308 SEISMIC DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCRETE STRUCTURES. ure, as well as with shear (ie., diagonal tension) and anchorage or bond failures. The main difference be- tween Appendix A and the main body of the ACI Code lies in the greater range of deformation, with yielding actually expected at critical locations, and hence the greater ductility required in designs for resistance to major earthquakes. The need for greater ductility fol- lows from the design philosophy that uses reduced forces in proportioning members and provides for the inelastic deformations that are expected under severe earthquakes by special ductility requirements ‘A provision unique to earthquake-resistant design of frames is the so-called strong-column, weak-beam re- quirement. As discussed in Section 9.3.4 under “Beam-Column Joints,” this requirement calls for the sum of the flexural strengths of columns meeting at a frame joint to be at least 1.2 times that of the beams ‘framing into the joint. This is intended to force yielding in such frames to occur in the beams rather than in the columns and thus preclude possible instability due to plastic hinges forming in the columns. As pointed out earlier, this requirement may not guarantee nondevelop- ‘ment of plastic hinges in the columns. The strong-col- umn, weak-beam requirement often results in column sizes that are larger than would otherwise be required, particularly in the upper floors of multistory buildings with appreciable beam spans, 1, Limitations on material strengths. CI Appen ‘A requires a minimum specified concrete strength fof 3000 Ib/in.? and a maximum specified yield strength of reinforcement, f,, of 60,000 Ib/in#. These limits are imposed with’ a View to restricting the unfavorable ef- fects that material properties beyond these limits can have on the sectional ductility of members. Appendix A requires that reinforcement for resisting flexure and axial forces in frame members and wall boundary ele- ments be ASTM 706 grade 60 low-alloy steel intended for applications where welding or bending, or both, are important. However, ASTM 615 billet steel bars of grade 40 or 60 may be used provided the following two conditions are satisfied: (acwal f,) < (specified f,) + 18,000 1b /in.? actual ultimate tensile stress actal f, > 125 ‘The first requirement helps to limit the increase in magnitude of the actual shears that can develop in a flexural member beyond that computed on the basis of the specified yield stress when plastic hinges form at the tends of a beam. The second requirement is intended to insure reinforcement with a sufficiently long yield plateau, In the “strong column-weak beam” frame intended bby the code, the relationship between the moment ca- pacities of columns and beams may be upset if the beams turn out to have much greater moment capacity than intended by the designer. Thus, the substitution of 60-ksi steel of the same area for specified 40-ksi steel in beams can be detrimental. The shear strength of beams and columns, which is generally based on the condition of plastic hinges forming (ie, M, acting) at the mem- ber ends, may become inadequate if the actual moment capacity at the member ends is greater than intended as 4 result of the steel having a substantially greater yield strength than specified. 2, Flexural members (beams). These include mem- bers having a clear span greater than four times the effective depth that are subject to a factored axial compressive force not exceeding A,,’/10, where A, is the gross cross-sectional area. Significant provisions relating to flexural members of structures in regions of high seismic risk are discussed below. (a) Limitations on section dimensions: width /depth > 0.3 > 10in. width) < width of supporting column +1.5 & (depth of beam) (b) Limitations on flexural reinforcement ratio (see also Figure 9-33): 200/f, Poin = ) two continuous bars at both top and bottom of member Pas = 0.025 (©) Moment capacity requirements: ‘At beam ends Mj> 00M, At any section in beam span My or My > 0.25(.M™ at beam ends) (@) Restrictions on lap splices: Lap splices shall not be used (1) within joints, ) within 2h from face of support, where his total depth of beam, (G) at locations of potential plastic hinging. Lap splices, where used, are to be confined by hoops ‘or spiral reinforcement with a maximum spacing or pitch of d/4 or 4 in. In addition to the above and the requirements found in Chapter 12 of ACI 318-83, SEAOC-86 specifies a minimum lap length of 24 bar diametersalee | ey \ CODE PROVISIONS