)] through a small strainer and is sprayed onto the airbleed tube.
bearings through a three-legged oil-nozzle assembly. A front Welded between the no. 2 and no. 3 bearing housings at the
leg (or nozzle) directs oil toward the no. 2 bearing, a second 9, 1 2, and 3 o'clock positions are three air tubes [see Fig.
toward the no. 3 bearing, and a third toward the gearbox drive 26-40(b)]. These three curved tubes run between the com
shaft upper bearing. Oil flows through holes in the rear hub to pressor intermediate inner case and the bearing housing: air
3 4
FIGURE 26-40 Detailed view of the no. 2 and no. 3 be aring are a.
(a) No. 2 and no. 3 be ari ngs , se als , and l u brication .
(b) No. 2 and no. 3 be ari ng se al air tubes.
Pressure oil for the no. 4 (Fig. 26-4 1 ) and no. 5 (Fig.
26-42 on p. 632) bearings locations flows into the engine
through a tube at the eight o'clock location, on the left side
of the fan-discharge diffuser outer duct. It then flows
upward around the diffuser case to the ten o 'clock position
and inward (through the inner passage of dual concentric
pressure and breather tubing) to the no. 4 bearing support.
Here it is directed rearward through an elbow and flows into
the multipassage, no. 4 bearing oil-nozzle assembly.
The no. 4 bearing oil-nozzle assembly has an inlet pas
sage, outlet holes at the bottom directing oil toward the no.
4 bearing, and an outlet passage toward the rear. An oil
strainer is positioned inside the inlet passage. The outlet
passage toward the rear accommodates the long oil tube of
the no. 5 bearing oil-nozzle assembly. Oil passes rearward
through this tube and is then directed through the no. 5 bear
ing oil-nozzle assembly. From the oil nozzle, it passes under
the bearing race and through the seal plate to the no. 5 bear 1 OIL-SEAL RING ASSEMBLV
2 NO. 4 BEARING
ing compartment (Fig. 26-43 on p. 632). 3 AIRSEAL
4 OIL SEAL
S FRONT HEAT SHIELD
The no. 4 bearing airseal, mounted on the rear compres 6 OIL BAFFLE
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 631
s s �s
0 l l - DAMPED B EA R I N G
PRESSURE
SCAV E N G E
"'''� BREATHER ANO
SCAVENGE
(a)
formed between the housing and the bearing outer race. Seal
rings around the bearing outer race help contain oil in the
cavity.
The oil flows forward in the oil-nozzle outer passage and
divides into two streams. One stream flows outward through
small holes on the OD of the nozzle outer-passage tube to
lubricate the no. 6 bearing area. From the same nozzle outer
passage tube the other stream continues forward through holes
on the nozzle outer front face and into the outer passage of the
turbine-bearings oil-pressure and scavenge tubes assembly (oil
trumpet) inside the front compressor-drive-turbine rotor. The
�
-...
-...
� BREAT H E R AN D
SCAVENGE
(b)
FIGURE 26-46 This dual-d uty ignition exciter can be used intermittently (for sta rting) or conti n u
o u s l y for specified operating conditions.
(a) Ignition exciter (20/4 J).
(b) Ign ition-system schematic.
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 635
1 and 2 and G2 ionizes the gap between electrodes 2 and 3. Gap G 1 is set to break down between 35 00 and 3600 V.
This produces a low-impedance path between electrodes 2 When the voltage across C5 reaches this value, G 1 will ion
and 3. Electrons now flow from C9 to C l O, L l O, electrodes ize and electrons will flow from C5 to G 1 , ground, C 1 2, L l 0
3 and 2, and back to C9. and Z l , and back to C5. The current through primary wind
The current in the primary windings L l O and L l l is a ing L l O is a high-frequency oscillating current caused by
high-frequency oscillating current caused by C l O, L l O, and C 1 2 and L l O that induces a high-frequency, high voltage
C l l , Ll l , respectively. This current induces a high-frequen across secondary winding L9.
cy, high voltage across secondary winding L9 and L l 2. This high-frequency voltage is sufficient to ionize the gap
This high-frequency, high voltage ionizes the gaps of the of the igniter plug. With G 1 and the igniter plug ionized, a low
igniter plugs. The current required to ionize the igniter plugs impedance path exists from C5 to G 1 , ground, igniter plug, L9,
is very small. Therefore, the energy stored in capacitor C9 is and back to C5 . Because only a small amount of the energy of
virtually unchanged up to this point. C5 is used to ionize the igniter plug, most of the energy of C5
With the gap G2 and the igniter plugs both ionized, a will flow through this low-impedance path. The positive poten
low-impedance path exists from C9, through coil L 1 2 , lower tial at the upper plate of C5 9rops very rapidly to zero.
igniter plug, ground, upper igniter plug, coil L9, electrodes However, the flow of electrons does not drop instantly and
3 and 2 of G2, and back to C9, resulting in a heavy flow of excessive electrons flow into the upper plate of C5, producing
electrons. The positive voltage of the upper plate of C9 a negative voltage that is much smaller than the initial break
drops very rapidly to zero. However, the flow of electrons down voltage. Because G 1 and the igniter plug are still ionized,
does not stop instantly. Instead, excessive electrons flow electrons flow from C5 to L9, igniter plug, ground, G l , and
into the upper plate of storage capacitor C9, producing a back to C5. Several such oscillations occur until C5 no longer
negative voltage much smaller than the original value. has sufficient energy to restrike the arc at the igniter plug.
Because the gap G2 and igniter plugs are still ionized, elec Resistor R 1 limits the current flow through tubes V 1 , V2,
trons flow from the upper plate of C9, to electrodes 2 and 3, V3, and V4 when the charge on top of C5 is negative.
coil L9, upper igniter plugs, ground, lower igniter plugs, coil Resistor R2 discharges capacitors C3, C4, and C5 when the
L 1 2 and back to C9. Several such oscillations occur until the circuit is shut off. Gap G2 isolates the intermittent-duty cir
voltage across C9 is no longer sufficient to restrike the arc cuit from the continuous-duty circuit because of the high
between the electrodes of the igniter plugs. breakdown voltage between electrodes 2 and 3.
Coils L l 3 and Ll4 are saturable inductors. If either of the
igniter plugs becomes open circuited, a larger current will High-Tension Leads
flow through coil L l 3 or Ll4. The larger the current flow
The igniter plug lead assemblies (Fig. 26-47) are
through the coil, the lower the resistance of the coils become.
installed between the ignition exciter and igniter plugs.
If the top igniter plug becomes open circuited, electrons can
These lead assemblies carry the electrical energy from the
flow from C9 to L l 2, lower igniter plug, ground, L l 3, elec
ignition exciter to the igniter plugs. The left lead assembly
trodes 3 and 2 of G2, and back to C9. If the bottom igniter
is approximately 30 in. long, and the right lead assembly is
plug becomes open circuited, electrons will flow from C9 to
approximately 5 1 in. long. Figure 26-47 illustrates a typical
L l4, ground, top igniter plug, L9 electrodes 3 and 2 of G2,
igniter-plug lead assembly.
and back to C9. This feature allows the series-discharge cir
The chamfered washer/rubber bushing at both termina
cuit (normally firing two igniter plugs) to fire one igniter
tions must be replaced at the maintenance level during every
plug, even though the other plug is open circuited.
lead installation.
Zl and Z2, in parallel with primary windings L l O to L l l ,
limit the circuit through the primary windings. This prevents
Igniter Plugs
the high-frequency voltage across L9 and L12 from going too
high. Gap G 1 isolates the continuous-duty circuit from the There are two igniter plugs (Fig. 26-48) that are mount
intermittent-duty circuit because of its high breakdown voltage. ed on the lower front of the combustion-chamber outer case.
One projects into the no. 4 combustion chamber and the
other projects into the no. 7 combustion chamber.
4-J Continuous System (Single Igniter Plug)
The igniter plug provides the gap across which the elec
When the control switch is closed, alternating current flows trical spark passes to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The igniter
from the 1 1 5-V AC, 400-Hz power supply through primary plug gap is ionized and becomes conductive by the surge of
winding L2, filter coil L l , and back to the power supply. The very high voltage from the high-frequency coils of the igni
voltage applied to primary winding L2 induces an increased tion exciter; then the storage capacitor discharges its accu
voltage of the same frequency across secondary winding L3. mulated energy across the ionized igniter-plug gap. This
When the top of L3 is positive, electrons flow from L3 to C3, discharge results in a capacitive spark of very high energy,
V2, V I , and back to L3. When the top of L3 is negative, elec capable of vaporizing globules of fuel and overcoming car
trons flow from L3 to V3, V4, R l , C4, and back to L3. bon deposits. Notice that the center electrode is not at the
Capacitor C3 is charged on one half of the cycle and C4 is same level as the ground electrode. This causes the electrons
charged on the other half. Capacitor C5 in parallel with C3 and to shoot out of the end of the plug, placing only the spark
C4 is charged to a potential equal to that of C3 plus C4. into the chamber gas stream.
1 LOWER SHELL
2 UPPER SHELL
3 GASKET
4 INSULATOR
5 COUPLING
THREAD
6 TERMINAL WELL
7 TERMINAL SCREW
8 SEALING WIRE
9 CEMENT
10 CENTER
ELECTRODE
Chapter 26 United Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D T urbofan Engine 639
Many engines are equipped with an engine pressure-ratio
(EPR) system. The EPR system is composed of six pressure
probes, transmitter, indicator, and associated wiring (Fig.
26-52). The EPR transmitter converts the exhaust pressure
(Pt7) and the inlet pressure (P12) into a ratio, and generates an
electrical signal corresponding to pressure changes in the
engine, while the EPR indicator provides a visual indication
of the engine-exhaust and inlet-pressure ratio (P17/P12).
There is one indicator for each engine. The indicators are
located on the pilots ' engine instrument panel.
The system operates on AC power in the following man
ner. The engine exhaust and inlet pressure are sensed by the
pressure probes. These pressures act on the bellows assem
bly of the pressure-ratio transmitter, causing bellows move
ment whenever pressures change. The generated electrical
signals are transmitted to their respective pressure-ratio
indicators over a three-wire system. The indicator converts
the electrical signals into the pointer shaft rotation or indi
cator pointer movement corresponding to the pressure
change in the engine.
1 THERMOCOUPLE PROBE
Turbine-Exhaust-Temperature-Indicating System
(Tt7)
The averaging temperature measurement provided by
2 PRESSURE PROBE (P17)
this system is an operating limit on the engine and is used to
FIGURE 26-5 1 Pressure and temperature probes. monitor the mechanical integrity of the turbines as well as to
REAR V I E W PT 7
6 PROBES
Cha pter 26 U nited Technologies Pratt & Whitney JT8D Turbofan Engine 641
ALUMEL J U NCTION BOX
BUS BAR
C A C A C A C A C A C A C
A A C
Appendices 645
To Convert To- Multiply To Convert To- Multiply
From- By- From- By-
Hectopieze Inches of Hg 29.53
Kilograms/square Pounds/square inch 14.22
Horsepower Foot-pounds/minute 33,000 centimeter Pounds/square foot 2.048 X 103
Foot-pounds/second 550 Inches of Hg at O"C 28.96
Meters- 76.04 Feet of water at 4'C 3.28 X I Q-7
kilograms/second
Metric horsepower 1 .014
Kilowatts 7.457 X 10- 1 Kilometers Feet 3.28 1 X 103
Btu/hour 2545.08 Miles 6.214 X 10-1
Btu/second 7.068 X 10-l Nautical miles 5.4 X 10-1
Centimeters 1Q5
Horsepower Meters- 75
(metric) kilograms/second Kilometers/hour Feet/second 9. 1 1 3 X IQ- 1
Horsepower 9.863 X 1 0 - 1 Knots 5.396 X 10-1
Kilowatts 7.355 X I Q - I Miles/hour 6.2 14 X IQ-I
Btu/second 6.97 1 X I Q - I Meters/second 2.778 X 10-1
Horsepower hours Btu 2.545 X 1 03 Kilowatt hours heat Grams of U235 fis- 4.35 X 10-5
Foot-pounds 1 .98 X 106 gen. sioned
Meters-kilograms 2.737 X 105
Kilowatts Btu/second 9.48 X I Q - I
Inches Centimeters 2.54 Foot-pounds/second 7.376 X 102
Feet 83.33 X I Q - 3 Horsepower 1 .34 1
Mils 1000 Kilogram 2.389 X 10-1
calories/second
Inches of Hg at O'C Atmospheres 3.342 X IQ-2
"
Inches of water at 1 3.6 Knots Nautical miles/hour 1
4'C Feet/hour 6076. 1 03
Feet of water 1 . 1 33 Feet/second 1 .688
Pounds/square inch 4.912 X 10-1 Miles/hour 1.151
Pounds/square foot 70.73 Kilometers/hour 1 .853
Kilograms/square 3.453 X 1 02 Meters/second 5. 148 X I Q - I
meter
Leagues (U.S.) Nautical miles 3
Inches of water at Atmospheres 2.458 X I0-3
4'C Link Inches 7.92
Inches of Hg at O'C 7.355 X IQ-2
Centimeters of Hg 1 .868 X 10-1 Liters Cubic centimeters 1000.027
at o·c Cubic feet 0.035
Pounds/square inch 3.613 X I 0-2 Cubic inches 61 .025
Pounds/square foot 5.202 Gallons (U.S.) 0.264
Kilograms/square 25.4 Gallons (imperial) 0.22
meter Ounces (fluid) 33.8 1
Pints 2. 1 1
Joules Btu 9.48 X 10-4 Quarts (liquid) 1 .057
Foot-pounds 7.376 X IQ-1
Kilogram calories 2.389 X 10-4 Meters Centimeters 100
Kilogram meters 1 .020 X 10- 1 Miles 6.214 X 10-4
Watt hours 2.778 X 10-4 Feet 3.28 1
Horsepower hours 3.725 X 10-7 Inches 39.37
Ergs 107 Kilometers 0.001
Yards 1 .094
Kilograms Grains 1 5 ,432.4
Grams 1000 Meter-kilograms Foot-pounds 7.233
Ounces (avoir.) 35 .27 Joules 9.807
Ounces (troy) 32. 1 5
Pennyweights 643.01 Meters/second Feet/second 3.281
Pounds (avoir.) 2.205 Miles/hour 2.237
Pounds (troy) 2.679 Kilometers/hour 3.6
646 Appendices
To Convert To- Multiply To Convert To- Multiply
From- By- From- By-
Miles Feet 5280 Ounces (fluid) Cubic centimeters 29.57
Kilometers 1 .609 Cubic inches 1 .8
Nautical miles 8.69 X 1 0 - 1 Gallons 7.8 125 X l Q-3
Furlongs 8 Liters 0.0296
Milliliters 29.57
Miles/hour Feet/second 1 .467 Pints 0.0625
Meters/second 4.47 X I 0 - 1 Quarts 0.03 1
Kilometers/hour 1 .609
Knots 8.69 X I0- 1 Ounces/gallon Cubic 7.7
(fluid) centimeters/liter
Miles/hour squared Feet/second 2. 1 5 1
squared Pennyweights Grains 24
Grams 1 .56
Miles/hour/second Feet/second 1 .4667 Milligrams 1 555
squared Ounces (avoir.) 0.0549
Ounces (troy) 0.05
Millibars Inches of Hg at o·c 2.953 X 10-2 Pounds (avoir.) 0.0034
Pounds (troy) 0.0042
Milligrams Grains 0.0154
Grams 0.001 Pennyweights/ Grams/liter 0.41
Kilograms 1 X l Q-6 gallon
Ounces (avoir.) 3.5 X l Q-5
Ounces (troy) 3.2 1 5 X I0-5 Pints Cubic centimeters 473.2
Pennyweights 6.43 X I0-4 Cubic feet 0.017
Pounds (avoir.) 2.21 X lQ-6 Cubic inches 28.88
Pounds (troy) 2.68 X l Q-6 Gallons 0. 1 25
Liters 0.473
Milligrams/liter Parts/million Ounces (fluid) 16
Quarts 0.5
Milliliters Cubic centimeters 1 .000027
Cubic inches 0.061 Poles Feet 16.5
Liters 0.001 Yards 5.5
Ounces (fluid) 0.034
Pounds (avoir.) Grains 7000
Millimeters Centimeters 0. 1 Grams 453.6
Inches 0.039 Kilograms 0.454
Meters 0.001 Ounces (avoir.) 16
Microns 1000 Ounces (troy) 14.58
Pennyweights 29 1 .67
Mils Centimeters 0.0025 Pounds (troy) 1 .2 1 5
Inches 0.001 Poundals 32. 1 74
Microns 25.4 Slugs 3. 108 X 10-2
Appendices
To Convert To-- Multiply To Convert To-- Multiply
From- B y- From- B y-
Pounds/square inch Kilograms/square 7.03 1 X 102 Square inches Circular mils 1 .2732
meter Square centimeters 6.45
Square feet 6.944 X l Q-3
Quarts (liquid) Cubic centimeters 946.4 Square mils 1 X l Q-6
Cubic inches 57.75 Square yards 7 . 7 1 6 X 10-4
Cubic feet 0.033
Gallons 0.25 Square kilometers Square miles 3.861 X 10- 1
· "
Liters 0.946
Ounces (fluid) 32 Square meters Square feet 10.76
Pints 2 Square yards 1 . 1 96
Spans Inches 9
0 Unit charges/second Microamperes 1 .6 X l Q- 1 3
Square centimeters Circular millimeters 1 27.32
· Watts Btu/second 9.481 X 10-1
Circular mils 1 97,350
Square feet 0.001 um fissions/second 3.12 X lQIO
Square inches 0. 155
Square millimeters 1 00 Yards Meters 9. 144 X 10-1
Feet 3
Square feet Square centimeters 929.03 Inches 36
Square inches 144
Square yards 1 . 1 1 1 X lQ-1 Years (sidereal) Days (mean solar) 365.256
Acres 2.296 X l Q-5
Appendix B I Co m m o n ly U sed G a s Tu r b i n e E n g i n e
Sym bo l s a n d A b b revi a t i o n s
Symbol Definition Units 0 Symbol Definition Units
temperature eshp
0
CIT Compressor inlet tempera- "F, "C, "R, "K EPR Engine pressure ratio None
ture
648 Appendices
Symbol Definition Units Symbol Definition Units
shp +
Fn X V.
