Electrical Formulas

Voltage Rating
The selection of the cable insulation level to be used in a particular installation shall be made on the basis of the applicable phase to
phase voltage and the general system category as outlined below:

100 Percent Level - Cables in this category may be applied where system is provided with relay protection such that ground faults will
be cleared as rapidly as possible, but in any case within 1 minute. While these cables are applicable to the great majority of cable
installations which are on grounded systems, they may be used also on other systems for which the application of cables is acceptable
**provided the above clearing requirements are met in completely de-energizing the faulted section.

133 Percent Level - This insulation level corresponds to that formerly designated for ungrounded systems. Cables in this category may
be applied in those situations where the clearing time requirements of the 100 percent level category cannot be met, and yet there is
adequate assurance that the faulted section will be de-energized in a time not exceeding 1 hour. Also they may be used when additional
insulation strength over the 100 percent level category is desirable.

173 Percent Level - Cables in this category should be applied on systems where the time required to de-energize a grounded section is
indefinite. Their use is recommended also for resonant grounded systems. Consult the manufacturer for insulation thickness.

**In common with other electrical equipment, the use of cables is not recommended on systems where the ratio of the zero to positive
phase reactance of the system at the point of cable application lies between -1 and -40 since excessively high voltages may be
encountered in the case of ground faults.

Electrical formulas for determining amperes,

horsepower, kilowatts and kilovolt-amperes
ALTERNATING CURRENT
DESIRED DIRECT
DATA Two-Phase* CURRENT
Single-Phase Three-Phase
Four-Wire
Amperes when kva x 1000 kva x 1000 kva x 1000 kva x 1000
kva is shown E 2xE 1.73 x E E
Amperes when kw x 1000 kw x 1000 kw x 1000 kw x 1000
kilowatts are shown E x pf 2 x E x pf 1.73 x E x pf E
Amperes when hp x 746 hp x 746 hp x 746 hp x 746
horsepower is shown E x %Eff x pf 2 x E x %Eff x pf 1.73 x E x %Eff x pf E x %Eff
Kilovolt-Amperes IxE IxEx2 I x E x 1.73 IxE
1000 1000 1000 1000
Kilowatts I x E x pf I x E x 2 pf I x E x 1.73 x pf IxE
1000 1000 1000 1000
Horsepower I x E x %Eff x pf I x E x 2 x %Eff x pf I x E x 1.73 x %Eff x pf I x E x %Eff
746 746 746 746

*In three-wire, two phase balanced circuits, the current in the common conductor is 1.41 times that in either of the other conductors.

E = volts Ø-Ø; I = amperes; % Eff = percent efficiency in decimals; pf = power factor in decimals;
kva = kilovolt-ampere; hp = horsepower; kw = kilowatts
Electrical Cables
An electric cable is a group of one, two or more wires or optical fibers bound together, in a common protective jacket or sheath.
Individual wires or fibers inside the jacket are usually covered or insulated. There are combination cables, made by manufacturers and
may contain both electrical wires and optical fibers. Copper wires are most commonly used because of its excellent conductivity.
Aluminum wires are also used as they are less expensive.

Electrical cables are sometimes made more flexible by stranding the wires. The process involves twisting or braiding the smaller
individual wires to produce larger wires that are far more flexible. Small wires are also bunched before concentric stranding, thereby
adding more flexibility.

Types of Cables
There are various types of electrical cables available depending on the end use. These cables find application across industries. Some
of the popularly used cables are:
 Coaxial Cable
 Control Cable
 Armoured Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Telephone Cable
 Industrial Cable
 Wiring Cable
 Medical Cables
 Flat Cable
 Flexible Cable
 Power Cable

Applications
There are a variety of electrical cables made by manufacturers. These cables are used in diverse applications and industries including:
 Telecommunications
 Agriculture
 Construction

Materials for Electrical Cable:

The electrical cables we use are made of various types of materials. A cable has several layers and different layers are made from
different materials. The conductors in the cables are usually made of metals or metallic alloys because metals are good conductor of
electricity and also they are strong, ductile and durable. Similarly, the insulation of cables are made of such materials which are heat
resistant, flexible, durable and non conducting. So we can categorize the cables on the basis of materials with which they are made.

 Copper
 Aluminum
 Tungsten
 Teflon

Calculating Motor Speed:

A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for any length of time at speeds
below those shown on the nameplate without danger of burning out.

To Calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula:

Srpm = 120 x F
P

Srpm = synchronous revolutions per minute.

120 = constant
F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec)
P = number of motor winding poles

Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60 hz power supply?

Srpm = 120 x F
P
Srpm = 120 x 60
4
Srpm = 7200
4
Srpm = 1800 rpm

Calculating Braking Torque:

Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a motor.
To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula:

T = 5252 x HP
rpm

T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft)

5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252)
HP = motor horsepower
rpm = speed of motor shaft

Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725 rpm?

T = 5252 x HP
rpm
T = 5252 x 60
1725
T = 315,120
1725
T = 182.7 lb-ft

Calculating Work:
Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the position, motion, direction, or
shape of an object. Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to
hinder the movement of an object.If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is produced.

To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula:

W=FxD

W = work (in lb-ft)

F = force (in lb)
D = distance (in ft)

Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically from street level to the 4th
floor of a building 30' above street level?

W=FxD
W = 25 x 30
W = 750 -lb

Calculating Torque:

Torque is the force that produces rotation. It causes an object to rotate. Torque consist of a force acting on
distance. Torque, like work, is measured is pound-feet (lb-ft). However, torque, unlike work, may exist even
though no movement occurs.

To calculate torque, apply this formula:

T=FxD

T = torque (in lb-ft)

F = force (in lb)
D = distance (in ft)

Example: What is the torque produced by a 60 lb force pushing on a 3' lever arm?

T=FxD
T = 60 x 3
T = 180 lb ft

Calculating Full-load Torque:

Full-load torque is the torque to produce the rated power at full speed of the motor. The amount of torque a
motor produces at rated power and full speed can be found by using a horsepower-to-torque conversion chart.
When using the conversion chart, place a straight edge along the two known quantities and read the unknown
quantity on the third line.