FOR EARTHOUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 387 promt aa omens te Ton RTT Wr wh 9 HaRGTOO RA ral wa TE oo 1, Ame us 2521 2 (feoeiens 4, oen o contract in oe it brat ar Figure 9:33. Longius (©) Restrictions on welding of longitudinal reinforce- ‘ment: Welded splices and mechanical connectors ‘may be used provided: (1) they are used only on alternate bars in each layer at any section; (2) the distance between splices of adjacent bars is > 24in, It_is worth noting that both NEHRP-85 and SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) specifically prohibit the weld- ing of stirrups, ties, inserts, or other similar ele- ‘ments of longitudinal bars. Development length requirements for longitudinal bars in tension’ (1) For bar sizes 3 through 11 with @ standard 90° ‘hook (as shown in Figure 9-34) in normal-weight © Note: Hook must be ‘within confined core een Length, (fo aleve Siw att ‘>| 8, ts Bin (a, is bar ameter) Figure 9-34 Development length for beam bars with 90° hooks. fainforcement requirements for flexural members. ‘concrete, the development length (dy is bar diameter. @) When bars are embedded in_lightweight- ‘aggregate concrete, the development length is to be at least 1.25 times the values indicated above @) The 90° hook shall be located within the con- fined core of a column or boundary element. (@) For straight bars of sizes 3 through 11, the development length 1, > 25 * (ay for bars with 90° hooks) when the depth of concrete cast in one lift beneath the bar is < 12 in,, or 1g 2 3.5 X (Jay for bars with 90° hooks) if the abovementioned depth is > 12 in. (5) Ifa bar is not anchored by means of a 90° hook ‘within the confined column core, the portion of the required straight development length not located within the confined core shall be in- creased by a factor of 1.6. (g) Transverse reinforcement requirements for con- finement and shear: Transverse reinforcement in beams must satisly requirements associated with308 SEISMIC DESIGN OF REINFORCED.CONGRETE STRUCTURES Hoops for tance 2a rom fies of supports tr other / eons at potential plastic // mane at orl sees (ia. of smallest lang bat) ‘ia of hoop bar) ri ce “HITE Fo | eran Figure 9-95 Transverse reinforcement limitations for flexural ‘members, Minimum bar sie—s3 + their dual function as confinement reinforcement and shear reinforcement (see Figure 9-35), (Q) Confinement reinforcement in the form of hoops is required: (@ over a distance 2d from faces of support (where d is the effective depth of the mem- ber); (ii) over distances 2d on both sides of sections within the span where flexural yielding may ‘occur due to earthquake loading. 2) Hoop spacing: (9) First hoop at 2 in. from face of support. Gi) Maximum spacing d/4 8 X (diameter of smallest longitudinal bar) 24 X (diameter of hoop bars) 12in. < (3) Lateral support for perimeter longitudinal bars where hoops are required: Every comer and alternate longitudinal bar shall be supported by ‘the comer of a hoop with an included angle ‘= 135°, with no longitudinal bar farther than 6 in. along the tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where the longitudinal perimeter bars are arranged in a circle, a circular hoop may be used. (4 Where hoops are not required, hoop spacing 12 in. (measured on Tine passing through geometric cen- trod); shortest dimension a BOA Perpendicular dimension > (b) Limitations on longitudinal reinforcement: Prin = 0.01, Pays = 0.06 (©) Flexural strength of columns relative to beams framing into a joint (the so-called strong-column, weak-beam provision) IM, >8EM, (9-5) where =M, jum of the design flexural strengths of the columns framing into joint. Column flexural strength to be caiculated for the factored axial force, consistent with the direction of the lateral loading consid- cred, that results in the lowest flexural strength IM, = sum of design flexural strengths of beams framing into joint (@) Restriction on use of lap splices: Lap splices are to be used only within the middle half of the column height and are to be designed as tension splices, In addition 10 the above, SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) ‘equires that splices in columns be designed as Class A tension splices in accordance with Chapter 12 of ACI 318-83 and that these be enclosed by hoops as for splices in beams, (©) Welded splices or mechanical connectors for longi tudinal reinforcement: Welded splices or mechani cal connectors may be used at any section of @ ‘column, provided that: (1) they are used only on alternate longitudinal bars