550
(airplane moving) :1
s p
(shaft engine)
F
shp + - " (airplane static) Specific entropy Btu/lb-OR
2.5
s Shaft horsepower hp
F Thrust lbt Thrust horsepower hp
shp
Fg Gross thrust lbt Specific fuel consumption lb/lbt/h
thp
Fj Jet thrust lbt TSFC W1
F Net thrust Fg - Fr + Fj
= lb (jet engine)
n Fn
F Ram drag of engine airflow lb
r
T
F!A Fuel/air ratio lb/lb Absolute temperature 0R, OK
Time
f Frequency 1/s
g Acceleration due to ft/s2 Specific internal energy Btu/lb
gravity u Rotor linear velocity ft/s
g
v
Mass conversion factor 32. 174 u Velocity ft/s
v
H Enthalpy, heating value Btu/lb Volume ft3
IGV Inlet guide vane None Specific volume ft3/lb
hp Horsepower (shp, fhp) hp v Weight (force) lb
J . Joule's constant = 778.26 ft·lb/Btu w Rate of flow lb/s, lb/h
M Mass Wig slugs w Difference None
M Mach number = VIc None � Relative absolute pressure None
N Engine rotational speed rpm 0
= P/P0
OAT Outside air temperature OF, oc, OR, OK Efficiency percent
OGV Outlet guide vane None YJ Ratio of specific heats None
p Power ) Btu/s, hp y or K cp!cv
p
Microns None
Absolute pressure (psia) lb/in2, inHg
PTA J.L 3 . 14 1 6 None
Post-turbine augmentation None
PTI
R
Pre-turbine injection
Gas constant for air = 53.35
None
ft·lb/(lb)CF)
7T
(}
Relative absolute
temperature /T0 T None
Appendix C I G l ossa ry
ambient Refers to condition of atmosphere existing around . inertia The opposition of a body to have its state of rest
the engine, such as ambient pressure or temperature. or motion changed.
ampere A unit of measurement of current flow. It is jam acceleration Rapid movement of the power lever,
directly proportional to the voltage but inversely pro calling for maximum rate of engine rotor-speed
portional to the resistance to flow (ohm). increase.
centrifugal force The outward force an object exerts on jet silencer A device used to reduce and change the
a restraining agent when the motion of the object is lower-frequency sound waves emitting from the
rotational. engine's exhaust nozzle, to higher frequency and thus
centripetal force The inward force a restraining agent reducing the noise factor.
exerts on an object moving in a circle. It is the oppo- joule An electrical unit of energy or work.
'
site of, and equal to, centrifugal force. mass The amount of matter contained within a substance.
choked nozzle A nozzle whose flow rate has reached molecule The smallest particle of a substance that can
the speed of sound. exist and still retain all of the characteristics of that ·
density Mass per unit volume. substance.
energy The capacity for doing work. momentum The tendency of a body to continue moving
horsepower A human-made unit of power equal to after being placed in motion.
33,000 ft· lb of work per minute. ohm A unit that measures resistance to electrical current
hot start Overtemperature for a given time during starting. flow, and is equal to volts divided by amperes.
hung start Failure to reach normal-idling rpm during overspeed Rotor rpm in excess of the maximum allowable.
starting. power The rate of doing work; work per unit of time.
Appendices 649
ram The amount of pressure buildup above ambient thrust, net The effective thrust developed by the engine
pressure at the engine's compressor inlet, due to for during flight, taking into consideration the initial
ward motion of the engine through the air (air's initial momentum of the air (aircraft speed) mass prior to
momentum). entering the influence of the engine.
ram ratio The ratio of ram pressure to ambient pressure. thrust reverser A device used to partially reverse the
ram recovery The ability of an engine's air inlet duct to flow of the engine's nozzle discharge gases and thus
take advantage of ram pressure. create a thrust force in the opposite to normal direction.
sonic speed Speed of sound under ambient or local con thrust specific fuel consumption The fuel that the
ditions. engine must bum per hour to generate any 1 lb of thrust.
specific heat The ratio of the thermal capacity of a sub thrust, static Same as gross thrust, without any initial
stance to the thermal capacity of water. air-mass momentum present due to the engine's static
stable operation A condition where no appreciable condition.
fluctuation, intentional or unintentional, is occurring to torque A force, multiplied by its lever arm, acting at
any of the engine 's variables, such as rpm, tempera right angles to an axis.
ture, or pressure, etc. transient conditions Conditions that may occur
subsonic speed A speed less than that of sound. briefly while accelerating or decelerating, or while
supersonic speed A speed in excess of that of sound. passing through a specific range of engine operation.
thermocouple A pair of wires made of two dissimilar vector A line that, by scaled length, indicates magnitude,
metals, joined at one end, across which a DC voltage is and whose arrowhead represents direction of action.
produced ·at the other end when one end is warmer volt A unit of measurement of electrical force. It is a
than the other. function of the flow current (ampere) and the amount
thrust A reaction force in pounds. of resistance to flow (ohm) present.
thrust, gross The thrust developed by the engine, not watt A unit that measures power and is equal to voltage
taking into consideration any presence of initial-air . multiplied by amperes.
mass momentum. work A force acting through a distance.
Appendix D I Ta b l es a n d C h a rts
cp
General properties of air Impact Pressure Specific Heat of Air in Btu/lb/°F
TT0
=
( �am l )Pam
= Absolute temperature for compressible flow
y = CP /Cv = 1.40
= Standard absolute temperature _
Fabs
V = Velocity-ft/sec . p
T ( TaTm - )Tam
g = Acceleration of gravity-ft/secz R = 53.345 ft·lb/lb
n = Exponent of compression
q = lmpact pressure-lb/ft2
p = Density-lb 'sec2ft4
r
= -' 1
=
1545.4 ft·lb/lb - mole
mol wt
Fabs
).1 = Absolute viscosity lb sec/ft2 Approximate value (at sea level) Molecular weight of air = 28.97
(�y
v = Kinematic viscosity-ft2fsec
u = Density ratio-p/p0 Speed of Sound in Air
- ) v) cknots cmph
p = pgRT = 49.04 vf
(�r
o - Po To ( Po - ( o
=
_!__ _f!__ .!_ - _f!__ " "
= 29.05 vf = 33.5 vf
c5L T
= 5 in. water
p V 1 0
where is air temperature in °R
Specific Weight of Air in lb/ft3 Where V is in mph = 661 .74 knots = 761 .52 mph
oi
= 1 1 17fps
:
Conversions (standard day condition)
Tin Fabs
p in inHg
gp = .0765 1 = 1 .325 1 cubic ft of air = .0765 1 lb Absolute Viscosity for Air
l pound of air = 1 3.07 ft3
Density of Air in lb sec2fft4 or slugs/ft3 � ( :J : ( n I
).1 = pv
oi J rl
1010).1 = 3538 + 9.870 t in degrees C
=
:
=
abs
p in inHg = 3408 + 5.483 t in degrees F
p = .002378 = .04 1 1 87
T in F
Po ( To ) �
Temperature rise resulting from adiabatic
(v)
compression at impact
L
T
Air Density Ratio _f!__ = n I
2
T
·
Po Po To . T a
= 1 .792 in degrees F
100
_f!__ = _!__ = 17 32
p in inHg For adiabatic change
in F bs n = 1 .39 where V = True air speed in mph
650 Appendices
/
Relative Temperature
1 T T
°F = 0R - 460 oc = °K - 273 °C = (°F - 32) °F = 2. oc + 32 (} = - = - For interpolation, 1 °C = 1 .8°F
9 5 T0 519
Relative Pressure
p p p p p
lnHg ABS a lnHg ABS a InHg ABS a lnHg ABS -a InHg ABS a
Appendices 6 51
Fahrenheit-Celsius conversion table Look up reading in middle column; if in degrees Celsius, read Fahrenheit equivalent in right
hand column; if in degrees Fahrenheit, read Celsius equivalent in left-hand column.
c F c F c F c F c F c F c F c F
-51 -60 -76 6.7 44 1 1 1 .2 34.4 94 201.2 271 520 968 549 1020 1868 827 1520 2768 II 04 2020 3668 1382 2520 4568
-46 -50 -58 7.2 45 1 1 3.0 35.0 95 203.0 277 530 986 554 1030 1886 832 1530 2786 I l l0 2030 3686 1388 2530 4586
-40 -40 -40 7.8 46 1 14.3 35.6 96 204.8 282 540 1 004 560 1 040 1904 838 1540 2804 1 1 16 2040 3704 1393 2540 4604
-34 -30 -22 8.3 47 1 1 6.6 36. 1 97 206.6 288 550 1022 566 1050 1922 843 1550 2822 1121 2050 3722 1399 2550 4622
-29 -20 -4 8.9 48 1 1 8.4 36.7 98 208.4 293 560 1040 57 1 1060 1940 849 1560 2840 1 1 27 2060 3740 1404 2560 4640
-23 - 10 14 9.4 49 120.2 37.2 99 210.2 299 570 1058 577 , 1070 1958 854 1570 2858 1 1 32 2070 3758 1410 2570 4658
- 17.8 0 32 10.0 50 1 22.0 37.8 100 212.0 304 580 1076 582 1080 1976 860 1580 2876 1 138 2080 3776 1416 2580 4676
- 1 7.2 33.8 10.6 51 123.8 38 100 212 310 590 1094 588 1090 1994 866 1590 2894 1 143 2090 3794 1421 2590 4694
- 1 6.7 2 35.6 11.1 52 125.6 43 110 230 316 600 1112 593 1 100 2012 871 1600 2912 1 149 2100 3 8 1 2 1427 2600 4712
- 1 6.1 3 37.4 1 1 .7 53 127.4 49 120 248 321 610 1 1 30 599 1 1 10 2030 877 1610 2930 1 1 54 2 1 1 0 3830 1432 2610 4730
- 15.6 4 39.2 12.2 54 129.2 54 130 266 327 620 1 148 604 , 1 120 2048 882 1620 2948 1 160 2 1 20 3848 1438 2620 4748
- 15.0 5 4 1 .0 12.8 55 1 3 1 .0 60 140 284 332 630 1 1 66 610 1 1 30 2066 888 1630 2966 1 166 2130 3866 1443 2630 4766
- 14.4 6 42.8 13.3 56 132.8 66 150 302 338 640 1 1 84 616 1 140 2084 893 1 640 2984 1171 2140 3884 1449 2640 4784
- 1 3.9 7 44.6 13.9 57 1 34.6 71 160 320 343 650 1202 621 1 1 50 2102 899 1650 3002 1 177 2150 3902 1454 2650 4802
- 1 3.3 8 46.4 13.4 58 136.4 77 170 338 349 660 1 220 627 1 160 2 1 20 904 1660 3020 1 1 82 2 1 60 3920 1460 2660 4820
- 12.8 9 48.2 15.0 59 138.2 82 180 356 354 670 1238 632 1170 2138 910 1670 3038 1 1 88 2170 3938 1466 2670 4838
- 12.2 10 50.0 15.6 60 140.0 88 190 374 360 680 1256 638 1 180 2156 916 1680 3056 1193 2 1 80 3956 1471 2680 4856
- 1 1.7 II 5 1 .8 16.1 61 141.8 93 200 392 366 690 1274 643 1 190 2174 921 1690 3074 1 1 99 2190 3974 1477 2690 4874
- 11.1 12 53.6 16.7 62 143.6 99 210 410 371 700 1292 649 1200 2192 927 1700 3092 1204 2200 3992 1482 2700 4892
- 10.6 13 55.4 17.2 63 145.4 100 212 413.6 377 710 1310 654 1210 2210 932 1710 3110 1210 2210 4010 1488 2710 4910
- 1 0.0 14 57.2 17.8 64 147.2 104 220 428 382 720 1328 660 1220 2228 938 1 720 3 128 1216 2220 4028 1493 2720 11928
-9.4 15 59.0 18.3 65 149.0 1 10 230 446 388 730 1346 666 1230 2246 943 1730 3 146 1221 2230 4046 1499 2730 4946
-8.9 16 60.8 18.9 66 150.8 116 240 464 393 740 1364 671 1240 2264 949 1740 3 1 64 1227 2240 4064 1504 2740 4964
-8.3 17 62.6 19.4 67 152.6 121 250 482 399 750 1382 677 1250 2282 954 1750 3 1 82 1232 2250 4082 1510 2750 4982
-7.8 18 64.4 20.0 68 154.4 127 260 500 404 760 1400 682 1260 2300 960 1 760 3200 1238 2260 4100 1516 2760 5000
-7.2 19 66.2 20.6 69 156.2 132 270 518 410 770 1418 688 1270 23 1 8 966 1770 3218 1243 2270 4 1 1 8 1521 2770 5018
-6.7 20 68.0 21.1 70 158.0 138 280 536 416 780 1436 693 1280 2336 971 1780 3236 1249 2280 4136 1527 2780 5036
-6.1 21 69.8 2 1 .7 71 159.8 143 290 554 421 790 1454 699 1 290 2354 977 1 790 3254 1254 2290 4154 1532 2790 5054
-5.6 22 7 1 .6 22.2 72 1 6 1 .6 149 300 572 427 800 1472 704 1 300 2372 982 1 800 3272 1 260 2300 4172 1538 2800 5072
-5.0 23 73.4 22.8 73 163.4 154 310 590 432 810 1490 710 1310 2390 988 1 8 10 3290 1266 2310 4 1 90 1543 28 10 5090
-4.4 24 75.2 23.3 74 165.2 160 320 608 438 820 1508 716 1320 2408 993 1820 3308 1271 2320 4208 1549 2820 5108
-3.9 25 77.0 23.9 75 167.0 166 330 626 443 830 1526 721 1330 2426 999 1830 3326 1277 2330 4226 1554 2830 512 6
-3.3 26 78.8 24.4 76 168.8 171 340 644 449 840 1544 727 1 340 2444 1004 1840 3344 1282 2340 4244 1560 2840 5 144
-2.8 27 80.6 25.0 77 170.6 177 350 662 454 850 1562 732 1350 2462 1010 1850 3362 1288 2350 4262 ' 1566 2850 5 162
-2.3 28 82.4 25.6 78 172.4 1 82 360 680 460 860 1580 738 1360 2480 1016 1860 3380 1293 2360 4280 1571 2860 5 180
- 1 .7 29 84.2 26.1 79 174.3 188 370 698 466 870 1598 743 1370 2498 1021 1 870 3398 1299 2370 4298 1577 2870 5 198
-1.1 30 86.0 26.7 80 176.0 193 380 716 471 880 1616 749 1380 25 1 6 1027 1 880 3416 1304 2380 4316 1582 2880 5216
-0.6 31 87.8 27.2 81 177.8 199 390 734 477 890 1 634 754 1390 2534 1032 1890 3434 1310 2390 4334 1588 2890 5234
0.0 32 89.6 27.8 82 179.6 204 400 752 482 900 1652 760 1400 2552 1038 1 900 3452 1316 2400 4352 1593 2900 5252
0.6 33 9 1 .4 28.3 83 1 8 1 .4 210 410 770 488 910 1670 766 1410 2570 1043 1910 3470 1321 2410 4370 1599 2910 5270
1.1 34 93.2 28.9 84 183.2 216 420 788 493 920 1688 77 1 1420 2588 1049 1920 3488 1327 2420 4388 1604 2920 5 288
1.7 35 95.0 28.4 85 185.0 221 430 806 499 930 1706 777 1430 2606 1054 1930 3506 1332 2430 4406 1610 2930 5306
2.2 36 96.8 30.0 86 186.8 227 440 824 504 940 1724 782 1440 2624 1060 1940 3524 1338 2440 4424 1616 2940 5324
2.8 37 98.6 30.6 87 188.6 232 450 842 510 950 1742 788 1450 2642 1066 1950 3542 1343 2450 4442 1621 2950 5342
3.3 38 1 00.4 31.1 88 190.4 238 460 860 516 960 1760 793 1460 2660 1071 1960 3560 1 349 2460 4460 1 627 2960 5360
3.9 39 102.2 3 1 .7 89 192.2 243 470 878 521 970 1778 799 1470 2678 1077 1970 3578 1354 2470 4478 1632 2970 5378
4.4 40 104.0 32.2 90 194.0 249 480 896 527 980 1796 804 1480 2696 1082 1980 3596 1360 2480 4496 1638 2980 5396
5.0 41 105.8 32.8 91 195.8 254 490 914 532 990 1 8 14 810 1490 2714 1088 1990 3614 1366 2490 4514 1643 2990 5414
5.6 42 107.6 33.3 92 197.6 260 500 932 538 1000 1832 816 1500 2732 1093 2000 3632 1371 2500 4532 1649 3000 5432
6.1 43 109.4 33.9 93 1 99.4 266 510 950 543 1010 1850 821 1510 2750 1099 2010 3650 1377 2510 4550
652 Appendices
Appendix E I S o m e Co m m o n ly U sed Form u l as, U n its, a n d Te rms
FORMULAS: UNITS:
W W
1 . Fn = T (V2 - V1 ) + gr CVr) + Ai (Pi - Pam)
1 . A = ft2 or in2
i
2. c = .24
2. THP = CFn)CVmph) p
375
3. C, = mph or ft/s
3. SFCTurboshaft = �
shp 4. D = diameter of a rotating body in feet or inches
4. TSF�urbo et
i
= Wr
Fn
5. F0 = lb
5. ES FCT b r ur op op = �
eshp
6. g = 32.2 ft/s2
6.
