Metal Forming

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

„ Overview of Metal Forming

„ Material Behavior in Metal Forming
„ Temperature in Metal Forming
„ Strain Rate Sensitivity
„ Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing
processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change
the shape of metal workpieces
„ The tool, usually called a die,
applies stresses that exceed
yield strength of metal
„ The metal takes a shape
determined by the geometry of
the die
„ Load applied are compressive,
tensile, shear, bending and
combination
Material Properties in Metal Forming
„ Desirable material properties:
… Low yield strength and high ductility
„ These properties are affected by temperature:
… Ductility
increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised
„ Other factors:
… Strain rate and friction
Bulk Deformation Processes

extrusion
rolling forging

drawing

"Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface

area-to-volume ratios
Sheet Metalworking

bending

shearing

High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting

metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
drawing
Stress-strain curve

True strain
ldl l
e=∫ = ln ( )
l0 l l0

True stress
σ = P/A
 To determine point of instability
From true stress equation

dP dA dσ
=σ + A =0 ----(1)
dl dl dl
dA A
=− Using volume constancy
dl l condition, A0l0=Al

dσ dl
= = de after substituting in (1)
σ l
1 dσ
= 1 de is incremental strain
σ de
Now draw a tangent at the point of instability I, the length DF will be 1 and strain de is evaluated
ec
Total plastic work W p = [
This leads to flow curve equation
∫ 0
σ de]
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
„ Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is
plastically deformed
„ In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:

σ = Kε n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent
• Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true
strain
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming
the material
Yf = K ε n

Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between zero and the final
strain value defining the range of interest
_
Kε n
Yf =
1+ n
Stress-strain curve

Spring back effect Temperature

and strain rate response

Extend of Plastic
deformation
Strain Rate Sensitivity

„ Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves

like a perfectly plastic material, with strain
hardening exponent n = 0
… The metal should continue to flow at the same flow
stress, once that stress is reached
… However, an additional phenomenon occurs during
deformation, especially at elevated temperatures:
Strain rate sensitivity
… As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases
What is Strain Rate?
„ Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of
deformation v
„ Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other
movement of the equipment
Strain rate is defined: . v
ε=
. h
where ε = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of
workpiece being deformed
 (a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.
(b) Same relationship plotted on log-log coordinates

Strain rate sensitivity equation

Yf = Cε m
 Y f = Aε Cε
n m

Effect of temperature on flow stress

for a typical metal.
Observations about Strain Rate
Sensitivity
„ Increasing temperature decreases C, increases
m
… Atroom temperature, effect of strain rate is almost
negligible
„ Flow curve is a good representation of material behavior
… As temperature increases, strain rate becomes
increasingly important in determining flow stress
Recrystallization
Effect of recovery, recrystallization and grain growth
Recovery:
„ stresses in the highly deformed regions are
relieved.
„ Sub grain boundaries are formed
„ No change in mechanical properties
Recrystallization:
„ New equiaxed and stress free grains are formed
Grain growth :
„ Grain grows and affects mechanical properties
Temperature in Metal Forming

„ For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
… Both strength and strain hardening are reduced at higher
temperatures
… In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
„ Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
… Cold working (less than .3 Tm)
… Warm working (.3 to .5 Tm)
… Hot working ( above 0.5 Tm)
 Hotworking
Advantages:
• Very high reduction without fracture
• Deformation energy is low
• Process is faster
• Metal is made tougher because pores get closed
• No change in hardness of material
Disadvantages
• Higher temperature promotes undesirable reaction
• Metallurgical structure may not be uniform because of cooling history
after deformation
• Heat-resistant tools are required
• Close tolerance cannot be achieved
• Surface finish is poor
• Handling is difficult
Cold Working
Advantages
„ Good surface finish and better dimensional accuracy
„ Strength, fatigue and wear properties are improved
„ Minimum contamination in workpiece surface
„ Energy saving
„ Handling is easy
Disadvantages
„ Deformation energy required is large
„ Strain hardening limits deformation
„ Ductility is reduced
Friction in Metal Forming

„ In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
… Metalflow is retarded
… Forces and power are increased
… Wears tooling faster

„ Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot

working
„ Sticking friction instead of slip phenomenon
Lubrication in Metal Forming

„ Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work

interface in many forming operations to reduce
harmful effects of friction
„ Benefits:
… Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
… Better surface finish
… Removes heat from the tooling
… Graphite, hot glass is used for Hot working