Phase relationship diagram:

In a mass of soil, there are three physical components: solid, water, and air. A
phase relationship diagram is normally used to represent the relationship as
follows:

Definitions:

Volume: (ft3, m3)

 Vt: Total volume

 Vs: Volume of solid
 Vv: Volume of void
 Vw: volume of water
 Va: Volume of air

Weights: (lbs, kg, kN)

 Wt: total weight

 Ws: weight of solid
 Ww: weight of water
 Weight of air = 0

Phase Relationships:
Volume-volume relationship:

 Void ratio (no unit):

 Porosity (no unit):

 Degree of saturation (%):

 air content:

Weight-weight relationship:

 Water (Moisture) content (%):

Moisture content at fully saturation is not 100%!

100% moisture content means the weight is equally divided into water and solid
or in other words the weight of soil particles is equal to the weight of water.
See: Solution of The Value of The Moisture When Fully Saturated

Weight-Volume relationship:

(Unit weight or density, lbs/ft3, g/cm3, kN/m3)

 Moisture (total) unit weight:

 Dry unit weight:

 Solid unit weight:

 Saturated unit weight (when soil is completely saturated, S = 100%,Va=0):
  Submerged (buoyant) unit weight (when soil is below ground water table,
S = 100%):

Following relations are very handy in solving problems:

Unit weight to unit weight relationship

  Specific gravity:
 (Unit weight of water = 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 1 g/cm3 = 9.8 kN/m3)
 Average value of Gs for granular soils is 2.65, while the average value of
Gs for cohesive soils is 2.80.

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Solved sample problems of Soil Phase Relationships:

 Solution of Unit Weight and Its Conversion from Metric Units to SI and
US Units
 Solution of Soil Compaction Check Via The Voids Ratio
 Solution of The Value of The Moisture When Fully Saturated

Example 1: Determine unit weights, water content, based on known volume

and weight (English units)

Given: (English units)

 Volume of soil mass: 1 ft3.

 Weight of soil mass at moist condition: 100 lbs
 Weight of soil after dried in oven: 80 lbs

Requirements:

Determine moist unit weight of soil, dry unit weight of soil, and water content.
Problem solving technique:

1. Moist unit weight gt= Wt / Vt (Wt = 100 lbs, Vt=1 ft3, are given)
2. Dry unit weight, gd = Ws / Vt (Weight of solid is weight of soil after dried
in oven ,Ws = 80 lbs, Vt=1 ft3, are given)
3. Water content, w (%) = Ww/Ws (Ws = 80 lbs , weight of water, W w not
known)
4. Find weight of water, from phase relationship diagram, Ww = Wt – Ws.

Solution:

1. Moist (total) unit weight, gt = Wt / Vt = 100/1 = 100 pcf (lbs/ft3)

2. Dry unit weight, gd = Ws / Vt = 80/1= 80 pcf (lbs/ft3).
3. Weight of water = 100-80=20 lbs
4. Water (Moisture) content: w (%) = Ww/Ws ´ 100 (%) = 20/80x100% = 25%

Example 2: Determine unit weights, water content, based on known volume

and weight (SI units)

Given: (SI units)

 Volume of soil mass: 0.0283 m3.

  Weight of soil mass at moist condition: 45.5 kg
 Weight of soil after dry in oven: 36.4 kg

Problem solving technique:

1. Moist unit weight gt = Wt / Vt (both value are given)

2. Dry unit weight, gd = Ws / Vt (both value are given)
3. Water content, w (%) = Ww/Ws (Weight of solid is weight of soil after
dried in oven is given, weight of water not known)
4. Find weight of water, from phase relationship diagram, Ww = Wt – Ws.

Requirements:

Determine moist unit weight of soil, dry unit weight of soil, and water content.

Solution:

1. Moisture (total) unit weight, gt = Wt / Vt = 45.5/0.0283 = 1608 kg/m3 =

1.608 g/cm3
2. Dry unit weight, gd = Ws / Vt = 36.4/0.0283= 1286 kg/m3=1.286 g/cm3
3. Weight of water = 45.5-36.4=9.1 lbs
4. Water (Moisture) content: w (%) = Ww/Ws ´ 100 (%) = 9.1/36.4x100% =
25%
Example 3: Determine void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation based
on known volume, weight, and specific gravity (English units)

Given: (English units)

 Volume of soil mass: 1 ft3.