7. pam = lb/ft2 or lb/in2
E SHPstationary = shp + �
2.5
8.
m
71" = 3 . 1 4
7 ·
v
ESHPMo ing = ShP + (Fn)(V ph)
375 9. T = ° F (Fahrenheit), 0 R (Rankine),°C (Celsius), °K (Kelvin)
8. M = J:::..
c,
10. 0R = ° F + 460
9_ hp =
(CP)(.IH)(W.)(778)
550 1 1 . °K = oc + 273
10. Vrps =
12 60
rtD in
X
.!:£!!!_
1 2. t = seconds, minutes, or hours
1 3 . V = mph or ft/s
12. w = 1_
t
15. Wr = lb/s
19.
2. Ai = Exhaust nozzle area
4. CP = Specific heat of air at a constant pressure 20. sfc = Specific fuel consumption (lb/shp/h) or (lb/lbt/h)
6.
C, =
7. esfc = Equivalent specific fuel consumption (lb/eshp/h) 23. tsfc = Thrust specific fuel consumption (lb/lbt/h)
10. °F = Fahrenheit 6
2 . V = Exhaust gas velocity
11.
2
g = Acceleration due to gravity 27. W = Watts
1 3 . J = Joules (one ampere for one second through one ohm) 29. Wr = Weight of fuel
Appendices 653
r·
4 1f64
9164 . . . . . . . . 1406 .0 154 3.572 . . . • . • . .6406 .3223 16.272
5/32 2 1f
32
• • • • 0 • • • • • . 1 562 .0192 3.969 0 • • • • • • • • • .6562 .3382 16.669
4
11f64 . . • . • . • .1719 .0232 4.366 3f64 • . . • • • • .67 1 9 .3545 17.065
3/ 6 • • • 0 0 0 . 1 875 .0276 4.762 1 11 6 0 0 0 . 0 • • • • 0 0 0 0 .6875 .37 1 2 17.462
1
• • • • • • • •
1
4
13f64 • . . . . . . . 203 1 .0324 5. 1 59 5f64 • • • . . . • .703 1 .3883 17.859
23f . . .
7/32 32
• • • • • • 0 • • • . 2 1 87 .0376 5.556 . . . . . . . . 7 1 87 .4057 1 8 .256
4
15f64 • • • • • • • .2344 .043 1 5.953 7/64 • • • • • • • .7344 .4235 1 8.653
1/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2500 .049 1 6.350 3/4 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • • • 0 0 0 .7500 .44 1 8 19.050
49/64
1 7/64 . . . . . . . .2656 .0553 6.747 • • • . . . . .7656 .4604 19.447
9132 25/
32
. . . . . . . . . .28 1 2 .0621 7 . 1 44 . . . . . . . . . . .78 1 2 .4794 19.844
19f64 • • • • • • • .2969 . 0692 7.540 51f64 • • • • • • • .7969 .4987 20.241
5/1 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 25 .0767 7.937 131 6 0 • • • • • • • • 0 0 . 0 . 8 1 25 . 5 1 85 20.637
1
2 1/64 • . . • . . . .328 1 .0845 8.334 53f64 . . . .. . . . .828 1 .5386 2 1 .034
11 132 27f
32
. . . . . . . . . . .3437 .0928 8 .7 3 1 0 • • • • • • • • • .8437 .5591 2 1 .43 1
23f64 . • • • • • • .3594 . 1 0 14 9.128 ss;64 • . • • • • • .8594 .5800 • 2 1 . 828
3fs 0 0 0 0 • • • • • 0 • • 0 0 . .3750 . 1 105 9.525 7Is • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • .8750 .60 1 3 . 22.225 '
6 54 Appendices
Appendix G I D ri l l S i zes, t h e G reek A l p h a bet, a n d Prefix
M u lt i p l es
.2280 28 . 1405
2 .22 10 29 . 1 360 55 .0520
3 .2130 30 . 1 285 56 .0465
Prefix multiples
4 .2090 31 . 1 200 57 .0430
5 .2055 32 . 1 160 58 .0420 PREFIX MULTIPLIER
6 .2040 33 . 1 130 59 .0410
Tera One trillion 1 ,000,000,000,000 1012
7 .20 10 34 . 1 1 10 60 .0400
Giga One billion 1 ,000,000,000 109
8 . 1 990 35 . 1 100 61 .0390
Mega One million 1 ,000,000 106
9 . 1 960 36 . 1 065 62 .0380
Myria Ten thousand 10,000 104
10 . 1 935 37 . 1 040 63 .0370.
Kilo One thousand 1000 1 03
11 .1910 38 .1015 64 .0360
Hecto One hundred 1 00 1 02
12 . 1 890 39 .0995 65 .0350
Deka Ten 10 10
13 . 1 850 40 .0980 66 .0330
Octa Eight 8
14 . 1 820 41 .0960 67 .0320
Hexa Six 6
15 . 1 800 42 .0935 68 .03 10
Penta Five 5
16 . 1 770 43 .0890 69 .0292
Tetra Four 4
17 . 1730 44 .0860 70 .0280
Tri- Three 3
18 . 1 695 45 .0820 71 .0260
19 . 1 660 46 .08 10 ° 72 .0250
20 .1610 47 .0785 73 .0240 .1 10- 1
Deci One-tenth
21 . 1 590 48 .0760 74 .0225
Centi One-hundredth .01 10-2
22 . 1 570 49 .0730 75 .0210 1 0-3
Milli One-thousandth .001
23 . 1 540 50 .0700 76 .0200 .000001 1 0-6
Micro One-millionth
24 . 1 520 51 .0670 77 .01 80
Nano One-billionth .000000001 10-9
25 . 1 495 52 .0635 78 .0160
Pico- One-trillionth .000000000001 10-12
26 . 1470 53 .0595 79 .0145
27 . 1 440 54 .0550 80 .01 35
Appendices 655
I
"'
U'l Appendix H I F u e l U t i l i zati o n
"'
)>
"'0
"'0 Fuel utilization
11)
::J . . ) lb fuel F(SFC)
a. Pounds of fuel per naut1ca I m1le ( --
n. m1. 1e = -v
;:;·
11)
"'
2 8 �--+---�--�--��--4---�
26 I I I I I/ I ! it I / IJ J f
I ,1
24 I i I I / I I 71v I�
/ I I
' I
>I J. I
Y JI
2 2 f---+---+
20 1---+-----,lf--+--
18 1 17' I I 71'
.r::.
;Q
g 16 1 / I 7F ?f :A' I "/' I 1..,...r I If f / I I I /
0
-
0
�
14 1 ,.IC ,'I .I-<1
' 71\C I 7....1
.
I :;;pr: v I
J
I
k
I
r
I
r 1
-
(ji
.2
Cii
+-'
1 2 1' >'I -" I > I
;;
l.£
� I :.o�..r
�
tO I >' boo,< I,..... I
4 &--r===-
�........:r--=-==-+ --4= 71t..e i ....--:
I ! ! I
I
I I ��--? �?1· � I I
I
.6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
I
r
200
v
I
1 eO
v
1 20
v
1 00
v
eo
L&.
0
- 60
e
0
1-
40
/
20
v
-"
/
/
0
v
- 20 /
"'
-40 /
- 60 /
)>
"'0
"'0 -eo
v
(!)
::J
c..
L
/
;::; · -100
(!) 920 940 960 9eO 1000 1020 1040 1060 10e0 1100 1120 1 140 1160 ueo 1 200 1220 1 240 1260 ft /sec
VI
� Psychrometric Chart
"'C
"'C
(!)
::::1 1. Read wet bulb temperature on slant line.
0..
;::; · 2. Read dry bulb temperature on vertical line at point of intersection of
(!)
"' slant and vertical lines.
3. Read absolute humidity on horizontal line . •
--��--4-���--� 1 30 .: 0
+----4��4---� 1 2 0 �
--�-
"0
"..
-�����-� 1 1 0 �
....�<. ......
0
,., ·��'�,tid
e" --�--��--� 1 0 0 � ...
::l
90 ";
0
80 E
-
2 70 °
o'�
"'
�u:�
60 .:
6 e'fl 'V
f:JO ...
0
5 0 t!)
� e� 40
��
30
20
10
The boldface page numbers indicate the presence of a figure on the page. . Afterburners (Continued)
The t indicates the presence of a table. Pratt & Whitney TF30-P- 100 turbofan engine
afterburner configuration, 228
Abbreviations and symbols, 648-49t afterburner fuel manifold and flameholder, 229
Abrams main battle tank (M 1 A 1 ), 35 aircraft using, 228
Acceleration Agusta helicopters
defined, 1 3 9-40 AB 2 1 2 (Agusta Bell), 87
and typical thrust calculation, 1 4 1 Agusta 109, 41
ADA (Aeronautical Development Agency) aircraft Air filters, 164
Light Combat Aircraft, 67 Air Tractor aircraft
Aeolipile, Hero's, 2 Snow Air Tractor AT400, 87
Aerospatiale aircraft Air/airflow, physics of
ATR42/ATR72 (Aerospatiale/Aeritalia), 92 general
Concorde SST (BAC/Aerospatiale), 116, 166 perfect gas equation, 1 8 1
Corvette, 90 pressure .correction factor (8), 65 1 t
Aerospatiale helicopters pressure vs. velocity (subsonic), 158
AS355, 41 properties of air (formulas), 650t
Afterburners psychrometric chart, 658
general sound speed vs. temperature, 657
introduction, 227-28 specific heat, 1 80-81
engine pressure, 151 temperature correction factor (0), 65 1 t
exhaust temperature/velocity, 151, 1 52
airflow
simple afterburner schematic, 229
compressibility effects, 1 5 8-59
specific performance requirements for, 228
flow over airfoils, 159
as tailpipes (fighter aircraft), 207
kinetic energy, 158
thrust augmentation, typical, 227
stagnation pressure, defined, 1 7 1
variable-area exhaust nozzle, need for, 228
gas laws
construction
Boyle's Law, 179
screech (antihowl) liner, 229
Charles' Law, 1 80, 180
simple afterburner schematic, 229
general gas law, 1 80
typical components, 228
Mach number
operation
defined, 1 59
electric spark ignition, 229
exhaust gas (and choked nozzles), 1 59
gas temperatures/velocities, typical, 229
vs. altitude/airspeed, 1 5 9
hot streak ignition, 229
shock waves/Mach number
screech, consequences of, 229
discussion of, 1 59-60
torch ignition, 229
thrust increase in centrifugal-flow compressors, 1 70
calculation of, 229-30 mitigation of (centrifugal-flow compressors), 1 70
vs. temperature ratio increase, 230
oblique vs. normal (inlet ducts), 165
General Electric J79 turbojet engine shock wave formation/location (inlet ducts), 165
afterburner assembly, 478-79 water wave analogy for, 1 60
afterburner fuel system, 484--8 8 See also Airflow, engine; Airplane speed, effect of; Thrust
afterburner ignition system, 484 Airbus Industrie aircraft
afterburner pressure signal, 284 A300-600/600R, 63, 64, 112, 394
General Electric J85 turbojet engine A3 1 0-200 Adv/300, 63, 112
introduction, 232-33 A330, 63, 112, 434
afterburner and nozzle control schematic, 234 Airflow, engine
fuel system configuration/schematic, 233 general
operation, 233-34 airflow vs. bypass ratio, 16t
sectional view, 232 axial flow, 137
Pratt & Whitney J57/JT3 turbojet engine centrifugal flow, 137
afterburner drain valve, 232 inlet airspeed, effect of, 1 5 2
afterburner system schematic, 230 pressure changes in, 149, 151, 1 52
afterburning, initiation of, 230 velocity changes in, 151, 1 5 2
exhaust-nozzle actuator control, 232 exhaust velocity
fuel system/fuel control, 230, 231 afterburners, effect of, 151, 1 5 2
ignition system (hot streak), 232 choked nozzles, effect of, 1 52, 159
I ndex 6 59
r
Airflow, engine (Continued) AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine (Continued)
in specific engines: airbleed system, interstage (Continued)
AlliedSignal Garrett TPE3 3 1 engine, 19, 20 component mounting, 5 1 2
AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 engines, 502 description and operation, 5 1 1
P&W 4000 series engines, 459, 46 1 -62 airflow in, 502
Teledyne CAE 179-T-25, 124, 540, 540--41 anti-icing system, 508
See also Airplane speed, effect of; Ducts; Thrust electrical system/main wiring harness
Airplane speed, effect of general configuration (schematic), 511
on compressor discharge pressure/temperature, 17 4 exhaust thermocouple harness, 5 1 1
on compressor inlet temperature, 1 76 ignition system, 5 1 0
on compressor stall, 176 inlet-oil temperature-sensing bulb, 5 1 1
on engine airflow, 1 5 2 fuel system
o n horsepower/thrust, 1 42-43, 146, 147 general configuration (schematic), 508
and inlet duct design, 1 62, 1 63--65 bypass fuel filter, 509
on 179 engine performance, 149-50 combustion chamber drain valve, 509
on propulsive efficiency, 158 emergency (manual) fuel system, 5 1 0
thrust vs. airspeed, 134 fuel, acceptable grades of, 5 1 0
turbofan insensitivity to, 1 6 fuel control power lever, 5 1 0
See also Airflow, engine; Thrust fuel flow, 5 1 0
Airspeed. See Airplane speed, effect of fuel vaporizers, 509
Airtech (Aircraft Technology Industries) aircraft fuel-control system, 323, 509- 1 0
CN-235 regional airliner, 75 main-fuel system, 509
CN-235-M military transport, 75 starting- and main-fuel manifolds, 509
AlliedSignal Garrett auxiliary-power units (APUs) starting-fuel system, 509
GTCP36, 392 system block diagram, 323
GTCP3 3 1 , 393 system operation, 322-23
GTCP660, 393 internal cooling and pressurization
GTC85 series, 391, 392, 393 general configuration (schematic), 507
TSCP700, 393 description and operation, 506, 508
typical applications engine-air temperature, 532-35
commercial aircraft, 394 exhaust thermocouple harness, 5 1 1
general aviation, 395 lubricating system
military aircraft, 394 general configuration (schematic), 351, 505
See also AlliedSignal Garrett engines functional description, 349-50
AlliedSignal Garrett engines chip detector, 506
discussion, 1 4 main oil-pressure supply system, 504
ATF3, 24--26 oil filter, 506
Fl09 (TFE76), 26--27 oil pump, 506
LHTEC T800, 83 operating temperatures, 504
TFE73 1 . See below scavenge-oil system, 504, 506
TPE3 3 1 . See below torquemeter, 506
AlliedSignal Garrett TFE73 1 front-fan engine torquemeter booster pump, 506
general major assemblies
cutaway view, 22 general configuration (exploded view), 503
specifications, 2 1 accessory drive gearbox, 503
compound-mixer cone nozzle configuration, 23 combustion turbine assembly, 503-4
inlet configurations, various, 22 compressor and impeller housing, 503
nozzle configurations, various, 22 compressor rotor, 503
thrust-reverser compatibility, 22 diffuser housing, 503
general configuration, 21, 22 inlet housing, 502
typical applications, 23 output reduction carrier/gear assembly, 503
engine-lubrication system (schematic), 359 overspeed govemer/tachometer drive, 502
fuel-control system (full-authority EEC), 271, 327 piping and assemblies, 504
AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 turboprop engines Allison engines
general configuration, 19 Allison product line, 49-50
cutaway view, 19 discussion, 1 3
airflow through, 19 GMA-2 1 00, 47-48
theory of operation, 20 GMA-3007, 46
TSE33 1 -7 single-spool configuration, 20 GMT-305 Whirlfire, 38
TSE33 1 -50 free-power turbine configuration, 20 133. See below
typical applications, 20--21 17 1 , 39
AlliedSignal Lycoming engines K Series, 44
AlliedSignal Lycoming product line, 33--35 LHTEC T800, 83
discussion, 1 4 Spey (RR/Allison), 116--17
AGT 1 500, 31-32 T63 (250-C l8), 14, 40-41, 378
ALF502, 30--31 T78, 45
LTS/LTP, 27-28 T406, 48-49
T53 (T55). See below 250-Cl 8 (T63), 14, 40-41, 378
AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine 250-C28 Series III, 10, 36--37
general 5 0 1 -D 1 3 . See following
general configuration, 29, 501 Allison 133 turbojet engine
specifications, 29, 500 general
directional references for, 5 0 1 , 502 general configuration, 35-36
operation, description of, 500 specifications, 35
typical applications, 30, 501 historical background, 9-10
airbleed system, interstage typical application, 36
general configuration, 511 compressor configuration, 1 8 1 , 182
660 I ndex
Allison 133 turbojet engine (Continued) Allison 5 0 1 -0 1 3 turboprop engine (Continued)
lubricating system (wet sump), 347, 347 turbine assembly
Allison 50 1 - 0 1 3 turboprop engine thermocouple assembly, 518, 5 1 9
general turbine rear bearing support, 5 1 9, 520
general configuration, 42, 513-14 turbine-rotor assembly, 5 19, 519 ·
Index 661
Balancing (rotating assemblies) Boeing aircraft (Continued)
moment-weight numbers (turbine blade), 4 1 2 KC- 1 0, 64, 394
static vs. dynamic, 4 1 2 KC- 1 35R tanker, 54
techniques for achieving, 4 1 2 KE-3 tanker, 54
Balloon analogy (jet engine), 142 V-22 Osprey (Bell/Boeing), 49
Barber, John, 3 YC-14, 64
Bearings 707, 104
general 720, 104
basic types and characteristics, 340, 342-43 727, 108, 221, 394
criteria for selecting, 341 t 737, 737-300, 55, 108, 221, 394
handling precautions for, 4 1 1 747, 109, 112, 223, 394
maintenance/overhaul procedures 747SP, 109
bearing failure (example), 422 747-200/300/400, 63
bearing reassembly, handling precautions for, 4 1 2 757, 110, 394
radial vs. axial loads on, 340, 343 767, 112
AlliedSignal Bendix AP-B3 fuel control 767 Advanced Derivative, 63
bearing lubrication, 287 767-200ER/300/300ER, 64
Allison 501-D 1 3 turboprop engine 777, 69, 112
turbine rear bearing support, 5 19, 520 Boeing engines