To calculate motor full-load torque, apply this formula:

T = HP x 5252
rpm

T = torque (in lb-ft)

HP = horsepower
5252 = constant
rpm = revolutions per minute

Example: What is the FLT (Full-load torque) of a 30HP motor operating at 1725 rpm?

T = HP x 5252
rpm
T = 30 x 5252
1725
T = 157,560
1725
T = 91.34 lb-ft

Calculating Horsepower:

Electrical power is rated in horsepower or watts. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or 33,0000
lb-ft per minute (550 lb-ft per second). A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1
amp across the potential difference of 1 volt. It is 1/746 of 1 horsepower. The watt is the base unit of electrical
power. Motor power is rated in horsepower and watts.
Horsepower is used to measure the energy produced by an electric motor while doing work.

To calculate the horsepower of a motor when current and efficiency, and voltage are known, apply this
formula:

HP = V x I x Eff
746

HP = horsepower
V = voltage
I = curent (amps)
Eff. = efficiency

Example: What is the horsepower of a 230v motor pulling 4 amps and having 82% efficiency?

HP = V x I x Eff
746
HP = 230 x 4 x .82
746
 HP = 754.4
746
HP = 1 Hp

Eff = efficiency / HP = horsepower / V = volts / A = amps / PF = power factor

Horsepower Formulas
Example
To Find Use Formula
Given Find Solution
HP = 240V x 20A x 85%
HP = I X E X Eff.
HP 240V, 20A, 85% Eff. HP 746
746
HP=5.5
I = 10HP x 746
I = HP x 746 10HP, 240V,
I I 240V x 90% x 88%
E X Eff x PF 90% Eff., 88% PF
I = 39 A

To calculate the horsepower of a motor when the speed and torque are known, apply this formula:

HP = rpm x T(torque)
5252(constant)

Example: What is the horsepower of a 1725 rpm motor with a FLT 3.1 lb-ft?

HP = rpm x T
5252
HP = 1725 x 3.1
5252
HP = 5347.5
5252
HP = 1 hp

Calculating Synchronous Speed:

AC motors are considered constant speed motors. This is because the synchronous speed of an induction motor
is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in the motor winding. Motor are designed for 60 hz
use have synchronous speeds of 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514, and 450 rpm.

To calculate synchronous speed of an induction motor, apply this formula:

rpmsyn = 120 x f
Np

rpmsyn = synchronous speed (in rpm)

f = supply frequency in (cycles/sec)
Np = number of motor poles

Example: What is the synchronous speed of a four pole motor operating at 50 hz.?

rpmsyn = 120 x f
Np
rpmsyn = 120 x 50
4
rpmsyn = 6000
4
rpmsyn = 1500 rpm
 Basic Motor Formulas And Calculations

The formulas and calculations which appear below should be used for estimating purposes only. It is the
responsibility of the customer to specify the required motor Hp, Torque, and accelerating time for his
application. The salesman may wish to check the customers specified values with the formulas in this section,
however, if there is serious doubt concerning the customers application or if the customer requires guaranteed
motor/application performance, the Product Department Customer Service group should be contacted.

Rules Of Thumb (Approximation)

At 1800 rpm, a motor develops a 3 lb.ft. per hp

At 1200 rpm, a motor develops a 4.5 lb.ft. per hp
At 575 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1 amp per hp
At 460 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1.25 amp per hp
At 230 volts a 3-phase motor draws 2.5 amp per hp
At 230 volts, a single-phase motor draws 5 amp per hp
At 115 volts, a single-phase motor draws 10 amp per hp

Mechanical Formulas
HP x 5250 Torque x rpm 120 x Frequency
Torque in lb.ft. rpm
HP =
= =
rpm 5250 No. of Poles

Temperature Conversion

Deg C = (Deg F - 32) x 5/9

Deg F = (Deg C x 9/5) + 32

High Inertia Loads

WK2 x rpm
t = WK2 = inertia in lb.ft.2
308 x T av. t = accelerating time in sec.
WK2 x rpm T = Av. accelerating torque 
T = lb.ft..
308 x t
inertia reflected to motor = Load Inertia Load rpm
2
Motor rpm

Synchronous Speed, Frequency And Number Of Poles Of AC Motors

120 x f P x ns 120 x f
ns = f = P =
P 120 ns

Relation Between Horsepower, Torque, And Speed

HP = T x n T = 5250 HP n = 5250 HP
 5250 n T

Motor Slip
ns ­ n
% Slip = x 100
ns

Code KVA/HP Code KVA/HP Code KVA/HP Code KVA/HP

A 0­3.14 F 5.0 ­5.59 L 9.0­9.99 S 16.0­17.99

B 3.15­3.54 G 5.6 ­6.29 M 10.0­11.19 T 18.0­19.99

C 3.55­3.99 H 6.3 ­7.09 N 11.2­12.49 U 20.0­22.39

D 4.0 ­4.49 I 7.1 ­7.99 P 12.5­13.99 V 22.4 & Up

E 4.5 ­4.99 K 8.0 ­8.99 R 14.0­15.99

Symbols
I = current in amperes
E = voltage in volts
KW = power in kilowatts
KVA = apparent power in kilo­volt­amperes
HP  = output power in horsepower
n = motor speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)
synchronous speed in revolutions per minute 
ns =
(RPM)
P = number of poles
f = frequency in cycles per second (CPS)
T = torque in pound­feet
EFF = efficiency as a decimal
PF = power factor as a decimal

Equivalent Inertia

In mechanical systems, all rotating parts do not usually operate at the same speed. Thus, we need to determine
the "equivalent inertia" of each moving part at a particular speed of the prime mover.

The total equivalent WK2 for a system is the sum of the WK2 of each part, referenced to prime mover speed.

The equation says:

Npart
2 2
WK EQ  = WK  
part 2
Nprime mover

This equation becomes a common denominator on which other calculations can be based. For variable-speed
devices, inertia should be calculated first at low speed.
Let's look at a simple system which has a prime mover (PM), a reducer and a load.

