of propositions y/) 3.2 Compound statements: implication, =; equivalence, CHAPTER OBJECTIVE: | 3.1 Basic concepts of symbolic logic: definition of a proposi Logic In; symbolic notation ; Negation, +; conjunction, »; disjunction, v; exolusive disjunction, v. Translation between verbal statements and symbolic form 3.3 Truth tables: concepts of logical contradiction and tautology 3.4 Converse, inverse, contrapositive; logical equivalence; testing the validity of simple arguments through the use of truth tables Before you start You should know how to: 1 Draw Venn diagrams to show the intersection of sets, eg. Draw a Venn diagram to show AO B. 2 Draw Venn diagrams to | show the union of sets, eg, Draw a Venn diagram to show AU B. 3. Draw Venn diagrams to show the complement of sets, eg. Drawa Venn diagram to show 4’, ( al! Skills check 1. Given the Venn diagram with sets A and B, draw Venn diagrams to show adAnB bAUB ¢ AUB d (AUBY e@ (ANB)UA NB) re lu 2 Given the Venn diagram with sets 4, B and C, draw Venn diagrams to show a ANBOC b (AUB)AC © AUBNC) d (AUB)NC © (ANB')U(A'OB)An ability to think logically is an important asset that is valued highly by all professionals. Studying mathematics is believed to promote this ability, and success in mathematics is often used to discriminate between candidates in non-mathematical situations, for example, law. Mathematical logic can be used to analyze written statements in legal contracts, for example, to determine whether the arguments put forward are valid and precise, or not. In this chapter you will study mathematical logic and its language. Its structure has many similarities with set theory: ‘If you understand set theory, then you will This statement has the folowin, understand logic. e arguments related to it However, what if you do not understand set theory? if you do not understand set theory Will you then understand logic ... or not? then you will not understand logic if you understand logle, then you wil understand set theory if you do not understand logle, then you will not understand set theory Analyzing such statements (or arguments) and being able to understand what they really mean ~ as opposed to what they are intended to mean — is the purpose of mathematical logic. Chapter 9Investigation - logical thinking Assign on the door to the sports hall says: . _ Food and drink not 1 What does the writer of the sign allowed {the Director of Sport) think the sign means? Are you allowed to bring food into the sports hall? Are you allowed to bring drink into the sports hall? 2 Are you allowed to bring food into the sports hail, without bringing in drinks? 3 Are you allowed to bring drinks into the sports hall, without bringing in food? 4 Does the sign say what the Director of Sport thinks it says? 5 What should the sign say if the Director of Sport wishes to stop any food from being brought into the sports hall and stop any drinks being brought in also? 9.1 Introduction to logic Mathematical logic is taught as part of the syllabus for two IB courses - MSSL and Further Mathematics. It is not taught for either the HL or the SL course. If you meet someone and she tells you that she studies mathematical logic as part of her IB course, is it true that she studies Further Mathematics? ind caer nue Determining whether a statement is necessarily true or false is part Isitnecessarily tue? of the analysis that we will undertake; statements form the basis of logic. Statements and connectives A statement is a sentence or phrase and must have a precise mathematical meaning. ‘Awesome’ and ‘Cool! are not statements. > A (simple) statement has a truth value of true or false (but not both). Here are some statements. © Goh Chok Tong is the Prime Minister of Singapore. 2+2=5 Any square is also a rectangle. Any rectangle is also a square. If you do not do your homework, I will inform the school principal.1 do not swim. I swim and play football. Ido not swim or play football. I do not swim and I do not play football. To enter the race, you must be female or more than 45 years old. All of the above phrases can be verified in some way and so are statements. Some of these statements are simple (and can easily be determined to be either true (TT) or false (F)). For example, Goh Chok Tong is net the Prime Minister of Singapore and So the truth value of the statement ‘Goh Chok Tong is the Prime Minister of Singapore’ is false (F), Exercise 9A Which of these are statements? 1 Ric studies Malay. 2 Isit snowing? 3 Make the tea. 4 The air-con is on. 5S 5>2 6 7<3 7 282 8 Have a nice day! 9 The sun is not shining. 210. The glass is full 11 The moon is made of green cheese. 12 A week consists of seven days. 13 A week consists of five days. 14 A month consists of 30 days, 9.2 Compound statements and symbols > A compound statement is made up of simple statements joined together by connectives. ‘The five connectives that we will use most commonly are: NOT AND OR IF... THEN is one OR ‘connective but there IF... THEN are actually five ‘connectives in this list. The ‘OR’ connective has two versions in everyday language and we must be very specific about which version we are using when analyzing arguments logically. Often the word ‘either’ is added in everyday language, though its use is not strictly necessary as part of the ‘OR’ connective. Chapter 9‘These two examples show the two versions of ‘OR’. 