Enriching Goal-Setting Theory With Time An Integrated Approach

Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated Approach
Author(s): Yitzhak Fried and Linda Haynes Slowik

Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul., 2004), pp. 404-422
Published by: Academy of Management
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Academy ofManagement Review
2004,Vol. 29,No. 3, 404-422.
ENRICHING GOAL-SETTING THEORY WITH

TIME: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH
YITZHAK FRIED
LINDA HAYNES SLOWIK
Wayne State University
We examine the overlooked in goal-setting

role of time theory and demonstrate how
the integration of time into this
adds to its dynamism
theory and validity in the
increasingly complex, constantly changing work environment. Following a brief dis

cussion of developments in the scientific understanding of time, we discuss and
illustrate how these new understandings enhance the utility and theoretical sound
ness of the theory and how time can be integrated into the theory's main components:
goal difficulty, goal attainability, and goal specificity.
Time is an important factor in people's lives, herently associated with the issue of time in
both at and outside of work. A significant por terms of, for example, deadlines or appropriate
tion of people's cognitions relates to time? time frames needed for accomplishing different
namely, past and present experiences, as well goals. Therefore, it is natural to discuss the role
as future expectations and plans. However, it is of time in goal-setting theory.
interesting to note that work motivation theories Furthermore, we argue here that the contribu
have generally failed to systematically incorpo tion of goal-setting theory has not been fully
rate time as an important variable affecting realized because of the failure to systematically
people's motivation (cf. George & Jones, 2000; incorporate the dynamic role of time. Goal
Rousseau & Fried, 2001). We argue that incorpo setting theory offers a good opportunity to dem
rating time as an integral part of motivation onstrate the importance of time and context as
theories would improve their validity, general sociated withtime because of its cognitive
izability, and utility (cf. George & Jones, 2000; underpinnings. in
As other key cognitive theo
McGrath & Rotchford, 1983; McGrath & Tschan, ries (e.g., expectancy, equity), in goal-setting
2004). Here we demonstrate the importance of theory it is assumed that behavior reflects con
time to motivation theories by discussing the scious goals and intentions. We argue that cog
potential relevance and contribution of time and nitive motivation models, such as goal-setting
context associated with time to goal-setting the theory, permit researchers to focus on the hu
ory.We hope that this analysis of the role of time man tendency to interpret the past and present,
in goal-setting theory will serve as a basis for envision the future, and incorporate these three
future analysis of the role of time in other work time frames and the relationships among them
related motivational theories. as integral parts of the cognitive processes of
Although time can be discussed as an impor behavioral decision making at work.
tant component of other motivational theories as Following a review of developments in the
well, we selected goal-setting theory to demon scientificunderstanding of time and the major
strate the importance of time for two major rea features of the goal-setting theory, we describe
sons. First, goal-setting theory has arguably be how time can be incorporated into goal-setting
come one of the dominant motivational theories theory, thereby enhancing the theory's thor
in organizational behavior (e.g., Feather, 1990; oughness and predictive power.
Locke & Latham, 1990; Naylor, Pritchard, & Ilgen,
1980). Second, the focus of goal-setting theory on
the achievements of goals also means that it, UNDERSTANDING THE CONSTRUCT OF TIME
more than any other motivational theory, is in Time is an enigmatic aspect of reality that
researchers from a variety of disciplines are
We thank Denise Rousseau, Ari Levi, Avi and now beginning to understand, including those
Kleuger,
Miriam Erez for their valuable input. in the behavioral sciences. Although many im
404

2004 Fried and Slowik 405
portant strides have been taken toward gaining should becomplemented by the relativistic
a fuller understanding of time in the areas of (subjective) perspective of time.
psychology, sociology, or organizational behav The general theory of relativity of time in the
ior (cf. Ancona, Goodman, Lawrence, & Tush context of the social sciences suggests that time
man, 2001; Clark, 1985; George & Jones, 2000; Lee has very different characteristics not generally
& Liebenau, 1999; Mitchell & James, 2001; recognized inWestern industrialized societies,
Nowotny, 1992; Thierry & Meijman, 1994;Whipp, although they are scientifically well docu
1994; Zaheer, Albert, & Zaheer, 1999), these ad mented and accepted (e.g., see Lee & Liebenau,
vances are esoteric and far from becoming com 1999; McGrath, 1988; McGrath & Tschan, 2004).
mon knowledge. Evidence and theory indicate that time involves
Two perspectives dominate discussions of multiple time perspectives and multiple
time: (1) an absolute view, based on the work of streams, is cyclical (rather than linear), is un
Galileo (1957) and Newton (1962), and (2) a rela even (rather than homogeneous), and is concrete
tivists view, based on the work of Einstein (1945) and relational (i.e., itsmeaning is relative to the
and others (cf. de Beauregard, 1966). Proponents surrounding context), rather than abstract and
of the absolute perspective view time as linear absolute (e.g., Jones, 1988; Laurer, 1981; McGrath
and continuous?that is, time advances linearly & Kelly, 1986).
from past to present to future?homogeneous? Concerning the issue of time perspective, so
that is, each second is like every other second? cietal cultures differ in their orientation to time
infinitely divisible, objective, and universal? such that different cultures place varying de
that is, subject to a single interpretation (e.g., grees of emphasis on the past, present, and fu
see Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988, and Slife, 1993). ture (e.g., Hall & Hall, 1987; Schein, 1992). For
This view, known as clock time, is how Ameri example, Chinese culture values the past much
can and other Western cultures conceive of time. more than do American and, more generally,
Acceptance of clock time as reality grew dur Western cultures, which tend to characterize
ing the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, time as having a clear and unrepeatable past, a
spurred by the introduction of affordable highly transient "present," and an infinite, un
watches, and it coincided with the Industrial limited future (e.g., McGrath & Rotchford, 1983).
Revolution (Schommers, 1994, 1998; Slife, 1993). Furthermore, the literature suggests that, within
Clock time became a key to organizational op a particular culture, organizations and individ
erations (e.g., McGrath & Rotchford, 1983; uals may vary in their time perspectives (e.g.,
McGrath & Tschan, 2004). For example, organi Schriber & Gutek, 1987). For, example, while
zations consider time to be a scarce and mea American and Western cultures in general are
surable resource, which they can and should oriented more toward the future, evidence sug
control and allocate appropriately to enhance gests that both organizations and individuals in
individual and organizational productivity and these cultures tend to differ in whether they are
efficiency. Thus, organizations are involved in oriented toward the future or toward the present
planning (scheduling) and synchronizing time (e.g., Raynor, 1974; Schriber & Gutek, 1987).
among activities in order tomaximize efficiency, Moreover, time is not homogeneous and linear
as reflected in the ratio between productivity but, rather, is based on events that are often
and clock time (McGrath & Rotchford, 1983). The cyclical in nature (Clark, 1985; Nowotny, 1992;
deadline, in particular, is a key tool for the con Slife, 1993). Whereas clock time is formally con
trol and synchronization of organizational activ structed linearly and evenly (e.g., every hour
ities (e.g., Lee & Liebenau, 1999). consists of exactly sixty equal minutes), the sub
However, people's perception of time is not jectiveexperience of
time differs, based on
limited only to the objective characteristics of meaningful events that are often repetitive (cf.
clock time. A growing number of scholars now Clark, 1978, 1985). For example, a professor,
view clock time as limiting our understanding of whose academic year consists of nine months, is
social and organizational phenomena (e.g., An required to teach a regular schedule during the
cona et al., 2001; Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Lee fall and winter semesters. The professor plans
& Liebenau, 1999; McGrath & Rotchford, 1983; and operationalizes hisor her other work and
Slife, 1993; Zellmer-Bruhn, Gibson, & Aldag, life activities (e.g., travel, family, and social
2001). They argue that the clock time concept events) around this key cyclical event of teach