General Electric CF6 turbofan engines Model 520 (T60), 50
bearings and seals, 571-72, 571 Model 550 (T50), 14, 51
General Electric 179 turbojet engine Boeing helicopters
bearing areas 1, 2, 3, 480 CH-46 Sea Knight (Boeing Vertol), 72, 395
gearbox drive support bearing, 482 CH-47, CH-47D Chinook, 30, 33, 388, 395
number 3 bearing scavenge pump, 495 Vertol 234, 33
oil seal, typical, 480 107- 1 1 , 72
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine Branca's stamping mill, 3
diffuser no. 4 bearing seal air system/housing, 606, 607, 631 Brayton cycle
diffuser oil-scavenging pump bearings (nos. 4, 5), 606, 628 described, 154, 155
fan inlet bearing no. I front/rear support, 600 thermal efficiency of, 155
main accessory-drive bevel gearshaft and bearing, 604 vs. Otto cycle, 155
main shaft bearings, 627, 627 Brinnelling, 406, 408
pressure oil system bearings (nos. 1-6), 629-33, 629-33 Bristol engines
scavenge-oil system bearings, 633-34 Pegasus (RR!Bristol), 119-21
turbine no. 4\1; bearing heat shields, 608 Proteus, 51-52
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine Viper (RR!Bristol), 114-15
bearing areas, 446--47 British Aerospace aircraft
bearing compartment seal pressurization, 447 BAC 500 One-Eleven series, 117, 394
bearing numbering/description, 444--45 , 446 BAe 1 25 , 395
bearing supports, 445-46 Concorde SST (BAC/Aerospatiale), 116, 166
See also Oil systems components Harrier V/STOL, 121
Beech aircraft Bromon Aircraft Corp. aircraft
Beech Mk 2 (Raytheon Aircraft), 86 BR-2000 airliner, transport, 75
C90, 86 Burning (metal), 407, 408
C99, 86 Burnishing, 407, 408
King Air B lOO, 21 Buzz, inlet, 165
Super King Air B200, 86
T-34C/T-44A, 86 Caley, Sir George, 3
1 900, 86 Canadair aircraft
Bell aircraft CL-44, 121
V-22 Osprey (Bell/Boeing), 49 CL-21 5T, 92
XP-59A, 7-8, 7 CL-600 Challenger, 31, 34, 394
See also Bell helicopters Regional Jet, 71
Bell helicopters 60 I Challenger, 71
AB 2 1 2 (Agusta Bell), 87 Caproni-Campini (CC) aircraft
AH-11/IT, 87 CC- 1 , 7
AH- I S HueyCobra, 30, 33 CC-2, 7
AH-1 W SuperCobra, 76 CASA (Construcciones Aeronauticas SA)
CUH-I N/UHIN, 87 C- 1 0 1 , 23
Long Ranger III, 37 Cascade effect (compressor blade), 175, 175
Model 222, 28 CastCool (transpiration) process (Allison), 245, 249
UH-I BIUH- l D Iroquois, 30, 83 Centrifugal compressor engines
UH- l F, 72 general
UH- l H, 33 advantages of, 9
204B, 30 compressors, basic forms of, 11
206B Jet Ranger, 41 propeller-reduction gearing in, 1 0, 42
2 1 2, 87 examples
2 1 4 Big Lifter, 33 AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 , 1 0, 18--2 1
21 4ST, 76 Allison 250-C28 Series III, I 0, 36-37
4 1 2, 87 Allison 501-D, 1 0, 42-43
See also Bell aircraft Rolls Royce Dart, 10, 113-14
Bernoulli's theorem, 158. See also Air/airflow, physics of Teledyne CAE J69, 10, 124-25
Boeing aircraft Williams International WR27 - 1 , 10, 132-33
B-52G, H, 105 See also specific engines
E-3/E-3A AWACS, 55, 394 free-power turbines in
E-4/E-4A, 64, 394 discussion, I 0
E-6 Communications/control, 55 AlliedSignal Garrett TSE3 3 1 -50, 20
662 Index
Centrifugal compressor engines (Continued) Compressors (Continued)
free-power turbines in (Continued) compressor aerodynamics (axial-flow)
Allison 250-C 1 8 (T63), 10, 40-41, 378 airflow vector analysis, 1 72, 172
Boeing 550 (T50), 14, 51 airspeed and compressor stall, 176
regenerators (recuperators) in airspeed vs. inlet temperature, 1 76
rotary drum type (Allison GMT-305), 1 2, 38 angle-of-attack, analysis of, 1 75-76, 177, 178
stationary type (AiliedSignal AGT 1500), 1 2, 31-32 cascade effect, 175, 175
stationary type (Allison T-78), 12, 45 compressor taper, typical, 174
Cessna aircraft constant-outside-case diameter, advantage of, 1 74-75, 275
A-37B, 57 diffusing air, instability of, 1 72, 172
Citation I, II, S 1 1 , 90 high-speed flight, effect of, 174
Citation Model 500, 90 pressure ratio, single-stage limit to, 1 72-73
Citation X, 46 sample calculation: PWC-1 00 turbofan engine, 1 73
CitationJet, 132 sample calculation: 1 3-stage compressor, 173 ·
Corsair, 86 stall indications, 176
Model 441 Conquest, 21 tailpipe pressure vs. ideal compression ratio, 1 7 3
Navy Citation (T-47A), 90 tip speed, calculation o f (sample), 1 74-75
T-37B, 125 construction features
Chimney jack (da Vinci), 2 canted vanes, advantages of, 1 82, 1 84, 184
Choked nozzles fit and balance, 1 8 1 , 1 83
effect on engine pressure, 152 materials, 1 8 1
and engine thrust, 1 43 rotor assemblies (axial-flow), 1 8 1 , 183
and exhaust gas velocity, 152, 159
rotor assemblies (centrifugal-flow), 1 8 1 , 182
Combustion chambers
rotor disk stacking, techniques for, 1 82, 183, 184
basic types
thermodynamics of
advantages/disadvantages of, 1 89-90
air, behavior of (basic equations for), 178-79
annular, 1 87-88, 188
Boyle's Law, 179
can, 1 87, 187
Brayton cycle, 154, 1 55-56
can-annular, 188, 188
Charles' Law, 1 80, 180
"low smoke" combustion chamber (GE 179), 196, 196
general gas law, 1 80
modified annular (P&W UTC JT9D), 1 89, 189
horsepower requirements, compressor, 1 8 1
modified can-annular (PW JT3/J57), 190, 190
perfect gas equation, 1 8 1
burner performance
specific heat, 1 80-8 1
performance requirements, 1 92-93
See also Air/airflow, physics of; Turbines; specific engines
burner outlet, thrust at, 144
Constant-volume engine. See Otto cycle
carbon deposits, 1 94
Convair aircraft
combustion efficiency, 1 93
F- 1 06A, 103
stable operating range, 193-94
580 (Allison conversion), 43
starting, 194
600 Conversion, 114
temperature distribution, 194
880, 59, 222
temperature/cooling requirements, 194
990, 60
combustion chamber operation
Conversion factors
airflow, 1 90-9 1 , 191
decimal/fraction, 654t
cooling airflow, 191
Fahrenheit/Celsius, 652t
ignition/flame propagation, 1 9 1
general physical units, 644-48t
design factors
Cowls, inlet
air distribution, methods of, 195
on P&W 4000 series engines, 465-66, 465
burner dimensions, 195
Cushion (in flight-deck controls), 4 1 4
fuel nozzle design, 196--97
fuel-air operating range, 1 95-96
D a Vinci, Leonardo, 2
materials/construction
P&W Finwall construction, 1 9 1 , 192 Damage, foreign-object. See Foreign-object damage (FOD)
P&W Floatwall construction, 1 9 1 , 193 Dassault aircraft
rolled-ring combustor (GE/SNECMA CFM56), 1 9 1 -92, 194 Falcon Fan Jet (Dassault/Falcon Fan), 58
See also specific engines Falcon 10, 23
Compressibility effects. See Air/airflow, physics of Falcon 200 (Garrett conversion), 26
Compressors Falcon 50, 395
general Rafale Demonstrator, 67
introduction to, 1 68-69 DeHavilland Canada aircraft
the compressor as a wing, 170-7 1 DHC Dash 7 , 86
design considerations for, 1 68t DHC Dash 8, 100, 300, 92
horsepower requirements, 1 8 1 DHC-5 Buffalo, 74, 117
pressure, effect of increasing, 1 55-56 Twin Otter, 86
axial-flow compressors Density, air
introduction, 1 70 density/altitude profile, atmospheric, 149
general configuration, 171 effect on engine thrust, 148, 149-50
efficiency vs. pressure ratio, 171 See also Air/airflow, physics of; Airflow, engine
thrust at outlet (sample calculation), 144 Diffusers
typical operating curves, 178 AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 diffuser housing, 503
centrifugal-flow compressors Allison 501-D l 3 compressor diffuser, 5 1 6- 1 7, 517
introduction, 1 69-70 diffuser outlet, thrust at, 1 44
general configuration, 169 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine
airflow, pressure, velocity changes in, 169 introduction, 605
efficiency vs. pressure ratio, 171 diffuser bearings/bearing seals (nos. 4,5), 606, 607, 628, 631
foreign object damage, susceptibility to, 170 diffuser case, 605, 606
SFC vs. pressure ratio, 170 fan discharge (diffuser airbleed manifolds), 6 1 6, 617
shock waves, mitigation of, 1 70 fan discharge (diffuser inner/outer fan ducts), 6 1 5
Index 663
Diffusers (Continued) Energy
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine kinetic, 1 39
diffuser and combustor, 45 1 , 452 potential, 1 3 9
Water injection, effects of (front vs. diffuser injection), 225-26 Energy distribution
Disc loading (propeller), 1 7 turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, 135
Dornier aircraft Energy extraction
DO 1 28, 6, 86 turbojets vs. turbofans, 152, 153, 1 56
DO 328, 433 Engine testing/operation
Douglas aircraft engine operation and checks
See McDonnell Douglas aircraft controls/instrumentation, typical, 438-39
Drill sizes (letter, number), 655t EPR, use of, 439
Ducts, exhaust. See under Exhaust systems fan speed, use of, 439
Ducts, inlet operating techniques (good practice), 439
general engine ratings
introduction to, 1 62 introduction, 439
airplane speed, effect of, 162, 1 65-66 engine thrust (part- vs. full-throttle operation), 440
categories of, 1 63 flat-rated (part-throttle) engines, 439-40
air filters in military (full-throttle) engines, 440
active (GE T700/CT7 engine), 164 part-throttle operation, advantages of, 440
passive (P&W PT6 engine), 164 engine trimming, 440-41
airflow in ground operating procedures
introduction to, 162 introduction, 429, 436
normal vs. distorted, 162 engine instrumentation, typical aircraft, 433-34
See also supersonic ducts (below) engine torching (from excess fuel), 436
configurations of engine trimming, 440
bellmouth inlet, 163, 426, 427 hand signals (turbine aircraft operation), 430--32
design variations, typical, 163 safety considerations, 429, 434-35, 436
inlet geometries, 165 See also Safety, personnel; Starting procedures
radar cross-section of, 1 62 performance testing
ramjet vs. scramjet, 167 typical calculations, 427 ; 429
thrust reversers in, 166 the test cell
See also variable-geometry ducts (below) introduction, 425
rating of bellmouth inlet/screen, 1 63, 426, 427
efficiency vs. thrust loss, 164 engine log sheet, 427, 428
pressure efficiency ratio, 1 62-63 fan rpm-indicating system, 426
ram recovery point, 163 percent vs. actual rpm, 426
supersonic ducts test-cell instrumentation, 425-26
air temperature rise in, 1 65 Environmental impact of engine emissions, 197t
duct recovery point (duct start), 1 65 Exhaust systems
inlet buzz in, 165 exhaust ducts
normal vs. oblique shock waves, 165 introduction, 204 ,
pressure rise in, 1 65-66 buried (typical configuration), 207
shock wave formation/location, 1 65 construction, 205
speed zones of, 164-65 outlet, thrust at (typical), 145
start/unstart conditions, 1 65 straightening vanes in, 205
thrust generation in, 1 64 thermocouple placement in (typical), 205, 206
transonic regime, difficulties in, 165 exhaust nozzles
variable-geometry ducts introduction, 205-6
in Aerospatiale Concorde SST, 166 axisymmetric pitch-yaw balanced-beam, 209, 211
NASA concept for, 167 ball analogy for (divergent nozzle), 207
techniques for, 166 choked, effect on exhaust velocity, 152, 1 59
choked, effect on thrust, 143
Efficiency convergent nozzle, 206
engine convergent-divergent nozzle, 207-8
energy extraction (turboprop vs. turbofan), 152, 153 outlet, thrust at, 145
factors affecting, 1 57 P&W Fl l 9-PW C-D thrust-vectoring nozzle, 210--11
thermal efficiency, defined, 156 restrictor segments in (mice), 207, 441
vs. pressure ratio, 171 thrust-vectoring, 209, 210--11
external. See propulsive (below) two-dimensional (rectangular) nozzle, 209, 210
of inlet ducts variable-area, description of, 208, 209
efficiency vs. thrust loss, 1 64 variable-area, need for in afterburners, 228
pressure efficiency ratio, 1 62-63 variable-geometry, 208, 209
propulsive See also specific engines; Noise, engine; Thermocouples; Thrust
defined, 1 5 8 reversers
propeller vs. jet, 1 52-53, 154, 1 5 8 Exhaust velocity
vs. airspeed (various engines), 158 afterburner effect on, 152
See also Fuel consumption choked nozzles, effect of, 152, !59
Electronic Engine Control (P&W EEC/FADEC), 269. See also Pratt &
Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine FADEC
·
(Full Authority Digital Electronic Control), 269. See also Pratt &
Embraer/FMA aircraft Whitney UTC 4000'Series turbofan engine
EMB 1 20, 92 Failures/failure mechanisms. See under Maintenance/overhaul procedures
EMB 3 1 2, 86 Fairchild aircraft
EMS- l !OPl , 86 F-27, 114
EMS- 145, 46 F228, 118
Xingu, 86 Metro III A (Fairchild Swearingen), 87
Emissions, engine (environmental impact of), 1 97t See also Fairchild Republic aircraft
664 Index
Fairchild engines Fuel (Continued)
144, 55-56 water, contamination by (Continued)
Fairchild Republic aircraft coalescing tanks (for removing entrained water), 266, 266
A- 1 0, 71, 397 dissolved vs: free water, 265
F-1 05 Thunderbird, 103 Phillips PFA 55MB (Prist) anti-icing additive, 265
See also Fairchild aircraft settling (of entrained water), 265, 266
Fatigue failure, 407, 409, 408 solubility in aviation fuels, 266
Fokker aircraft future developments
Fokker 50, 92 endothermic fuels, 267
F-28, 117, 394 gelled fuels, 267
Force, defined, 1 3 8 high-density fuels, 267
Foreign object damage (FOD) liquid natural gas (LNG), 267
in axial-compressor engines, 1 3 low-temperature characteristics, 267
i n centrifugal-flow compressors, 170 low-volatility fuels, 267
in GE CF6 engines, 548, 563 thermal stability, 266-67
Formulas, commonly-used, 653t Fuel consumption
Frakes aircraft approximate maximum rates of, 258t
Turbo Cat, 87 equivalent specific (ESFC)
Free-power turbines calculation of, 1 57
in centrifugal compressor engines, 10, 40, 51 and equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP), 157
Fretting corrosion, 408, 409- 1 0 formulas for, 157t
Fuel fuel flow vs. SFC, airspeed, 656
fuel sources, 258 gallons/minute to pounds/hour (vs. specific gravity), 262
handling and storage specific (SFC)
See microbiaVfungal contamination; water, contamination by (below) calculation of, 1 56
jet fuel, refining of of J79 engine, 149-50
additives, typical, 259 Fuel nozzles. See under Fuel systems
the bubble tower, 258, 259 Fuel pumps. See under Fuel systems
chemical refining, 259 Fuel systems
fractional distillation, 258, 259 introduction, 269
midcontinent crude, typical yield from, 259 AlliedSignal Bendix AP-B3 fuel control
jet fuel development general description, 284
introduction, 259 schematic diagram, 285
jet A, A- 1 , B, 261 bearing lubrication, 287
JP- 1 through JP-8, 260 bypass valve assembly, 286
jet fuel properties cutoff-valve assembly, 287
