Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Issue 7
CTC Sentinel
Objective . R eleva n t . R ig o r o u s
Reports
4 Al-Shabab’s Agenda in the Wake of
the Kampala Suicide Attacks
By Tim Pippard
6 The Punjabi Taliban: Causes and
Consequences of Turning Against the
State
By Ben Brandt
10 The Ghazi Force: A Threat to Pakistan’s
Urban Centers
By Syed Manzar Abbas Zaidi
12 Pakistan’s Challenges in Orakzai
Agency
By Tayyab Ali Shah
14 The Growing Threat of Female Suicide
Attacks in Western Countries
By Houriya Ahmed
18 Countering Terrorist Financing:
Successes and Setbacks in the Years
Since 9/11
T
By Michael Jonsson
he relationship between al- al-Qa`ida and its Taliban allies may
21 Recent Highlights in Terrorist Activity Qa`ida and Iran is shrouded be outweighed by a desire to find ways
24 CTC Sentinel Staff & Contacts in mystery. Before and after to spoil U.S. interests in the region.
the September 11 attacks on Similarly, as Washington ratchets up the
the United States, al-Qa`ida operatives pressure on al-Qa`ida in Pakistan, Usama
transited Iran, and some found sanctuary bin Ladin and al-Qa`ida may find Iran a
in the country after fleeing Afghanistan more attractive partner. Thus, what has
in late 2001. Yet the hints of occasional been a hostile relationship could become
operational cooperation between al- a more collaborative one.
About the CTC Sentinel Qa`ida and Iran are outweighed by the
The Combating Terrorism Center is an considerable and public evidence of the This article reviews the historical
independent educational and research deep animosity between Sunni extremist relationship between al-Qa`ida and Iran
institution based in the Department of Social al-Qa`ida and Shi`a extremist Iran. before examining the factors that could
Sciences at the United States Military Academy, Antipathy for each other is at the root of cause the two entities to work together
West Point. The CTC Sentinel harnesses their ideologies and narratives, and it has against the United States and its allies.
the Center’s global network of scholars and been most visible in their competition for
practitioners to understand and confront influence in Iraq and Afghanistan. Background
contemporary threats posed by terrorism and The evidence for a secret relationship
other forms of political violence. This dynamic may change, however, between al-Qa`ida and Iran is significant,
if the United States and Iran move but largely limited and the facts quite
toward confrontation or even conflict murky. The 9/11 Commission’s report
The views expressed in this report are those of over the Iranian government’s nuclear concluded that there is evidence of
the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, weapons ambitions. As tensions between contacts among al-Qa`ida, the Iranian
the Department of the Army, or any other agency Washington and Tehran increase, Shi`a government and Iran’s Lebanese Hizb
of the U.S. Government.
antipathy for Sunni jihadists such as Allah ally dating back to Usama bin
1
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Ladin’s years in Khartoum in the mid- with an associate of a senior Hizb Allah Bin Ladin’s son, Sa`ad, reportedly left
1990s. 1 During this time, it is possible official. 6 Khalid Shaykh Muhammad Iran in 2008. 12 The circumstances are
that Hizb Allah provided some training and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, two captured unclear about whether he was released
to future al-Qa`ida operatives, as Sudan al-Qa`ida operatives, confirmed that by Iranian authorities or if he escaped.
was a watering hole for virtually every 8-10 of the 9/11 hijackers at some point One of Bin Ladin’s daughters left Iran
terrorist and extremist group in the Middle between October 2000 and February for Saudi Arabia this year via Syria. 13
East. As a result, it would not be surprising 2001 transited Iran on their way to or After the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003,
for the nascent al-Qa`ida group to have from Afghanistan “taking advantage it is clear that al-Qa`ida messengers
encountered the Iranian Revolutionary of the Iranian practice of not stamping transited Iran to get from Pakistan to
Guard Corps (IRGC) and the Iranian Saudi passports.” 7 What is not clear in Iraq. The Iranian authorities apparently
Ministry of Intelligence (MOIS). the report is whether Iran gave these at least tolerated such transit if not
travelers any treatment different from facilitated it; they likely see such
Some sources, including the 9/11 that provided to other Saudis transiting transfers as a relatively low risk method
Commission, have suggested more than Iran to Afghanistan in 2001. 8 to keep the United States bogged down
mere contact, alleging that the two may in two wars and therefore less likely to
have collaborated in the attack on the The bottom line of the 9/11 Commission’s focus its attention on Iran.