 Weight of soil mass at moist condition: 125 lbs
 Weight of soil after dry in oven: 100 lbs
 Specific gravity of solid = 2.65

Requirements:

Determine void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation

Problem solving technique:

1. Void ratio, e = Vv/Vs (Vv, Vs, not given)

2. Find Vs = Ws/gs (Ws = 100 lbs, gs is not given)
3. Find gs = Gsgw (Gs is given, gw =62.4 lbs/ft3 is a know value)
4. Find Vv = 1-Vs (e can be calculated)
5. Porosity, n = Vv/Vt (Vv from step 4, Vs from step 2)
6. Degree of saturation, S = Vw/Vv (Vv from step 4, need to find Vw)
7. Vw =Ww/gw (Ww, not given, gw=62.4 lbs/ft3)
8. Find Ww = Wt – Ws (Both Wt, Ww are given)

Solution:

1. Solid unit weight, gs = Gsgw=2.65*62.4=165.4 lbs/ft3

2. Volume of solid, Vs = Ws/gs = 100/165.4=0.6 ft3
3. Volume of void = Vt – Vs = 1 –0.6=0.4 ft3
4. Void ratio, e = Vv/Vs = 0.4/0.6=0.66
5. Porosity, n = Vv/Vt = 0.4/1 = 0.4
6. Weight of water = 125-100=25 lbs
7. Volume of water, Vw = Ww/gw = 25/62.4=0.4 ft3
8. Degree of saturation, S = Vw/Vv = 0.4/0.4x100% = 100%.
Example 4: Determine void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation based
on known volume, weight, and specific gravity (English units)

Given: (metric units)

 Volume of soil mass: 0.0283 m3.

 Weight of soil mass at moist condition: 56.6 kg
 Weight of soil after dry in oven: 45.5 kg
 Specific gravity of solid = 2.65

Requirements:

Determine void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation

Problem solving technique:

1. Void ratio, e = Vv/Vs (Vv, Vs, not given)

2. Find Vs = Ws/gs (Ws = 45.5 kg, gs is not given)
3. Find gs = Gsgw (Gs is given, gw =1 g/cm3 is a know value)
4. Find Vv = 1-Vs (e can be calculated)
 5. Porosity, n = Vv/Vt (Vv from step 4, Vs from step 2)
6. Degree of saturation, S = Vw/Vv (Vv from step 4, need to find Vw)
7. Vw =Ww/gw (Ww, not given, gw=62.4 lbs/ft3)
8. Find Ww = Wt – Ws (Wt = 56.6 kg, Ws = 45.5 kg are given)

Solution:

1. Solid unit weight, gs = Gsgw=2.65*1=2.65 g/cm3 = 2650 kg/m3

2. Volume of solid, Vs = Ws/gs = 45.5/2650=0.0171 m3
3. Volume of void = Vt – Vs = 0.0283 –0.0171=0.0112 m3
4. Void ratio, e = Vv/Vs = 0.0112/0.0171=0.65
5. Porosity, n = Vv/Vt = 0.0111/0.0283 = 0.39
6. Weight of water = 56.6-45.5=11.1 kg
7. Volume of water, Vw = Ww/gw = 11.1 kg/1 g/cm3= 11100 cm3= 0.0111m3
8. Degree of saturation, S = Vw/Vv = 0.0111/0.0111x100% = 100%.

Question:

A contractor has compacted the base course for a new road and found that the
mean value of the test samples shows w = 14.6%, Gs = 2.81, and γ = 18.2
kN/m3. The specifications require that e < 0.80. Has the contractor complied
with the specifications?
Solution:

For formulas of soil phase relationships read Soil Phase Relationships article.

Thus

Yes, the contractor has complied.

Question:

A cohesive soil sample was taken from an SPT and returned to the laboratory
in a glass jar. It was found to weigh 140.5 grams. The sample was then placed
in a container of V = 500 cm3 and 423 cm3 of water were added to fill the
container. From these data, what was the unit weight of the soil in kN/m 3 and
pcf?

Solution:

For formulas of soil phase relationships read Soil Phase Relationships article.

Notice that the 140.5 grams is a mass. Therefore, the ratio of mass to volume
is the density rho
for conversion from SI units to US units:

Question:

1) Show that at saturation the moisture (water) content is

2) Show that at saturation the moisture (water) content is

Solution:

For formulas of soil phase relationships read Soil Phase Relationships article.