acceptable grades (AlliedSignal Lycoming T53), 5 1 0 engine operation: fuel curve (at sea level), 287-88, 288
gallons/minute to pounds/hour (vs. specific gravity), 263 fuel flow: engine-nozzle vs. AP-B3, 289, 289
JP-series fuels, physical properties of, 260 fuel-correction lock-in, 29 1
net heating value, 264, 265t governor cam effect, 288, 288
temperature vs. density (aviation fuels/oils), 263 inlet-pressure actuator assembly, 286
turbine fuel characteristics (and engine/aircraft performance), 265t low-speed taxi operation, 286
turbine fuels, physical properties of, 262 metering valve, 286
viscosity range (aviation fuels), 264 overspeed correction, 286
jet fuel tests part-throttle scheduling, 287
introduction, 26 1 relief valve, 286
acidity, total, 264 servo-pressure regulation, 287
aniline-gravity constant, 263 speed-servo-control assembly, 286
A.P.I. gravity, 264 temperature-compensation section (inlet-air), 286-87
aromatics, 264 temperature-datum valve operation, 289-92
burning test, 263 temperature-datum valve schematic, 290
color, 264 throttle-angle effect, 288-89, 289
corrosion, copper-strip, 263 See also Allison 50 1 -D l 3 turboprop engine
distillation temperature, 264 AlliedSignal Bendix DP-F2 fuel control
flash point, 264 general description, 273
freezing/pour points, 264 schematic diagram, 274
gum (existent, accelerated), 263 bellows section, 275-76, 277
luminometer, 263 enrichment valve, 275, 276
naphthalenes, 264 fuel section, 273-74
net heating value, 264, 265t Model AL-Nl power-turbine governor, 274, 277
olefins, 264 Model T5-E2 temperature compensator, 274, 277
Reid Vapor Pressure (vapor lock), 264 speed governor, 275, 276
separometer, 263 system operation, 277-78
smoke point, smoke volatility index, 263 throttle input, 275, 276
specific gravity, 26 1 , 263, 263 coolers, fuel oil, 3 1 3, 314, 321, 337, 337
sulfur (total, mercaptan), 264 electronic fuel control systems (general)
thermal stability, 264 AlliedSignal TFE73 1 full-authority fuel control, 269, 271
viscosity, 264, 264 FADEC and EEC systems, 269. See also Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000
· water reaction, 263 Series turbofan engine
microbiaVfungal contamination typical early system (functional schematic), 269, 270
growth, consequences of, 264-65 filters
Phillips PFA 55MB (Prist) bactericide additive, 265 introduction, 308, 309
safety considerations convoluted screen type, 3 1 0, 311
handling precautions, 266 paper cartridge type, 3 1 0, 310
JP-4/Jet B fuels (explosive potential), 266 screen-disk type, 3 1 0, 311
water, contamination by flow meters, 3 1 3, 314, 318, 321
introduction, 264 fuel heaters, 3 1 3, 321
Index
Fuel systems (Continued) Gas turbine engines (general) (Continued)
fuel pumps operation (overview) (Continued)
introduction, 300 p-t-v diagrams (turbojet/turboprop), 151
double-gear elements (no centrifugal boost), 302, 303 thrust diagram (axial-flow engine), 144
double-gear elements (parallel, with boost), 302, 304, 304 thrust distribution calculations, 1 43-46
double-gear elements (series or parallel, with boost), 304, 305 thrust vs. airspeed, 134
single-gear element (with boost), 300-302, 302 thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC), 136, 429
hydromechanical fuel control systems useful tables/charts
acceleration limiting, 270-7 1 , 272 conversion factors (physical units), 644-48t
development steps, typical (Woodward Governor Co.), 272 formulas, commonly-used, 653t
speed droop using, 27 1-72, 272 fuel flow vs. SFC, airspeed, 656
speed governing, 27 1 glossary of terms, 648-49
nozzles properties of.air, 650t
introduction, 305 symbols and abbreviations, 649t
air shrouds on, 308, 309 See also
atomization, stages of, 305 Axial compressor engines
double-entry nozzle (concentric fuel manifold), 306, 308 Axial-centrifugal compressor engines
double-entry nozzle (double fuel manifold), 306, 307 Centrifugal compressor engines
duplex nozzle, single-entry, 306, 306, 307 Engine testing/operation
duplex nozzle, spray angle changes in, 305-6, 308, 306 Maintenance/overhaul procedures
flow divider (dual-entry duplex nozzle), 306, 307 Starting systems
flow divider (single-entry duplex nozzle), 306, 306 Thrust
integral flow divider/nozzle (GE J85), 306, 308 Turbofan engines
simplex nozzle, 305, 306 Turbojet engines
vaporizing tubes, 308, 309 Turboprop engines
pressurizing and drain (dump) valves, 3 1 0, 3 1 3, 312-13 Turboshaft engines
Woodward Type 1 307 fuel control See specific manufacturers and engines
introduction, 278 Gates Learjet aircraft
schematic diagram, 280-81 Model 24, 57
afterburner pressure signal, 284 Model 60, 433
airframe boost pump, 278 Models 35, 36, 23
deceleration fuel limit, 283 Models 54, 55, 56, 23
fuel bypass (buffer valve), 279 Gearing
fuel flow/fuel rate, 279 noise considerations for (propfans), 1 7
fuel pressure control, 278-79 propeller-reduction, 1 0 , 42
fuel temperature changes, compensation for, 284 in P&W 4000 series engines, 45, 455-56
inlet-guide-vane mechanism, 283 General Dynamics aircraft
maximum (acceleration) fuel limit, 279, 282, 283 B-58 Hustler, 59
shutdown bypass valve operation, 284 F- 16, F- 1 6XL, 68, 99
speed signals (effects of), 284 F- 1 1 1 , 98
speed vs. compressor-inlet-temperature, 282-84 RB-57 Canberra, 104
speed-setting cam (military adjustment), 284 General Electric engines
stopcock operation, 284 general
underspeed!overspeed governor operation, 279 GE family of engines, 82
See also these specific engines: discussion, 1 3 , 1 4
AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine foreign objects, damage from, 1 3
Allison 501-D l 3 turboprop engine marine applications (LM series), 79
General Electric CF6 turbofan engines stationary applications (LM Series), 79
General Electric CJ610 (J85) turbojet engine STIG (Steam-Injected Gas Turbine) system, 78
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D/TF33 turbofan engine summary descriptions
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine Type 1-A, 8
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine CF700, 57-58
F 1 0 1 , 64-65
Galling, 4 1 0, 409 F l lO, 67-68
Garrett aircraft conversions F 1 1 8-GE- 1 00, 68
Falcon 20G (Dassault), 26 F404, 65-67
Gas turbine engines (general) GE/NASA UDF demonstrator engine, 80-81
introd!Jction to GE90, 69
early development, 3-8 LM Series gas turbines, 77-80
ciassification of, 9, 10 TF34/CF34, 69-71
cost (vs. piston engines), 1 7 TF39, 60-61
future trends, 17-18 T58, 71-72
inspection/test equipment, 1 8 T64, 73-74
major manufacturers (U.S., foreign), 8 T700 (CT7), 74-76, 164
Ohain, Hans von, 6, 7 See also specific GE engines, following:
Whittle, Sir Frank, 3-6 General Electric CF6 turbofan engines
operation (overview) General Electric CJ61 0 turbojet engine
airflow, engine, 137 General Electric CJ805-3 turbojet engine
Brayton cycle, 1 54-56 General Electric CJ805-23 turbofan engine
efficiencies, 156-58 General Electric J79 turbojet engine
energy distribution (turbofan, -jet, -prop), 135 General Electric/SNECMA CFM56 turbofan engine
engine emissions/environmental impact, 1 97t General Electric CF6 turbofan engines
factors affecting thrust, 1 46-48, !52 Note: unless specified, CF6-6 and CF6-50 are indexed together.
gas turbine cycle, 152-53 general
hot-day performance, 16, 136 basic instrumentation for, 433
jet engine equation (general), 143 description (engine sections), 545-47
performance curves, typical, 150-51 general configuration, 62-64, 544-46
666 I ndex
General Electric CF6 turbofan engines (Continued) General Electric CF6 turbofan engines (Continued)
general (Continued) low-pressure turbine (LPT) assembly (Continued)
specifications, 62, 5�5 LPT inlet pressure, 596, 597
engine indicating functional diagram, 597 LPT module, 567
engine maintenance units (EMUs), 546 rotor assembly, 566, 565
typical applications, 62--63 stage-! nozzle' assembly, 565, 565
wing installation (CF6-6), 572, 573 stator assembly, 565-66, 565
accessory drive lubrication syste(ll
introduction, 572, 573 general configuration, 584
accessory arrangement, 575, 575 introduction, 583
accessory gearbox, 574--75, 574 functional schematic, 359
maintenance considerations, 575
fuel-oil heat exchanger, 583, 586
plug-in gearbox, 572, 575
lube and scavenging pump, 583, 587
combustor assembly
lube scavenge subsystem, 583, 588, 587
description, 552
lube supply subsystem, 583
combustion chamber configuration (CF6-6), 553
oil seal pressurization subsystem, 588
combustion chamber evolution, 137, 137
scavenging oil filter, 583, 585
combustion chamber liners, 552, 553-54, 553, 554
sump sealing arrangement (typical), 588, 588
combustor skirts (liner cooling), 553-54, 554
sump vent subsystem, 588, 589-92
cowl assembly, 552, 553
support structures
compressor assembly
introduction, 567
casing design, 55 1-52
bearings and seals, 57 1-72, 571
casing manifold system, 550-5 1 , 551
compressor material, 548 compressor rear frame (CF6-6), 568, 568
customer air extraction, 550-5 1 , 551, 552 compressor rear frame (CF6-50), 568, 569
rotor assembly (CF6-6), 550 coupling shaft, 572, 572
rotor blade installation, 550 engine mounts and handling points, 572, 573
stator, 550 fan frame, 567, 567
cooling, combustion liner turbine midframe, 569-70, 570
combustor skirts (cooling configuration), 553-54, 554 turbine rear frame, 570-7 1 , 570
electrical system wing installation (CF6-6), 572, 573
introduction, 588, 593 thrust reverser system
core speed indicator, 596 introduction, 576, 576
exhaust gas temperature (EGT), 594, 595-96 fan reverser, 576, 577
high-energy ignition exciter, 593 reverser actuation and control system, 578-79, 579
igniter plug, 594, 594 turbine exhaust performance, 576, 577
ignition system, 593, 594 turbine reverser, 578, 578
schematic (simplified), 593 General Electric CJ610 (J85) turbojet engine
shielded ignition lead, 593 general
fan .assembly general configuration, 56
general description, 547-48 specifications, 56
configuration differences: CF6-6 vs. CF6-50, 547 typical applications, 57
fan blade removal/installation, 549 afterburner system, 232-34, 232-34
fan material, 548, 549 compressor rotor and stator assembly, 1 84, 185
foreign object damage (FOD), 548 fuel system
general configuration (CF6-6), 547 system schematic, 314
foreign object damage (FOD) actuator assembly (VG), 3 1 5
dirt ingestion, 563 bleed valves, 3 1 5-16
to fan assembly, 548 control system, 3 1 5
fuel system fuel control, 3 1 5
introduction, 579 fuel manifold drain (dump) valve, 3 1 0, 312, 3 1 5
general configuration (schematic), 580 fuel manifolds, 3 1 5
functional diagram, 328 fuel pump, 3 15
components, 580
fuel-oil cooler, 346
feedback-cable reset actuator, 5 8 1
nozzles, 306, 308, 308, 3 1 5
fuel filter, 5 8 1 , 582
overspeed governor, 3 1 5
fuel manifold, 583
pressuring valve, 3 10, 312, 3 1 5
fuel nozzles, 583
lubricating system
fuel-oil heat exchanger, 579, 5 8 1 , 580, 586
introduction, 344
main engine control, 5 8 1
functional schematic, 346
main fuel pump, 579, 580, 581
lube and scavenge pump, 344
pressurizing/drain valve unit, 58 1 , 583, 582
lube pump discharge pressure, 344, 346
high-pressure turbine (HPT) assembly
oil cooler, 346-47
design features, 554
cooling airflow (CF6-6), 557, 561-62, 559 oil filter assembly, 346
dirt ingestion, 563 oil system schematic, 346
rotor assembly, 557, 56 1 , 554, 559 oil tank, 346
stage-! nozzle assembly, 554--55, 555, 556 pressure-relief valve, 344
stage- ! turbine blade configuration, 557, 5 6 1 , 560-61 pressurization, system, 344
stage-2 nozzle assembly, 555, 557, 557, 558 scavenge oil temperature, 346
stage-2 turbine blade configuration, 557, 5 6 1 , 562--63 General Electric CJ805-3 turbojet engine
stator assembly stackup, 555 general
turbine materials, 561 general configuration, 59
low-pressure turbine (LPT) assembly specifications, 58
description and operation, 563, 565 typical applications, 59
configuration (cross-section), 564 fuel control system (Woodward Type 1 307), 278-79, 280-81, 282-84
cooling, turbine case, 566-67 thrust reverser/suppressor assembly (Convair 880), 222
I ndex
r
General Electric CJ805-23 turbofan engine General Electric 179 turbojet engine (Continued)
general fuel system, afterburner (Continued)
general configuration, 60 description and operation, 484-86
specifications, 60 fuel manifold and spray bars, 487
typical application, 60 fuel pressurizing valve, 487
fuel system fuel pump, 486, 486
introduction, 322 fuel-control block diagram, 486
system schematic, 321 fuel-control system operation, 486-87
fuel control system (Woodward Type 1 307), 278-79, 280-81, pump vent valve, 487
282-84, 322 torch igniter check valve, 485, 488
fuel filter, 322 torch igniter on-off valve, 485, 487-88
fuel heater, 322 torch igniter (pilot burner), 488, 488
fuel pump, 302, 304, 304, 322 fuel system, main
nozzle, 306, 306, 322 general configuration (schematic), 321, 482
temperature sensor, compressor-inlet, 322 description and operation, 320, 481
variable-stator-reset mechanism, 322 bypass indicator switch, 483
lubricating system fuel control system (Woodward Type 1 307), 278-79, 280-81,
introduction, 347 282-84, 322
schematic diagram, 348 fuel heater, 320
oil supply/oil tank subsystem, 347 '
fuel nozzle, 306, 306, 322, 484
scavenge subsystem, 347 inlet guide vane mechanisms, 322
sump/tank pressurization subsystem, 348 main fuel control, 322, 483
thrust reversers main fuel filter, 322, 483
control schematic, 223 main fuel pump, 302, 304, 304, 320, 48 1-82, 482
target (postexit) type, 220 pressuring/drain valve, 322, 483
General Electric 179 turbojet engine primer system, 320
general temperature sensor, compressor-inlet, 322, 483
general configuration, 58, 469, 470
variable-stator-reset mechanism, 322
operation, description of, 469-72
gearboxes
performance curves for, 149-50
general configuration, 481
specifications, 58, 469
drive support bearing, 482
typical applications, 58-59
front gearbox, 4 8 1
afterburner assembly
rear gearbox, 482
general configuration, 478
transfer gearbox, 481
afterburner manifolds, 479
ignition system, afterburner
forward exhaust duct assembly, 478-79
general configuration (schematic), 484
multijet fuel nozzles, 479
description and operation, 488
pilot burner, 479
ignition switch, 489
See also fuel system, afterburner (below)
ignition unit, 489
air extraction