U.S. Air Force barracks in Khobar, report, however, is unequivocal. It states
Saudi Arabia in 1996. In the CTC that both Khalid Shaykh Muhammad Hostile Enemies?
and Ramzi bin al-Shibh categorically On the other side of the ledger, the
denied any relationship between the animosity between Iran and al-Qa`ida
“Al-Qa`ida’s rebuke to hijackers and Hizb Allah. On Iran, the is public and abundantly clear. For
Hizb Allah and Iran for commission concluded, “we have found al-Qa`ida and its allies such as the
no evidence that Iran or Hizballah was Taliban, Shi`a are not true Muslims and
being ‘soft’ on Israel may aware of the planning for what later should be treated as outcasts at best, if
strike many in the West as became the 9/11 attack.” 9 not apostates. For Iran, the Taliban and
al-Qa`ida are bigots who abuse Shi`a.
peculiar, but it is a visible After 9/11: Al-Qa`ida Operatives in Iran The Taliban harshly repressed Afghan
manifestation of the depth After September 2001, several al-Qa`ida Hazara Shi`a in the 1990s, murdering
operatives, including one of Bin Ladin’s thousands when it took over their
of divide between the sons and other relatives, fled to Iran to towns and cities in 1998. The Taliban
Sunni and Shi`a jihads.” escape the debacle of the collapse of the murdered several Iranian diplomats as
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Some well in 1998, and the two almost went to
of these individuals have remained war over the incident. 14
in Iran ever since. Their status has
Sentinel, however, Thomas Hegghammer never been clear; some reports suggest Al-Qa`ida was an enthusiastic and
made clear that the evidence for they are under house arrest or even in public supporter of the Taliban in its
such collaboration is unconvincing. 2 prison. Other reports say they are free conflict with Tehran, a lonely voice of
Moreover, evidence that emerged in the to operate. It has been reported that support at the time that probably helped
decade after the attack, reviewed by the these Iran-based al-Qa`ida cells played cement Bin Ladin’s relationship with
author, also suggests that al-Qa`ida did a support role in the al-Qa`ida attacks Taliban leader Mullah Omar. Al-Qa`ida
not have involvement in the Khobar on foreigners living in Riyadh on May provided troops and money for the fight
attacks. 3 Bin Ladin has said the same. 4 12, 2003 that killed 35 people, including against Iran’s Northern Alliance allies.
eight Americans. 10 It has also been The IRGC and MOIS were consistent
The 9/11 Commission’s report also found suggested that the Iranian government supporters of al-Qa`ida’s Afghan
that a senior Hizb Allah official visited may be using its al-Qa`ida detainees enemy, the Northern Alliance, and
Saudi Arabia in October 2000 to assist as hostages to help dissuade the had operatives in Afghanistan before
Saudis traveling to Afghanistan. 5 Three terrorist group from attacking Iranian and after 9/11. When the first Central
of the 9/11 hijackers reportedly traveled interests. Tehran may also have hoped Intelligence Agency team arrived in the
from Saudi Arabia to Beirut, then to to trade them to the United States for Pansjhir Valley in late 2001 to overthrow
Iran and into Afghanistan on a flight Mujahidin-i-Khalq leaders captured in the Taliban and al-Qa`ida, they found
Iraq in 2003. 11 Their value to the Iranian that the Iranians were already active in
1 The 9/11 Commission Report (New York: W.W. Norton government may change over time. the area. 15
& Co., 2004).
2 Thomas Hegghammer, “Deconstructing the Myth 6 Ibid. 12 “Bin Laden Son Saad Left Iran, Now in Pakistan-US,”
about al-Qa`ida and Khobar,” CTC Sentinel 1:3 (2008). 7 Ibid. Reuters, January 16, 2009.
3 The author was present at the Khobar Towers hours 8 Ibid. 13 “Bin Laden’s Daughter Set Free from Iran,” CBS/AP,
after the attack. During the next decade, the author re- 9 Ibid. March 23, 2010.
viewed all the available evidence on the attack and did 10 Douglas Jehl and Eric Schmitt, “US Suggests a Qaeda 14 “Taliban Threatens Retaliation if Iran Strikes,” CNN,
not find an al-Qa`ida hand in the operation. Cell in Iran Directed Saudi Bombings,” New York Times, September 15, 1998.
