Carbohydrates

Amanda Putri Indriani (1406545384)

Nindita Larasati (1406545371)
Aryo Bayu W. (1406641823)
M. Iqbal Andikoputro (1406547130)
Andiko Prasetyanto (1406547124)
Structure
Carbohydrates structure
Carbohydrates are often known as sugars, they are the 'staff of life' for most organisms. They are the most abundant class of biomolecules in
nature, based on mass.
Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, in Greek sakcharon mean sugar or sweetness.

They are widely distributed molecules in plant ans animal tissues. In plants, and arthropods, carbohydrates from the skeletal structures, they
also serve as food reserves in plants and animals. They are important energy source required for various metabolic activities, the energy is
derived by oxidation. Plants are richer in carbohydrates than animals.
Carbohydrates Classification
Carbohydrates are classified into three groups
Monosaccharides or Monosachoroses
From Greek, mono=one; sakchron=sugar.

Monosaccharides are often called simple sugars, these are compound which possess a free aldehyde or ketone group. They are the simplest
sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed. The general formula is Cn(H2O)n or CnH2nOn. The monosaccharides are subdivided into tiroses, tertrose,
pentoses, hexoses, heptoses etc., and also as aldoses or ketoses depending upon whether they contian aldehyde or ketone group.
Examples of monosaccharides are Fructose, Erythrulose, Ribulose.
Oligosaccharides or Oligosaccharoses

In Greek, Oligo means few.

Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
Oligosaccharides yielding 2 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis is known as a disaccharide, and the ones yielding 3 or 4
monosaccharides are known as trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides respectively and so on. The general formula of disaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-
1
and that of trisaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-2 and so on.

Example of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.

Trisaccharides are Raffinose, Rabinose
Polysaccharides or Polysaccharoses
In Greek, poly means many.

Polysaccharides are compound sugars and yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Theya re further classified
depending on they type of molecules produced as a resullt of hydrolysis. They may be homopolysaccharides i.e, monosaccharides of the same
type or heteropolysaccharides i.e., monosaccharides of different types. The general formula is (C6H10O5)x.

Example of homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.Heteropolysaccharides are Hyaluronic acid, Chondrotin.
Types
There are three types of structural representations of carbohydrates:

● Open chain structure.

● Hemi-acetal structure.
● Haworth structure.
Open chain structure - It is the long straight chain form of carbohydrates.
Example:
Hemi-acetal structure - Here the 1st carbon of the glucose condenses with the -OH group of the 5th carbon to form a ring structure

Haworth structure - It is the presence of pyranose ring structure.

Synthesis
Concept of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Catabolism

Catabolism involve the breakdown of several molecules of carbohydrates into

smaller unit and to produce energy in the form of ATP by respiration process.

Catabolism Process:
Utilization of Glucose

Respiration is way to utilize glucose in order to obtain energy. Energy produced

by this process are in the form of ATP and high energy electron such asa
NADH2 and FADH2. There are 2 tipes of respiration

1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration is a process of utilizing glucose to produce energy. Aerobic

respiration uses oxygen to combust monosaccharides. It also will be used as
acceptor of electron in form of ATP.

Aerobic Respiration:

1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb’s cycle
3. Electron transport system
Glycolysis

Definition: Oxidation of glucose to give pyruvic acid in presence of oxygen and

lactic acid in absence of mitochondria and in absence of oxygen.

Site: Cytoplasm
Kreb’s Cycle

Definition: It is the series of reactions in mitochondria, which oxidized acetyl

CoA to CO2, H2O & reduced H2 carriers that oxidized through respiratory
chains for ATP synthesis.

Site: Mitochondria of all tissue cells except RBCs, which not contain
mitochondria.
Steps

Step 1: Condensation:

he two-carbon compound, acetyl-S-CoA, participates in a condensation reaction with the four-carbon

compound, oxaloacetate, to produce citrate, a six carbon compound catalysed by the enzyme citrate
synthase. This is the first stable tricarboxylic acid in the cycle and hence the name TCA cycle.

Step 2: Isomerization of citrate

Step 2 involves moving the hydroxyl group in the citrate molecule so that it can later form an α-keto
acid. This process involves a sequential dehydration and hydration reaction, to form the D-isocitrate
isomer (with the hydroxyl group now in the desired α-location), with cis-aconitase as the intermediate.
A single enzyme, aconitase performs this two-step process.
Step 3: Generation of CO2 by an NAD linked enzyme

Oxidative decarboxylation takes place in the next reaction. The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase. The
reaction in¬volves dehydrogenation to oxalosuccinate, an unstable intermediate which spontaneously decarboxylates to give α-
ketoglutarate. In addition to decarboxylation, this step produces a reduced nicotina¬mide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) co factor,
or a reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phos¬phate (NADPH) cofactor.