(1) In a fully saturated soil the relation, Se=wGs becomes simply

e=wGs because S = 1

but

rearranging

or

therefore
(2) Again, in a fully saturated soil:

Thus

or

In Civil Engineering and more specifically Geotechnical Engineering there are

many instances where the values of engineering parameters are cannot be
obtained from the testings. Thus, typical values of these parameters will be
used. In this article typical values and useful relationships of many important
engineering parameters used in Civil Engineering and Geotechnical
Engineering are given.

See the full table of typical values of cohesive intercept "C" of soils here

See the full table of typical values of friction angle "φ" of soils here

Temperature

C / 100 = (F - 32) / 180 = (K - 273) / 100 = (R - 492) / 180

where
C = Celsius degree
F = Fahrenheit degree
K = Kelvin degree
R = Rankine scale
Water Pressure Gradient

0.1 kgf/cm2 / m = 0.433 psi/ft = 0.42 psi/m = 9.81 kPa/m

Acceleration of Gravity at Sea Level

9.806 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2

Typical Values of Mass Density of Water

1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 kg/dm3 = 1.0 g/cm3 = 62.4 pcf = 8.34 lb/gal = 350 lb/bbl

Typical Values of Mass Density/Unit Weight of Soils

Sands: 115 ~ 135 pcf ( 18 ~ 21 kN/m3 up to 22 kN/m3 with some gravel content)

Clays: 90 ~ 120 pcf (14 ~ 19 kN/m3)

Typical Values of Void Ratios of Sands

emin = 0.38 ~ 0.5

emax = 0.75 ~ 1.0

Degree of Compaction versus Relative Density of Sands

DR (%) Qualitative assessment of degree of compactness

0 - 15 Very Loose
15 - 35 Loose
35 - 65 Medium
 DR (%) Qualitative assessment of degree of compactness
65 - 85 Dense
85 - 100 Very Dense

Typical Values of Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

K0,NC = 0.38 ~ 0.5 in sands

K0,NC = 0.5 ~ 0.75 in clays

Typical Values of Void Ratios of Clays

From e = 2 (extremely soft, weak clays) to e = 0.7 (very stiff clays). There are
extreme examples of softer clays (with e as high as 5) and stiffer clays.

Typical Values of Critical-State Friction Angle

Silica sands: 28 ~ 36

Clays: 15 ~ 30

Typical Values of Residual Friction-Angle in Clays

As low as 5-7 degrees for smectites. For low confining stress levels and/or large
sand content it can be as high as critical-state friction angle.

Typical Values of Poisson's Ratio

Drained: v = 0.1 ~ 0.3

Undrained: v = 0.5
Typical Values of Atterberg Indices

LL = Liquid Limit = 30% ~ 160% for clays

PL = Plastic Limit = 20% ~ 50%

Typical Values of Recompression Index/Compression Index Ratio of Clays

Cs/Cc = 0.1 ~ 0.2

Typical Values of Coefficient of Consolidation for Clays

cv = 10-8 to 5 x 10-7 m2/s

Typical Values of Coefficient of Secondary Compression for Shale,

Mudstone, Clay, and Peat

Ca/Cc = 0.02 ~ 0.07 (lower values for shale and mudstone; higher values for
peat)

Typical Values of Hydraulic Conductivity of Soils

Soil K
Gravel 10-3 to 1 m/s
Sand 10-7 to 10-2 m/s
Silt 10-9 to 10-5 m/s
Clay 10-13 to 10-9 ms

Cohesion Intercept of Soils + Typical Values

Courses > Soil Mechanics > Physical Properties of Soil > Cohesion Intercept of
Soils + Typical Values

Introduction on Cohesion Intercept of Soils + Typical Values :

The cohesion intercept is a term used in describing the shear strength soils. Its
definition is mainly derived from the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and it is
used to describe the non-frictional part of the shear resistance which is
independent of the normal stress. In the stress plane of Shear stress-effective
normal stress, the soil cohesion is the intercept on the shear axis of the Mohr-
Coulomb shear resistance line.

Concepts and Formulas of Cohesion Intercept of Soils +

Typical Values:

Difference between Cohesive and Granular soil

"Granular soil" means gravel, sand, or silt (coarse-grained soil) with little or no
clay content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some moist
granular soils exhibit apparent cohesion. Granular soil cannot be molded when
moist and crumbles easily when dry.