4 Bruce Lawrence ed., Messages to the World, The State May 21, 2003. 15 Gary Schroen, First In: An Insider’s Account of How the
ments of Osama Bin Laden (London: Verso, 2005), p. 52. 11 The Mujahidin-i-Khalq is an organization that advo- CIA Spearheaded the War on Terror in Afghanistan (New
5 The 9/11 Commission Report. cates the overthrow of the Islamic Republic of Iran. York: Ballantine, 2006), p. 89.
2
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Since 2003, al-Qa`ida’s franchise in the Muslims in the back” when the of small quantities of Iranian arms
Iraq has killed thousands of Iraqi Shi`a Ottomans were at the gates of Vienna in provided to the Taliban and of the IRGC
and scores of senior Shi`a leaders. Al- 1683. 19 Memories are long in al-Qa`ida. training Taliban operatives. 20 Iran has
Qa`ida argues that the Shi`a are pawns kept its options open in Afghanistan and
of Iran seeking to restore “Safavid” During and since the 2006 war between has positioned itself to be more helpful
control of the country, a reference to Hizb Allah and Israel, al-Qa`ida to the Taliban should it decide to adopt
the first Shi`a Persian dynasty that leaders, including al-Zawahiri, have this strategy. On the whole, Iran has
fought the Ottoman Empire for control been critical of Hizb Allah for accepting been an ally of the Karzai government
a cease-fire with Israel and allowing in Kabul since 2001 and has invested
United Nations peacekeepers to operate significantly in western Afghanistan
“The evidence of a hostile on Lebanese territory. Al-Qa`ida’s to help stabilize the border region. For
relationship is much more rebuke to Hizb Allah and Iran for being example, the largest Afghan city in the
“soft” on Israel may strike many in west, Herat, is linked to the Iranian
compelling than evidence the West as peculiar, but it is a visible electrical grid. Yet Iran could choose to
for a collaborative one. manifestation of the depth of divide “turn off the lights” if it wanted to make
between the Sunni and Shi`a jihads. the already difficult Afghan mission
Nevertheless, that does not Since 2009, al-Qa`ida media outlets even harder for the United States and
preclude the possibility have reproached the Palestinian Sunni NATO. The Italian military, which
terrorist group Hamas for accepting aid patrols Herat, is extremely conscious of
of occasional operational from Iran in its fight with Israel. its vulnerability to Iranian mischief.
collusion. Yet it does not
On balance, the evidence of a hostile Increasing aid to the Taliban while
suggest a partnership or relationship is much more compelling making life in western Afghanistan
alliance.” than evidence for a collaborative one. unpleasant for NATO would be a fairly
Nevertheless, that does not preclude simple and relatively low risk way
the possibility of occasional operational of signaling to Washington that Iran
collusion; terrorists often seek help can play hardball. Another path could
of Iraq in the 17 th century. Al-Qa`ida’s from criminals and drug dealers, and be allowing al-Qa`ida greater use of
first leader in Iraq, Abu Mus`ab al- therefore from other terrorists as well. Iranian territory for travel transit or
Zarqawi, was notoriously vicious in Yet it does not suggest a partnership or safe haven. Indeed, to the extent that
his hatred for the Shi`a, even earning alliance. the United States puts pressure on
a private reproach from Bin Ladin’s al-Qa`ida’s safe haven in Pakistan,
deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri, for his Possible Change of Dynamics the terrorists will likely look for an
indiscriminate attacks on Shi`a leaders, This dynamic could change in the alternative sanctuary. Iran is next door,
mosques and processions. near future. The United States and and if allowed al-Qa`ida might find the
Iran are on a collision course over change of venue attractive at least for
Al-Zarqawi wrote to al-Zawahiri Tehran’s determination to develop a parts of its infrastructure. While greater
to explain his view of the “heretic” nuclear weapons capability. As this cooperation with the Taliban and al-
Shi`a. It is worth looking at this letter, confrontation worsens, Iran will be Qa`ida could backfire and isolate Iran
intercepted by U.S. intelligence, for looking for ways to damage U.S. interests further, Tehran may consider the price
an understanding of how al-Qa`ida in the region, especially through means worth paying in the face of Western
views Iran and the Shi`a. Al-Zarqawi that bog the United States down further aggression against its nuclear program.