2. ‘You may study Mathematics at Higher Level or Standard Level in the IB diploma’ 2 “You may study Spanish or French as part of the IB diploma.’ In 1: Mathematics can be studied either at Higher Level, or at Standard Level, but not both, ‘The version of ‘OR’ where the implied meaning is ‘one or the other but not both’ is known as ‘exelusive or’ In 2: Spanish can be studied as part of the IB diploma; so can French, A student can study both Spanish and French as part of the IB diploma, This version of ‘OR’ where the implied meaning is ‘one or the other or both’ is known as ‘inclusive or’. Exercise 9B Decide which of the two versions of ‘or’ (exclusive/inclusive) is meant in the following compound statements. Your mother is either Argentinean or Chilean, Do you want either coffee or tea with your meal? Do you take milk or sugar in your coffee? Can you speak either Japanese or Korean? He is allowed either food or drink after exercise. Thave injured either my knee or my ankle. Nouwnune ‘Under the terms of your lease, you may use the land for either residential or business purposes. You can use one or two pillows when sleeping, He is a captain in either the army or the navy. 10 xis odd or vis even 11. Knowing that (x- 2)(x + 1) = 0, we know that x is equal to 2 or xis equal to-1. 12 x<5 Logi = means ‘less than or equal to’> The five connectives have these names and symbols: NOT Negation = AND Conjunction in OR Inclusive disjunction v OR Exclusive disjunction =v IF...THEN _ Implication Here is question 7 from Exercise 9B again “Under the terms of your lease, you may use the land for either residential or business purposes.’ This is ‘exclusive Ina legal contract, both parties need to know exactly what that contract means, There is no place for ambiguity. The use of ‘or’ — whether inclusive or exclusive — in the above statement must be made precise. Similarly, in mathematical logic, you need to make clear whether you are using inclusive or (v) or exclusive or (v) in a statement. ‘The system used in mathematies and logic is 1 If you use the word ‘or’ in a statement it is always taken to be inclusive. 2 Tose the exclusive version of ‘or’ you must add the extra phrase ‘but not both’. So the statement “you may use the land for either residential or business purposes’ ‘means that you can use the land for either a residential development, a business development or a development that mixes both types. To exclude the mixed development the statement has to be ‘you may use the land for either residential or business purposes, but not both’ 9.3 Truth tables: negation Mathematicians prefer symbols to words. You need to learn the symbols for logic. Letters are used — usually p, q, r—to represent simple statements and these are combined with the connectives to form compound statements. Chapter 9Each simple statement has a truth value associated with it (T or F — but not both) and these are tabulated in a truth table. Each connective influences the overall truth value of the compound statement and has its own truth table associated with it, Letpbe the statement —_ ‘you may use the land for residential purposes’. Remember that a statement must take one of the truth values T (crue) or F (false), ‘The table shows that =p is false when p is true and that —p is true when p is false. It is impossible to have a statement which is both true and false at the same time; that would be a logical contradiction. For statement p above, -y is ‘you may net use the land for residential purposes’ or ‘you may use the land for any purpose other than residential’, The truth table above can be used as the definition of negation, Negation is an operation in logic; the corresponding operation in set theory is complement. Exercise 9C 1 Write negations of these statements. a The student is a council member. b She owns a mobile phone, ¢ isa prime number, d ABCD isa parallelogram. © Surabaya is the capital of Indonesia 2 Write negations of these statements without using the word ‘not’. a This word starts with a vowel. b There is an even number of pages in this book. © This price is inclusive of sales tax. This shape is a quadrilateral. e He walked at a constant speed. Logie3 a_ In these statements, is g the negation of p? If not, say why it is not the negation. iP: Chihiro obtained the highest mark on the test. Chihiro obtained the lowest mark on the tes This testis difficult. This test is easy. Sahana scored more than 50% on the test. Sahana scored less than 50% on the test. Richard is inside the classroom. @ Richard is outside the classroom. v_ P Nishad scored above average on the test. Nishad scored below average on the test, b_ Inall the above, g was obtained from p by using the opposite word. Does this method always give the correct negation? ¢ Ini replace ‘obtained in p by ‘did not obtain’. Is the resulting statement the negation of »? Does this method always give the correct negation? 4 Write negations of these statements a. xis greater than five. b yis less than seven. © zisat least ten. d bisat most 19. 