406 Academy of Management Review July
ing. The cyclical events also affect the subjec likely to experience the opposite: that time is
tive feelings of the involved individual such that long and hardly passing (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi,
(for example) the days the professor teaches 1990; Mainemelis, 2001). Similarly, performing
"feel" different from the days he or she does not. under stressful conditions may also contribute
Similarly, the weekend days "feel" different to the experience of time passing slowly (cf.
from the five working days (McGrath & Rotch Zaheer et al., 1999).
ford, 1983). Thus, in contrast to clock time, which To sum up, both subjective (relativistic) and
flows evenly and continuously, event times are objective (clock) time perspectives are important
discontinuous and flow unevenly (e.g., Clark, in understanding people's adjustment to mod
1985). ern life. Hassard summarizes the important role
Social time also contains multiple time of both time perspectives in the modern society:
streams. To illustrate, people in the Western While individuals time as natural
experience
world are typically part of at least two time and inherent, and while subjective awareness of
streams?home and work?which are associ time becomes expressed in the construction of
ated with different experiences and expecta intersubjective temporal meanings, nevertheless,
in modern pressures for synchronization
may ex
streams society
tions. Within each, additional
force time sense to become objectified and con
ist. At work, professional and occupational strained. In order to be individuals
organized,
groups may operate under different time must subscribe to times which are rational and
streams (Dubinskas, 1988; Lee & Liebenau, 1999; external (1996: 591).
Schein, 1992;Whipp, 1994). For example, the nor
Our focus here, therefore, is on incorporating the
mal time horizon for salespeople is typically
conception of time (both clock time and the var
measured in minutes, hours, days, and weeks,
ious components of the subjective time perspec
whereas scientists in research and development
tives described above) into the components and
may be concerned with many years (e.g., Law
principles of goal-setting theory, since we sug
rence & Lorsch, 1967; Schein, 1992). These differ
to gest this improves our ability to understand and
ent time horizons are expected to contribute
predict individuals' work motivation and perfor
different definitions among salespeople versus
mance.
scientists concerning what constitutes "quick"
or "slow" delivery of a product (Schein, 1992).
Thus, promising delivery "soon" will have a GOAL-SETTING THEORY
completely different meaning among salespeo
Goal-Setting Components
ple versus scientists. As we discuss later, such
differences in time horizons exist between man Goal-setting theory states that the expect
agers and scientists or professionals in general. ancy, instrumentality, and valence of outcomes
Furthermore, time is concrete and relational, will be high if goals are difficult (challenging),
rather than abstract and objective, and is as well as specific and attainable (e.g., Austin &
strongly defined by social culture and related Klein, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002). Specif
norms. For example, "late" could change, de ically, there is the assumption that behavior re
on whether a project is driven inter flects conscious goals and intentions. Conse
pending
or externally?based on customer de quently, the expectation is that employee efforts
nally
mands (Zaheer et al., 1999). Similarly, what and performance in organizations will be influ
constitutes a "quick" or "slow" promotion de enced by the goals assigned to, or selected by,
pends on the norms constructed by the profes these employees. Theorists argue that, tomaxi
sion or particular organization regarding nor mize employees' efforts and subsequent perfor
mative time for career progression (Hassard, mance, performance goals should be challeng
1996). ing rather than easy, but they should also be
Finally, people may experience time differ achievable. In the minds of employees, the ex
ently because of their personality or work envi perience of success in the pursuit of challenging
ronment (e.g., Bond & Feather, 1988; Zellmer but attainable goals is associated with positive
Bruhn et al., 2001). For example, employees who and valued (high-valence) outcomes. These out
work in a stimulating environment comes are both internal?for example, a sense
(challenging)
are more likely to experience the "flow" of time. of accomplishment, escape from feeling bored or
Their counterparts who work in boring jobs are useless, and proving oneself?and external?for

example, higher income, job security, and op in achieving current goals (Locke & Latham,
portunities for promotions (e.g., Mento, Klein, & 1990). Numerous studies have suggested that
Locke, 1992). past performance, or the perception of past per
The theory also states that goals should be formance, is an indicator of future goal choice
specific (e.g., increase productivity by 5 percent (Locke & Latham, 1990). We are particularly in
in the next year), rather than general (i.e., "do terested in the complex issue of goal choice fol
your best"). However, in complex jobs, "do your lowing a failure. Furthermore, while in goal
best" goals are likely to be more effective
setting theory and related research scholars
(Latham & Seijts, 1999; Locke, 1996). The theory that people tend to prioritize goals
recognize
further asserts that people's commitment is im
based on their importance (e.g., Locke & Latham,
portant to maximize the relationship between
1990), an important issue scholars have not ad
goal and performance. Moreover, commitment
dressed concerns how the context of time affects
can be enhanced by two categories of factors
the choice and selection of multiple goals in the
that (1)make the goal attainment important and
work setting and how these goals are related
(2) enhance individuals' belief that they can at
across time (cf. Austin & Bobko, 1985; Locke &
tain the goal (high self-efficacy). Finally, the the
Latham, 1990, 2002). We elaborate on this key
ory asserts that consistent and timely feedback
is needed issue in this article.
for successful pursuit of goals (e.g.,
Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002). Finally, goal-setting theory asserts that chal
lenging goals cause people towork longer on a
task. People who work on easier goals are ex
Present Treatment of Time in Goal-Setting to complete
pected their goals sooner, simply
Theory because more to do. A num
they have nothing
While goal-setting theory fails to systemat ber of studies provide support for this assertion
ically discuss the potential contribution of (Locke & Latham, 1990). We contribute ideas on
time (cf. George & Jones, 2000) and instead this issue of challenging goals and time
implicitly aggregates motivation over time, it throughout the paper. We should also note that
does incorporate certain elements of clock while in goal-setting theory and related re
time, as we now describe. One time-related search scholars have examined the moderating
issue that is explicitly discussed in goal effects of a number of situational and personal
setting theory is that of deadlines (e.g., Locke variables (Austin & Klein, 1996; Locke & Latham,
& Latham, 1990), which define when goals 2002), they have not assessed the moderating
should be completed. The basic idea of the influence of time or variables related to time.
theory is that deadlines serve as a tool of time In sum, similar to other motivation
theories,
control and increase the motivational effect of
goal-setting theory has failed to systemati
goals. Thus, when the available time to com
cally address the potential effects of time on
plete a task is longer than needed, the work
the major components of the theory (cf. Austin
pace slows to fill the available time. In con
& Bobko, 1985; George & Jones, 2000). In this
trast, when deadlines are closer in time, peo
article we illustrate the importance of time
ple work faster to complete the job. However,
with regard to the three most central compo
after a certain point, shortening deadlines re
nents of goal-setting theory (e.g., Locke &
duces performance, which is especially true in
Latham, 1990, 2002)?goal difficulty, goal at
complex jobs (e.g., Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988;
tainability, and goal specificity?and we also
Locke, 1996). Research has supported this no
tion of the contingent effect of deadlines such discuss methodological considerations. Note
that deadlines with insufficient time tend to that, because goal-setting theory reflects pri
lead to less effective performance (Bluedorn & marily the future-oriented values of individual
Denhardt, 1998; Locke, 1996). We later discuss goal achievement, which are most prevalent
this issue of the relative effectiveness of dead (though in varying degrees) in North America
lines in different contexts. and Western European societies, the focus of
Another time-related issue discussed in the our discussion is on the contribution of time to
theory is the pattern of employees' choice of goal setting in such achievement-oriented
future goal levels following a failure or success societies.