began by saying that the Shi`a are “an in Iraq and Afghanistan. Since the
insurmountable obstacle, a lurking United States is withdrawing forces Bruce Riedel is a Senior Fellow in the
snake, a crafty and malicious scorpion, from Iraq, Afghanistan is probably the Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the
a spying enemy and a mortal venom.” 16 best venue to strike. Moreover, as the Brookings Institution and a professor at
For al-Zarqawi, “Shiism is a looming war in Afghanistan is now “Obama’s Georgetown University. He has advised four
danger and a true challenge that has war”—where he has tripled U.S. troop U.S. presidents on Afghanistan and was
nothing in common with Islam.” 17 Iran’s numbers—the temptation to make asked by President Barack Obama in January
goal is to create a “heretical state from the war harder may be impossible for 2009 to chair an interagency strategic review
Iran through Iraq, Syria and Lebanon Tehran to resist. of American policy toward Afghanistan and
to the cardboard kingdom of the Gulf.” 18 Pakistan, which was completed in March
He even quoted a European specialist For several years, Iran has had a low- 2009. He is the author of The Search for
as saying that if the “Safavids had not level relationship with its old nemesis, Al Qaeda: its Leadership, Ideology and
existed, we in Europe would be reading the Afghan Taliban. Since 2007, Future.
the Quran just as the Algerians do” American and British commanders in
because the Shi`a empire “stabbed Afghanistan have reported evidence
16 “Text from Abu Mus’ab al-Zarqawi Letter,” GlobalSe- 19 “Letter to Bin Laden and Zawahiri,” in Gilles Kepel 20 Damien McElroy, “Iran Helping the Taliban, US Am-
curity.org, undated. and Jean-Pierre Milelli eds., Al Qaeda in its Own Words bassador Claims,” Telegraph, December 17, 2009; Sajjan
17 Ibid. (Cambridge, NJ: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. M. Gohel, “Iran’s Ambiguous Role in Afghanistan,” CTC
18 Ibid. 251-267. Sentinel 3:3 (2010).
3
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Al-Shabab’s Agenda in Therefore, the Kampala attacks—al- continuation of the Ethiopian invasion,
Shabab’s first successful major foreign and thus Ethiopia too remains a key al-
the Wake of the Kampala operation—constitute an important Shabab adversary.
Suicide Attacks development, raising questions about
the extent to which al-Shabab is evolving In this respect, the Kampala attacks mark
By Tim Pippard from an Islamic-nationalist group the continuation and intensification of
claiming to operate on behalf of Somalis, al-Shabab’s rhetorical and operational
the somali islamist group al-Shabab to one now seemingly incorporated campaign directed at Ugandan and
demonstrated its expanding operational more fully into a broader pan-Islamic Burundian targets that has become
reach when it executed simultaneous campaign. This article will examine the increasingly pronounced and coherent
suicide bombings in the Ugandan capital, group’s capacity to pursue and sustain a in recent months. On July 9, 2010,
Kampala, on July 11, 2010. 1 The attacks— campaign outside of Somalia’s borders. just two days prior to the Kampala
targeting a rugby club and an Ethiopian blasts, al-Shabab issued a statement
restaurant in a neighborhood popular Al-Shabab’s Foreign Focus
with expatriates as people watched the Al-Shabab emerged as an independent
World Cup final—left 76 civilians dead, entity in early 2007 following the
“The Kampala attacks
including one U.S. citizen. 2 While an collapse of the Islamic Courts Union mark the continuation
investigation by Ugandan authorities (ICU), which controlled much of central
into the attacks is ongoing (with some and southern Somalia during the latter
and intensification of al-
support from the U.S. Federal Bureau half of 2006 until an Ethiopian invasion Shabab’s rhetorical and
of Investigation), U.S. Department in late December ousted the Islamists
of State officials acknowledge that from power. 6 Its central aims since that
operational campaign
initial evidence confirms the al-Shabab time have been to overthrow Somalia’s directed at Ugandan and
connection to the blasts. 3 Transitional Federal Government (TFG),
implement Shari`a, and eject all foreign
Burundian targets that
Al-Shabab previously announced its security forces from the country. has become increasingly
internationalist ambitions on February
1, 2010 when it formally aligned with The heavy presence of foreign military
pronounced and coherent
al-Qa`ida, stressing in a media release personnel in Somalia is one of the in recent months.”
that the “jihad of the Horn of Africa key drivers of al-Shabab’s campaign,
must be combined with the international ensuring that the group has always
jihad led by the al-Qa`ida network.” 4 incorporated a foreign-focused element.