WK2 = 900 lb.ft.2
WK2 = 100 lb.ft.2 WK2 = 27,000 lb.ft.2
(as seen at output shaft)
PRIME MOVER 3:1 GEAR REDUCER LOAD

The formula states that the system WK2 equivalent is equal to the sum of WK2parts at the prime mover's RPM, or in this case: 

Red. RPM Load RPM
2 2 2 2
WK EQ  = WK pm + WK Red.  2 + WK Load  2
PM RPM PM RPM

Note: reducer RPM = Load RPM 

1 1
2 2 2 2
WK EQ  = WK pm + WK Red.  2 + WK Load  2
3 3

The WK2 equivalent is equal to the WK2 of the prime mover, plus the WK2 of the load. This is equal to the WK2
of the prime mover, plus the WK2 of the reducer times (1/3)2, plus the WK2 of the load times (1/3)2.

This relationship of the reducer to the driven load is expressed by the formula given earlier:

Npart
WK2EQ = WK2part  2
Nprime mover

In other words, when a part is rotating at a speed (N) different from the prime mover, the WK2EQ is equal to the
WK2 of the part's speed ratio squared.

In the example, the result can be obtained as follows:

The WK2 equivalent is equal to:

1 1
2 2 2 2
WK EQ  = 100 lb.ft.  + 900 lb.ft.   2 + 27,000 lb.ft.   2
3 3

Finally: 

WK2EQ = lb.ft.2pm + 100 lb.ft.2Red + 3,000 lb.ft2Load

WK2EQ = 3200 lb.ft.2

The total WK2 equivalent is that WK2 seen by the prime mover at its speed.

Electrical Formulas
Alternating Current
To Find
Single-Phase Three-Phase

HP x 746 HP x 746
Amperes when horsepower is known
E x Eff x pf 1.73 x E x Eff x pf

Kw x 1000 Kw x 1000
Amperes when kilowatts are known
E x pf 1.73 x E x pf

Kva x 1000 Kva x 1000
Amperes when kva are known
E 1.73 x E

I x E x pf 1.73 x I x E x pf
Kilowatts
1000 1000

I x E 1.73 x I x E
Kva
1000 1000

I x E x Eff x pf 1.73 x I x E x Eff x pff
Horsepower = (Output)
746 746

I = Amperes; E = Volts; Eff = Efficiency; pf = Power Factor; Kva = Kilovolt-amperes; Kw = Kilowatts

Locked Rotor Current (IL) From Nameplate Data

577 x HP x KVA/HP
Three Phase: IL =
E
See: KVA/HP Chart
1000 x HP x KVA/HP
Single Phase: IL =
E

EXAMPLE:Motor nameplate indicates 10 HP, 3 Phase, 460 Volts, Code F.

577 x 10 x (5.6 or 6.29)
IL =
460

70.25 or 78.9 Amperes (possible 
IL =
range)

Effect Of Line Voltage On Locked Rotor Current (I L) (Approx.)

 ELINE
IL @ ELINE = IL @ EN/P x
EN/P

EXAMPLE:Motor has a locked rotor current (inrush of 100 Amperes (IL) at the rated nameplate voltage (EN/P) of
230 volts. What is IL with 245 volts (ELINE) applied to this motor?

IL @ 245 V. = 100 x 254V/230V

IL @ 245V. = 107 Amperes

Basic Horsepower Calculations

Horsepower is work done per unit of time. One HP equals 33,000 ft-lb of work per minute. When work is done
by a source of torque (T) to produce (M) rotations about an axis, the work done is:

radius x 2  x rpm x lb. or 2 
TM

When rotation is at the rate N rpm, the HP delivered is: 

radius x 2  x rpm x lb. TN
HP = =
33,000 5,250

For vertical or hoisting motion: 

W x S
HP
=
33,000 x E

Where: 

W = total weight in lbs. to be raised by motor
S = hoisting speed in feet per minute
overall mechanical efficiency of hoist and gearing. For purposes of 
E =
estimating
E = .65 for eff. of hoist and connected gear.

For fans and blowers: 

Volume (cfm) x Head (inches of
water)
HP =
6356 x Mechanical Efficiency of Fan

Or 

HP = Volume (cfm) x Pressure (lb. Per sq.
ft.)
 3300 x Mechanical Efficiency of Fan

Or 

Volume (cfm) x Pressure (lb. Per sq.
in.)
HP =
229 x Mechanical Efficiency of Fan

For purpose of estimating, the eff. of a fan or blower may be assumed to be 0.65.

Note:Air Capacity (cfm) varies directly with fan speed. Developed Pressure varies with square of fan speed. Hp varies with cube of 
fan speed.

For pumps: 

GPM x Pressure in lb. Per sq. in. x Specific
Grav.
HP =
1713 x Mechanical Efficiency of Pump

Or 

GPM x Total Dynamic Head in Feet x S.G.
HP =
3960 x Mechanical Efficiency of Pump

where Total Dynamic Head = Static Head + Friction
Head

For estimating, pump efficiency may be assumed at 0.70.

Accelerating Torque

The equivalent inertia of an adjustable speed drive indicates the energy required to keep the system running.
However, starting or accelerating the system requires extra energy.

The torque required to accelerate a body is equal to the WK2 of the body, times the change in RPM, divided by
308 times the interval (in seconds) in which this acceleration takes place:

WK2N (in lb.ft.)
ACCELERATING TORQUE =
308t

Where: 

N = Change in RPM
W = Weight in Lbs.
 K = Radius of gyration
Time of acceleration 
t=
(secs.)
WK2 = Equivalent Inertia
308 = Constant of proportionality

Or 

WK2N
TAcc =
308t

The constant (308) is derived by transferring linear motion to angular motion, and considering acceleration due
to gravity. If, for example, we have simply a prime mover and a load with no speed adjustment:

Example 1

PRIME LOADER
LOAD

WK2 = 200 lb.ft.2 WK2 = 800 lb.ft.2

The WK2EQ is determined as before: 

WK2EQ = WK2pm + WK2Load
WK2EQ = 200 + 800
WK2EQ = 1000 ft.lb.2

If we want to accelerate this load to 1800 RPM in 1 minute, enough information is available to find the amount
of torque necessary to accelerate the load.

