Chopper

Chapter 3
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply
• Bridge converter
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.
Power Electronics and 1

Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.
• General block diagram:
DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)
• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
Linear regulator
• Transistor is operated
in linear (active)
mode. + VCEce − IL
+
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo
Vo = Vin − Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR
• The transistor can be

conveniently + Vce −
IL
modelled by an
RT
equivalent variable +
RL Vo
resistor, as shown. Vin
−
• Power loss is high at

EQUIVALENT
high current due to: CIRCUIT
Po = I L 2 × RT
or
Po = Vce × I L
Switching Regulator
• Transistor is operated
in switched-mode: IL
+ Vce −
– Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated) +
– Switch opened: Vin
RL
Vo
Fully off (cut-off)
−
SWITCHING REGULATOR
– When switch is open,
no current flow in it IL
– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
+
drop across it. Vin
RL Vo
−
• Since P=V.I, no losses

occurs in the switch.
– Power is 100% EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
transferred from Vo
source to load. Vin
– Power loss is zero
(ON) (OFF) (ON)
(for ideal switch): closed open closed
DT T
• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE

the basis of all DC-DC
converters

Buck (step-down) converter
S L
+
Vd D C RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
S + vL −
+
Vd D RL Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED
S iL
+ vL −
+
Vd RL Vo
D
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Switch is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
biased.
S iL +
+
Vd C RL Vo
• Switch conducts VD
− −
inductor current
vL
• This results in
positive inductor Vd − Vo
voltage, i.e: opened opened
closed closed
t
v L = Vd − Vo
• It causes linear −Vo

increase in the iL
inductor current
iLmax
di IL
vL = L L iLmin
dt
1
iL = v L dt DT
t
L T

Switch turned off (opened)
+ vL -
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL S iL +
continues to flow. Vd C RL Vo
D
−
• Diode is forward
biased vL
Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
(freewheeling) closed closed
through the diode. t
• The inductor voltage

can be derived as: −Vo
iL
vL = −Vo iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T
t
DT T

Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) :
di
v L = Vd − Vo = L L vL
dt
diL Vd − Vo Vd− Vo
= closed
dt L t
Derivative of i L is a positive
constant.Therefore iL must
increased linearly. iL
From Figure iL max

diL ∆iL ∆iL Vd − Vo
= = = IL ∆i L
dt ∆t DT L
V −V iL min
(∆iL )closed = d o ⋅ DT
L t
DT T
For switch opened,
di
v L = −Vo = L L
dt
diL − Vo
=
dt L
di ∆i ∆iL − Vo
∴ L= L= =
dt ∆t (1 − D)T L
− Vo
(∆iL )opened = ⋅ (1 − D)T
L
Steady-state operation
iL
Unstable current
iL Decaying current
iL Steady-state current
Steady - state operation requires that iL at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of iL over one period is zero, i.e :
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
Vd − Vo − Vo
⋅ DTs − ⋅ (1 − D)Ts = 0
L L
Vo = DVd
Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
iL
Imax
IL ∆iL
Imin
Average inductor current = Average current in R L

V
IL = IR = o
R
Maximum current :
∆iL Vo 1 Vo
I max = I L + = + (1 − D )T
2 R 2 L
1 (1 − D )
= Vo +
R 2 Lf
Minimum current :
∆i L 1 (1 − D )
I min = I L − = Vo −
2 R 2 Lf
Inductor current ripple :
∆iL = I max − I min
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
iL
Imax
Imin t
0
From previous analysis,

∆i L 1 (1 − D )
I min = I L − = Vo −
2 R 2 Lf
For continuous operation, I min ≥ 0,
1 (1 − D)
Vo − ≥0
R 2 Lf
(1 − D )
L ≥ Lmin = ⋅R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen b be >> Lmin

Output voltage ripple
KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR L iL iR
The charge can be witten as : +

iC
Q = CVo Vo
∆Q = C∆V −
∆Q
o ∆Vo =
C i m ax
iL
Use triangle area formula :
i L= IR
1 T ∆i L
∆Q = V o/R i m in
2 2 2
0
T ∆i L iC
=
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)0
T∆iL (1 − D )
∴ ∆Vo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
∆Vo (1 − D )
r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
1) Increasing switching frequency
2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.
Basic design procedures
SWITCH L
Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?
• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.
• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

– preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
• Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin
• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given
by ∆iL/2.
• ECAPs can be used
• Wire size consideration:

– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
2
2 ∆i L 2
I L, RMS = I L +
3

Examples
• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given
L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of

25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is
125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the
peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.
• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V

when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter
such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output
voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the
frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power
switch also.