5. The definitions of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ are: -xis positive whenever > 0 «vis negative whenever x <0 a Is zero positive or negative? bb Write down the negation of the statement ‘x is negative’ given that xe {real numbers} 6 Write down ~p for each statement p. Avoid the word ‘not’ if you can. Courtney was absent from school on Friday. This chair is broken. The hockey team lost their match The soccer team won the tournament. The hotel does not have running water. eanee ESSee 7 Write negations of these statements, Avoid the word ‘not’ if you can. P° His signature is illegible @ James is older than me. r The class contains fewer than eight boys. 8: Her family name begins with a P. 1 He has at least two sisters. eance Chapter 98 The wording of a negation may depend on the universal set that has been given If possible, write down the negations of these statements in the given domains, without using the word ‘not’, a X isa female doctor given that U = {doctors} bX isa female doctor given that U = {females}. © X isa married man given that U = {married people}. dX isa married man given that U = {men}. e Risa positive rotation of more than 90° given that = {positive rotations}. Ris a positive rotation of more than 90° given that {all rotations}. - .4 Truth tables: conjunction (and) So, p «gis true only when both p and g are true. Conjunction p a corresponds to intersection in set theory. Example 1 Let p represent ‘Iti at least 35° Celsius today’ and let g represent ‘Itis, Friday’. What does p 0g represent? Answer P-Aq represents ‘It is 35° Celsius today and it is Friday’, Example 2 Let p represent ‘Dana got a 7 in HL Mathematics’ and let q represent “Yuri got a 5 in HL Mathematics’. What does p a q represent? ‘Answer ps qrepresents ‘Dana got a7 in HL Mathematics and Yuri got a 5 in HL Mathematics’. LogicOther compound statements related to p 0 q can be represented in terms of p and q, for example, What does —p aq represent? —p 4 qrepresents ‘Dana did not get a 7 in HL Mathematics and What does Xp 4 4) Yori got a 5 in HL Mathematics’. represent? . Do they mean the (p.4—q represents ‘Dana got a 7 in HL Mathematics and Yuri did same thing? Use not get a 5 in HL Mathematics’. Tecra ts = Investigate. Exercise 9D —EE For questions 1 to 9, express each of these compound statements Often we use the word in words: ‘but’ rather than ‘and” a pag b—pAg © pang d pag e@ Wag) | ina statement that + combines conjunction 1p: Susan speaks French. 4° Susan speaks Spanish. Cane a. 2 P’ Jorge speaks Portuguese. 4 Mei Ling speaks Malay. better to use ‘and’. 3: All dogs bark. All flowers are yellow. Coat 4 P: Chinais in Africa % Rwanda is in Asia may combine 5 P: Chicago is the largest J Jakarta is the largest aaa ae city in Canada. city in Indonesia, ie 6 P xs5 G x25 ‘completely unrelated Ist possible for both p and g to be true? (@s in question 3). 7 P: ABCD isa parallelogram. 4 ABCD is a rectangle. ‘Which of the statements a to e cannot possibly be true in this case? 8 P: Triangle ABC is right-angled atC. 4 AB? = AC?+BC?+1 Which of the statements a to e cannot possibly be true in this case? Which of the statements a to e must be true in this case? 9 P: nisanodd integer. 4% nis an even integer. ‘Which of the statements a to e cannot possibly be true in this case? Which of the statements a to e must be true in this case? 10 Complete the truth table for ps —p. P |p| pap a. First, enter the alternatives T/F in the column for p. b Next, use the definition of negation to complete the column for =p. ¢ Finally, use the definition of conjunction to complete ‘What is it about the the column for p 4 —p. final column that If you have done this correctly, you will be able to deduce from allows you to make the truth table that p A —p is a logical contradiction. this deduction? Chapter 911 Consider the statements p Sei Jin came top in Mathematics. q, Sei Jin came top in English. Write the statement rr Sei Jin came top in mathematics but not in English in terms of p and g. Construct a truth table showing how the truth value of rdepends on the truth values of pand g. 12 Consider the statements Pp: nis divisible by 2. ¢: ris divisible by 5. ‘Write the statement rr. nis divisible by 10 in terms of p and g. Construct a truth table for r. For each row of the table, write down a value of n which gives that combination of truth values. 9.5 Truth tables: resolving an ambiguity - the ‘or’ connective There are two versions of the ‘or’ connective lusive or and exclusive or. Disjunction Disjunction corresponds to union in set theory, where if xis an element of pW g, then x can be placed in either set p or set q or in the intersection of pand g. bya LogicExample 3 Let p represent ‘It is at least 35° Celsius today” and let g represent ‘Its, Friday’ What does pv g represent? Answer PY qtepresents ‘tis at least 35° Celsius today or itis Friday or both’. Note that to make the compound statement true it is only necessary that one of the individual statements is true ~ when itis Friday anything can be claimed about the temperature. For the compound statement to be true on any other day of the week the statement about the temperature must be true. Example 4 Let p represent ‘Dana got a 7 in HL Mathematics’ and let q represent "Yuri got a 5 in HL Mathematics’, What does pv q represent? Answer ‘py q represents ‘Dana gota 7 in HL Mathematics or Yuri got a 5 in HL Mathematics or both’, Exclusive disjunction So, we exclude the possibility that both simple statements can be true simultaneously. ‘The equivalent in set theory of exclusive p or is the symmetric difference and is shown on a Venn diagram as: Chapter 9