Step 4: A second oxidative decarboxylation step

This step is performed by a multi-enzyme complex, the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenation complex. The multi-step reaction
performed by the α-ketogl¬utarate dehydrogenation complex is analogous to the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, i.e. an α-keto
acid undergoes oxidative decarboxylation with formation of an acyl-CoA i.e. succinyl-CoA.
Step 5: Substrate-level phosphorylation

Succinyl-CoA is a high potential energy molecule. The energy stored in this molecule is used to form a high energy phosphate
bond in a guanine nucleotide diphos¬phate (GDP) molecule. Most of the GTP formed is used in the formation of ATP, by the
action of nucleoside di-phosphokinase.

Step 6: Flavin-dependent dehydrogenation

The succinate produced by succinyl CoA-synthetase in the prior reaction needs to be converted to oxaloacetate to complete the
Krebs’s cycle. The first step in the conversion is the dehydrogenation of succinate to yield fumarate facilitated by the enzyme
succinate dehydrogenase. FAD is covalently bound to the enzyme (via a histidine residue) which is converted to FADH2 that is
oxidized through the ETC producing 2 ATPs.
Step 7: Hydration of a carbon-carbon double bond

Fumarate undergoes a stereo-specific hydration of the C=C double bond, catalysed by fumarate
hydratase (also known as fumarase), to produce L- malate.

Step 8: Dehydrogenation reaction that will regenerate oxaloacetate

L-malate (malate) is dehydrogenated to produce oxaloacetate by the enzyme malate dehydrogenase

during which one molecule of NAD+ is converted to NADH 4- H+. The formation of oxaloacetate
completes the Krebs’s cycle
Electron Transport System

Definition: A series of compounds that transfer electron from electron donors

to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer
with the transfer of protons (H+ions) across a membrane. This creates an
electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis ofadenosine
triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of
highly strained bonds.

Site: Inner mitochondrial membrane

•Initiated by NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis and Krebs
cycle.
•Oxygen acts as the last acceptor of electron.
Energy Produced

From the 3 process above energy that can be obtained are:

Glycolysis: 2ATP

Kreb’s Cycle: 2ATP

Electron Transport System: 32ATP

Total: 36 ATP
Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration is process of utilizing glucose with the absence of

oxygen to act as the last acceptor of electron.
Anaerobic Glycolysis

In absence of O2re-oxidation of NADH at glyceraldehyde-3-P-dehydrogenase stage cannot take place

in electron-transport chain. But the cells have limited coenzyme. Hence to continue the
glycolyticpathway NADH must be oxidized to NAD+. This is achieved by reoxidationof NADH by
conversion of pyruvateto lactate (without producing ATP) by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
Occurs in cells with no mitochondria as RBCs (mature) ,or under low O2supply as intensive muscular
exercise.In anaerobic glycolysisper molecule of glucose oxidation 4 -2 = 2 ATP will be produced.
Alcohol Fermentation

Process of utilizing glucose to produce energy by turning glucose into form of

alcohol. Usually carried by yeast and can produce 2 ATP.
Anabolism

Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These
reactions require energy.
Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is process to make sugar from units of CO2 and H2O by the
help of sunlight, this process also produce oxygen. Photosynthesis can also
occur during night in which there are no sunlight.

Photosynthesis divided into 2:

1. Light reaction
2. Dark reaction
Light Reaction

Definition: The process to make a molecule of sugar by photosynthesis in

addition of sunlight. The overall process is converting the light energy into
chemical energy (ATP and NADH).

Site: Thylakoid Membrane

Overall Reaction
Dark Reaction

Definition: Dark reactions make use of organic energy molecules (ATP and
NADPH). This reaction also called Calvin Benison Cycle, and it occurs in the
stroma. ATP provides the Energy while NADPH provides the electrons required
to fix the CO2 into carbohydrates.