at a section; (2) the distance between splices along the longitu ‘nal axis of the reinforcement is > 24 in (0) Transverse reinforcement for confinement and shear: AAs in beams, transverse reinforcement in columns ‘ust provide confinement to the concrete core and lateral support for the longitudinal bars as well as shear resistance. In columns, however, the trans. verse reinforcement must all be in the form of closed hoops or continuous spiral reinforcement. Sulfcient reinforcement should be provided to sat- isfy the requirements for confinement or shear, whichever is larger, (Q) Confinement requirements (see Figure 9-37): (Volumetric ratio of spiral or circular hoop reinforcement: L one of A> ae o4s( 4 1) z where Syn = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement, in Ib/in? core area of column section, mea- sured to the outside of transverse reinforcement, in in.?34 Gear span of member | T |Deptn. a, ot member 4 ing ere | 1 Votumtrie rating, of aptal contnaont LL Sistronsent © on UI ts>. Ra | (@) SPIRAL CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT pe CODE PROVISIONS FOR EARTHOUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 34% a — 12>} A Geer son ot mein 18 in eS 1 TPL sat cramontis tlt cheer rosa Ip! any ottneneat |S Ratercement t | is ihn pecning 2 —\ a FJ] \ dtomanust rmae-setonnt oad dimwosion ot member te fat fe ‘ orem, 1 di Ne h>” bead | om, (4) (®) RECTANGULAR HOOP CONFINEMENT Figure 8-37 Confinement requirements for column ends, (i) Rectangular hoop reinforcement, total cross-sectional area, within spacing 5 (9-7) where ‘hy, = cross-sectional dimension of column core, measured center-to-center of confining reinforcement ‘5 = spacing of transverse reinforcement measured along axis of member, in Soux = min{4(smallest cross-sectional mension of member), 4 in.) ‘maximum spacing in plane of cross-section ‘between legs of overlapping hoops or cross ties is 14 in, (2) Confinement reinforcement is 10 be provided ‘over a length /, from each joint face or over distances /, on both sides of any seetion where flexural yielding may occur in connection with lateral displacements of the frame, where ‘depth d of member Iq > | (clear span of member) 18iin. NEHRP.85 and SEAOC-86 further require that confinement reinforcement be provided at any section of a column where the nominal axial strength, @P,, is less than the sum of the shears ‘corresponding to the probable flexural strengths of the beams (ie, based on f,= 1.25/, and = 1.0) framing into the columns above the level considered, @) Transverse reinforcement for shear in columns is to be based on the shear associated with the largest nominal moment strengths atthe column ends (using f= f, and ¢ = 1.0) corresponding to the factored axial compressive force resulting in the largest. moment strengths. SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) requires that the moment strength at the column ends be based on f,= 1.25, and @ = 1.0. The calculated end moments of columns ‘meeting at a joint, however, need not exceed the sum of the probable moment strengths of the Birders framing into the joint (g) Column supporting discontinued walls: Columns supporting discontinued shear walls or similar stiff elements are to be provided with transverse rein- forcement over their full height below the discont nnuity (see Figure 9-38) when the axial compressive force due to earthquake effects exceeds A, f’/10. In addition to the above, NEHRP'85 and SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) require that transverse rein- forcement in columns supporting discontinued walls ‘be extended above the discontinuity by at least the development length of the largest vertical bar and below the base by the same amount where the ‘column rests on a wall. Where the column termi-312 _ SEISMIC DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCAETE STRUCTURES — 3) 8 Confinement reinforcement E Figure 8:38 Columns supporting siscontinued wal nates in a footing or mat, the transverse reinforce- ‘ment is to be extended below the top of the footing ‘or mat a distance equal to the compressive develop- ‘ment length of the largest vertical bar or the lead length of a standard hook. SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) also requires the provision of transverse reinforcement over the full height of @ column when the calculated point of contraflexure in a column lies outside the middle half of the clear height, Discussion: (b) Reinforcement ratio limitation: ACT Appendix A specifies a reduced upper limit for the reinforcement