TIME AND GOAL DIFFICULTY ure. Their involvement

strong in these projects
may belargely on the
based expectation that
Incorporating the concept of time may chal
producing a sufficient number of publications is
lenge some key assumptions in goal-setting the
the key to receiving tenure and that gaining
ory concerning the role of difficult (i.e., challeng
tenure will enable them to pursue a more chal
ing) goals in contributing to employee efforts
lenging research agenda. In yet another and
and performance. We now address how the dif
somewhat different example, students who aim
ferent facets of the context of time may affect the
to complete a degree in order to join the labor
motivating power of challenging versus non
market may be involved in a temporary job, such
challenging goals, the prioritization of goals at
as waiting tables. Once again, these students
work, and the prioritization of coexisting work
are likely to be motivated to do well in this
and non-work-related goals.
typically nonchallenging job in order to support
their studies. They further expect that the com
Time and the Motivational of pletion of their degree will provide them oppor
Qualities
tunities to gain access to potentially challeng
Challenging and Nonchallenging Goals
ing positions.
Hierarchy of goals.The idea that challenging While the preceding three examples focus on
goals will contribute to higher work motivation developmental periods of employees relatively
and performance (as long as they are attain early in their careers, the phenomenon of goal
able) relative to simpler goals may not always hierarchies may also be relevant to people in
be true but, rather, may be contingent on the later career stages. To illustrate, employees in
time context in which the particular goal is be transition, who intend to change their occupa
ing pursued. This time contingency is specifi tion, may have to spend a period of time in less
cally related here to the differential relation challenging assignments as part of the develop
ships between particular goals and other mental process for their future employment.
parallel or futuristic goals. Hierarchy of goals and subjective time per
Control theory (Carver & Scheier, 1981; Klein, spective. In all
of the above examples (on-the
1989) suggests that behavior is complex and can job training of managers, scholarly develop
be explained by hierarchies of feedback loops. ment of young professors, part-time jobs for
In such hierarchies, meeting one goal success students in college, and career transition peri
fully could be part of the input to a higher-order ods for employees), linear external clock time
goal. In the work environment, this means that separates two sequential time periods: the first
employees may use clock time as a basis for involves tasks with relatively low challenge,
pursuing sequential goals, which differ in their whereas the second is characterized by signifi
level of difficulty. Thus, they may work hard and cantly more challenging tasks. However, we fur
function well with less challenging goals if they ther argue that in these and other similar exam
perceive the accomplishment of these goals is a ples in American and other Western societies,
necessary step in pursuing more difficult and people's ability to effectively adjust and pursue
challenging future goals (cf. Bluedorn & Den these transitions is largely contingent on their
hardt, 1988; Raynor, 1974). adherence to a future-oriented time perspective.
For example, as part of their training, man That is, the first time period (involvement in
ager trainees may be asked to rotate among less challenging goals) tends to be subjectively
different functional units, some of which may defined by the participants as a transitory (pass
involve simple, nonchallenging goals. These ing) present, which serves as a stepping-stone to
managers, however, are expected to be highly the desired future. This desired future state is
motivated to do well in all their assignments characterized in people's subjective perspective
because of their expectations, ultimately, to as offering ample opportunities for involvement
move on to challenging management positions. in challenging jobs. Thus, although jobs differ in
Similarly, nontenured assistant professors in re how long in clock time the transitory passing
search universities are likely to be motivated by "present" will last (e.g., typically, a few months
productive yet less challenging and complex re to a year formanagement trainees, from five to
search projects in order to ensure they produce a seven years for assistant professors, and a few
sufficient number of publications forgetting ten years for those who wait tables until completing