Site: Stroma within the chloroplast

As overall dark reaction is divided into 3 steps:

Carbon fixation: CO2 molecule combines with a five carbon acceptor molecule(RuBP), yielding an
unstable six carbon compound that splits to form two molecules of a three carbon compound (3-
PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by enzyme rubisco

Reduction: ATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-PGA into a three-carbon sugar(G3P). This reaction
is considered a reduction because NADPH must donate its electrons to a three-carbon intermediate to
make G3P.

Regeneration: Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while the others must be recycled to
regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration involves a complex series of reactions and requires ATP.
Detection
QUALITATIVE TEST
Moslisch’s Test

Principle:
Alcoholic alpha naphthol forms furfural and furfural derivatives, such as
hydroxymethylfurfural, by the concentrated sulphuric acid acting on the sugar. This
compound forms a reddish-violet coloured ring at the junction of the two liquids.
Molisch’s reagent is 5% solution of alpha naphthol in alcohol.

•
Moslisch’s Test

Procedure:
•Add 2 drops of Molisch’s reagent to 2 ml of sugar solution in a test tube. Mx thoroughly.
•Add 2 ml of conc. H2SO4 by the side of the test tube slanting the tube.
•Then erect the test tube slowly.
•The formation of reddish violet ring at the junction of two liquids indicates the presence of carbohydrates.
•Concentrated solution of organic compounds may give a red instead of a violet colour due to the charring
action of the sulphuric acid.
• In case of doubt the experiment should be repeated on a more diluted solution of the substance to be tested.
•
IODINE TEST

Principle:
•The composition of the blue or red or wine red coloured substance is not well
defined. This may be an adsorption complex of starch or dextrins or glycogen with
iodine rather than a definite compound. Iodine reagent is 0.5 ml of iodine diluted
to 5 ml with distilled water. Potassium iodide is added to the reagent solution in
order to make the iodine more soluble in water.
IODINE TEST

Procedure:
•Add 1 or 2 drops of dilute iodine solution to 2-3 ml of dilute starch or dextrin or glycogen solution.
•A blue, red and brown colour develops in case of starch, dextrin and glycogen respec-tively.
• In case of starch, the blue colour disappears on heating and reappears on cooling.
•But the red colour and the brown colour in cases of dextrin and glycogen respectively, do not reappear on
cooling as in case of starch.
•
Bial’s Test for Pentoses

•To 1 ml of sugar solution in a test tube add 3 ml of concentrated HC1 and 0.5 ml
of Bial’s reagent.
•Heat the tube in a boiling water bath for one minute. Record your observations
with different sugars.
• The Bial’s reagent is prepared by dissolving 3 gm of orcinol and 0.1 gm of ferric
chloride in 100 ml of ethanol. This is a sensitive test for the detection of pentoses.

•
Bial’s Test for Pentoses

•Heating with strong acid converts the pentose to furfural which then reacts with the
coloured compound produced when orcinol and ferric chloride react with each other
•. A blue green compound is finally formed. This reagent reacts with many sugars but
under the condition described above only pentoses yield blue- green colour.

•
Seliwanoff’s Test

•To the sugar (2 ml) add 2 ml of seliwanoff s reagent.

• A blank without sugar should also be pre-pared to judge the colour change.
•Place the tubes in boiling water for exactly 1 min.
• Note the colour change, if any, and then continue the heating for 5 minutes and
periodically observe the colour change. Seliwanoff s reagent is 0.5% resorcinol in
conc.

•
Seliwanoff’s Test

•HCl diluted 1:1 with water. Ketoses (natu-rally fructose) give fiery red colour. Aldoses
(glucose, etc.) give the test weakly and slowly.
• If the boiling is prolonged, positive test is obtained with glucose (or maltose) due to
its partial conversion to fructose.
•This test is also given by sucrose which is hydrolysed during the course of the test
yielding fructose as one of the products.
•
Reduction Test

•Carbohydrates with free aldehyde or ketone groups have the ability to reduce solutions of various metallic
ions.

•Properties:
•Fehling’s test
•Benedict’s test
•Barfoed’s test
Fehling’s Test

Principle:
•Carbohydrates with free aldehyde or ketone groups reduce copper sulphate to
cuprous oxide forming a yellow or brownish red coloured precipitate. Fehling’s
reagent is prepared freshly by mixing equal volumes of two stock solutions A and
B. Solution A is 6.93 grams of CuSO4.5H2O per 100 ml of water and Solution B is
20 grams of KOH and 34.6 grams of sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt)
per 100 ml solution.
Fehling’s Test

Procedure:
•Add a few drops of sugar solution at a time to 5 ml of Fehling’s solution and heat the
mixture after each addition.
• The production of yellow or brownish red cuprous oxide precipitate indicates the
presence of reducing sugars.