Yet for the most part, this move had The African Union Mission in Somalia encouraging Islamist militants in
minimal immediate impact on al- (AMISOM) is currently the only force Chechnya, Pakistan, Afghanistan and
Shabab’s operational activities. Aside capable of challenging al-Shabab’s elsewhere to attack the diplomatic
from a handful of minor incursions into ascendency in Mogadishu, having missions of Uganda and Burundi in
northern and northeastern Kenya, the replaced Ethiopian troops in early 2007 response to their continued support for
group has retained a focus on Somalia to bolster the TFG. 7 Critically, of the the TFG. 9 Specific threats targeting the
and foreign military and political targets 6,000 AMISOM military personnel Ugandan and Burundian capital cities
in the capital city Mogadishu, as well as currently deployed in Somalia, all but also featured in an al-Shabab statement
parts of central and southern Somalia. 5 four military staff officers have been dated October 22, 2009, in which senior
provided by Uganda and Burundi—a al-Shabab commander Shaykh Ali
1 Alisha Ryu, “Al-Shabab Leader Threatens More At- level of involvement guaranteeing that Mohamed Hussein stressed: “We shall
tacks in Uganda,” Voice of America, July 15, 2010. both countries remain priority targets make their people cry. We will attack
2 “Somali Militants Claim Kampala World Cup Blasts,” for Somali Islamists. 8 Al-Shabab has Bujumbura and Kampala…We will move
BBC, July 12, 2010; “Worldwide Alert Issued to Identify also characterized AMISOM as a mere our fighting to those two cities and we
Kampala Suicide Bombers,” Voice of America, July 18, will destroy them.” 10
2010. 6 “Somalia: The Tough Part is Ahead,” International
3 Al-Shabab also officially claimed responsibility for the Crisis Group, January 26, 2007; Ravi Somaiya, “Who is Ugandan and Burundian troops have
blasts. Separately, Ugandan police announced on July 13 Al-Shabab?” Newsweek, July 12, 2010. also come under sustained attack in al-
that they had found an explosives-laden vest (rigged to 7 Will Hartley, “Terrorism Trends – Jane’s Intelligence Shabab-controlled areas of Mogadishu in
detonate by cell phone) at a nightclub in Kampala, pos- Centre Seminar,” IHS Jane’s, June 22, 2010. IED attacks, raids, ambushes, targeted
sibly preventing another explosion. For details, see Josh 8 Although AMISOM’s force size has failed to reach its assassinations, and stand-off weapon
Kron, “Uganda Says it Thwarted Another Bombing,” mandated 8,000, Uganda’s deployment of a fourth bat- operations. In one such exchange on
New York Times, July 13, 2010; Philip J. Crowley, daily talion in mid-March 2010 took the force size to 6,120
press briefing, U.S. State Department, July 12, 2010. troops. Of this total, Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal and Zam- 9 “Somalia’s Shabab Calls on Global Islamist Militants
4 Sarah Childress, “Somalia’s Al Shabaab to Ally With bia have contributed four military staff officers to AMI- to Attack Ugandan and Burundian Targets,” Jane’s Ter-
Al Qaeda,” Wall Street Journal, February 2, 2010. SOM headquarters in Mogadishu. Nigeria, Sierra Leone rorism and insurgency Centre, July 9, 2010.
5 Fred Mukinda, “Al-Shabaab Attacks Kenya Territory,” and Zambia have also contributed to the 40-strong AMI- 10 “Shabab Threatens to Attack Burundian and Ugan-
Daily Nation, March 31, 2010; “Shabab Militants Attack SOM civilian police deployment in Somalia. See “Report dan Capitals,” Jane’s Terrorism and Insurgency Centre,
Village in Kenya’s North Eastern Province,” Jane’s Ter- of the Secretary-General on Somalia,” United Nations October 23, 2009; “Shabab Threatens Uganda and Bu-
rorism and Insurgency Centre, May 29, 2010. Security Council, May 11, 2010. rundi,” al-Jazira, October 23, 2009.