"Cohesive soil" means clay (fine-grained soil), or soil with a high clay content,
which has cohesive strength. Cohesive soil does not crumble, can be excavated
with vertical sideslopes, and is plastic when moist. Cohesive soil is hard to
break up when dry, and exhibits significant cohesion when submerged.
Cohesive soils include clayey silt, sandy clay, silty clay, clay and organic clay.

Typical values of soil cohesion "C" for different soils

Some typical values of soil cohesion are given below for different soil types.
The soil cohesion depends strongly on the consistence, packing, and saturation
condition. The values given below correspond to normally consolidated
condition unless otherwise stated. These values should be used only as a
guideline for geotechnical problems; however, specific condition of each
engineering problem often needs to be considered for an appropriate choice of
geotechnical parameters.

Cohesion [kPa]
Description USCS Specific Reference
min max
value
Well graded gravel, sandy gravel,
GW - - 0 [1],[2],[3],
with little or no fines
Poorly graded gravel, sandy gravel, [1],[2],
GP - - 0
with little or no fines [3],
Silty gravels, silty sandy gravels GM - - 0 [1],
Clayey gravels, clayey sandy
GC - - 20 [1],
gravels
Well graded sands, gravelly sands, [1],[2],
SW - - 0
with little or no fines [3],
Poorly graded sands, gravelly [1],[2],
SP - - 0
sands, with little or no fines [3],
Silty sands SM - - 22 [1],
Silty sands - Saturated compacted SM - - 50 [3],
Silty sands - Compacted SM - - 20 [3],
Clayey sands SC - - 5 [1],
Clayey sands - Compacted SC - - 74 [3],
Clayey sands -Saturated compacted SC - - 11 [3],
Loamy sand, sandy clay Loam -
SM, SC 50 75 [2],
compacted
Loamy sand, sandy clay Loam -
SM, SC 10 20 [2],
saturated
Sand silt clay with slightly plastic
SM, SC - - 50 [3],
fines - compacted
Sand silt clay with slightly plastic
SM, SC - - 14 [3],
fines - saturated compacted
Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine
ML - - 7 [1],
sands, with slight plasticity
Inorganic silts and clayey silts -
ML - - 67 [3],
compacted
Inorganic silts and clayey silts -
ML - - 9 [3],
saturated compacted
Inorganic clays, silty clays, sandy
CL - - 4 [1],
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic clays, silty clays, sandy
CL - - 86 [3],
clays of low plasticity - compacted
Inorganic clays, silty clays, sandy
clays of low plasticity - saturated CL - - 13 [3],
compacted
Mixture if inorganic silt and clay -
ML-CL - - 65 [3],
compacted
Mixture if inorganic silt and clay -
ML-CL - - 22 [3],
saturated compacted
Organic silts and organic silty clays
OL - - 5 [1],
of low plasticity
Inorganic silts of high plasticity -
MH - - 10 [1],
compactd
Inorganic silts of high plasticity -
MH - - 72 [3],
saturated compacted
Inorganic silts of high plasticity MH - - 20 [3],
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH - - 25 [1],
Inorganic clays of high plasticity -
CH - - 103 [3],
compacted
Inorganic clays of high plasticity -
CH - - 11 [3],
satrated compacted
Organic clays of high plasticity OH - - 10 [1],
ML, OL, MH,
Loam - Compacted 60 90 [2],
OH
 ML, OL, MH,
Loam - Saturated 10 20 [2],
OH
ML, OL, MH,
Silt Loam - Compacted 60 90 [2],
OH
ML, OL, MH,
Silt Loam - Saturated 10 20 [2],
OH
Clay Loam, Silty Clay Loam - ML, OL, CL,
60 105 [2],
Compaced MH, OH, CH
Clay Loam, Silty Clay Loam - ML, OL, CL,
10 20 [2],
Saturated MH, OH, CH
OL, CL, OH,
Silty clay, clay - compacted 90 105 [2],
CH
OL, CL, OH,
Silty clay, clay - saturated 10 20 [2],
CH
Peat and other highly organic soils Pt - -