ratio in columns from the 8% of Chapter 10 of the code to 6%. However, construction considerations ‘will in most cases place the practical upper limit on the reinforcement ratio p near 4%, Convenience in detailing and placing reinforcement in beam-col- ‘umn connections makes it desirable to keep the column reinforcement low. ‘The minimum reinforcement ratio is intended to provide for the effects of time-dependent deforma- tions in concrete under axial loads as well as main- tain a sizable difference between eracking and yield ‘moments, Relative column-to-beam flexural strength require- ment: To insure the stability of a frame and main- tain its vertical-load-carrying capacity while under- going large lateral displacements, ACI Appendix A requires that inelastic deformations be generally re- stricted to the beams. This is the intent of Equation 9-5 (see Figure 9-39). As mentioned, formation of plastic hinges at both ends of most columns in a story can precipitate a sidesway mechanism leading to collapse of the story and the structure above it. Also, as pointed out in Section 9.3.4 under “Beam—Column Joints,” compliance with this pro- vision does not insure that plastic hinging will not ‘occur in the columns. © Gi sip. Figure 9-39 Strong column-weak beam frame requirements If Equation 9-5 is not satisfied ata joint, columns supporting reactions from such a joint are w be provided with transverse reinforcement over their full height. Columns not satisfying Equation 9-5 are to be ignored in calculating the strength and stif- ness of the structure. However, since such columns contribute to the stiffuess of the structure before they sulfer severe loss of strength due to plastic hinging, they should not be ignored if neglecting them results in unconservative estimates of design forces. This may occur in determining the design base shear or in calculating the effects of torsion in a structure. Columns not satisfying Equation 9-5 should satisfy the minimum requirements for mem- bers not proportioned to resist earthquake-induced forces, discussed under item 6 below. (©, Transverse reinforcement for confinement and shear: Sufficient transverse reinforcement in the form of rectangular hoops or spirals should be provided to. satisfy the larger requirement for either confinement or shear. Circular spirals represent the most efficient form of confinement reinforcement. The extension of such spirals into the beam-column joint, however, may ‘cause some construction difficulties. Rectangular hoops, when used in place of spirals, are less effective with respect to confinement of the concrete core. Their effectiveness may be increased, however, with the use of supplementary crossties The crossties have to be of the same size and spacing as the hoops and have to engage a periph- eral longitudinal bar at each end. Consecutive ‘rossties are to be alternated end for end along the longitudinal reinforcement and are to be spaced no further than 14 in. in the plane of the column cross-section (see Figure 9-40), The requirement of hhaving the crossties engage a longitudinal bar at each end would almost preclude placing them be- fore the longitudinal bars are threaded through. In addition to confinement requirements, the transverse reinforcement in columns must resist the maximum shear associated with the formation of Plastic hinges at the column ends. Although the strong-column, weak-beam provision governing relCODE PROVISIONS FOR EARTHUAKE-RESISTANTOESGN 313 Consecutive cros ee shal ave their Sedegree hooks on epposte dee of coun 10.6, Extension Figure 9-40 Rectangular transverse reinforcement in columns. ative moment strengths of beams and columns ‘meeting at a joint is intended to have most of the inelastic deformation occur in the beams of a frame, the code recognizes that hinging can occur in the columns. Thus, the shear reinforcement in columns is to be based on the shear corresponding to the development of the nominal moment strengths at the ends of the columns, i, the yield moments, ‘with @ = 1.0. The values of these plastic moments obtained from the P-M interaction diagram for the particular column section considered—are to be the maxima consistent with the possible factored ‘compressive axial forces on the column. Moments vee : : ‘ ‘ Pay SD : () Sidesway to Right associated with lateral displacements of the frame im both directions, as indicated in Figure $-41, showld bbe considered. The axial load to the ‘maximum moment capacity should then be used im ‘computing the permissible shear in concrete, V.. (g) Columns