The formula states:

WK2EQN 1000 x 1800 1800000

TAcc = or or
308t 308 x 60 18480

TAcc = 97.4 lb.ft.

In other words, 97.4 lb.ft. of torque must be applied to get this load turning at 1800 RPM, in 60 seconds.

Note that TAcc is an average value of accelerating torque during the speed change under consideration. If a more
accurate calculation is desired, the following example may be helpful.

Example 2
The time that it takes to accelerate an induction motor from one speed to another may be found from the
following equation:

WR2 x change in rpm
t =
308 x T

Where: 

T = Average value of accelerating torque during the speed change under consideration.
t = Time the motor takes to accelerate from the initial speed to the final speed.
WR2 = Flywheel effect, or moment of inertia, for the driven machinery plus the motor rotor in lb.ft. 2 (WR2 of driven machinery 
must be referred to the motor shaft).

The Application of the above formula will now be considered by means of an example. Figure A shows the
speed-torque curves of a squirrel-cage induction motor and a blower which it drives. At any speed of the
blower, the difference between the torque which the motor can deliver at its shaft and the torque required by the
blower is the torque available for acceleration. Reference to Figure A shows that the accelerating torque may
vary greatly with speed. When the speed-torque curves for the motor and blower intersect there is no torque
available for acceleration. The motor then drives the blower at constant speed and just delivers the torque
required by the load.

In order to find the total time required to accelerate the motor and blower, the area between the motor speed-
torque curve and the blower speed-torque curve is divided into strips, the ends of which approximate straight
lines. Each strip corresponds to a speed increment which takes place within a definite time interval. The solid
horizontal lines in Figure A represent the boundaries of strips; the lengths of the broken lines the average
accelerating torques for the selected speed intervals. In order to calculate the total acceleration time for the
motor and the direct-coupled blower it is necessary to find the time required to accelerate the motor from the
beginning of one speed interval to the beginning of the next interval and add up the incremental times for all
intervals to arrive at the total acceleration time. If the WR2 of the motor whose speed-torque curve is given in
Figure A is 3.26 ft.lb.2 and the WR2 of the blower referred to the motor shaft is 15 ft.lb.2, the total WR2 is:

15 + 3.26 = 18.26 ft.lb.2,

And the total time of acceleration is: 

WR2 rpm1 rpm2 rpm3 rpm9

+ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­
+ +
+
308 T1 T2 T3 T9

Or 

18.26 150 150 300 300 200 200 300 100 40

t = + + + + + + + +
308 46 48 47 43.8 39.8 36.4 32.8 29.6 11

t = 2.75 
sec.

Figure A
Curves used to determine time required to accelerate induction motor and blower 
 Accelerating Torques
T1 = 46 lb.ft. T4 = 43.8 lb.ft. T7 = 32.8 lb.ft.
T2 = 48 lb.ft. T5 = 39.8 lb.ft. T8 = 29.6 lb.ft.
T3 = 47 lb.ft. T6 = 36.4 lb.ft. T9 = 11 lb.ft.

Duty Cycles

Sales Orders are often entered with a note under special features such as:

"Suitable for 10 starts per hour"
Or
"Suitable for 3 reverses per minute"
Or
"Motor to be capable of accelerating 350 lb.ft.2"
Or
"Suitable for 5 starts and stops per hour"

Orders with notes such as these can not be processed for two reasons.

1. The appropriate product group must first be consulted to see if a design is available that will perform the required duty cycle 
and, if not, to determine if the type of design required falls within our present product line. 
2. None of the above notes contain enough information to make the necessary duty cycle calculation. In order for a duty cycle to
be checked out, the duty cycle information must include the following: 
a. Inertia reflected to the motor shaft. 
b. Torque load on the motor during all portions of the duty cycle including starts, running time, stops or reversals. 
c. Accurate timing of each portion of the cycle. 
d. Information on how each step of the cycle is accomplished. For example, a stop can be by coasting, mechanical 
braking, DC dynamic braking or plugging. A reversal can be accomplished by plugging, or the motor may be 
stopped by some means then re­started in the opposite direction. 
e. When the motor is multi­speed, the cycle for each speed must be completely defined, including the method of 
changing from one speed to another. 
f. Any special mechanical problems, features or limitations. 

Obtaining this information and checking with the product group before the order is entered can save much time,
expense and correspondence.

Duty cycle refers to the detailed description of a work cycle that repeats in a specific time period. This cycle
may include frequent starts, plugging stops, reversals or stalls. These characteristics are usually involved in
batch-type processes and may include tumbling barrels, certain cranes, shovels and draglines, dampers, gate- or
plow-positioning drives, drawbridges, freight and personnel elevators, press-type extractors, some
feeders,presses of certain types, hoists, indexers, boring machines,cinder block machines, keyseating, kneading,
car-pulling, shakers (foundry or car), swaging and washing machines, and certain freight and passenger
vehicles. The list is not all-inclusive. The drives for these loads must be capable of absorbing the heat generated
during the duty cycles. Adequate thermal capacity would be required in slip couplings, clutches or motors to
accelerate or plug-stop these drives or to withstand stalls. It is the product of the slip speed and the torque
absorbed by the load per unit of time which generates heat in these drive components. All the events which
occur during the duty cycle generate heat which the drive components must dissipate.