REFERENCES

1. Swiss Standard SN 670 010b, Characteristic Coefficients of soils,

Association of Swiss Road and Traffic Engineers
2. Minnesota Department of Transportation, Pavement Design, 2007
3. NAVFAC Design Manual 7.2 - Foundations and Earth Structures, SN
0525-LP-300-7071, REVALIDATED BY CHANGE 1 SEPTEMBER 1986

What is Geotechnical Engineering? Subtopics, Salaries,

Books, Journals, ...
Articles > What is Geotechnical Engineering? Subtopics, Salaries,
Books, Journals, ...
Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is important
in civil engineering, but also has applications in military, mining, petroleum and
other engineering disciplines that are concerned with construction occurring on
the surface or within the ground. See the full list of civil engineering branches.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs

to define the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation
of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of
interest to determine their engineering properties including how they will interact
with, on or in a proposed construction. Site investigations are needed to gain
an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place.
Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and
the environment from natural hazards such
as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris
flows and rockfalls.

Practicing engineers:

Geotechnical engineers are typically graduates of a four-year civil engineering

program and some hold a masters degree and/or PhD. In the USA,
geotechnical engineers are typically licensed and regulated as Professional
Engineers (PEs) in most states; currently only California and Oregon have
licensed geotechnical engineering specialties. The Academy of Geo-
Professionals (AGP) began issuing Diplomate, Geotechnical Engineering
(D.GE) certification in 2008. State governments will typically license engineers
who have graduated from an ABET accredited school, passed the
"Fundamentals of Engineering" examination (FE), completed several years of
work experience under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer, and
passed the Professional Engineering examination (PE).

Average geotechnical engineering salary:

Based on an investigation on 468 salaries, median pay for Geotechnical

Engineers in the United States is around $65,000 annually (2017). Minimum:
$55,000; Maximum: $92,000. (Low is the 10th percentile and High is the 90th
percentile.)

Geotechnical engineering subtopics:

1. Soil mechanics
Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and engineering
mechanics that describes the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid
mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a
heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles
(usually clay, silt, sand, and gravel) but soil may also contain organic
solids and other matter.
2. Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical
investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and
rock underlying (and sometimes adjacent to) a site to design earthworks
and foundations for proposed structures, and for repair of distress to
earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions.
3. Foundations
A building's foundation transmits loads from buildings and other
structures to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based
on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils
and/or bedrock at the site.
4. Lateral earth support structures
A retaining wall is a structure that holds back earth. Retaining walls
stabilize soil and rock from downslope movement or erosion and provide
support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes. Cofferdams and
bulkheads, structures to hold back water, are sometimes also considered
retaining walls.
5. Earthworks
Earthworks include excavation, filling, and compaction.
 6. Ground Improvement
Ground Improvement is a technique that improves the engineering
properties of the treated soil mass. Usually, the properties modified are
shear strength, stiffness and permeability. Ground improvement has
developed into a sophisticated tool to support foundations for a wide
variety of structures. Properly applied, i.e. after giving due consideration
to the nature of the ground being improved and the type and sensitivity of
the structures being built, ground improvement often reduces direct costs
and saves time.
7. Slope stabilization
Slope stability is the potential of soil covered slopes to withstand and
undergo movement. Stability is determined by the balance of shear
stress and shear strength.
8. Offshore geotechnical engineering
Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with
foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from
the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore).
9. Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical
engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs.

Most commonly used software in geotechnical engineering:

 Plaxis 2D & 3D - finite element based

 FLAC 2D & 3D - finite difference based
 Abaqus - finite element based
 CSI SAFE - finite element based, commonly used for shallow foundation
design
Most famous geotechnical engineering books:

 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Braja M. Das

 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Braja M. Das
 Foundation analysis and design, Joseph E. Bowles
 Soil mechanics in engineering practice, Karl Terzaghi
 Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Steven L. Kramer

Most famous (highest impact factor) geotechnical engineering journals:

The followings are almost the best geotehnical engineering journals, this list
does not include all journals

 Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering - ASCE

 International Journal of Geomechanics - ASCE
 Geotechnique
 Geotextiles and Geomembranes
 Canadian Geotechnical Journal
 Computers and Geotechnics
 International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
Geomechanics
 Introduction on Effects of Water on Slope Stability :
 Very soft, saturated foundation soils or ground water generally play a
prominent role in geotechnical failures in general. They are certainly
major factors in cut slope stability and in the stability of fill slopes involving
both “internal” and “external” slope failures. The effect of water on cut and
fill slope stability is briefly discussed below.