2004 Fried and S?owik 409
their degree), subjectively, for the involved par mate it will take them a significantly longer
ticipants this time period, regardless of its clock time to reach their desired futuristic plan than is
time duration, is characterized as a holistic, the norm in the organization, industry, or profes
transitory (passing) "present," prior to the move sion. They may choose not to pursue this career
to the desired future. path because of their concerns that the length of
The subjective definition of "present" versus time taken to reach
the desired position may
"future" time is largely determined by the norms stigmatize their potential in the eyes of superi
in each occupation concerning the time period ors and peers and, thus, adversely affect their
before one expects to move from the present ability to flourish in the new position or to pur
transitory period featuring relatively nonchal sue other career moves (cf. Hassard, 1996).
lenging jobs to the future period featuring chal Career opportunities. Not all organizations or
lenging jobs. Typically, more complex jobs in occupations offer the same opportunities for fu
volve longer developmental periods featuring ture growth. For example, managerial and pro
less challenging tasks and, thus, longer experi fessional jobs potentially offer more opportuni
ences of a passing "present" time period (cf. ties for growth over one's clock time-based
Jaques, 1982). This perception of the develop career than blue collar production jobs (cf.
mental time period as a passing (transitory) Jaques, 1982). Thus, we expect that organiza
"present," linked to a potentially "infinite" fu tional and occupational opportunities for
ture time period featuring challenging tasks, re growth will affect employees' pursuit of futuris
flects the futuristic perspective of American and tic-oriented job plans (cf. Jaques, 1982).
Western cultures. Itmay serve as a helpful psy Growth need strength. Some people have
chological mechanism for employees coping strong needs for personal accomplishments,
with the transition process between the two time learning, and personal development beyond
periods (cf.McGrath & Rotchford, 1983). their current level. Thus, these people have
Hierarchy of goals and personal and contex strong "growth need" (Hackman & Oldham,
tual variables. Individuals' decisions regarding 1980). Other people have weaker needs for
whether to pursue a hierarchy of goals across growth and, thus, will be less motivated to take
time may be contingent on time-related per advantage of career opportunities to grow
sonal and contextual variables. These vari (Hackman & Oldham, 2002). It is conceivable
ables, some of which correspond to the relativ that people who are high in growth need will be
istic (subjective) time concept and some of inclined to be involved in nonchallenging tasks
which correspond to the clock time concept, are only as a learning transitory period, before be
discussed below. ing given the opportunity to be involved in chal
Career stages. We can discuss pursuing a se lenging tasks. In contrast, people who are low in
quence of goals over time in reference to em growth need are more likely to be satisfied with
ployee careers (e.g., Hassard, 1996). That is, pur being engaged in the less challenging tasks on
suing goals over time serves as the basis for a permanent basis (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).
one's career, which in modern society has an Individual future orientation. While American
important social meaning (Hassard, 1996). Based and Western societies are characterized by a
on the relational concept of time, organizations future orientation, individuals differ in their
and employees assess the progress of people on level on this variable. People who are high in
the career ladder from one status to another in growth need strength may differ in how much
reference to a socially constructed time chart, time and effort they are ready to endure in order
indicating whether career progress is on time, to satisfy this need. Those with higher future
too slow, or faster based on these socially con orientation are more likely to take a long-term
structed norms. career perspective than people with lower fu
Society attributes relatively fast advancement ture orientation. The former would therefore
to individuals' higher skills, qualities, and char show a higher tendency to be effectively en
acteristics. In contrast, slower than normal ad gaged in simpler, nonchallenging assignments
vancement is often attributed to lower capabil fora relatively long period of (clock) time. This is
ities and skills (cf. Hassard, 1996). Given that, because of their futuristic time perspective, as
one would expect that employees will be less sociated with their inclination to subjectively
inclined to pursue futuristic plans if they esti perceive these tasks as a temporary (transitory)

step toward future involvement in more chal Hypothesis 1: Individuals will be in

lenging tasks. In contrast, people with lower clined to pursue a career path in
future orientation tend to evaluate life and work which involvement in nonchallenging
events in reference to the present or very near tasks serves as stepping-stones for
future, rather than as a link to a distant future. more challenging future tasks, if the
Consequently, these
people will search for following occur: their future time
growth opportunities at the present time and plans do not exceed the socially con
will be reluctant to be involved for very long in structed norms of appropriate career
transitory, simpler, nonchallenging tasks (cf. progression, career growth opportuni
Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Nuttin, 1964; Raynor, ties are prevalent, their growth need
1974). is high, their time orientation is futur
Organizational culture. As Schriber and istic in nature (owing to personal ori
Gutek (1987) have indicated, organizations, even entation and/or futuristic organization
within the same futuristic culture, tend to differ al culture), and future business
in the degree towhich they are oriented toward prospects and the history of organiza
the future.While some organizations emphasize tional support are positive.
investment in and planning for the future, other
organizations lag in this area. It is conceivable
Time and the Prioritization of Goals at Work:
that employees in organizations with a strong
Multiple Tasks and Time Allocation
future orientation will be more inclined to pur
sue a futuristic strategy in comparison to people A number of scholars
researching time in or
employed in organizations with a weaker futur ganizations a
have pointed out that major time
istic orientation. The former would therefore be problem for employees is the demand to pursue
more inclined than the latter to be involved in two or more tasks simultaneously (e.g., Hassard,
nonchallenging tasks as transitory learning ex 1996; McGrath & Rotchford, 1983). The stress lit
periences, which act as stepping-stones toward erature indicates that continuous exposure to
more challenging future jobs. high-level cognitive demands adversely affects
Future business prospects. We further expect employees' health and performance (e.g., Co
that employees will be more inclined toward hen, 1980; Fried, Melamed, & Ben-David, 2002;
futuristic planning when they interpret the cur Kahn & Byosiere, 1992). This means that there is
rent economic and business indicators to sug a limit to the ability of employees to success
gest that the prospect of the organization to sur fully pursue multiple challenging goals that
vive and be prosperous in future (clock) time is heavily tax their cognitive resources (Cohen,
strong, rather than weak or questionable (cf. 1980; Drach-Zahavy & Erez, 2002).
Das, 1987). Alternatively, employees may choose The most effective solution to this problem is
to be involved in nonchallenging tasks, even if the use of (clock) time reallocation, which is the
future business prospects of the organization rescheduling of one or more of these activities
are bleak, if they perceive that their involvement (e.g., Hassard, 1996; McGrath & Rotchford, 1983).
in nonchallenging jobs may serve as stepping However, given the common scarcity of objective
stones for challenging jobs in other organiza time in organizations, this solution may not al
tions. ways be feasible (Hassard, 1996). Therefore, an
History of organizational support. Moreover, other potential solution is tomix tasks in a par
the level of past organizational support over ticular (clock) time period such that some are
(clock) time is also an important factor. Ifman challenging and others simpler (cf.McGrath &
agement has historically been supportive of Rotchford, 1983).
both the focal employee and employees' long It is conceivable that employees could benefit
term careers in general, and if its present and a
from situation in which only some of the work
projected (perceived) future support are consis assignments are challenging and cognitively
tent with those high levels of support, then em demanding, whereas others are simple and do
ployees will be more inclined to commit to and not require much attention. To help employees
pursue longer-term career planning that prom accomplish challenging assignments, organiza
ises more challenging goals (cf. McGrath & tions and/or employees may simplify some of
Rotchford, 1983). the assignments (cf.McGrath & Rotchford, 1983).