Because of the complexity of the Duty Cycle Calculations and the extensive engineering data per specific motor
design and rating required for the calculations, it is necessary for the sales engineer to refer to the Product
Department for motor sizing with a duty cycle application.
Useful Electrical Formulas for Determining Amperes, Horsepower, Kilowatts and Kilovolt Amperes

Alternating Current

To Direct
Single-Phase Three-Phase
Find Current

Amperes
HP x 746 HP x 746
when Horsepower HP x 746
E x Eff E x Eff x PF
is known 1.73 x E x Eff x PF

Amperes
KW x 1000 KW x 1000
when Kilowatts KW x 1000
E E x PF
are known 1.73 x E x PF

Amperes
KVA x 1000 KVA x 1000
when Kilovolt Amperes KVA x 1000
E E
are known 1.73 x E

IxE I x E x PF I x E x 1.73 x PF
Kilowatts
1000 1000 1000

IxE IxE I x E x 1.73

Kilovolt Amperes
1000 1000 1000

Horsepower I x E x Eff I x E x Eff x Pf I x E x 1.73 x Eff x PF

(Output) 746 746 746

Notes:
I = Amperes; E = Phase-to-Phase Volts; Eff. = Efficiency expressed as a decimal (95% = 0.95); PF = Power Factor expressed as a decimal (85% = 0.85); KW =
Kilowatts, KVA = Kilovolt Amperes; HP = Horsepower.
How to Calculate Voltage Drop For Long Paired Wire Runs
A primary concern when installing lengths of wire is voltage drop. The amount of voltage lost between the originating power supply and the
device being powered can be significant. Improper selection of wire gauge can lead to an unacceptable voltage drop at load end. The following
chart is designed to help calculate voltage drop per 100 feet of paired wire as a function of wire gauge and load current.

By matching load current (in AMPs) across the top of the chart with wire gauge (AWG) down the left side of the chart, one can determine
voltage drop per 100 feet of paired wire run.

NOTE: A paired wire run represents the feed and return line to the load. Therefore, a 500 foot wire pair is equivalent to 1000 feet of total
wire.

EXAMPLE ONE:
Given a load current of 1 AMP, and using 18 AWG wire, how much voltage drop can we expect at the load end for a 350 foot run of paired
wire?

Using the chart, we match the row for 18 AWG and the column for 1 AMP and determine that voltage drop per 100 feet is 1.27 Volts. By
dividing the paired wire length by 100, we get the factor by which we need to multiply voltage drop per 100 feet to determine total voltage
drop. Therefore, 350 feet divided by 100 equals 3.5. Multiply 3.5 by 1.27 volts drop per 100 feet to get your total voltage drop. Thus the total
voltage drop is 3.5 times 1.27, or 4.445 voltage drop for 350 feet.

EXAMPLE TWO:
Given a camera load of 2 AMPs, that is 400 feet from the power source, which wire gauge should be selected to keep voltage drop at the
camera to less than 3 volts?

To use the chart, we need to determine what the maximum voltage drop per 100 feet is. We calculate that 100 feet is 1/4 of 400 feet, thus
the voltage drop allowed for 100 feet is 1/4 times 3 volts (which is the equivalent of 0.75 volts per 100 feet):

voltage drop per 100 feet = 3/4 = .75 volts per 100 feet.

So, knowing that we can not allow anything greater than a voltage drop of .75 volts per 100 feet, we can now look at the chart and select the
wire gauges that will give us lower voltage drops per 100 feet at a 2 AMP load current. In this case, wire gauges of 10 (.40 V), 11 (.50 V),
and 12 AWG (.64) will all suffice, with 13 AWG (.80) being a possibility.
Thus, in order to keep voltage drop at the camera to less than 3 volts given a camera load of 2 AMPs and a 400 foot paired wire run, we need
to use a wire gauge in the range of 10-13 AWG.

Voltage Drop Per 100 FT Run of Paired Wire

.
These handy equations can be used to determine voltage drop
per 100 feet or wire gauge as an alternative to the chart, even
for values that are not on the chart. To arrive at total voltage
drop, always divide paired wire run length by 100, and then
multiply that number by voltage drop per 100 Feet:
1. To determine voltage drop per 100 feet given load current
and wire gauge:

VD = Voltage drop per 100 feet (Volts)

IL = Current load (AMPs)
AWG = Wire gauge

2. To determine wire gauge necessary given paired wire length,

load current, and desired voltage drop per 100 feet:

With these useful tools, voltage drop problems can be avoided

before installation, saving time, money and ensuring a correctly
working system.

E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC/DC Formulas
To Find Direct Current AC / 1phase AC / 1phase AC 3 phase
115v or 120v 208,230, or 240v All Voltages
Amps when HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746
Horsepower is Known E x Eff E x Eff X PF E x Eff x PF 1.73 x E x Eff x PF
Amps when kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000
Kilowatts is known E E x PF E x PF 1.73 x E x PF
Amps when kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000
kVA is known E E 1.73 x E
Kilowatts IxE I x E x PF I x E x PF I x E x 1.73 PF
1000 1000 1000 1000
Kilovolt-Amps IxE IxE I x E x 1.73
1000 1000 1000
Horsepower I x E x Eff I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x 1.73 x PF
(output) 746 746 746 746

Three Phase Values

For 208 volts x 1.732, use 360
For 230 volts x 1.732, use 398
For 240 volts x 1.732, use 416
For 440 volts x 1.732, use 762
For 460 volts x 1.732, use 797
For 480 Volts x 1.732, use 831
E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC Efficiency and Power Factor Formulas

To Find Single Phase Three Phase
746 x HP 746 x HP
Efficiency
E x I x PF E x I x PF x 1.732
Input Watts Input Watts
Power Factor
VxA E x I x 1.732

Power - DC Circuits
Watts = E xI
Amps = W / E

Ohm's Law / Power Formulas

P = watts

I = amps

R = ohms

E = Volts

Voltage Drop Formulas

2 x K x I x L K = ohms per mil foot
VD =
Single Phase CM
(2 or 3 wire) 2K x L x I (Copper = 12.9 at 75°)
CM= VD
(Alum = 21.2 at 75°)
1.73 x K x I x L Note: K value changes with temperature. See Code chapter 9,
VD= CM Table 8
L = Length of conductor in feet
Three Phase
1.73 x K x L x I I = Current in conductor (amperes)
CM= VD
CM = Circular mil area of conductor
Eddy current
An eddy current (also known as Foucault current) is an electrical phenomenon discovered by French
physicist Léon Foucault in 1851. It is caused when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field due to
relative motion of the field source and conductor; or due to variations of the field with time. This can cause a
circulating flow of electrons, or current, within the conductor. These circulating eddies of current create
electromagnets with magnetic fields that opposes the change of the magnetic field (see Lenz's law). The
stronger the applied magnetic field, or greater the electrical conductivity of the conductor, or greater the relative
velocity of motion, the greater the currents developed and the greater the opposing field.