 Concepts and Formulas of Effects of Water on Slope

Stability:

 Importance of Water:
 Next to gravity, water is the most important factor in slope stability. The
effect of gravity is known, therefore, water is the key factor in assessing
slope stability.

 Effect of Water on Cohesionless Soils:
 In cohesionless soils, water does not affect the angle of internal friction
(φ). The effect of water on cohesionless soils below the water table is to
decrease the intergranular (effective) stress between soil grains (σ'n),
which decreases the frictional shearing resistance (τ').

 Effect of Water on Cohesive Soils:
 Routine seasonal fluctuations in the ground water table do not usually
influence either the amount of water in the pore spaces between soil
grains or the cohesion. The attractive forces between soil particles
prevent water absorption unless external forces such as pile driving,
disrupt the grain structure. However, certain clay minerals do react to the
presence of water and cause volume changes of the clay mass.
 An increase in absorbed moisture is a major factor in the decrease in
strength of cohesive soils as shown schematically in Figure below. Water
absorbed by clay minerals causes increased water contents that
decrease the cohesion of clayey soils. These effects are amplified if the
clay mineral happens to be expansive, e.g., montmorillonite.



 Fills on Clays:
 Excess pore water pressures are created when fills are placed on clay or
silt. Provided the applied loads do not cause the undrained shear strength
of the clay or silt to be exceeded, as the excess pore water pressure
dissipates consolidation occurs, and the shear strength of the clay or silt
increases with time. For this reason, the factor of safety increases with
time under the load of the fill.

 Cuts in Clay:
 As a cut is made in clay the effective stress is reduced. This reduction will
allow the clay to expand and absorb water, which will lead to a decrease
in the clay strength with time. For this reason, the factor of safety of a cut
 slope in clay may decrease with time. Cut slopes in clay should be
designed by using effective strength parameters and the effective
stresses that will exist in the soil after the cut is made.

 Slaking - Shales, Claystones, Siltstones, etc.:
 Sudden moisture increase in weak rocks can produce a pore pressure
increase in trapped pore air accompanied by local expansion and
strength decrease. The "slaking" or sudden disintegration of hard shales,
claystones, and siltstones results from this mechanism. If placed as rock
fill, these materials will tend to disintegrate into a clay soil if water is
allowed to percolate through the fill. This transformation from rock to clay
often leads to settlement and/or shear failure of the fill.

Friction Angle of Soils + Typical Values

Courses > Soil Mechanics > Physical Properties of Soil > Friction Angle of Soils
+ Typical Values

Introduction on Friction Angle of Soils + Typical Values :

Soil friction angle is a shear strength parameter of soils. Its definition is derived
from the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and is used to describe the friction
shear resistance of soils together with the normal effective stress.

In the stress plane of Shear stress-effective normal stress, the soil friction angle
is the angle of inclination with respect to the horizontal axis of the Mohr-
Coulomb shear resistance line.

Concepts and Formulas of Friction Angle of Soils + Typical

Values:

Difference between Cohesive and Granular soil

"Granular soil" means gravel, sand, or silt (coarse-grained soil) with little or no
clay content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some moist
granular soils exhibit apparent cohesion. Granular soil cannot be molded when
moist and crumbles easily when dry.

"Cohesive soil" means clay (fine-grained soil), or soil with a high clay content,
which has cohesive strength. Cohesive soil does not crumble, can be excavated
with vertical sideslopes, and is plastic when moist. Cohesive soil is hard to
break up when dry, and exhibits significant cohesion when submerged.
Cohesive soils include clayey silt, sandy clay, silty clay, clay and organic clay.