•
Benedict’s Test

•Add 5mL of Bennedict’s qualitative reagent to the sugar solution, and place the test
tube boiling water bath for 2 minutes.
• In case of reducing sugars there will be an appearance of red precipitate.
• Bennedict’s qualitative solution is prepared by dissolving 173 gm. of sodium citrate
and 100 gm. sodium carbonate and 100 ml of water, by heating.
• If there is any turbidity, it should be removed by filtration. Copper sulphate solution
(17.3 gm. copper sulphate in 100 ml water) is slowly added with constant stirring to
the citrate-carbonate solution and the volume is made up to 11.
Benedict’s Test

•This test is based on the modification of Fehling’s test by Benedict. The difficulties
faced by Fehling’s test are, therefore, not faced in case of Bennedict’s test.
•In the presence of even small quantities of reducing sugars the entire body of the
solution will be filled with a precipitate which is red.
• In the case of non-reducing sugar (say sucrose) the solution will remain perfectly
clean.
•This reagent is routinely used and found to be reliable in the examination of urine for
pathological amounts of sugars.
•
Barfoed’s Test

•Mix 5 ml of Barfoed’s reagent with 1 ml of carbohydrate solution in a test tube and

heat in a boiling water bath for 10 min.
• Appearance of a red precipitate of cupric oxide (Cu20) indicates the presence of
reducing sugar. Barfoed’s reagent is prepared by dissolving 13.3 gm. of neutral copper
acetate in 200 ml of water and then adding 1.8 ml of glacial acetic acid.

•
Barfoed’s Test

•Barfoed’s test is also copper reduction test but this test differs basically from Fehling’
s test or Bennedict’s test as it is carried out in acidic medium instead of alkaline
medium. Under acidic conditions the reduction takes place efficiently.
•Monosaccharide’s respond quickly to the test whereas disaccharides respond slowly.
•When the sugar solution is boiled in contact with the reagent the disaccharide is
hydrolysed by acetic acid present in the reagent and the positive test is obtained.
•Chloride interferes with this assay as it causes the formation of a green precipitate
the urine cannot be tested by this method as it contains chloride.
•
Quantitative Test
Estimation of Glucose by Benedict’s method

Procedure:
•Pipette out in a conical flask 25 ml of the Benedict’s quantitative reagent. Add about 5 to 10 gm. of Na2CO3
and a few porcelain chips to the flask to prevent bumping.
•Heat the contents of conical flask to boiling and then run in the glucose solution from a burette at first rapidly
and then slowly until the blue colour becomes fade.
•Allow it to boil for 2-3 minutes more and add glucose solution drop by drop till the solution becomes
colourless.
•Note down the volume of the glucose solution used and calculate the percentage of glucose in solution as
described below. Sometimes the solution in the flask becomes too much concentrated due to evaporation of
water. To avoid it more water may be added.
.
Estimation of Glucose by Benedict’s method

•Suppose 20 ml of the glucose solution is required to titrate 25 ml of Benedict’s

quantitative reagent. As 25 ml of the Benedict’s quantitative regent is equivalent to 50
mg of glucose, hence 20 ml of the solution contains 50 mg of glucose. Therefore, 100
ml of the glucose contains 50×100/ 20 =250 mg of glucose and the strength of the
solution 250 mg per cent
Glucose Oxidase method for estimation of
glucose

•In this method, the aldehyde group of β-D-Glucose is oxidized by glucose oxidase to
give gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
•β-D-Glucose + H2O + O2 → gluconic acid + H2O2
•The hydrogen peroxide may be broken down to water and oxygen by a peroxidase
and if an oxygen acceptor is present, it will convert to a coloured compound which can
be measured. The reagent usually used is oxidation product of phenol condensed with
4-aminophenazone to give a coloured product as in determination of alkaline
phosphatase.
•
Function
 Classification of Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending upon
whether or not they undergo hydrolysis, and if they do, on the number of
products formed.
 Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are often called simple sugars, these are compound which possess a
free aldehyde or ketone group.
• They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed. The general formula is Cn(H2O)
n
or CnH2nOn.
• The monosaccharides are subdivided into tiroses, tertrose, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses
etc., and also as aldoses or ketoses depending upon whether they contian aldehyde or
ketone group.
• Each simple sugar has a cyclic structure and is composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen in ratios of 1:2:1 respectively.
 Dissacharides
• Disaccharides, meaning "two sugars", are commonly found in nature as
sucrose, lactose and maltose.
• They are formed by a condensation reaction where one molecule of water
condenses or is released during the joining of two monosaccharides.
• The type of bond that is formed between the two sugars is called a glycosidic
bond.
• Examples: Lactose, Sucrose, Maltose