spark plug, 489
anti-icing air, 499
ignition system, main
description and operation, 499
general configuration (schematic), 484
anti-icing system
description and operation, 367-68, 484
general configuration, 497
circuit diagram (with vibrator), 368
description and operation, 497
anti-icing air extraction, 499 circuit diagram (without vibrator), 368
anti-icing indicator switch, 497-98 spark plugs, 484, 485
anti-icing valve, 497 lubrication system
bearing areas assembly general configuration (schematic), 494
bearing areas 1, 2, 3, 480 afterburner fuel-oil cooler, 495-96
oil seal, typical, 480 lube and hydraulic filter, 495
combustion section lube and hydraulic pump, 493, 495
general configuration, 475 lube pressure-relief valve, 495
annular transition duct, 476 lube supply subsystem, 493
combustion liners, 475, 475 main fuel-oil cooler, 496
inner casing, 476 number 3 bearing scavenge pump, 495
outer casing, 475 oil tank, 493
compressor assembly pressurization subsystem, 493
general configuration, 471 rear gearbox scavenge pump, 495
casing assemblies, 472-73 scavenge subsystem, 493
compressor rotor, 183, 473-74, 474 scavenge-oil filter, 495
front frame, 47 1 -72, 472 sump-pressurizing system (schematic), 496
rear frame, 474-75 , 474 tank-pressurizing/sump vacuum-relief valve, 496
stator case asse.mbly, 1 84, 185 transfer gearbox scavenge pump, 495
strut numbering conventions, 472, 472 maintenance/overhaul
strut usage, 472, 473 overhaul manual, typical pages from, 402-33
control linkage system vertical disassembly of, 401
general configuration (schematic), 498 tailpipe assembly
nozzle area control to nozzle pump linkage, 499 general configuration, 479, 491
throttle linkage, 498 description, 479-80
torque booster, 498 temperature control. See variable-nozzle system (following)
variable-nozzle feedback linkage, 498-99 turbine section
variable-vane feedback linkage, 498 general configuration, 476
fuel system, afterburner first-stage nozzle, 476
general configuration (schematic), 485 frame, 478
afterburner fuel filter, 487 rotor and turbine/compressor bolt, 477-78, 477
aircraft reference fuel filter, 487 stator assembly, 476--77
668 Index
General Electric 179 turbojet engine (Continued) Ignition systems (Continued)
variable-nozzle system capacitor-type (high-voltage, AC input)
general configuration (pictorial), 208 circuit diagrams (tube-type, solid-state), 366
general configuration (schematic), 489 functional description, 365, 367
control alternator, 490 specifications, 365
description and operation, 489-90 capacitor-type (high-voltage, DC input)
hydraulic relief valve, 492 cam-operated breaker systems, 365, 365
nozzle actuators, 49 1 -92 dual-box/dual-transformer systems, 363, 364
nozzle hydraulic oil filter, 492 functional description, 363-65
nozzle pump, 49 1 system specifications, 364
nozzle-area control, 491 capacitor-type (low-voltage, DC input)
tailpipe assembly (external view), 491 Bendix dual high-energy, low-voltage system, 367
temperature amplifier, 490-9 1 functional description (GE 179 vibrator system), 367-68
thermocouples (configuration), 490, 490 schematic diagram (GE 179 vibrator system), 368
thermocouples (description), 490 schematic diagram (GE 179 vibratorless system), 368
variable-vane system capacitor-type systems (general)
general configuration (schematic), 492 energy, spark, 360-61
description and operation, 492-93 lethal danger from, 362, 635
variable vane actuators, 493 opposite-polarity system (schematic diagram), 361
General Electric/SNECMA CFM56 turbofan engine time/power relationship in, 361-62
general capacitor-type systems (high-voltage, DC input)
general configuration, 52-54 Bendix dual-ignition system, 362
specifications, 52 GLA exciter schematic diagram, 362
typical applications, 54-55 GLA (General Laboratories Assoc.) ignition unit, 362
combustion chamber, 1 9 1-92, 194 GLA high-energy unit, 363
lubricating system schematic, 359 P&W JT3/JT4 exciter (schematic diagram), 363
German gas turbines combination (dual-duty) system (P&W JT3D)
early development, 6--7 functional description, 368, 370
Gloster aircraft schematic diagram, 369
E28/L39, 6 igniters (spark plugs)
Gouging/grooving, 4 1 0, 409 introduction, 370
Greek alphabet, 655t annular vs. constrained gap, 370-7 1 , 371
Griffith, Dr. A. A., 3 fouling, 360
Gross thrust, 142 GE 179 engine (afterburner), 489
See also Thrust GE 179 engine (main), 484, 485
Ground power units (GPUs). See under Auxiliary power units (APUs) igniter plug construction, typical, 371
Grumman aircraft igniter tip configurations, 371
A-6F Intruder, 67, 105 military engines, special considerations for, 37 1
E-2A Hawkeye, 42 plug types, external views, 372
F- 1 4/F-14A Super Tomcat, 68, 98 plug types, sectional views, 372
F- 1 5 , 99, 396 future trends, 37 1 , 373
• Gulfstream, Gulfstream II, 114, 117, 395 induction-type systems (early), 360, 361
Gulfstream IV, 122 lethal danger from
OV- 1 A Mohawk, 30 capacitor-type systems (general), 362, 635
OV- l D Mohawk, 33 during ground operations, 436
X-23 Demonstrator, 67 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D turbofan engine
Gulfstream American aircraft exciter box schematic diagram, 363
Turbo AG Cat, 87 functional description (dual-duty system), 368, 370
schematic diagram (dual-duty system), 369
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D/TF33 turbofan engine
Hamilton Standard JFC60-2 fuel control system, 624 igniter construction, 371
Hand signals (turbine aircraft operation), 430-32 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT9D turbofan engine
Hawker Siddeley aircr.aft functional description, 365, 367
BH-125, 115 system schematic diagram, 366
1 25-700, 23 See also General Electric 179 turbojet engine
731/HS 125, 23 See also Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine
748, 114 Ilyushin aircraft
Heinkel aircraft IL-96M, 110, 433
HE178, 6, 7 Indian aircraft. See ADA (Aeronautical Development Agency)
Hero of Alexandria, 2 lndustrigruppen JAS aircraft
Horsepower. See under Power JAS 39 Gripen, 67
Hot day performance Initial momentum (airflow), 142
Bell 2 1 4 helicopter, 33 Inlet ducts. See Ducts, inlet
of turbofan engines, 1 6, 136 International Aero (IAE) engines
of turbojet engines, 16, 136 V2500, 1 12-13
Hughes Aircraft helicopters IPTN (lndustri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara) aircraft
500 CID, 41 IPTN N250, 48
Humidity Israel Aircraft Industries (TAT) aircraft
effect on thrust, 148-49 Arava, 86
A320, 55
Ice ingestion Jet Commander (IAI/Rockwell), 57
P&W 4000 series engines, 465 Kfir C-2, 59
Igniters (spark plugs). See under Ignition systems Turbo II Aerocommander (IAI/Rockwell), 20
Ignition systems 1 1 24 Westwind, 23
introduction, 360 Italian gas turbines
performance requirements, typical, 360 early development, 7
I ndex
JAS aircraft. See Industrigruppen JAS aircraft Maintenance/overhaul procedures (Continued)
Jet engines performance monitoring/failure analysis
balloon analogy for, 142 introduction, 4 1 4, 4 1 7
See also Gas turbine engines (general) operating data collection/analysis, 4 1 4, 418
combustion section failure, 420, 421
Kaman helicopters compressor contamination/water wash, 4 1 7 , 419
HH-438 Huskie, 30 compressor-case air leakage, 4 1 7, 419
SH-2G Super Seasprite, 76 EGT system wire loose at terminal, 423
UH-2 Seasprite, 72 first-stage nozzle guide vane failure, 421
instrumentation errors, 420
Lamilloy, 243 mechanical failure, 420
LCAC (Landing Craft Air Cushion), 34 No. 3 bearing failure, 422
Lear Fan aircraft turbine case separation, 422
Lear Fan 2 1 00, 87 turbine failures (general), 420
Learjet aircraft. See Gates Learjet aircraft vibration monitoring, 420
Light Helicopter Turbine Engine Company (LHTEC) reassembly
T800 engine, 83 balancing, rotating assembly, 4 1 2
Lockheed aircraft bearings, handling precautions for, 4 1 2
C-5A Galaxy, 62, 394 cleanliness, importance of, 4 1 2
C- 1 30, C- l 30SS Hercules, 43, 394 safety wiring, techniques for, 413
C-1 35F tanker, 54 repair
C- 140 (Jets tar, Jetstar II), 23, 100, 395 blade repair limits, typical, 411
C- 1 4 1 Starlifter, 105, 394 repair techniques, 4 1 0
Electra, 43 storage, 4 1 2
Electra, disc loading of, 1 7 See also Starting procedures; Engine testing/operation
F-1 1 7A Stealth, 67 Manufacturing techniques
L 1 00/C - 1 30J, 48 casting
L l O i l , 119, 433 investment casting, 244, 246
P-3C Orion, 43, 394 Mercast process, 245
P-80/T-33 (Shooting Star), 9-10, 36 resin-shell mold casting, 244, 247
S-3A, 71, 394 sand casting, 244, 244
YFI 2A, 96 single-crystal casting, 243, 244, 245
YF22, 211 slip casting, 244, 248
73 1 Jetstar, 23 Transpiration CastCool process (Allison), 245, 249
Low-smoke combustion chamber (P&W JT9D), 1 96-97, 196 finishing
LTV Aerospace (Vought Systems) helicopters. See Vought Systems (LTV) aluminizing, 255
aircraft chemical treatment, 254
Lubricating systems. See Oil systems electrochemical treatment, 254
Lycoming engines. See AlliedSignal Lycoming engines painting, 254
plasma-plating (D-gun), 254, 255
Mach number. See under Air/airflow, physics of plasma-plating (torch), 255, 255
Maintenance/overhaul procedures shot peening, 254
introduction, 400 forging, 245-46, 249
overhaul (general) heat treatments
marking, critical-part, 400 annealing, 255
cleaning hardening, 255
introduction, 404 normalization, 255
cleaning solutions, 404 stress relieving, 255
field-cleaning, 441 tempering, 255
grit-blasting (Carboblast), 440, 441 machining
hot-cleaning, grit blasting, 404 introduction, 250
safety precautions (personnel), 404 abrasive-jet machining, 252
disassembly chemical milling/chemical machining, 250, 252·
modular engine design (CFM56), 54, (RB2 1 l), 415 electric discharge machining (EDM), 25 1 , 252
overhaul manual, typical (GE J85), 40 1 , 402-3, 404 electrochemical grinding, 252
vertical vs. horizontal, 40 1 , 401 electrochemical milling (ECM), 250-5 1 , 251, 252
failure/wear mechanisms, 406-7, 408-9, 409-1 0, 438 electron-beam machining, 252
inspection (general) Electro-Stream process, 251
introduction, 404-5 laser-beam machining, 252
dimensionallnondimensional, 405 ultrasonic machining, 252
inspection techniques powdered metallurgy
borescope, 406, 416 hot isostatic pressing (HIP), 246, 249
dye-penetrant, 405-6, 407 Rapid Solidification Rate (RSR) process (P&W), 249-50
magnetic-particle, 405, 407 rolling/swaging, 246, 249
sonic, 405, 405 welding
x ray, 405, 405 electric-resistance (spot, continuous-seam), 253, 253
maintenance techniques electron-beam (Hamilton Standard), 253, 254
introduction, 4 1 2, 4 1 4 inert-gas (Heliarc), 253, 253
borescope inspection, 416 inertia (friction), 254, 254
cushion (in flight-deck controls), 4 1 4 See also Materials, gas-turbine
oil analysis, spectrometric (SOAP), 417 Marine applications, typical
oil system maintenance, 4 1 4 General Electric LM series engines, 79
visual inspection, 4 1 4 LCAC (Landing Craft Air Cushion), 34
overhaul (general) Pratt & Whitney Canada engines, 88
stages of, 400-401 Mass
TBO (time between overhauls), 400 defined, 1 40
670 Index
Materials, gas-turbine Napier engines
general Oryx, 14, 84
introduction, 235 Net thrust, 1 42-43
definitions of terms, 235-36 See also Thrust
commonly-used elements, 236t Newton, Sir Isaac
alloys Newton's laws of motion, 140-41
chemical elements used in, 236-37, 236t Newton's steam wagon, 3
Lamilloy, 243 See also Thrust
percentage composition of, 237t Noise, engine
Poroloy (Bendix), 241 general
properties of, 238-39t introduction and discussion, 209-1 1
cooling, blade/vane (techniques for) GE CF6 engines, fan noise reduction for, 1 6
convective, film, impingement, 24 1 , 241, 242 i n high-bypass-ratio fan engines, 1 6
Electro-Stream drilling, 24 1 , 250-5 1 , 251 noise field (jet engine, still air), 212
shaped-tube electrolytic machining (STEM), 241 noise frequencies, jet engine, 212, 215
Transpiration CastCool process (Allison), 245, 249 propfan engines, gear noise in, 17
transpiration (sintered mesh, Lamilloy), 24 1 , 243 propulsion design vs. noise issues, 218
impact on design, 242 shear-layer noise source, 2 1 3, 215
heat ranges of alloys sound sources, 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 215
aluminum, 236 noise suppression
cobalt-base, 236 theory of operation, 2 1 5
nickel-base, 236 airborne noise suppressors, typical, 213, 215
steel, 236 "corrugated perimeter" suppressor design, 2 1 5
stress-rupture strengths (typical alloys), 240 engine protection (CF6 cowl example), 216
titanium, 236 function of, 2 1 2
ground noise suppressors, typical, 213-14
high-temperature strength of alloys
"hush kits" (for DC8, 707, aircraft), 217, 219
discussion, 239-40
sound-level reduction, typical, 212
centrifugal forces, turbine-blade, 240
safety, personnel
• creep, turbine-blade, 240, 240
ear inserts, protective, 216
temperature gradients, turbine-blade, 240
human responses (vs. dB level), 211
nonmetallic materials
muff-type ear protectors, 2 1 6, 216, 217
carbon, 255
North American aircraft
ceramics, 241
F- 1 00 Super Sabre, 103
rubber/rubberized fabrics, 255
OV- l OA, 21
teflon/nylon, 255
RA5C, 58
oxidation/corrosion resistance, 240-41
Sabreliner, 100
thermal shock resistance, 241
T-28 Buckeye, 100
See also Manufacturing techniques
Northrop aircraft
MBB (Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm)
B-2, 68
See Messerschmitt aircraft; Messerschmitt helicopters
T-38 Talon, 57
McDonnell Douglas aircraft
B-66, 39
Ohain, Hans von, 6, 7
C - 1 7A, 110
Oil, lubricating
C- 1 3 3 Cargomaster, 96 introduction, 329
DC-8, 104 characteristics of
DC-9 (standard, Series 50), 108, 394 deposits/sludge formation, 3 3 1
DC- 1 0- 1 5/-30, 64, 394 flash point, 3 3 1
F/A- 1 8 Hornet, 67 foaming, resistance to, 3 3 1
F-4H, 219 performance factors, 3 3 1
F-48 Phantom II, 59 physical properties, 330-3 1
MD- 1 1 , MD- 1 1 Stretch, 63, 64, 112 spectrometric oil analysis (SOAP), 4 1 4, 417
MD-80, 108 thermal stability/viscosity, 3 3 1 , 332
MD-80 propfan (UDF demonstrator engine), 81 handling/storage, 33 1-32
RF1 0 1 Voodoo, 102 types of
Super 70, 54, 55 MIL-L-7808 (Type 1), 329, 330
TA-4F Skyhawk, 105 MIL-L-23699 (Type II), 329
YC- 1 5 , 64, 108 MIL-0-608 1 , 329
McDonnell Douglas helicopters Type ill , 330
AH-64 Apache, 76, 396 future developments, 332
OH-6A Light Observation Helicopter, 41 See also Oil systems