Typical values of soil friction angle for different soils according to USCS

Soil friction angle [°]

Description USCS Specific Reference
min max
value
Well graded gravel, sandy gravel,
GW 33 40 [1],[2],
with little or no fines
Poorly graded gravel, sandy
GP 32 44 [1],
gravel, with little or no fines
[3 cited in
Sandy gravels - Loose (GW, GP) 35
6]
[3 cited in
Sandy gravels - Dense (GW, GP) 50
6]
Silty gravels, silty sandy gravels GM 30 40 [1],
Clayey gravels, clayey sandy
GC 28 35 [1],
gravels
Well graded sands, gravelly
SW 33 43 [1],
sands, with little or no fines
Well-graded clean sand, gravelly [3 cited in
SW - - 38
sands - Compacted 6]
Well-graded sand, angular grains [3 cited in
(SW) 33
- Loose 6]
Well-graded sand, angular grains [3 cited in
(SW) 45
- Dense 6]
Poorly graded sands, gravelly
SP 30 39 [1], [2],
sands, with little or no fines
Poorly-garded clean sand - [3 cited in
SP - - 37
Compacted 6]
Uniform sand, round grains - [3 cited in
(SP) 27
Loose 6]
Uniform sand, round grains - [3 cited in
(SP) 34
Dense 6]
Sand SW, SP 37 38 [7],
[5 cited in
Loose sand (SW, SP) 29 30
6]
[5 cited in
Medium sand (SW, SP) 30 36
6]
[5 cited in
Dense sand (SW, SP) 36 41
6]
Silty sands SM 32 35 [1],
Silty clays, sand-silt mix - [3 cited in
SM - - 34
Compacted 6]
[3 cited in
Silty sand - Loose SM 27 33
6]
[3 cited in
Silty sand - Dense SM 30 34
6]
Clayey sands SC 30 40 [1],
Calyey sands, sandy-clay mix - [3 cited in
SC 31
compacted 6]
Loamy sand, sandy clay Loam SM, SC 31 34 [7],
Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine
ML 27 41 [1],
sands, with slight plasticity
[3 cited in
Inorganic silt - Loose ML 27 30
6]
[3 cited in
Inorganic silt - Dense ML 30 35
6]
Inorganic clays, silty clays, sandy
CL 27 35 [1],
clays of low plasticity
Clays of low plasticity - [3 cited in
CL 28
compacted 6]
Organic silts and organic silty
OL 22 32 [1],
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silts of high plasticity MH 23 33 [1],
[3 cited in
Clayey silts - compacted MH 25
6]
[3 cited in
Silts and clayey silts - compacted ML 32
6]
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH 17 31 [1],
Clays of high plasticity - [3 cited in
CH 19
compacted 6]
Organic clays of high plasticity OH 17 35 [1],
ML, OL, MH,
Loam 28 32 [7],
OH
ML, OL, MH,
Silt Loam 25 32 [7],
OH
ML, OL, CL,
Clay Loam, Silty Clay Loam 18 32 [7],
MH, OH, CH
OL, CL, OH,
Silty clay 18 32 [7],
CH
CL, CH, OH,
Clay 18 28 [7],
OL
Peat and other highly organic
Pt 0 10 [2],
soils

References:

1. Swiss Standard SN 670 010b, Characteristic Coefficients of soils,

Association of Swiss Road and Traffic Engineers
2. JON W. KOLOSKI, SIGMUND D. SCHWARZ, and DONALD W.
TUBBS, Geotechnical Properties of Geologic Materials, Engineering
Geology in Washington, Volume 1, Washington Division of Geology and
Earth Resources Bulletin 78, 1989, Link
 3. Carter, M. and Bentley, S. (1991). Correlations of soil properties.
Penetech Press Publishers, London.
4. Meyerhof, G. (1956). Penetration tests and bearing capacity of
cohesionless soils. J Soils Mechanics and Foundation Division ASCE,
82(SM1).
5. Peck, R., Hanson,W., and Thornburn, T. (1974). Foundation
Engineering Handbook. Wiley, London.
6. Obrzud R. & Truty, A.THE HARDENING SOIL MODEL - A PRACTICAL
GUIDEBOOK Z Soil.PC 100701 report, revised 31.01.2012
7. Minnesota Department of Transportation, Pavement Design, 2007

Correlation between SPT-N value, friction angle, and relative density

Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and Relative density
(Meyerhoff 1956)
SPT N3 Friction angle
Soi packing Relative Density [%]
[Blows/0.3 m - 1 ft] [°]
<4 Very loose < 20 < 30
4 -10 Loose 20 - 40 30 - 35
10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35 - 40
30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40 - 45
> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45

Which test gives a better estimation of friction angle?

Usually, the economics of the project dictates the type of test you would use for
determination of the friction angle. Nonetheless, the best test to determine the
friction angle of soil is the one that is more analogous to the problem at hand.
For example, if you are to determine bearing capacity of a square footing,
triaxial test is the best one.