Condensation Reaction resulting in Glycosidic Bonds in Maltose

 Ogliosaccharides
• Carbohydrates that contain more than two simple sugars are called oligosaccharides or
polysaccharides, depending upon the length of the structure.
• Oligosaccharides usually have between three and ten sugar units while polysaccharides can
have more than three thousand units.
• These large structures are responsible for the storage of glucose and other sugars in plants
and animals.
• Important oligosaccharides are raffinose and stachyose. These oligosaccharides are of
nutritional importance because they are found in beans and legumes.
• Because of their unique glycosidic bonds, raffinose and stachyose cannot be broken down
into their simple sugars. Therefore, they cannot be absorbed by the small intestine and are
often metabolized by bacteria in the large intestine to form unwanted gaseous byproducts.
• Commercial enzyme preparations such as Beano can be consumed before a meal rich in
beans and legumes in order to aid the small intestine in the breakdown of these
oligosaccharides.
 Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are compound sugars and yield more than 10 molecules of
monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• They are further classified depending on they type of molecules produced as a resullt of
hydrolysis.
• The general formula is (C6H10O5)x.
• Example of homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
• Example of heteropolysaccharides are Hyaluronic acid, Chondrotin.

• Polysaccharides can also be used as

structural components. The cell walls of
plants (and thus things such as wood
and paper) are also formed by long
polymers of glucose known as
cellulose.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have six major
functions within the body:
1. Providing energy and
regulation of blood glucose
2. Sparing the use of proteins for
energy
3. Breakdown of fatty acids and
preventing ketosis
4. Biological recognition
processes
5. Flavor and Sweeteners
6. Dietary fiber
 1. Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose
• Glucose is the only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues. All digestible
polysaccharides, disaccharides, and monosaccharides must eventually be converted into
glucose or a metabolite of glucose by various liver enzymes.
• Blood glucose levels must be kept relatively constant. (Homeostatic)
Liver performs the regulating of level of blood glucose.
• Hormone insulin is secreted when blood glucose
level rises. Insulin causes the uptake of glucose as
well as the synthesis of glycogen, a glucose storage
polymer. In this way, the liver is able to remove
excessive levels of blood glucose.
• Hormone glucagon is secreted when blood glucose
level is low. This hormone inhibits the uptake of
glucose by muscle and other cells and promotes the
breakdown of glycogen in the liver in order to
release glucose into the blood.
 2. Sparing the use of proteins for energy
• Maintaining a regular intake of carbohydrates will prevent protein from being used as
an energy source. Gluconeogenesis will slow down and amino acids will be freed for the
biosyntheses of enzymes, antibodies, receptors and other important proteins.
• Adequate intake of carbohydrates will prevent the degradation of skeletal muscle and
other tissues such as the heart, liver, and kidneys. Also prevent ketosis.
.
• Although the brain will adapt to using ketones
as a fuel, it preferentially uses carbohydrates
and requires a minimum level of glucose
circulating in the blood in order to function
properly. Before the adaptation process
occurs, lower blood glucose levels may cause
headaches in some individuals.
• Average person should consume at least 50 to
100g of carbohydrates per day
 3. Flavor and Sweeteners
• Receptors located at the tip of the tongue bind to tiny bits of carbohydrates
and send what humans perceive as a "sweet" signal to the brain.
• Sweeteners can be classified as either nutritive or alternative. Nutritive
sweeteners have all been mentioned before and include sucrose, glucose,
fructose, high fructose corn syrup, and lactose. These types of sweeteners not
only impart flavor to the food, but can also be metabolized for energy.
• Alternative sweeteners provide no food energy and include saccharin,
cyclamate, aspartame, and acesulfame.
 4. Dietary fiber
• Dietary fibers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum and mucilage are important carbohydrates for
several reasons.
• Soluble dietary fibers like pectin, gum and mucilage pass undigested through the small intestine and are
degraded into fatty acids and gases by the large intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either be
used as a fuel for the large intestine or be absorbed into the bloodstream.
• In general, the consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the elimination of waste much easier since
dietary fiber is both indigestible and an attractant of water, stools become large and soft. As a result, feces can
be expelled with less pressure.
• Not enough fiber consumption will change the constitution of the stool and increase the amount of force
required during defecation.
• High fiber intake reduces the risk of developing obesity by increasing the bulk of a meal without yielding much
energy. An expanded stomach leads to satisfaction despite the fact that the caloric intake has decreased
• relatively high intake of fiber will also decrease the absorption of cholesterol, a compound that is thought to
contribute to atherosclerosis or scarring of the arteries.
• prevent colon cancer by diluting potential carcinogens through increased water retention, binding carcinogens
to the fiber itself and speeding the passage of food through the intestinal tract so that cancer-causing agents
have less time to act.
 5. Biological recognition processes
• Carbohydrates not only serve nutritional functions, but are also thought to
play important roles in cellular recognition processes.
• For example, many immunoglobulins (antibodies) and peptide hormones
contain glycoprotein sequences. These sequences are composed of amino
acids linked to carbohydrates.
• During the course of many hours or days, the carbohydrate polymer linked to
the rest of the protein may be cleaved by circulating enzymes or be degraded
spontaneously.
• The liver can recognize differences in length and may internalize the protein in
order to begin its own degradation. In this way, carbohydrates may mark the
passage of time for proteins.
 SUMMARY
• Carbohydrates are chief energy source, in many animals, they are instant source of energy. Glucose is
broken down by glycolysis/ kreb's cycle to yield ATP.
• Glucose is the source of storage of energy. It is stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants.
• Stored carbohydrates acts as energy source instead of proteins.
• Carbohydrates are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• Carbohydrates aid in regulation of nerve tissue and are the energy source for brain.
• Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens, receptor molecules,
vitamins and antibiotics.
• They form structural and protective components, like in cell wall of plants and microorganisms.
• In animals they are important constituent of connective tissues.
• They participate in biological transport, cell-cell communication and activation of growth factors.
• Carbohydrates that are rich in fibre content help to prevent constipation.
• Also they help in modulation of immune system.
Application
Food Industry
Starches