supporting discontinued walls: Columns supporting discontinued shear walls tend to be sub- Jected to large shears and compressive forces, and can be expected to develop large inelastic deforma- tions during strong earthquakes; hence the require- ‘ment for transverse reinforcement throughout the height of such columns. The SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) requirement for transverse reinforcement over the full height of a column when the calculated point of contraflexure lies outside the middle half of the clear height is intended to provide for likely hinging in the column, as discussed in Section 9.34 under “Columns 4. Beam-column connections. In conventional rein- forced-concrete buildings, the beam-column connec- tions usually are not designed by the structural engi- neer. Detailing of reinforcement within the joints is normally relegated to a draftsman or detailer. In earth- quake-resistant frames, however, the design of beam— column connections requires as much attention as the design of the members themselves, since the integrity of the frame may well depend on the proper performance of such connections, Because of the congestion that may result from too many bars converging within the limited space of the Joint, the requirements for the beam-column connec tions have to be considered when proportioning the Balanced Point Axiel Load, P Bending Moment, M Typical Interaction Diagram (b) Sidesway to Left Figure 8-41 Loading cases for design of shear reinforcement fr columns.314 SEISMIC DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCRETE STRUCTURES columns of a frame. To minimize placement difficulties, fan effort should be made to keep the amount of longitu- inal reinforcement in the frame members on the low side of the permissible range. ‘The provisions of ACI Appendix A dealing with bbeam-columa joints relate mainly to: (a) Transverse reinforcement for confinement: Mini- ‘mum confinement reinforcement, as required for potential hinging regions in columns and defined by Equations 9-6 and 9-7, must be provided in beam-column joints. For “confined” joints, a 50% reduc the required amount of confinement reinforcement is allowed, the required amount to be placed within the depth of the shallowest framing member. A confined joint is defined as one with beams framing into all four sides and where each beam has a width equal to at least three-fourths of the width of the column face into which it frames. (b) Transverse reinforcement for shear: The horizontal shear force in a joint is to be calculated by assuming the stress in the tensile reinforcement of framing beams equal to 1.25f, (see Figure 9-20), The shear strength of the connéction is to be computed (for normal-weight concrete) as [ 920/274, for confined joints aN ee | 415/274, for unconfined joints where 4 = 085 (for shear) A, ~ minimum cross-sectional area of joint in a plane parallel to the axis of the reinforce- ‘ment generating the shear force For the case where the beam width is less than that ‘of the column face into which it frames, SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) requires that the effective width t0 be used in calculating 4, not exceed the beam width plus twice the least column projection beyond the beam side. NEHRP-8S requites the area A, 10 be based on the effective depth to the centroid of the longitudinal column reinforcement, instead of the overall depth used in ACI Appendix A. For lightweight concrete, Vis 10 be taken as three-fourths the value given’ above for norm weight concrete (©) Anchorage of longitudinal beam reinforcement ter- rminated in a column must be within the confined column core Where longitudinal beam bars extend through a joint, SEAOC-86 (UBC-88) requires that the col umn depth in the direction of loading be not less than 20/times the diameter of the largest longitudi- nal beam bar. Discussion: (a) Transverse reinforcement for confinement: The ‘transverse reinforcement in a beam-column connec- tion helps maintain the vertical-load-carrying capac- ity of the joint even after spalling of the outer shel Italso helps resist the shear force transmitted by the framing members and improves the bond between steel and concrete within the joint. ‘The minimum amount of transverse reinforce- ‘ment, as given by Equations 9-6 and 9-7, must be provided through the joint regardless of the magni- tude of the calculated shear force in the joint. The 80% reduction in the amount of confinement rein- forcement allowed for joints having beams framing into all four sides