To illustrate, nontenured professors are often The strain level associated with time alloca
assigned to teach the same one or two classes tion across different roles has significantly in
until they receive their tenure. This frees them to creased in past decades because of the rapid
concentrate on their research, which is the most changes in social structure, such as the in
important basis for receiving tenure. Although creased number of dual career families or work
teaching the same classes repeatedly over sev ing single mothers (e.g., Major, Klein, & Ehrhart,
eral years, with few or no changes, can easily 2002). These changes have significantly reduced
become boring and uninspiring, nontenured people's ability to pursue their family role suc
professors may be highly motivated to teach cessfully within the allocated family time (cf.
them well so as to assure positive teaching eval Major et al., 2002). Indeed, studies in the area of
uations, which will free them to invest most of work-family conflict have shown that time in
their cognitive resources in pursuing their re vested at work tends to adversely affect time
search agenda. On receiving tenure, these fac devoted to household tasks and parental role
ulty members are typically expected to be in activities (e.g., Major et al., 2002; Staines, 1980).
volved in teaching stimulating seminars or To enhance their involvement at home, people
preparing new timely elective classes, which may consider pursuing a number of steps in
will significantly raise the experience of chal order to reduce their allocated (clock) time at
lenge associated with the teaching mission. work and to increase their time allocation at
Organizations may also consider the possibil home. For example, some researchers suggest
ity of dividing some of the tasks into small, sim that work-family conflicts may enhance the fre
pler segments that can be matched during a quency of taking a leave of absence from work,
particular time frame with other more challeng quitting, or switching jobs (e.g., Frone, Russell, &
ing tasks (Hassard, 1996; McGrath & Rotchford, Cooper, 1992; Steers & Rhodes, 1978; Thomas &
1983). Here again, we expect the reduced level of Ganster, 1995). For instance, a single profes
cognitive demands through the combination of sional mother who is busy raising young chil
simpler and challenging tasks to enhance em dren may be satisfied with less challenging but
ployees' capabilities to successfully pursue flexible work, because that arrangement facili
these multiple tasks during a defined clock time tates her efforts to raise her children properly.
period. However, after the children have grown, she
may seek more challenging and demanding
Hypothesis 2: Employees will be moti work.
vated and committed to pursue sim a married professional
Similarly, couple may
pler, less challenging tasks if pursu on the challenge and interest levels
compromise
ing these less challenging tasks of their jobs, as long as they are able towork in
facilitates the pursuit of other impor the same organization and the same location,
tant and challenging goals. commute their family to
together, and raise
gether. It may be, however, that after the chil
dren are grown, this couple will look for other
Time and the Prioritization ofWork and Non
ways tomeet their professional aspirations and
Work-Related Goals: Dual Career Goals and
family demands. They may, for example, be
Time Allocation
ready to go to different organizations that offer
In modern societies adults are
likely to divide them more professional opportunities, as long
their (clock) time among multiple roles, includ as they can comfortably commute to see each
ing work, family, recreation, and religion (Has other on a regular basis.
sard, 1996). Involvement in these multiple roles The above analysis should not negate the fact
is based on sophisticated and precise alloca that people's ability to balance career- and
tions of clock time, with the aim of effectively family-oriented goals, as well as
the amount of
synchronizing all these roles in a narrow and time they can devote to family matters at the
scarce time (Hassard, 1996). This tight division of expense of work, is expected to be largely de
scarce time among different roles can often in pendent on such personal and contextual vari
crease the perceived scarcity of time in each ables as their financial ability, family needs,
role and the strain associated with pursuing the organizational policy concerning the issue of
different roles (Hassard, 1996). leave, projections of future needs for employee

skills, personal growth need, and time orienta exposure to demanding (challenging) tasks over
tion. However, because of space constraints, we time is likely to tax people's cognitive capacity,
do not elaborate on the mitigating effects of contribute to stress and strain, and conse
these variables and, thus, hypothesize the fol quently adversely affect health and perfor
lowing normative hypothesis. mance (e.g., Cohen, 1980; Fried et al., 2002; Kahn
& Byosiere, 1992). This evidence therefore sug
Hypothesis 3: Employees will be in
gests that employees' performance will be bet
clined to pursue, for some period of ter if their involvement in challenging tasks is
time, simpler, less challenging tasks if the exact fre
moderately frequent, although
being involved in these tasks frees is an issue for future research, as noted
quency
them to pursue other more important above.
personal goals during that time.
Hypothesis 4: Employees' involvement
in challenging tasks over an extended
Time Intervals and Challenging Goals period of time, without sufficient time
versus
intervals them, will result in
between
High low
frequency of challenging
deterioration of
their ability to per
goals. While research has supported the idea
form. In contrast, employees' involve
that performance will increase if employees are
ment in challenging goals over an ex
pursuing reasonably challenging goals (e.g., of time, with sufficient
tended period
Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002), in theory and re
time intervals between them, should
lated research, scholars have failed to system
discuss whether involvement in such help maintain satisfactory work per
atically formance.
challenging goals will be consistently benefi
cial over time. The basic question here is as Desired time intervals between assignments:
follows: Will employees' performance be maxi The influence of career stages and growth need
mized if they are involved in challenging tasks strength. Although research has failed to pro
all the time, or if they are involved in challeng vide sufficient information on how long the
ing work only part of the time? If the latter al (clock) time intervals between different assign
ternative is more valid, it raises a related ques ments should be to facilitate the successful pur
tion of what time interval between challenging suit of assignments, it is conceivable that what
tasks most effectively enables focal employees constitutes the best frequency will differ among
to maximize their efforts and performance (cf. individuals, based on personal and contextual
George & Jones, 2000). variables. A relevant contextual variable is em
Mainemelis (2001) suggests that exposing em ployee career stage (Hassard, 1996), and a rele
ployees to challenging goals more frequently vant personal variable is growth need strength
can potentially give momentum to new ideas (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).
and prevent degradation of skills. That is, con Evidence suggests that, in the later stages of
sistent with the relational perspective of time, their careers, employees are less interested and
employees who are involved with challenging motivated to be involved in challenging, com
tasks tend to be entirely absorbed with the job, plex tasks than they were in the early stages of
so time as an experience ceases to exist (Csik their careers (Katz, 1978, 1980). Research also
szentmihalyi, 1990; Mainemelis, 2001). Such a suggests that individuals with low growth need
state of engrossment is expected to produce new are less interested in challenging tasks than are
ideas and insight beneficial to successful ac their counterparts with higher growth need
complishments of challenging tasks (Maineme (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Oldham, 1980).
lis, 2001). However, as Mainemelis points out, Thus, those with low growth need are expected
the experience of engrossment is intermittent, to perceive frequent involvement in challenging
especially in the modern, fast-paced, multitask tasks as time consuming and stressful, contrib
environment, because of such constraints as uting to the subjective experience of work time
limits of the workday, physical fatigue, and mul as long and moving slowly (cf. Zaheer et al.,
tiple transitions between tasks (see also Ash 1999). This experience of time dragging, in turn,
forth& Kreiner, 1999). Moreover, as already indi will further reduce these people's energy and
cated, the literature on stress demonstrates that motivation to pursue frequent challenging tasks