Sources: Main source is wheat flour, rice, corn, potatoes, oats, rye, sorghum, soy,
tapioca, and arrowroot.

Granules: packets of starch produced by plants, not soluble in cold water. Size and
shape vary from plant to plant. Rice has the smallest granules. Potatoes have the
largest granules. Starch granules are a mixture of amylose and amylopectin
molecules. Varying ratios cause each type of starch to act differently in food mixtures.
Starches composed of mainly amylopectin are called waxy starches.
 Starches

Starches have two basic structures:

● linear (amylose)
● branched (amylopectin)
 Cellulose

Cellulose
Polysaccharide made from large amounts of beta-D-glucose. Humans lack the
digestive enzymes needed to break the bonds in cellulose molecules.
· Known as fiber
· Forms rigid structure in plants
· Strings in celery
· Membranes surrounding kernels of corn
Carbohydrate Gums and Pectins

Carbohydrate Gums Pectins

• Polysaccharides that are soluble in water and extracted
from plants.
• Thicken and stabilize mixtures
• Traps color and flavor
• Provide stability and texture for foods such as salad
dressings and gummy candies.
• Used as food additives (handout)
• Complex carb found in plan cells and made of chemical
derivatives of sugar called sugar acids.
• Naturally occurs in fruit
• Produce a strong gel
• In presence of sugar, pectin molecules will dehydrate
• Acid will create a thickened structure
• Jams and jellies.
Functions of Complex Carbs in Food Prep

● Provide Structure
● Bind
● Thicken
Physical Properties of Starch and Liq.
Mixtures

a. Retrogradation
Firming of a gel during cooling and standing. Occurs because starch granules are trying to
return to the structure they had before cooking. Desirable when it causes a gel to thicken during
cooling. Undesirable if it continues to the point that cracks form in the gel. Syneresis is the term used
for water leaking from gel over time (Ex. liquid that separates from mustard). Acids break down
starches and gels, which reduces the thickening of starch.
Physical Properties of Starch and Liq.
Mixtures

b. Viscosity
The resistance of a mixture to flow. The more solid that is present the more viscosity
there will be.