Boost (step-up) converter
L D
Vd C +
S
RL Vo
−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −
Vd +
S C
RL Vo
−

L
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C RL
S Vo

Boost analysis:switch closed
iL
L D
+ vL −
+
Vd C vo
S
−
v L = Vd Vd
di
=L L v CLOSED
dt
L
t
diL Vd
= Vd− Vo
dt L
diL ∆iL ∆iL
= = i L
∆iL
dt ∆t DT
diL V
= d
dt L DT T t
V DT
(∆iL )closed = d
L
Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C vo
S
-
v L = Vd − Vo
diL
=L Vd
dt
diL Vd − Vo vL
= OPENED
dt L t
diL ∆iL Vd− Vo

=
dt ∆t
∆i L ∆iL
= iL
(1 − D )T
( 1-D )T
t
diL Vd − Vo DT T
=
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
(∆iL )opened =
L
Steady-state operation
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0

Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D )T
+ =0
L L
Vd
Vo =
1− D
• Boost converter produces output voltage that is

greater or equal to the input voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.

Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current
Input power = Output power

Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
Vd
(1 − D ) Vd 2
Vd I L = =
R (1 − D ) 2 R
Average inductor current :
Vd
IL =
(1 − D ) 2 R
Maximum inductor current :
∆i L Vd Vd DT
I max = I L + = +
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L
Minimum inductor current :
∆i L Vd Vd DT
I min = I L − = −
2 (1 − D ) 2 R 2L

L and C values
For CCM,
I min ≥ 0 Vd
vL
Vd Vd DT
2
− ≥0
(1 − D) R 2L
D(1 − D )2 TR
Lmin = V d −V o
2 Imax
D(1 − D )2 R
iL
= Imin
2f
Ripple factor iD Imax
Vo Imin
∆Q = DT = C∆Vo
R
Io=Vo / R
Vo DT Vo D
∆Vo = =
RCf RCf ic
∆V D
r= o =
Vo RCf
∆Q
DT T
Examples
• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V

from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

Buck-Boost converter
S
D
+
Vd C
L RL Vo
−
CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL Vo
− −
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo
−
−

Buck-boost analysis
Vd
Switch closed vL
di
v L = Vd = L L
dt
diL Vd Vd−Vo
=
dt L Imax
∆iL ∆iL Vd iL
= = Imin
∆t DT L
V DT
(∆iL ) closed = d Imax
L iD
Switch opened Imin
di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
= ic
dt L
∆iL ∆iL Vo ∆Q
= =
∆t (1 − D )T L DT T
Vo (1 − D)T
(∆iL ) opened =
L
Output voltage
Steady state operation :
∆ iL (closed ) + ∆ iL (opened ) = 0
Vd DT Vo (1 − D)T
+ =0
L L
Output voltage :
D
Vo = −Vs
1− D
• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be

higher or lower than input.
– If D>0.5, output is higher than input
– If D<0.5, output is lower input
• Output voltage is always negative.
• Note that output is never directly connected to load.
• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed

and transferred to load when switch is opened.

Average inductor current
Assuming no power loss in the converter,

power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
= Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2 Po Vd D
IL = = =
Vd RD Vd D R(1 − D ) 2

L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
∆i L Vd D Vd DT
I max = I L + = 2
+
2 R (1 − D ) 2L
∆i L Vd D Vd DT
I min = I L − = −
2 R (1 − D ) 2 2L
For CCM
Vd D Vd DT
2
+ =0
R(1 − D ) 2L
(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
Vo
∆Q = DT = C∆Vo
R
Vo DT Vo D
∆Vo = =
RC RCf
∆V D
r= o =
Vo RCf
Converters in CCM: Summary
Buck
Vo
S L =D
V + Vd
D C RL
d
Vo ∆Vo 1 − D
=
− Vo 8 LCf 2
(1 − D ) R
Lmin =
2f
L Boost
D
Vo 1
=
V + Vd 1 − D
S C Vo
∆Vo D
=
d
RL − Vo RCf
D(1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− ∆Vo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)
Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2
Switch
control
ton 2 signal
ton 1
T

Isolated DC-DC Converter
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode
• Advantages of switched mode over linear power

supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction
• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
• However above certain ratings,

SMPS is the only feasible choice
• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

Linear and SMPS block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
C E
Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo DC Regulated
DC Unregulated
B +
+
Base/gate RL
Vd Drive Vo
Line
Input -
1φ / 3φ -
Rectifier/ Error Vo
50/60 Hz Filter Amp.
Isolation
Transformer
Vref
Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
DC ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated Regulated
High
RECTIFIER Frequency
EMI
AND
FILTER rectifier Vo
FILTER
and
filter
Vref
Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