The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water when dragging an oar breadthwise:
localised areas of turbulence known as eddies give rise to persistent vortices.

Eddy currents can generate a lot of heat, and also can create a strong repulsive force between the conductor and
the field source which can be used for levitation or creating movement, or to give a strong braking effect

Introduction

As the circular plate moves down through a small region of constant magnetic field directed into the page, eddy
currents are induced in the plate. The direction of those currents is given by Lenz's law.

When a conductor moves relative to the field generated by a source, then electro-magnetic fields (EMFs) can be
generated around loops within the conductor. These EMFs acting on the resistivity of the material generate a
current around the loop, in accordance with Faraday's law of induction. These currents dissipate energy, and
create a magnetic field that tends to oppose the changes in the field.
Eddy currents are created when a moving conductor experiences changes in the magnetic field generated by a
stationary object, as well as when a stationary conductor encounters a varying magnetic field. Both effects are
present when a conductor moves through a varying magnetic field, as is the case at the top and bottom edges of
the magnetized region shown in the diagram. Eddy currents will be generated wherever a conducting object
experiences a change in the intensity or direction of the magnetic field at any point within it, and not just at the
boundaries.

The swirling current set up in the conductor is due to electrons experiencing a Lorentz force that is
perpendicular to their motion. Hence, they veer to their right, or left, depending on the direction of the applied
field and whether the strength of the field is increasing or declining. The resistivity of the conductor acts to
damp the amplitude of the eddy currents, as well as straighten their paths. Lenz's law encapsulates the fact that
the current swirls in such a way as to create an induced magnetic field that opposes the phenomenon that
created it. In the case of a varying applied field, the induced field will always be in the opposite direction to that
applied. The same will be true when a varying external field is increasing in strength. However, when a varying
field is falling in strength, the induced field will be in the same direction as that originally applied, in order to
oppose the decline.

Sometimes an object or part of an object experiences steady field intensity and direction where there is still
relative motion of the field and the object (for example in the center of the field in the diagram), or unsteady
fields where the currents cannot circulate due to the geometry of the conductor. In these situations charges
collect on or within the object and these charges then produce static electric potentials that oppose any further
flow of current. Currents may be initially associated with the creation of static potentials, but these may be
transitory and small.

Eddy currents transform useful forms of energy, such as kinetic energy, into heat, which is generally much less
useful. In many devices, this Joule heating reduces efficiency of iron-core transformers and electric motors and
other devices that use changing magnetic fields. Eddy currents are minimized in these devices by selecting
magnetic core materials that have low electrical conductivity (e.g., ferrites) or by using thin sheets of magnetic
material, known as laminations. Electrons cannot cross the insulating gap between the laminations and so are
unable to circulate on wide arcs. Charges gather at the lamination boundaries, in a process analogous to the Hall
effect, producing electric fields that oppose any further accumulation of charge and hence suppressing the flow
of eddy currents. The shorter the distance between adjacent laminations (i.e., the greater the number of
laminations per unit area, perpendicular to the applied field), the greater the suppression of eddy currents.

The loss of useful energy is not always undesirable, however, as there are some practical applications. One is in
the brakes of some trains known as an eddy current brake. During braking, the metal wheels are exposed to a
magnetic field from an electromagnet, generating eddy currents in the wheels. The eddy currents meet
resistance as they flow through the metal, thus dissipating energy as heat, and this acts to slow the wheels down.
The faster the wheels are spinning, the stronger the effect, meaning that as the train slows the braking force is
reduced, producing a smooth stopping motion.

Strength of eddy currents

Some things usually increase the size and effects of eddy currents:

 stronger magnetic fields

 faster changing fields (due to faster relative speeds or otherwise)
 thicker materials
 lower resistivity materials (aluminium, copper, silver etc.)

Some things reduce the effects

  weaker magnets
 slower changing fields (slower relative speeds)
 thinner materials
 slotted materials so that currents cannot circulate
 laminated materials so that currents cannot circulate
 higher resistance materials (silicon rich iron etc.)

Applications

Electrical

Eddy currents are used to great effect in movement-to-electricity converters such as electrical generators and
dynamic microphones.

Repulsive effects/levitation

Superconductors allow perfect, lossless conduction, which creates perpetually circulating eddy currents that are
equal and opposite to the external magnetic field, thus allowing magnetic levitation. For the same reason, the
magnetic field inside a superconducting medium will be exactly zero, regardless of the external applied field.

In addition, in a fast varying magnetic field the induced currents, in good conductors, particularly copper and
aluminium, exhibit diamagnetic-like repulsion effects on the magnetic field, and hence on the magnet and can
create repulsive effects and even stable levitation, albeit with reasonably high power dissipation due to the high
currents this entails.

They can thus be used to induce a magnetic field in aluminum cans, which allows them to be separated easily
from other recyclables.

Mechanical

Eddy currents are used for braking at the end of some roller coasters. This mechanism has no mechanical wear
and produces a very precise braking force. Typically, heavy copper plates extending from the car are moved
between pairs of very strong permanent magnets. Electrical resistance within the plates causes a dragging effect
analogous to friction, which dissipates the kinetic energy of the car.

Structural Testing

Eddy current techniques are commonly used for the nondestructive examination (NDE) and condition
monitoring of a large variety of metallic structures, including heat exchanger tubes, aircraft fuselage, and
aircraft structural components.

A new Eddy Currents technique for nondestructive testing was developed by Dr. Abdollah Abtahi using Fourier
transform method in 1981 * to calculate small flaws detection in large area much faster than any other
techniques. This method predicts very accurate results for small flaws in large area. The method can be applied
for testing any flaws in airplane body or large satellite dishes. This research was supported with a grant by
EPRII,
Side Effects

Eddy currents are the root cause of the skin effect in conductors carrying AC current.

ELECTRICITY - A Secondary Energy Source

A SECONDARY SOURCE

Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source which means that we get it
from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural
sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or
non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable or non-renewable.

Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. Many cities and towns
were built alongside waterfalls (a primary source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform
work. Before electricity generation began over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was
cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Beginning with Benjamin
Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in Philadelphia, the principles of electricity gradually
became understood. Thomas Edison helped change everyone's life -- he perfected his invention -- the electric
light bulb. Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the
late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity,
which can be transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used electricity to
bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines.

Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think what life would be like without
electricity. Yet like air and water, we tend to take electricity for granted. Everyday, we use electricity to do many
jobs for us -- from lighting and heating/cooling our homes, to powering our televisions and computers.
Electricity is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the applications of heat, light and power.

THE SCIENCE OF ELECTRICITY developed by the National Energy Education Development Project

In order to understand how electric charge moves from one atom to another, we need to know something about
atoms. Everything in the universe is made of atoms—every star, every tree, every animal. The human body is
made of atoms. Air and water are, too. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe. Atoms are so small that
millions of them would fit on the head of a pin.

Atoms are made of even smaller particles. The center of an atom is called the nucleus. It is made of particles
called protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are very small, but electrons are much, much smaller.
Electrons spin around the nucleus in shells a great distance from the nucleus. If the nucleus were the size of a
tennis ball, the atom would be the size of the Empire State Building. Atoms are mostly empty space.
If you could see an atom, it would look a little like a tiny center of balls surrounded by giant invisible bubbles
(or shells). The electrons would be on the surface of the bubbles, constantly spinning and moving to stay as far
away from each other as possible. Electrons are held in their shells by an electrical force.

The protons and electrons of an atom are attracted to each other. They both carry an electrical charge. An
electrical charge is a force within the particle. Protons have a positive charge (+) and electrons have a negative
charge (-). The positive charge of the protons is equal to the negative charge of the electrons. Opposite charges
attract each other. When an atom is in balance, it has an equal number of protons and electrons. The neutrons
carry no charge and their number can vary.

The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of atom, or element, it is. An element is a substance in
which all of the atoms are identical (the Periodic Table shows all the known elements). Every atom of hydrogen,
for example, has one proton and one electron, with no neutrons. Every atom of carbon has six protons, six
electrons, and six neutrons. The number of protons determines which element it is.

Electrons usually remain a constant distance from the nucleus in precise shells. The shell closest to the nucleus
can hold two electrons. The next shell can hold up to eight. The outer shells cans hold even more. Some atoms
with many protons can have as many as seven shells with electrons in them.

The electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the protons. Sometimes, the
electrons in the outermost shells do not. These electrons can be pushed out of their orbits. Applying a force can
make them move from one atom to another. These moving electrons are electricity.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electricity has been moving in the world forever. Lightning is a form of electricity. It is electrons moving from
one cloud to another or jumping from a cloud to the ground. Have you ever felt a shock when you touched an
object after walking across a carpet? A stream of electrons jumped to you from that object. This is called static
electricity.

Have you ever made your hair stand straight up by rubbing a balloon on it? If so, you rubbed some electrons off
the balloon. The electrons moved into your hair from the balloon. They tried to get far away from each other by
moving to the ends of your hair.

They pushed against each other and made your hair move—they repelled each other. Just as opposite charges
attract each other, like charges repel each other.
MAGNETS AND ELECTRICITY
The spinning of the electrons around the nucleus of an atom creates a tiny magnetic field. Most objects are not
magnetic because the atoms are arranged so that the electrons spin in different, random directions, and cancel
out each other.

Magnets are different; the molecules in magnets are arranged so that the electrons spin in the same direction.
This arrangement of atoms creates two poles in a magnet, a North-seeking pole and a South-seeking pole.

Bar Magnet

A magnet is labeled with North (N) and South (S) poles. The magnetic force in a magnet flows from the North
pole to the South pole. This creates a magnetic field around a magnet.

Have you ever held two magnets close to each other? They don’t act like most objects. If you try to push the
South poles together, they repel each other. Two North poles also repel each other.

Turn one magnet around and the North (N) and the South (S) poles are attracted to each other. The magnets
come together with a strong force. Just like protons and electrons, opposites attract.

These special properties of magnets can be used to make electricity. Moving magnetic fields can pull and push
electrons. Some metals, like copper have electrons that are loosely held. They can be pushed from their shells
by moving magnets. Magnets and wire are used together in electric generators.
BATTERIES PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
A battery produces electricity using two different metals in a
chemical solution. A chemical reaction between the metals and
the chemicals frees more electrons in one metal than in the other.
One end of the battery is attached to one of the metals; the other
end is attached to the other metal. The end that frees more
electrons develops a positive charge and the other end develops a
negative charge. If a wire is attached from one end of the battery
to the other, electrons flow through the wire to balance the
electrical charge. A load is a device that does work or performs a
job. If a load––such as a lightbulb––is placed along the wire, the
electricity can do work as it flows through the wire. In the picture
above, electrons flow from the negative end of the battery
through the wire to the lightbulb. The electricity flows through
the wire in the lightbulb and back to the battery.

ELECTRICITY TRAVELS IN CIRCUITS

Electricity travels in closed loops, or circuits (from the word circle). It must have a complete path before the
electrons can move. If a circuit is open, the electrons cannot flow. When we flip on a light switch, we close a
circuit. The electricity flows from the electric wire through the light and back into the wire. When we flip the
switch off, we open the circuit. No electricity flows to the light. When we turn a light switch on, electricity
flows through a tiny wire in the bulb. The wire gets very hot. It makes the gas in the bulb glow. When the bulb
burns out, the tiny wire has broken. The path through the bulb is gone. When we turn on the TV, electricity
flows through wires inside the set, producing pictures and sound. Sometimes electricity runs motors—in
washers or mixers. Electricity does a lot of work for us. We use it many times each day.

HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED

A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity. In
1831, Faraday discovered that when a magnet is moved inside a coil of wire,
electrical current flows in the wire.

A typical generator at a power plant uses an electromagnet—a magnet produced

by electricity—not a traditional magnet. The generator has a series of insulated
coils of wire that form a stationary cylinder. This cylinder surrounds a rotary electromagnetic shaft. When the
electromagnetic shaft rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section of the wire coil. Each section of
the wire becomes a small, separate electric conductor. The small currents of individual sections are added
together to form one large current. This current is the electric power that is transmitted from the power company
to the consumer.