(cf. Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Mainemelis, 2001; longer. For example, preparing for Christmas
Slife, 1993; Zaheer et al., 1999). remains an exciting event in part because it is
celebrated only once a year.
Hypothesis 5: Individuals in earlier
Another potential factor is whether the cycli
stages of their career, or with higher cal task repeats itself over time without any
growth need strength, are more likely
to function effectively in challenging change, or whether novelty is added (cf.Gersick
& Hackman, 1990;Weiss & Ilgen, 1985). One can
assignments with relatively brief time assume that challenge is more likely to be main
intervals between them, compared to
tained ifnovel aspects are added to the task. For
their counterparts in later career
example, accountants often have to study new
stages, or with lower growth need
tax codes as a basis for completing tax returns.
strength. Intervention by management in changing the
Cyclical tasks: How challenging are they? process or criteria of operations also may affect
Many of the activities and tasks at work are the challenge level of cyclical tasks (cf.Gersick
cyclical in nature (Clark, 1985; McGrath & Rotch & Hackman, 1990; Weiss & Ilgen, 1985). For in
ford, 1983). For example, accounting business stance, ifmanagement suddenly instructs em
cycles largely determine the goals accountants ployees to cut task completion time, employees
are given to accomplish. Accountants are typi will be stimulated to look for new ways of oper
cally involved in assignments related to busi ating. Similarly, experiencing sudden failure in
ness and individual tax returns during the peak task completion (e.g., because of reduced organ
of tax season, while during the remaining time izational support or changes in personnel) may
of the year they are involved in more routine also contribute tomaintaining challenge, as em
preparations for the next business cycle. ployees attempt to find ways to accomplish
An important question regarding cyclical tasks successfully again (cf. Gersick & Hack
tasks is how long cyclical (repetitive) tasks re man, 1990;Weiss & Ilgen, 1985).
main challenging for focal employees. Given
the benefit of challenging tasks both to the em Hypothesis 6: Cyclical tasks are more
and this is an important likely tomaintain their initial state of
ployee organizations,
related to the issue of task challenge longer if their inherent
question?a question
habituation as discussed in the literature on complexity level is high rather than
both individual and team work moderate, the time interval between
(e.g., Gersick,
1989; Gersick & Hackman, 1990; Katz, 1978, 1980; the reoccurrence of the task is larger
Weiss & Ilgen, 1985).Katz (1978, 1980) indicated rather than smaller, novel aspects are
that as individuals habituate to a added in different cycles, and organi
particular
level of task challenge their re zational intervention leads to change
(complexity),
to these tasks tends to diminish. in operation or to sudden failure of
sponsiveness
The question, therefore, is how many times will task completion.
employees complete a particular task before

reaching a level of habituation that reduces the
TIME AND THE ATTAINABILITYOF GOALS
task's challenge? Goal-setting theory does not
focus on this issue, but one can refer to the job Goal-setting theory states that for goals to be
complexity literature and habituation literature motivational, they must not only be specific and
to get some potential answers. challenging but also achievable or attainable.
It is conceivable, for example, that the higher Once again, the relative importance of goal
the level of task complexity, the greater the achievability to employee motivation and ef
number of times one should be involved in com fortsmay be mitigated by time. Employees may
pleting the task before the experience of habit be encouraged to adopt or commit to risky goals
uation emerges (cf. Hackman & Oldham, 1980; with lower likelihood of achieving them if the
Katz, 1978, 1980). Moreover, it is also likely that valence associated withachieving these goals
the time interval before the task repeats itself is high and if the failure to achieve them is
will affect how long the task remains challeng considered by the focal individuals and their
ing. The longer the interval, the greater the like organizations to be temporary and potentially
lihood the task will keep its "challenging flavor" correctable in future time (cf. Abelson & Levi,

1985; Bazerman, 1998; Huber, 1980). For example, der which goals are tied to clock time realities
knowledge-based (e.g., high-tech start-up) or associated with market demands and opportu
ganizations typically require employees to be nities) to become more compatible with the sci
involved in innovative operations under which entific-based time stream of professionals (cf.
the final product itself, the processes of achiev Amabile et al., 2002). This approach reflects the
ing the product, and the time frame to do so are prevailing philosophy, in the more successful
all uncertain or blurred (McGrath, 2001). Indeed, firms, that failures associated
knowledge-based
the objective probability of successfully produc with innovative are expected and
operations
ing a targeted new product is low. should actually be tolerated or encouraged as
The complexity of the situation is further en in
part of the process of successfully pursuing
hanced by market time pressures, represented novative In other words, it that,
goals. appears
by management, to introduce new products in successful innovative operations, manage
faster in order to achieve strategic competitive ment may have an important ele
incorporated
advantage (e.g., Lee & Liebenau, 1999; Zellmer ment of the scientists' time perspective, which
Bruhn et al., 2001). The ability of employees to be can be characterized as "internal time perspec
involved with risky, potentially unattainable op tive of products" (cf. Lee & Liebenau, 1999).
erations can be understood by analyzing the on this perspective, a successful
Based knowl
subjective time streams of managers and pro strives for innovation,
edge-based firm, which
fessionals and the potential integration be
encourages innovative initiatives by providing
tween them. In fact, there is evidence to suggest
the necessary resources and climate to pursue
that how organizations handle the different time
these initiatives, even when failures are in
streams of professionals (scientists) and manag volved and precise time of success is unknown
ers may be crucial in determining the success
or unclear (e.g., McGrath,1999; Sitkin, 1992).
level of knowledge-based organizations (e.g.,
Encouraging professionals to be involved in
Amabile, Hadley, & Kramer, 2002; Dubinskas,
learning-based innovative projects might also
1988). lend itself to unplanned yet successful products,
which arise from the unstructured, innovative
Knowledge-Based Organizations and process of discovery. There is, indeed, evidence
Multiplicity of Time Streams to suggest that deadlines attached to specific
goals?a key mechanism for achieving goals
Professionals, particularly in knowledge
according to traditional goal-setting theory?
based organizations, perceive time as a mecha
become an obstacle in a setting that focuses on
nism for development, which means that time is
creativity (e.g., Amabile et al., 2002). This is con
open ended and can be extended into the future.
sistent with the assertion, made by goal-setting
The completion of scientific products is tied to
that have their theorists, that when the job is complex, dead
the natural scientific processes
own internal time cycles (Dubinskas, lines may be detrimental to performance (Locke,
1988; Lee &
Liebenau, 1999; Schein, 1992). This developmen 1996). It should be further noted that traditional
tal time horizon is also consistent with the prev organizations might also differ in their support
alence of a learning orientation to of innovation. In order to remain competitive,
approach
many of the more traditional organizations es
ward tasks (e.g., Dweck, 1986). That is,
individuals in knowledge-based tablish a culture of innovation, inwhich employ
organizations
are likely to be involved in the development of ees are encouraged to expend their skills and
new skills in order to increase their competence knowledge and to explore new initiatives under
and their mastery over new situations (Bell & which failures can be expected as part of the
Kozlowski, 2002). As part of this learning pro learning process (cf. Zellmer-Bruhn et al., 2001).
cess, these individuals are also likely to per
ceive and use failures as opportunities from Hypothesis 7: Employees are expected
which to learn, in order to increase the likeli to pursue challenging but risky goals
hood of success in future attempts (Sitkin, 1992). if their organizations emphasize inno
However, in order to be able to pursue this vation, including tolerance of failure,
management has to alter its tradi which is perceived to be an integral
approach,
tional time stream (i.e., linear and external, un part of innovation.