High frequency transformer
Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2) step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
= ;
v2 N 2
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
Models :
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
V1 V2 Ideal model
− −
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−

Flyback Converter
+
C R Vo
Vd LM
−
Flyback converter circuit
iD
iS i 1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
iLM v2 iC iR Vo
v1
Vd +
− −
+ vSW − i2
Model with magnetising

inductance

Operation: switch closed
0 N1 N2
is=iLM
− +
+
iLM v2
v1 Vo
Vd +
− −
v1=Vs 0
diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm ∆iLm ∆iLm Vd
= = =
dt dt DT Lm
(
∆iLm
closed
=)Vd DT
Lm
On the load side of the transformer,
N2 N2
v2 = v1 = Vd
N1 N1
N2
v D = −Vo − Vd < 0, i.e. diode turned off
N1
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0
Switch opened
iD
N1 N2
+ +
−
iLM v1 v 2 = − VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW −
N1
v1 = −Vo
N2
But v2 = −Vo
N1 N
v1 = v2 = −Vo 1
N2 N2
diL m N1
v1 = Lm = −Vo
dt N2
diL m ∆i L m ∆iL m − Vo N1
= = =
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm N 2
(∆iL m )open = − Vo (1 − D)T N1

Lm N2
Voltage across the switch :
N1
vSW = Vd + Vo
N2
Output voltage
For steady - state operation,

(
∆iLm )closed (
+ ∆iLm )opened
=0
Vd DT Vo (1 − D )T N1
− =0
Lm Lm N2
D N2
Vo = Vd
1− D N1
• Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost

converter.
• Output can be greater of less than input,depending

upon D.
• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

Flyback waveforms
Ps = P0 Vs
V0 2 v1
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as : -V(N 1 /N 2 )
I Lm DT
Is =
T
( )
= I Lm D
i Lm
∆ iLM
Solving for I Lm
is
V02
( )
Vd I Lm D =
R
t
2
V0
I Lm =
Vd DR iD
I Lm can written as :
2 iC
Vd D N2
I Lm =
(1 − D ) 2 R N1
DT T − V o/ R t
V0 N2
=
(1 − D ) R N1

Max, Min inductor current
∆iLm
I Lm = I Lm +
,max 2
2
Vd D N2 V d DT
= +
(1 − D ) 2 R N1 2 Lm
∆iLm
I Lm ,min = I Lm −
2
2
Vd D N2 Vd DT
= 2
−
(1 − D ) R N1 2 Lm
For CCM, I Lm , min = 0
2
Vd D N2 Vd DT Vd D
= =
(1 − D ) 2 R N1 2 Lm 2 Lm f
2 2
Vd (1 − D) R N1
(Lm )min =
2f N2
Ripple calculation is similar to boost,
∆V0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications:
DC input voltage: 40V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
Switching frequency: 75kHz
Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine

a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.

Full-bridge converter
SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS
NS
−
SW4 SW2
SW1,SW2
DT T
SW3,SW4
T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS
-VS
Vx
NS
VS
NP
DT T T T
+ DT
2 2

Full bridge: basic operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
• Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The

other pair is off.
• “AC voltage” is developed across the primary.

Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.
• On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency

full wave rectification”.
• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck

converter” circuit.
• Output Voltage
Ns
Vo = 2Vs ⋅D
Np


Chopper

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Chapter 3

Power Electronics and 1

• General block diagram:

• The transistor can be

• Power loss is high at

• Since P=V.I, no losses

• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Power Electronics and 4

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 5

• It causes linear −Vo

Power Electronics and 6

through the diode. t

• The inductor voltage

Power Electronics and 7

From Figure iL max

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

From previous analysis,

Power Electronics and 11

The charge can be witten as : +

• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

• Wire size consideration:

Power Electronics and 13

• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of

• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V

Power Electronics and 14

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 15

diL ∆iL Vd− Vo

(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0

• Boost converter produces output voltage that is

Power Electronics and 18

Input power = Output power

Power Electronics and 19

Ripple factor iD Imax

• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V

Power Electronics and 21

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 22

• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be

• Output voltage is always negative.

• Note that output is never directly connected to load.

• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed

Power Electronics and 24

Assuming no power loss in the converter,

Power Electronics and 25

Power Electronics and 28

• Advantages of switched mode over linear power

• However above certain ratings,

Power Electronics and 29

Basic Block diagram of SMPS

Power Electronics and 30

Power Electronics and 31

Flyback converter circuit

Model with magnetising

Power Electronics and 32

(∆iL m )open = − Vo (1 − D)T N1