Messerschmitt aircraft Oil systems
ME262, 6, 7 introduction, 333
MX-31 (Rockweli!MBB), 67 oil-system components
Messerschmitt helicopters introduction, 333
B0-1 05C (MBB), 41 bearings, 340, 34 1 t, 342-43
Mitsubishi aircraft breathers/pressurizing systems, 337, 338, 339
Diamond 1/IA, 90 filters, 335-37, 335, 336
MU-2, 20 oil coolers, 337, 337
Mixed flow compressor engines oil tanks, 334, 334
discussi0n, 1 4- 1 5 pressure pumps, 334, 335
Fairchild J44 engine, 55-56 scavenger pumps, 334, 335
Mixed-flow compressor engines. See under Gas turbine engines (general) seals, 339-40, 339, 340
Momentum oil-system maintenance, 4 1 4, 417
defined, 140 See also specific engine lubricating systems:
Moss, Dr. Sanford A., 3, 4 AlliedSignal Lycoming T53
M I A 1 (Abrams) Main Battle Tank, 35 Allison J33
Index 671
Oil systems (Continued) Pratt & Whitney UTC engines (Continued)
See also specific engine lubricating systems: (Continued) See also these specific engines (below): (Continued)
Allison 50 1 -D I 3 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT4/J75 turbojet engines
General Electric CJ6 1 0 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine
General Electric CJ805/J79 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT9D turbofan engine
Pratt & Whitney Canada JTI 5D Pratt & Whitney UTC TF30 turbofan engine
Pratt & Whitney F 1 00-PW- 100 Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine
Pratt & Whitney UTC F 1 00-PW- 100 Pratt & Whitney UTC F 1 00 series turbofan engines
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D general
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D general configuratiop, 99
Otto cycle specifications, 98
compared with Brayton cycle, 155 sectional view (F1 00-PW-229), 99
described, 154, 1 55 typical applications, 99
thermal efficiency of, 1 55 lubricating system (F1 00-PW- 1 00)
oil-system operating values, 355
Parsons, Sir Charles, 3 schematic diagram, 353
Pickup, metal, 4 1 0, 409 breather system, 354
Pi latus Britten-Norman aircraft breather pressurizing valve, 354-55
BN-2T Turbine Islander, 41 coolers, 354
PC-6, 87 filter, 354
PC-7, 87 oil tank, 354
Pileup, metal, 4 1 0, 409 oil-pressure system (nonregulated), 353-54
Piper aircraft pumps, 354
Cheyenne I, II, II X L, III, 86 scavenge system, 354
T l 040, 86 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3C/J57 turbojet engines
Pitting, 4 1 0, 409 general
Plenum chamber burning (PCB), 120 general configuration, 102, 103
Poroloy (Bendix), 241 specifications, 102
Power typical applications, 1 2, 102-3
defined, 1 3 8 afterburner system, 230, 231, 232
horsepower can-annular combustion chamber, 1 90, 190
defined, 1 3 8-39 compressor assembly, 182, 184
effect of airspeed on, 146 pressure/temperature changes, 1 52, 153
equivalent shaft (ESHP), 1 57 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D/TF33 turbofan engine
ESHP and fuel consumption (ESFC), 157 general
vs. thrust, 1 45-46 general configuration, 103-4
Pratt & Whitney Canada engines specifications, 103-5
general typical applications, 1 2, 104-5
general discussion, 1 3 , 14 fuel system
P&W product line, 94-95 introduction, 3 1 6
marine/commercial applications (PT6), 88 fuel control, 3 1 7
summary descriptions fuel heater, 3 1 6
JT15D. See below fuel manifolds/manifold spacer, 3 1 7
PT6A, 1 4, 85-88, 164 fuel pump, 302, 303, 3 1 6
PW l OO series, 13, 91-92, 95 nozzles, 306, 308, 3 1 7
PW200 series, 1 3 , 93, 94 pressurizing/dump valves, 3 1 0, 312, 3 1 7
PW300 series, 1 3, 93, 95 water-injection system, 3 1 7, 318
Pratt & Whitney Canada JTI5D turbofan engine ignition system
general exciter box schematic diagram, 363
general configuration, 89-90 functional description (dual-duty system), 368, 370
historical background, 1 4 igniter plug construction, 371
specifications, 89 schematic diagram (dual-duty system), 369
typical applications, 90 lubricating system
lubricating system introduction, 350
introduction, 355-56 . schematic diagram, 352
schematic diagram, 355 filter assembly, 353
accessories drive splines lubrication, 357 oil pump, 350
breather system, 357 oil tank, 350
check valves, 356 scavenge oil system, 353
oil cooler, 356 venting, 353
oil filter/filter housing assembly, 356 thrust reverser
pressure oil system, 356 control schematic, 222
pressure/scavenge oil-pump assembly, 356 primary-, secondary-airflow, 222, 223
scavenge oil system, 356-57 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT4/J75 turbojet engines
Pratt & Whitney UTC engines general
summary descriptions general configuration, 102, 103
F l l 9-PW- I OO (thrust vectoring in), 210-11 specifications, 102
152 (JT8), 105 typical applications, 1 2, 102-3
158, 96 pressure/temperature changes in, 153
1FTD 12A (T73-P-700), 1 2, 100-1 Pratt & Whitney UTC 1T8D turbofan engine
JT I 2 (160), 1 2, 100 general
PW2000 series, 1 2, 110 general configuration, 106--8, 598-99
T34, 1 2, 95-96 description, 598-99
See also these specific engines (following): specifications, I 06, 598
Pratt & Whitney UTC F I OO series turbofan engines borescope ports for, 416
Pratt & Whitney UTC 1T3C/J57 turbojet engines temperature/pressure changes in, 153
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D/TF33 turbofan engine typical applications, 108
672 I ndex
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine (Continued) Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine (Continued)
accessory/component-drive gearbox housing section fuel control system (Continued)
front (cover) housing, 6 1 4 throttle-valve positioning, 625-26
gearbox assembly, 6 1 3 , 613 fuel deicing system
gearbox protective coating, 6 1 3 general configuration, 622
gearbox rear housing, 6 1 3-14 differential fluid-pressure switch, 622, 623
power-lever cross shafts and linkage, 6 1 4 fuel deicing heater, 622, 622-23
air systems functional description, 622
compressor bleed-air system, 637, 639, 638-39 schematic, 622
cooling air system, 634 fuel distribution system
engine anti-icing air system, 637, 638 introduction, 6 1 9
internal-bleed air system, 634 schematic diagram, 328, 618
labyrinth seal air system, 634 engine fuel control, 6 1 9
air-inlet section fuel inlet tubes/fuel-manifold assembly, 621, 623, 623
airflow, primary and secondary, 599 fuel nozzle and support, 6 1 9, 622, 621
bearing no. 1 front/rear support, 600 fuel pump, 6 1 9, 620
fan-inlet case assembly, 599-600, 600 pressurizing and dump valves, 6 1 9, 620
front accessory-drives support, 600 ignition systems
combustion section 20/4 J Exciter, functional description, 634-35, 635
bearing heat shields (no. 4\9, 608 specifications, 635t
combustion chambers, general arrangement of, 607 20-J starting system (dual igniter plugs), 635-36
combustion-chamber inner/outer cases, 607-8 continuous system (single igniter plug), 636
combustion-chamber rear support and outlet ducts, 607, 609 hazardous voltage safety warning, 635
cross-section view and airflow, 606 high-tension leads, 636, 637
turbine shafts, 608 igniter plugs, 636, 637
compressor section, front lubricating system
fan section, 60 I , 602 introduction, 357
fan cases, front and rear, 602 schematic diagram, 357
·front compressor section function, 601 breather system, 358
front compressor rotor, 60 1 , 602, 602-3 bypass valve, 358
front compressor rotor and stator assembly, 602 fuel-oil cooler, 358
front compressor stators, 602 pressure system, 357-58
front compressor-rotor rear hub coupling, 603, 603 scavenge system, 358
gas flow diagram, 601 See also pressure oil system (below)
compressor section, intermediate main shaft bearings, 627, 627
fan-discharge, rear compressor-section inner duct, 604 pressure oil system
intermediate fan case assembly, 603-4, 603 introduction, 629
compressor section, rear bearing lubrication and seal (no. 1 ) , 629-30, 629
rear compressor section, function of, 601-2 , bearing lubrication/seals/air tubes (nos. 2, 3), 630--3 1 , 630
main accessory-drive bevel gearshaft and bearing, 604 bearing lubrication/seals/air tubes (nos. 4, 5), 63 1 , 631, 632
rear compressor rotor, 605 bearing lubrication and seals (nos. 4, 6), 631-33, 632
rear compressor rotor and stator assembly, 604 under-race oil grooves, 632
rear compressor stators, 605 See also lubricating system (above)
See also fan-discharge section (below) scavenge-oil system
diffuser section bearing compartments nos. I , 2, 3, 633
introduction, 605 bearing areas nos. 4, 4 V2, 5, 633
bearing compartment/no. 4 bearing seal air system, 606, 63 1 , 631 bearing compartment no. 6, 633-34
bearing housing (No. 4), 606-7 breather system, 634
diffuser case, 605, 606 turbine section
oil-scavenging pump (bearings 4,5), 606, 628 bearing housing (no. 5), 6 1 0, 632
engine indicating systems front compressor-drive-turbine rotor, 6 1 0-- 1 1 , 611
thermocouple lead assembly, 642 front compressor-drive-turbine-shaft coupling, 6 1 2- 1 3
turbine exhaust pressure, 639-40, 640 front/rear cases, 609
turbine exhaust temperature, 640-4 1 , 641 rear compressor-drive turbine rotor, 6 1 0, 6 1 1
fan discharge section rear compressor-drive-turbine-shaft coupling, 6 1 0
fan-discharge ducting (sectional view), 614 turbine rotors, 6 1 0
bearing tubes fairing (no. 4), 6 1 6, 617 turbine-bearings/pressure- and scavenge-oil tubes assembly, 6 1 2
case assembly (and discharge vanes), 6 1 4 turbine-exhaust case, 612, 6 1 3
combustion-section fan duct, 6 1 5 turbine-exhaust strut assembly, 6 1 3
diffuser inner/outer fan ducts, 6 1 5 turbine-nozzle inner case and seal assembly, 609
diffuser-section airbleed manifolds, 6 1 6, 617 turbine-nozzle vanes, 609
fan-turbine inner duct, 6 1 5 turbine-nozzles (stages I through 4 ), 609- 1 0
front compressor outer duct, 6 1 4- 1 5 unit turbine (later engine models), 6 1 1 - 1 2, 612
rear compressor airbleed manifolds/tubes, 6 1 6 Pratt & Whitney UTC JT9D turbofan engine
rear compressor-section fan-duct fairings, 6 1 6 general
rear compressor-section outer duct, 6 1 5 general configuration, 109
turbine-exhaust inner/outer ducts, 614, 6 1 5- 1 6 specifications, 108
fuel control system typical applications, 109
acceleration/deceleration control, 626 combustion system
compressor-discharge-pressure limiting, 626 combustion chamber assembly, 189
computing system, 625-27 internal pressure/temperature, 1 52, 153
engine-speed control, 626 "low smoke" combustion chamber, 1 96-97, 196
Hamilton Standard JFC60-2 fuel control system, 624 thrust reverser configuration, 223
metering system, 625 water injection system schematic, 226
sensorless type (pressure regulating), 623, 624, 625 compressor assembly (canted blades), 1 82, 1 84, 184
speed-sensing governor, 626 fuel system
temperature-sensor assembly, 626-27 introduction, 324
Index 673
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT9D turbofan engine (Continued)
fuel system (Continued)
system schematic, 325
fuel control, 326
fuel filter, 326
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine (Continued)
major assemblies/build groups
listing, 449
exploded view, 449
compressor inlet cone, 449, 450
I
fuel heater, 326 diffuser and combustor, 45 1 , 452
fuel pump, 326 exhaust nozzle and plug, 454, 454
·
fuel-flow meter, 326 fan blades, 449, 450
fuel-oil heat exchanger, 326 fan cases- front and fan exit, 450, 450
nozzles, 326 fan cases- intermediate, 450-5 1 , 451
pressurizing/dump valve, 326 gearbox, angle, 455, 455
ignition system gearbox, main (MGB), 455, 455, 456
functional description, 365, 367 high-pressure compressor (HPC), 45 1 , 452
system schematic diagram, 366 high-pressure turbine (HPT), 453-54, 453
lubricating system low-pressure compressor (LPC), 449, 450
schematic diagram, 349 low-pressure turbine (LPT), 454, 454
Pratt & Whitney UTC TF30 turbofan engine LPCILPT coupling, 449-50, 450
general turbine exhaust case (TEC), 454, 454
general configuration, 97 turbine nozzle, 453, 453
specifications, 96 oil system
typical applications, 98 oil system components, 457, 459
canted compressor blades in, 1 82, 1 84, 184 breather subsystem, 459, 460
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engine oil pressure subsystem, 457, 460
general oil scavenge subsystem, 457, 459, 460
general configuration, 111, 444, 445 thrust reverser
specifications, I l l blocks, links, cascade vanes, 468, 468
engine stations, 445 overview, 466
typical applications, 112 thrust reverser doors, 466, 466-67
airflow control systems Prefix multiples (tera-, deci-, etc.), 655t
HPC primary system, 459, 461-62, 462 Pressure, engine
HPC secondary system, 462, 463 afterburners and engine pressure, 151
bearings engine airflow, pressure changes in, 1 49, 151, 1 5 2
bearing areas, 446-47 inlet duct pressure efficiency ratio, 162-63
bearing compartment seal pressurization, 447 pressure efficiency ratio (duct), 162-63
bearing supports, 445-46 pressure/temperature diagrams
numbering and description, 444-45, 446 P&W turbofan engines, 153
borescope access ports turbojet/turboprop engines, 151
description, 447-49 SFC vs. pressure ratio (centrifugal-flow), 170
location, 447-48 supersonic inlet ducts, pressure rise in, 165-66
clearance control, turbine rotor, 462, 463 tailpipe pressure vs. ideal compression ratio, 1 73
Pressure profile, atmospheric, 149
cooling
Propellers
HPTILPT turbine case cooling, 454
aerodynamics of, 1 7
turbine vane and blade cooling system, 462, 463
design advances in, 1 5 , 17
cowl, inlet
disc loading of, 17
description, 462, 464, 465
noise issues with, 823
cowl load sharing, 465-66, 465
propeller-reduction gearing (Allison 501 -D), 42
fan cowl doors, 465 ·
Propfan engines
electronic engine control (EEC/FADEC) system
characteristics of, 1 7
overview, 292, 293
gearing/noise considerations for, 1 7
alternator, 298, 300
GE/NASA UDF demonstrator engine, 80-81
EEC programming plug, 295, 299
noise problems from, 218
EGT probe, 298, 300
propeller designs for, 1 7
engine alternate mode (N1) control, 295, 298
unducted fans (UDF), 1 3
engine and alert display (EAD), 298
Propulsive efficiency. See under Efficiency
engine control mode switching, 298
Psychrometric chart, 658
engine idle speed control, 295, 297
Pyrometer, radiation
engine normal mode control, 295, 297
in exhaust ducts, 206
exhaust gas pressure probes, 298, 300
FADEC control panel, 298
Radial-outflow compressors. See Centrifugal compressor engines
FADEC fault definition/reporting, 294-95, 296-97