Effects of Time Orientation and Career Stage long-term perspective; and emphasize develop
ment, change, and ideals. Therefore, future- (or
Naturally, not all individuals are likely to be
promotion-) oriented employees are likely to at
motivated to pursue risky goals at the same
tempt to learn from any failure as a basis for
high level of risk, even when the overall climate or more
is conducive for pursuing
such goals. Personal accomplishing equally challenging
challenging goals (cf. Sitkin, 1992).
and situational differences
may explain why
people persist in their efforts to achieve difficult, Hypothesis 8: Individuals with a
challenging, and potentially risky goals, even strong future (promotion) orientation
after experiencing failures. According to goal are more likely to be motivated topur
sue and risky goals fol
setting theory, failure to accomplish challeng challenging
ing assignments can lead to either setting even lowing a failure than are their coun
higher goals, in order to compensate for the fail terparts with a present (prevention)
ure, or setting lower goals, in order to ensure orientation.
success (Locke & Latham, 1990). In goal-setting Career stage. Career stage may affect em
theory, what determines people's choice to pur
ployees' behavior following a failure in a num
sue higher or lower goals following a failure is ber of ways. The organization may develop
whether employees perceive good performance norms about employees' on
performance based
as important. If they do, people are more likely
their career stages (cf.Hassard, 1996). For exam
to pursue higher goals, and vice versa (Locke &
ple, per these constructed norms, the or
Latham, 1990). in terms of success
ganization may expect more,
Incorporating variables related to the relativ more veteran em
rate, from highly experienced,
istic (subjective) perspective of time may further
ployees who are in the prime of their career than
help us understand employees' choice of higher from young and relatively inexperienced em
versus lower goals. Specifically, time orienta
ployees who are in their initial stages of their
tion and social construction of performance career. Therefore, failure may be judged more
norms across different career ex
stages may
severely with regard to the experienced employ
plain individuals' decisions concerning whether ees and, thus, may cause them to select equally
to pursue higher or lower goals following a or more challenging in order to redeem
goals
failure. their reputation.
Time orientation. Those with a strong future This is also
consistent with prospect theory
orientation (perspective), who strategize with a Hart, & Schendel, 1996; Kahneman
(Fiegenbaum,
long-term perspective on success, place differ & Tversky, 1979), which suggests that individu
ent values on their successes and failures (Nut als are likely to adopt more risk-seeking behav
tin, 1964; Raynor, 1974; Schriber & Gutek, 1987). ior when they are below a selected reference
These people are likely to view the failure or
point. The reference point here refers to the ex
success of present activities in the context of level of performance in different career
pected
ultimate success in the long term (e.g., high-tech levels as determined norms. A
by organizational
product invention). Thus, such individuals may failure by experienced employees to meet the
not be discouraged by early failures, compared is
organization's performance expectations
to people with a more present orientation. In therefore expected to be evaluated these em
by
other words, they are less likely to perceive as being below the desired reference
ployees
these failures as important and more likely to As a result, these are more
point. employees
perceive them as transitory and part of the likely to adopt more challenging, albeit risky,
learning process. assignments following their failure. However,
These time-related differences
sup are also given the more considerate norms concerning
ported by Higgins' self-regulation theory (1997, the performance of the less experienced employ
2000). Higgins argues that people who focus on ees, it is conceivable they would be encouraged
prevention tend to also focus on minimal goals, to pursue a learning approach, including tem
to maintain a short-term perspective, and to em porary involvement in lower goals, as a learning
phasize conservation and maintaining the sta experience toward a gradual involvement in
tus quo. In contrast, people who focus on promo highly complex and challenging goals (cf. Katz,
tion tend to focus on maximal goals; maintain a 1982).

Moreover, career
level is often associated with organizations (start-ups and organizations spe
employees' degree of interest in challenging cializing in innovative products and services) is
tasks (Katz, 1978,1980). Older employees who are based on two sequential (clock time) periods: the
close to retirement may be less interested in exploration stage and the systemization stage.
increasing their task complexity and challenge
and, thus, can be expected to pursue lower-level
a would corre Exploration Stage
goals following failure, which
spond to their changing career interests and During the exploration stage, high-tech organ
give them more time to be involved in their izations often thrive on high goal autonomy
external (e.g., family affairs, leisure) interests and operational (or supervisory) autonomy
(cf.Katz, 1978, 1980). This choice is also expected (McGrath, 2001). In high goal autonomy systems,
to be supported by the organization because of management does not specify goals, talent allo
the common societal perception that older em cations, or lines of authority. High operational
ployees' abilities to pursue new, challenging autonomy is characterized by employees' high
goals are inferior to those of younger employees discretion in pursuing day-to-day activities.
(e.g., Rosen & Jerdee, 1988). High goal and operational autonomy result in
high variance in performance, in which employ
Hypothesis 9: Individuals who are in ees trymany alternatives and in which actions
the prime of their career are more are loosely associated
and outcomes (i.e., little
likely to be motivated to pursue chal
relationship exists between cause and effect). At
lenging and risky goals following a this stage, establishing specific difficult goals
failure than their counterparts who
may be counterproductive, because ambiguity
are in their initial or very late stages
concerning processes and outcomes makes the
of their career. of difficult and sometimes
setting specific goals
inappropriate. Moreover, focusing on these spe
cific goals also diverts precious re
TIME AND THE CHOICE OF SPECIFIC GOALS cognitive
sources that can be used by the focal individu
VERSUS "DO YOUR BEST"
als to do their best based on their knowledge,
As indicated, goal-setting theorists assert that and to pursue, on a con
experience, creativity
a goal will result in higher performance if it is alternative until
tingent basis, multiple goals
difficult, attainable, and specific. However, the link between cause and effect is established
scholars focusing on goal-setting theory have (cf. Kanfer, Ackerman, Murtha, Dugdale, & Nel
also recognized that the "do your best" approach son, 1994). At this stage of innovation, employees
is likely to be more beneficial for performance are occupied with thoroughly learning the na
than the specific approach when the task is ture of the goals and how to achieve them. Thus,
complex (Locke, 1996; Locke & Latham, 2002; at the exploration stage, the "do your best" ap
Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987). This may be be more effective
proach would be significantly
cause in complex tasks a specific difficult goal than the specific goal approach, which one may
imposes greater cognitive demands on employ
convincingly argue should be avoided because
ees than a situation in which they are asked to of the potentially harmful drain on cognitive
do theirbest (Latham & Seijts, 1999). resources, as discussed above.
Effective Performance Strategy: Exploration Systemization Stage

versus Systemization Stages is the stage
This following the exploration
This notionthat the functionality of goal de stage. That
is, as more knowledge is accumu
sign is contingent on task complexity can be lated and the link between cause and effect
further integrated into the broader context of becomes clearer, employees can systematize
innovation development strategy in organiza and codify
procedures, responsibilities, and
tions, which is typically associated with the in tasks (e.g., McGrath, 2001). At this stage, estab
cremental evolution of knowledge over time (see lishing specific but difficult goals on the basis of
Clark, 1985).McGrath (2001)has indicated that the evolved, systematized knowledge is ex
the innovative involvement of knowledge-based pected to be effective (McGrath, 2001). Establish