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or other similar machine to drive an
electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or chemical energy to generate electricity. Steam
turbines, internal-combustion engines, gas combustion turbines, water turbines, and wind turbines are the most
common methods to generate electricity. Most power plants are about 35 percent efficient. That means that for
every 100 units of energy that go into a plant, only 35 units are converted to usable electrical energy.

Most of the electricity in the United States is produced in steam turbines. A turbine converts the kinetic energy
of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) to mechanical energy. Steam turbines have a series of blades mounted on a
shaft against which steam is forced, thus rotating the shaft connected to the generator. In a fossil-fueled steam
turbine, the fuel is burned in a furnace to heat water in a boiler to produce steam. Coal, petroleum (oil), and
natural gas are burned in large furnaces to heat water to make steam that in turn pushes on the blades of a
turbine.

Did you know that most electricity generated in the United State comes from burning coal? In 2006, nearly half
(49%) of the country's 4.1 trillion kilowatthours of electricity used coal as its source of energy.

Natural gas, in addition to being burned to heat water for steam, can also be burned to produce hot combustion
gases that pass directly through a turbine, spinning the blades of the turbine to generate electricity. Gas turbines
are commonly used when electricity utility usage is in high demand. In 2006, 20% of the nation's electricity was
fueled by natural gas.

Petroleum can also be used to make steam to turn a turbine. Residual fuel oil, a product refined from crude oil,
is often the petroleum product used in electric plants that use petroleum to make steam. Petroleum was used to
generate about two percent (2%) of all electricity generated in U.S. electricity plants in 2006.

Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating water through a process called nuclear
fission. In a nuclear power plant, a reactor contains a core of nuclear fuel, primarily enriched uranium. When
atoms of uranium fuel are hit by neutrons they fission (split), releasing heat and more neutrons. Under
controlled conditions, these other neutrons can strike more uranium atoms, splitting more atoms, and so on.
Thereby, continuous fission can take place, forming a chain reaction releasing heat. The heat is used to turn
water into steam, that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates electricity. Nuclear power was used to generate
19% of all the country's electricity in 2006.

Hydropower, the source for almost 7% of U.S. electricity generation in 2006, is a process in which flowing
water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There are two basic types of hydroelectric systems that
produce electricity. In the first system, flowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use of dams. The
water falls through a pipe called a penstock and applies pressure against the turbine blades to drive the generator
to produce electricity. In the second system, called run-of-river, the force of the river current (rather than falling
water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce electricity.

Geothermal power comes from heat energy buried beneath the surface of the earth. In some areas of the
country, enough heat rises close to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into steam, which can be
tapped for use at steam-turbine plants. This energy source generated less than 1% of the electricity in the
country in 2006.
Solar power is derived from the energy of the sun. However, the sun's energy is not available full-time and it is
widely scattered. The processes used to produce electricity using the sun's energy have historically been more
expensive than using conventional fossil fuels. Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power directly from
the light of the sun in a photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal electric generators use the radiant energy from
the sun to produce steam to drive turbines. In 2006, less than 1% of the nation's electricity was based on solar
power.

Wind power is derived from the conversion of the energy contained in wind into electricity. Wind power, less
than 1% of the nation's electricity in 2006, is a rapidly growing source of electricity. A wind turbine is similar to
a typical wind mill.

Biomass includes wood, municipal solid waste (garbage), and agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and wheat
straw. These are some other energy sources for producing electricity. These sources replace fossil fuels in the
boiler. The combustion of wood and waste creates steam that is typically used in conventional steam-electric
plants. Biomass accounts for about 1% of the electricity generated in the United States.

THE TRANSFORMER - MOVING ELECTRICITY

To solve the problem of sending electricity over long distances,

William Stanley developed a device called a transformer. The
transformer allowed electricity to be efficiently transmitted over
long distances. This made it possible to supply electricity to homes
and businesses located far from the electric generating plant.

The electricity produced by a generator travels along cables to a

transformer, which changes electricity from low voltage to high voltage. Electricity can be moved long
distances more efficiently using high voltage. Transmission lines are used to carry the electricity to a substation.
Substations have transformers that change the high voltage electricity into lower voltage electricity. From the
substation, distribution lines carry the electricity to homes, offices and factories, which require low voltage
electricity.

MEASURING ELECTRICITY

Electricity is measured in units of power called watts. It was named to honor James Watt, the inventor of the
steam engine. One watt is a very small amount of power. It would require nearly 750 watts to equal one
horsepower. A kilowatt represents 1,000 watts. A kilowatthour (kWh) is equal to the energy of 1,000 watts
working for one hour. The amount of electricity a power plant generates or a customer uses over a period of
time is measured in kilowatthours (kWh). Kilowatthours are determined by multiplying the number of kW's
required by the number of hours of use. For example, if you use a 40-watt light bulb 5 hours a day, you have
used 200 watthours, or 0.2 kilowatthours, of electrical energy. See our Energy Calculator section to learn more
about converting units.
 Transformer formulas

1. Voltage and Current: Primary (p) secondary (s)

Power(p) = power (s) or Ep x Ip = Es x Is

Es x Is Es x Is
A. Ep = B. Ip =
Ip Ep

Ep x Ip Ep x Ip
C. Is = D. Es =
Es Is

2. Voltage and Turns in Coil:

Voltage (p) x Turns (s) = Voltage (s) x Turns (p)
or Ep x Ts = Es x Ip

Es x Ip Es x Tp
A. Ep = B. Ts =
Ts Ep

Ep x Ts Ep x Ts
C. Tp = D. Es =
Es Tp

3. Amperes and Turns in Coil:

Amperes (p) x Turns (p) = Amperes (s) x Turns (s)
or Ip x Tp = Is x Ts

Is x Ts Is x Ts
A. Ip = B. Tp =
Tp Ip

Ip x Tp Ip x Tp
C. Ts = D. Is =
Is Ts