c. Stability
Ability of a thickened mixture to remain constant over time and temperature
changes. A stable sauce can be frozen and reheated with no change in in appearance or
taste. Waxy maize starch is a clear, soft paste that is as thick hot as cold. Cornstarch is
not stable in prolonged heat. Would be better to use flour in a gravy mixture because it
would stay smooth over time.
Physical Properties of Starch and Liq.
Mixtures

d. Opacity vs. Translucency

Opacity: how much an object blocks light. Gels made with wheat starch.
Translucency: how much light can pass through an object. Gels made with
cornstarch, potato starch, and arrowroot.

e. Texture
Using cornmeal to thicken gravy but most people would not like it because it would
feel gritty and not smooth. Whole wheat flour would also be gritty.
Nutritional Function of Carbs

Main function of carbohydrates: Provide energy for bodily functions.

Other functions:
● Provide bulk for the digestive process
● Tie up bile acids, decreasing their reabsorption
● Lower cholesterol levels in blood
● Promote the utilization of fat

Should not be routinely consumed over the recommended daily amount.

Pharmaceuticals
 Starch

· Starch is used as an excipient primarily in oral solid-dosage formulations where it is utilized as a

binder,diluent, and disintegrant.
· As a diluent, starch is used for the preparation of standardized triturates of colorants or potent
drugs tofacilitate subsequent mixing or blending processes in manufacturing operations. Starch is also
used indry-filled capsule formulations for volume adjustment of the fill matrix.
· In tablet formulations, freshly prepared starch paste is used at a concentration of 5–25% w/w in
tabletgranulations as a binder. Selection of the quantity required in a given system is determined
byoptimization studies, using parameters such as granule friability, tablet friability, hardness,
disintegrationrate, and drug dissolution rate.
· Starch is one of the most commonly used tablet disintegrants at concentrations of 3–15% w/w.
Cellulose

Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of glucose units linked to each other by β (1-

4) glycosidic linkage
● Microcrystalline cellulose is widely used in pharmaceuticals, primarily as a
binder/diluent in oral tablet andcapsule formulations where it is used in both wet-
granulation and direct-compression processes. Inaddition to its use as a
binder/diluent, microcrystalline cellulose also has some lubricant and
disintegrantproperties that make it useful in tableting.
● Powdered cellulose is used as tablet diluent and hard gelatin capsule filler.
Glucose

Glucose is the most abundant carbohydrate, found both in plants and animals.
● Glucose is a basic energy source for many of the body's operations. It is used for most
bodilyprocesses, including cellular respiration, food digestion, and the production of ATP.
● Liquid glucose is used as a base in oral solutions and syrups and also as a granulating and
coatingagent in tablet manufacture.
● Liquid glucose is also used as sweetener in confectionery products.
Lactose

● Anhydrous lactose is widely used in direct compression tableting applications and as

a tablet and capsule filler and binder. Anhydrous lactose can be used with moisture-
sensitive drugs due to its low moisture content.
● Lactose monohydrate is used as a filler or diluent in tablets and capsules. It is also
used to prepare direct compression tablet.
Sucrose

Sucrose syrup, containing 50–67% w/w sucrose, is used in tableting as a binding agent for wet
granulation. In the powdered form, sucrose serves as a dry binder (2–20% w/w) or as a bulking agent.
● Sucrose is used as sweetener in chewable tablets and lozenges. Tablets that contain large
amounts of sucrose may harden to give poor disintegration.
● Sucrose syrups are used as tablet-coating agents at concentrations between 50% and 67% w/w.
With higher concentrations, partial inversion of sucrose occurs, which makes sugar coating
difficult.
● Sucrose syrups are also widely used as vehicles in oral liquid dosage forms to enhance
palatability or to increase viscosity.
Agriculture
Agriculture

Photosynthesis
People and animals obtain their energy by consuming foods that contain carbohydrates. Plants, on the other hand,
synthesize their own carbohydrates. Each green cell contains the machinery to harvest light energy and use that energy to break
up carbon dioxide and water. The rearrangement of these molecules results in glucose, a carbohydrate.

Cellular Respiration
Like other organisms, plants store carbohydrates and burn them for energy. This process, called cellular respiration,
breaks down the carbohydrate molecules produced during photosynthesis, releasing energy to power the plant's life processes.

Food Source
The considerable difference in how plants and animals generate energy is significant for all life on Earth. Without plants,
the abundant energy beating down from the sun would go unused. When plants produce sugars from sunlight, they make those
carbohydrates available to organisms that consume the plants as food. This forms the basis of the planet's food webs.