ing such specific,

challenging goals in a rela searchers should consider using both quantita
tively predictable environment will stimulate tive and qualitative methods when studying
employees to maximize their performance (cf. time (e.g., Mitchell & James, 2001; Pettigrew,
Locke & Latham, 1990). 1997). Six complementary research methods can
Furthermore, these
stages of exploration and be used to study the different time-related is
systemization may repeat over time and should sues discussed in this article: longitudinal field
not be dismissed as a merely "one-shot" chrono studies, field experiments, longitudinal case
logical issue. This means that knowledge-based studies, cross-sectional studies, simulation
firms may have to consider repeated changes studies, and laboratory studies.
over time, alternatively using the "do your best"
approach and the specific but challenging goal
Longitudinal Field Studies
approach contingent on whether the operations
are in the exploration (developmental) stage or A major advantage of longitudinal field stud
the more predictable systemization stage. More ies is that they enable us to systematically study
over, the same distinction between the explora the process of development and change in em
tion (learning) and systemization stage and its ployees' pursuit and accomplishment of goals.
implications for goal setting are relevant to We can examine, for example?on the basis of
more traditional organizations. In order to be multiple time measurements?how manage
successful in the current competitive economy, ment's support of employees at work over time,
traditional organizations also often must reor as perceived by the employees, as well as how
ganize and absorb new knowledge and technol employees' time orientation, perceived career
ogies. growth opportunities, growth orientation, and
family situation (i.e., single versus dual career),
Hypothesis 10: The effectiveness of affects these employees' selection of and com
specific but challenging goals will be mitment to goals, including the sequential pur
high during the established system suit of nonchallenging and challenging goals as
ization stage and low during the ex
part of their career growth (cf.Mitchell & James,
ploration (learning) stage. During the et al,
2001; Pettigrew 2001).
latter stage, the "do your best" ap
proach will be more effective.
Field Experiments
More difficult to pursue but still very useful
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
are field experiments with random assignment
Time scholars have pointed out that the sin and control groups (Mitchell & James, 2001). For
gle, timeless snapshot approach (i.e., cross example, researchers can assign one group (ex
sectional) often used in research is not acciden perimental group) to nonchallenging tasks, with
tal, or caused only by the methodological a stated commitment that these nonchallenging
difficulties of time-related studies, but reflects tasks are stepping-stones to more challenging
the positivistic philosophical perspective tasks to follow, and can assign the second group
deeply rooted in modern society. Proponents of (control group) to the same nonchallenging
this perspective assume that social systems are tasks but with no further commitment regarding
harmonious, stable, and equilibrium seeking, future assignments. The two groups could then
and consider variation, conflict, and change as be compared on their level of motivation, efforts,
unintended disturbances of normality (Avital, and performance while being engaged in the
2000; Giddens, 1979; McGrath, 1988; Pettigrew, nonchallenging tasks.
Woodman, & Cameron, 2001). However, as In addition, researchers could attempt to ex
George and Jones (2000) point out, because time amine the relative effectiveness of specific
is an integral part of human activity, theories goals versus "do your best" goals in knowledge
and must take it into account
research (see also based organizations during the exploration
Van de Ven, 1992, and Zaheer et al., 1999). Has stage and the systemization stage. In each of the
sard (1996) further emphasizes the importance of stages, the researchers could compare the per
research methods to incorporate both objective formance of two groups?one group assigned to
and subjective features of time. Moreover, re tasks with specific goals and the second as

signed to the same tasks but with the instruction The participants (preferably people with work
to do its best. experience) would be randomly assigned across
scenarios and then asked to indicate how moti
vated and committed they will be to pursue the
Longitudinal Case Studies
goal. The researchers could add to the complex
These can further enhance our understanding ity of the study by surveying participants on
of employees' goal-related behaviors over time. theoretically relevantvariables pertaining to
The advantage of case studies over time is that this issue of goal pursuit, such as subjective
they allow the opportunity to conduct a thorough future orientation and growth need, as well as
qualitative and holistic analysis on the role of demographic variables. The data then could be
time in goal setting (e.g., Pettigrew, 1997). For used to explore how these personal variables
example, itwould be useful to study, in success affect participants' decisions to pursue the focal
ful knowledge-based organizations, the pro goal in the different contexts portrayed in the
cesses that lead to an effective integration different scenarios.
between the different time streams and perspec
tives of management and scientists, as well as
Laboratory Studies
the key characteristics of such a successful in
tegration. Itwould also be of interest to examine Similar to simulation studies, laboratory stud
the degree towhich economic pressures caused ies can also be helpful in contributing to knowl
by global market competition affect this integra edge of the issue of time and goal setting. For
tion process. example, concerning the issue of how long cy
clical (repetitive) tasks remain challenging to
the focal employees, researchers could assign
Cross-Sectional Studies
different groups of matched subjects to a chal
Despite their inherent limitations regarding lenging task (e.g., see Drach-Zahavy & Erez,
time-related issues, cross-sectional studies can 2002) in a repetitive way, but with different time
still be useful in improving our understanding, intervals, use surveys to explore when
and the
particularly if they incorporate data from other challenging task ceases to challenge these in
sources (e.g., organizational indicators of perfor dividuals. Researchers could also examine how
mance), in addition to employees' self-report individual differences such as growth need or
data. For example, researchers could examine time orientation affect
the results. Scholars
whether employees' expectations of being en could further alter the task in different stages of
gaged in more challenging tasks in the future the experiments to prevent habituation, and test
moderate the relationship between current level changes in subjects' experiences of challenge
of job challenge and performance. before and after the changes are made in the
task. Similarly, the lab settings could help as
sess the optimal frequency of involvement in
Simulation Studies
challenging tasks for individuals with different
In addition to field studies (which often are backgrounds.
difficult to pursue), scholars may rely on simu
lation studies based on scenarios to enhance
CONCLUSION
our knowledge of issues concerning goal setting
and time. Thus, for example, in order to study In our analysis we demonstrated how the in
the conditions that promote risk taking in the corporation of time could enrich our understand
pursuit of goals, researchers might develop mul ing of the three major components of goal
tiple scenarios that focus on predictors of indi setting theory: goal difficulty, goal attainability,
viduals' commitment to achieve a desirable and goal specificity. This discussion is espe
goal over a particular time period. The scenarios cially timely given the rapid changes in the
might differ in terms of the likelihood of achiev work environment, including the unprecedented
ing the goal, the length of time in which the growth in technology, innovation, and changes
individual expects to achieve the goal, and the in work structure (cf. Rousseau & Fried, 2001).
involvement in nonchallenging tasks as step These changes have created a highly dynamic
ping-stones prior to achieving the desired goal. work environment in which performance is in

creasingly contingent on time-related issues, REFERENCES

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Academy of Management Review
Yitzhak Fried is currently a professor of management in the School of Business

Administration at Wayne State University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research focus is on the contribution of context in
the areas of work stress, job and office design, motivation, performance appraisal, and
diversity.
Linda Haynes Slowik is a senior lecturer in the Department of Management at Wayne

State University. She received her Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from
Wayne State University. Her current research focuses on the dynamics of socializa
tion, issues related to coemployment, and office characteristics.


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