recognizes the beneficial confining effect provided by these members. (b) Results of tests reported in Reference 9-39 indicate that the shear strength of joints is not too sensitive to the amount of transverse (shear) reinforcement. Based on these results, the 1983 edition of ACI Appendix A defines the shear strength of beam-col- ‘uma connections as a function only of the cross-sec- tional area of the joint, (4,) and f’ (see Section 93.4 under “Beam-Column Joints”) ‘When the design shear in the joint exceeds the shear strength of the concrete, the designer may either increase the column size or increase the depth cf the beams. The former will increase the shear capacity of the joint section, while the latter will tend to reduce the required amount of flexural rein- forcement in the beams, with accompanying de- crease in the shear transmitted to the joint. Yet another alternative is to keep the longitudinal beam bars from yielding at the faces of the columns by detailing the beams so that plastic hinging occurs away from the column faces. (©) The anchorage or development-length requirements for longitudinal beam reinforcement in tension have been discussed earlier under flexural members. Splicing of main reinforcement within the joint should be avoided whenever possible. 5. Shear Walls. When properly proportioned so that they possess adequate lateral stiflness to reduce inter- story distortions due to earthquake-induced motions, shear walls or structural walls reduce the likelihood of damage to the nonstructural elements of a building ‘When used with rigid frames, walls form a system that combines the gravity-load-carrying eliciency of the rigid frame with the lateral-load-resisting efficiency of the structural wall. In the form of coupled walls linked by appropriately proportioned coupling beams (see Section 9.34 under “Coupled Walls”), alone or in combination with rigid frames, structural walls provide a laterally stiff structural system that allows significant energy dissipation to take place in the more easily repairable ‘coupling beams.CODE PROVISIONS FOR EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANTEESGN 335 Min. distributed reinforcement ratio each way Py = 0.0025 Two curtains of reinforcement required if W>Phey VFo Boundary elements to be provided when tmax >02f (a) Boundary element to carry all vertical loads (b) Confinement reinforcement to be provided as for frame colums (c) Transverse reinforcement in wall to be developed by anchoring in confined core of boundary element Figure 8-42 Structural wal design requirements. Observations of the comparative performance of sigid-frame buildings and buildings stiffened by struc- ‘ural walls during recent earthquakes”? have pointed to the consistently better performance of the latter. The performance of buildings stiffened by properly designed structural walls has been better with respect both life safety and damage control. ‘The need to insure that ritical facilities remain operational after a major tremor land the need to reduce economic losses from structural ‘and nonstructural damage, in addition to the primary ‘requirement of life safety (ie., no collapse), has focused attention on the desirability of introducing greater lat- eral stiffness in earthquake-resistant multistory build- ‘ngs. Where acceleration-sensitive equipment is 10 be hhoused in a structure, the greater horizontal accelera- tions that may be expected in laterally stiffer structures should be allowed oF provided for. ‘The principal provisions of ACI Appendix A relating to structural walls (and diaphragms) are as follows (see Figure 9-42) (a) Walls (and diaphragms) are to be provided with shear reinforcement in two orthogonal directions in the plane of the wall. The minimum reinforcement ratio for both longitudinal and transverse directions ng > 0.0025 where the reinforcement is 10 be continuous and distributed uniformly across the shear area, and where Ag, = net area of concrete section, ie., product of thickness and width of wall section rojection on A., of area of shear reinforce ‘ment crossing the plane of A, bq = reinforcement ratio corresponding to plane perpendicular to plane of A,, Aw ‘The maximum spacing of reinforcement is 18 in. At least two curtains of reinforcement, each having bars running in the longitudinal and transverse di- rections, are to be provided if the in-plane factored shear force assigned to the wall exceeds 24.) Where bot elements are not required, SEAOC-86 calls for the provision of a minimum amount of reinforcement parallel to the edges of