Railroad applications
FADEC system, 455, 46 1 , 462, 462 P&W Canada engines, 88
FADEC term usage, 292 Ram drag, defined, 142
fault protection, 299, 301 t Ram recovery point (duct), 1 63
fuel temperature probe, 297, 300 Ramjet configuration, 167
heat-soaked engine start logic probe, 298, 300 Regenerators (recuperators)
inlet pressure/temperature probe, 299, 300 in centrifugal/axial compressor engines
interface with aircraft, 292-94, 294 rotary drum type (Allison GMT-305), 1 2, 38
interface with engine, 294, 294 stationary type (AlliedSignal AGT1 500), 1 2, 31-2
oil temperature probes, 298, 300 stationary type (Allison T78), 1 2, 45
pneumatic/electrical connectors, 295, 297, 299 Remote augmented lift system (RALS), 120
speed transducer, 299, 300 Republic aircraft. See Fairchild Republic aircraft
fuel system Rockets
fuel distribution components, 455, 456, 457 military, 3
fuel distribution subsystem operation, 457, 458 for propulsion, 2-3
See also electronic engine control (EEC/FADEC) system (above) Rockwell International aircraft
ignition system, 459, 461 B-1 bomber, 64
674 I ndex
Rock\\ ell International aircraft (Continued) Speed
X-31 EFGM (Rockwell!MBB), 67 airplane. See Airplane speed, effect of
Rolls Royce engines defined, 1 39
general Stanley, Robert M., 8
discussion, 1 3 Starting procedures
Rolls Royce family of engines, 122-23 starting overtemperature limits (P&W JTl 2A-8), 438
Bristol Pegasus, 119-21 starting sequence
Bristol Viper, 114-15 P&W JT3D, 436-37
Dart, 113-14, 1 84, 186 typical, 437
FJ44 (Williams/Rolls Royce), 14, 131-32 unsatisfactory starts
Olympus 593 (RR/SNECMA), 115-16 false (hung) starts, 438
RB21 1 , 1 2, 1 18-19, 327, 415 hot starts, 437-38
Spey/Allison TF4 1 , 116-17 no start, 438
Tay, 121-22 See also Maintenance/overhaul procedures; Starting systems
Trent, 1 17-18 Starting systems
Tyne, 121 introduction
RSR (Rapid Solidification Rate) process (P&W), 249-50 advantages/disadvantages, summary of, 390t
Ryan aircraft design features, 374
BQM-34E, 130 EGT vs. starting time, 376
forms of, 374
Saab aircraft length of starting cycle, 374
Saab 2000, 48 starting characteristics (speed/torque curve), 375
340 airliner, transport, 75 starting power availability, 374
Safety, personnel air-impingement starters
aircraft ground operation introduction, 388
asphalt surfaces, fuel damage to, 436 configuration (GEJ85), 389
bleed-valves, air release from, 436 air-turbine starter
exhaust wake, dangers from, 436 air requirements/air supply, 379, 380, 381
foreign-object damage (FOD), 436 configuration (AlliedSignal Garrett units), 379
hand signals (turbine aircraft operation), 430-32 constant-speed (AlliedSignal Garrett), 3 8 1 , 382
hazard areas (inlet suction/exhaust wake), 435-36 Hamilton Standard Model PS700- l , 380
ignition systems, hazardous voltage from, 362, 436, 635 operation, description of, 379-80
jet engine sound field (still air), 212 starter engaging mechanisms, 381
sound, protection against, 2 1 6 typical applications, 379
sound levels, human response to, 211 ·
cartridge (solid-propellant) starter
wind velocity, effects of, 435t functional description (Sundstrand), 3 8 1 , 383-84
cleaning/overhaul solutions, 404 typical configuration (AlliedSignal Garrett), 383
jet fuel typical configuration (Sundstrand./USAF MXU-4), 383, 384
explosive potential (JP-4, Jet B), 266 electric-motor starter-generators
fuel handling precautions, 266, 436 circuit diagram (Allison T63), 378
Safety wiring, fastener, 413 configuration, typical, 379
Sayer, Flight Lt. P.E.G., 6 electric-motor starters
Scoring/scratches, 4 1 0, 409 introduction, 374
Scramjet configuration, 167 configuration, typical, 376
Shock waves. See under Air/airflow, physics of starting/electrical system circuit diagram, 377
Shorts aircraft fuel-air combustion starter
Skyvan, 21 functional description, 384-85
330, 87 schematic diagram, 385
360, 87 gas-turbine starters
SIAl-Marchetti aircraft introduction, 385-86
S21 1 , 90 cutaway view (AlliedSignal Garrett JFS l OO), 386
Sikorsky helicopters cutaway/schematic views (Solar GTSS), 386
CH-53A (S-65 HH-53B), 73, 388, 395 specifications, typical, 386
CH-54AIB (S-64 Skycrane), 101, 395 hand-crank starters
CV Helo, 76 introduction, 389
S-58T, 87 typical configurations, 389
S-61 (HH-3E), 72 hydraulic starters
S-62, 72 energy-limited (accumulator) system schematic, 387
S-64 Skycrane (CH-54AIB), 101, 395 functional description, 387-88
S-65 (CH-53A, HH-53B), 73, 388, 395 power-limited system schematic, 388
S-70C (Westland WS-70), 76 typical installations, Vickers (CH53A, CH47A), 388
S-76, 37 liquid monopropellant starters
SH-60B Seahawk, 76 introduction, 388
UH-60A Blackhawk, 76 See also Auxiliary power units
Singapore Aerospace aircraft Start/unstart conditions (inlet ducts), 165
A-4, 67 STIG (Steam-Injected Gas Turbine) system, 78
SNECMA engines Stolz, Dr. F., 3
CFM56 (GE/SNECMA), 52-55 Stresses (compression, tension, shear), 4 1 0
Olympus 593, 1 3 , 115-16 Swearingen aircraft
Solar engines Metro II, 21
auxiliary power units Symbols and abbreviations, gas turbine, 648-49t
T62 helicopter applications, 395
gas-turbine starter Tank, main battle (Abrams Ml A 1 ), 35
schematic view (Solar GTSS), 386 Teledyne engines
Sound speed vs. temperature, 657 auxiliary power units (CAE), 127-28
Spalling, 4 1 0, 409 CAE 169-T-25. See following
Spark plugs (igniters). See under Ignition systems CAE 169-T-29, 125-26, 404
Index 675
Teledyne engines (Continued) Thrust
CAE 169-T-406, 128-30 calculation of
CAE J l OO-CA- 100, 127 combustion-chamber outlet (burner), 144
CAE 1402-CA-400, 130 complete engine, 143
CAE 490-4, 127 compressor outlet, 144
Teledyne CAE J69-T-25 turbojet engine diffuser outlet, 144
general elementary example (stationary engine), 1 41-42
general configuration, 124-25, 537-39 exhaust-duct outlet, 1 45
sectional view (overall), 540 exhaust-nozzle outlet, 145
external parts, 539 gross vs. net thrust, 1 42-43
major components (exploded view), 538 thrust distribution (basic calculation), 1 43-44
specifications, 1 24, 537 thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC), 136, 429
typical application, 125 turbine outlet, 1 45
llirflow, 124, 540, 540-41 typical test-cell calculations for, 429
construction, 539, 540 factors affecting
electrical system, 543, 543 air temperature, 1 47-48, 147, 149-50, 1 52, 440
engine control, 54 1 , 543 llirspeed, 134, 136, 147, 147, 149-50, 1 52
fuel system choked nozzle effect, 1 43
general description, 541, 543 density (altitude), 148, 148, 149-50
system schematic, 324 fuel weight, 143
fuel control, 324, 541 full-throttle vs. part-throttle operation, 440
fuel filter, 324 humidity, 1 48-49
fuel pump, 324 ram drag, defined, 142
oil (lubricating) system rpm, 1 46, 146, 147, 149-50
functional description, 348-49, 541 thrust diagrams
schematic diagram, 350, 542 axial-flow engine, 1 44
operation, description of thrust vs. airspeed, rpm, altitude, 149-50
overview, 537-38, 540 See also Afterburners; Exhaust systems; Thrust reversers; Water
starting, 538-39 injection
Temperature, ambient-air Thrust augmentation
effect on thrust, 14 7-48 See Afterburners; Water injection
temperature profile, atmospheric, 149 .Thrust reversers
Temperature, engine-air introduction, 2 1 7-19
general design/performance criteria for, 2 1 9, 222
afterburners, effect of, 151, 1 52 in inlet ducts, 166
combustion chamber (typical), 1 52, 195 mechanical techniques
cooling, need for, 1 52 drag chutes, 2 1 8, 219
temperature changes, typical, 152 foam blocks, 2 1 8- 1 9
temperature diagrams (P&W turbofan engines), 153 nets, 2 1 9
temperature diagrams (turbojet/turboprop engines), 151 types of
compressor temperatures GE CF6 series engine, 222, 223, 224
discharge temperature, effect of airspeed on, 17 4 postexit (target) type, 2 1 9, 220
inlet temperature and compressor stall, 176 preexit (cascade or blocker-deflector type), 2 1 9, 220, 221
exhaust-gas temperature (EGT) preexit/suppressor combination (CJ805-3), 222
EGT sensor failure, diagnosis of, 423 P&W JT3D fan engine, 222, 222, 223
and false (hung) starts, 438 in P&W 4000 series engines, 466-68, 466-68
GE CF6 turbofan engine, 594, 595-96 See also Exhaust systems (ducts)
and hot starts, 437-38 Tomahawk missile, 131
typical thermocouple placement for, 205, 206 Torch/torching
overtemperature engine torching (from excess fuel), 436
maintenance procedures (P&W 1Tl 2A-8), 438 plasma-plating (torch), 255, 255
starting overtemperature limits (P&W 1Tl 2A-8), 438 torch igniter (GE J79 turbojet engine), 485, 488
turbine blade damage from, 438 torch ignition (afterburner), 229
of specific engines: Trimming, engine, 440
AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 engine, 532-35 Tupolev aircraft
General Electric CF6, 594, 595-96 TU-204, 110
General Electric J79, 483, 490-9 1 Turbines
turbine temperatures general
fan turbine inlet temperature (FTIT), 205 introduction and discussion, 198
interturbine temperature (ITT), 205 historical development, 3
See also Thermocouples; Thrust outlet, thrust at, 145
Thermocouples temperature/rotational stress environment, 203
in exhaust ducts turbine metal temperatures, typical, 200
EGT sensor failure, diagnosis of, 423 turbine power output (sample calculation), 1 98
radiation pyrometer, 206 axial-flow turbine, 198, 1 99
temperature instrumentation for (thermocouple placement), 205, 206 cooling, blade/vane (techniques for)
thermocouple construction, 206 convective, film, impingement, 24 1 , 241, 242
AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine Electro-Stream drilling, 241 , 250-5 1 , 251
exhaust thermocouple harness, 5 1 1 shaped-tube electrolytic machining (STEM), 241
Allison 501-D l 3 turboprop engine Transpiration CastCool process (Allison), 245, 249
electronic fuel-trimming system, 518, 535 transpiration (sintered mesh, Lamilloy), 24 1 , 243
thermocouple assembly, 518, 5 1 9 impact on design, 242
General Electric J79 turbojet engine impulse turbine
variable-nozzle system thermocouple configuration, 490 gas velocity analysis, 20 1 , 201
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT8D turbofan engine impulse blade forces, 201 -2, 202
engine indicating systems thermocouple lead assembly, 642 kinematic force analysis, 201
676 Index
Turbines (Continued) Turboprop engines (Continued)
nozzles energy extraction from, 1 52, 153, 1 56
hollow nozzle vanes, typical, 200 propulsive efficiency vs. airspeed, 158
nozzle construction, 200 thrust
nozzle guide vanes (functional description), 199, 1 99-200 vs. airspeed, 134
radial-inflow turbine, 1 98, 199 vs. SFC, 134
reaction turbine turboprop vs. turboshaft, distinction between, 9
gas velocity analysis, 201, 202 See also:
kinematic force analysis, 202 AlliedSignal Garrett TPE33 1 turboprop engines
reaction blade forces, 202, 202 Allison 5 0 1 -0 1 3 turboprop engine
reaction-impulse turbine Turboshaft engines
blade configuration: impulse-to-reaction blending, 203, 203 turboshaft vs. turboprop, distinction between, 9
blade load distribution, importance of, 202 See also AlliedSignal Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine
blade pressure distribution, 203, 203
turbine construction Unducted fans (UDF), 1 3 . See also Propfan engines
blade repair limits (typical), 411
blade temperature control, 203 Vectored-thrust concept (RR/Bristol Pegasus), 120
"fir tree" blade design, 203, 204 Velocity
moment-weight numbers (blade), 4 1 2 defined, 139
shrouded vs. unshrouded blades, 203, 204 See also Airflow, engine; Air/airflow, physics of
See also specific engines; Compressors Vertol helicopters. See under Boeing helicopters
Turbofan engines Volpar aircraft
general Super Turbo 1 8 Conversion, 21
characteristics and discussion, 1 5-17
·
Vought Systems (LTV) aircraft
airflow vs. bypass ratio, 16 t Vought A-7 A, D Corsair II, 98, 117
airspeed, insensitivity to, 16 Vought F-8E Crusader, 103
efficiency of, 1 6 XC-142 experimental tilt-wing, 74
energy distribution in, 135
hot day performance of, 1 6, 136 Water injection
pressure/temperature profiles (P&W engines), 153 general
propulsive efficiency vs. airspeed, 158 introduction, 225
thrust alcohol, effects of adding, 225
vs. airspeed, 134 compressor stall, 226
vs. altitude, 136 effect on fuel flow, 226
vs. SFC, 134 front vs. diffuser injection, effects of, 225-26
AlliedSigna1 Garrett engines turbine temperature, effect on, 226
TFE7 3 1 . See AlliedSignal Garrett TFE73 1 front-fan engine turbojet thrust increase, 225
AlliedSignal Lycoming engines turboprop power, effect on, 225
ALF502, 30-31 water/air ratios, typical, 226
General Electric engines operation, water-injection system, 227, 227
CFM56 (GE/SNECMA), 52-55 specific systems
F404, 65-67 B52 water injection system configuration, 227
TF3/CF34, 69-71 P&W UTC JT9D water injection system schematic, 226
See also General Electric CF6 turbofan engines Weatherly Aviation aircraft 620 TP, 87
International Aero (IAE) engines Whittle, Sir Frank
V2500, 112-13 early engine designs, 5-6
Pratt & Whitney. See specific engines: first experimental engine, 5
Pratt & Whitney UTC F 1 00 series turbofan engines gas turbine patent application, 4
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3D/TF33 turbofan engine photographs of, 4, 6
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT9D turbofan engine Williams International engines
Pratt & Whitney UTC 4000 Series turbofan engines FJ44 (Williams/Rolls Royce), 14, 131-32
Rolls Royce engines F l 07-WR-400, 14, 130-31
FJ44 (Williams/Rolls Royce), 14, 131-32 WJ24-8, 1 32-33, 133
RB2 1 1 , 1 2, 118-19 WR27- 1 , 1 0, 132-33
Turbojet engines Work, defined, 1 38
characteristics and discussion, 1 5
compression/expansion curves for, 156
energy distribution in, 135
energy extraction from, 153
hot day performance of, 1 6, 136
noise from, 209
propulsive efficiency vs. airspeed, 158
thrust
vs. airspeed, 134, 136
vs. altitude, 136
vs. SFC, 134, 136
See also:
Allison J33 turbojet engine
General Electric CJ805-3 turbojet engine
General Electric J79 turbojet engine
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT3C/J57 turbojet engines
Pratt & Whitney UTC JT4/J75 turbojet engines
Teledyne CAE J69-T-25 turbojet engine
Turboprop engines
characteristics and discussion, 1 5
compression/expansion curves for, 156
energy distribution in, 135
Index 677