4
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
June 3, 2010, mortar fire between al- preparedness required to successfully on May 27. 19 Speaking in English, the
Shabab militants and TFG troops launch large-scale operations. narrator questions the involvement
(backed by AMISOM peacekeepers) in of Ugandan and Burundian troops in
the Kaaraan, Yaqshid and Abdiazziz In addition, al-Shabab has increasingly Somalia, accusing them of “fighting
districts of the capital left 23 people incorporated tactics synonymous with America’s war in a foreign land.” 20
dead and 66 others wounded; two of sophisticated al-Qa`ida operations—a
those killed were Ugandan troops. 11 progression common to local groups Diaspora Support
seeking to solidify ties with al-Qa`ida. 16 Al-Shabab is also actively seeking
Radicalization and Centralization Several al-Shabab attacks have involved material and physical support from
Al-Shabab’s operational capacity to multiple, simultaneous mass casualty Somali communities in Western Europe
project its campaign beyond Somalia’s suicide explosions. On September 17, and the United States, further enhancing
borders ultimately relates to a range of 2009, two al-Shabab suicide bombers its international characteristics. For
shifts in the group’s internal dynamics infiltrated AMISOM’s headquarters instance, in February 2008 three Somali
during the past two years, culminating in the capital city, killing 17 soldiers immigrants were arrested in Sweden
in the emergence of a highly centralized and three in Norway on suspicion of
and radicalized organization that is far financing terrorism (five individuals
more capable of pursuing its extreme “Each of these attributes were subsequently released without
Islamist ideology. suggests that al-Shabab charge; one Norwegian national was
charged in October 2009 with collecting
Most notably, al-Shabab’s loose network will continue to evolve into money for Somali terrorist groups). 21
structure has been supplanted by a more a greater regional threat.”
centralized organizational hierarchy Many of the individuals recruited
coalesced around several key Somali into al-Shabab’s ranks or suspected
extremists. 12 These include the group’s of providing material support to the
leader Ahmed Abdi Aw-Mahmoud (including Burundian Major General group are U.S. nationals, some of
(known as “Godane”), Ibrahim Haji Juvenal Niyonguruza, AMISOM’s whom have become highly radicalized.
Jama “al-Afghani,” and Shaykh Fuad deputy commander) and injuring On November 23, 2009, as part of
Mohamed “Shongole.” These individuals another 40. 17 On December 3, 2009, an ongoing U.S. investigation into
are thought to be supported by several a suicide bomber blew himself up at Somali Islamist insurgent support
foreign al-Qa`ida operatives implicated a graduation ceremony being held at networks, 14 individuals were charged
in the 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings in Mogadishu’s Shamo Hotel, killing 24 with recruiting and financing some 20
Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, as well as the people, including four TFG officials. 18 Somali men in the Minneapolis area of
attacks on Israeli tourists in Mombasa Minnesota, who subsequently traveled
in November 2002, 13 principal among Al-Shabab has also crafted a vigorous to Somalia and trained at al-Shabab
them being Fazul Abdullah Muhammad communications strategy designed camps. 22 According to official court
(al-Qa`ida’s leading figure in Somalia). 14 to promote and garner domestic and documents, a Somali-American who
Many of these foreign fighters have international support for its extreme traveled to Somalia, Shirwa Ahmed, was
settled in al-Shabab camps in southern ideology, as well as discourage further one of five suicide bombers involved in
Somalia and are involved in training external meddling in Somalia. Al- simultaneous suicide attacks in northern
Somali militants. 15 Their primacy in the Shabab’s media wing—the al-Kataib Somalia in October 2008. 23 The central
upper echelons of al-Shabab’s leadership Foundation for Media Productions— concern among U.S. counterterrorism
hierarchy also facilitates and ensures the frequently issues high quality video and officials is that more members of the
high degree of operational planning and audio statements containing threats Somali-American diaspora might
of future attacks, or glorifying past embrace terrorism, and that al-Qa`ida
11 “Mortar Exchange Leaves 23 Dead in Somalia’s Mog- operations (particularly martyrdom will continue to exploit and develop its
adishu,” Jane’s Terrorism and Insurgency Centre, June operations). A 10-minute video released base in southern Somalia from which to
3, 2010. by al-Shabab in early June 2010 titled target U.S. and Western interests. 24
12 “Somalia’s Divided Islamists,” International Crisis “The African Crusaders” is one of the
Group, May 18, 2010. slickest productions to date, containing 19 “The African Crusaders,” al-Kataib Foundation for
13 Johnnie Carson, “Developing a Coordinated and footage and images of heavy clashes with Media Productions, June 2010.
Sustainable U.S. Strategy Toward Somalia,” testimony AMISOM troops in northern Mogadishu 20 “Shabab Attacks AMISOM.”
before the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Foreign Rela- 21 “Somalis Arrested in Sweden,” Ice News, March 11,
tions, May 20, 2009. 2008; Christian Nils Larson and Michael Jonsson, “Tax
14 Fazul Abdullah Muhammad became al-Qa`ida’s 16 For instance, in Algeria the Salafist Group for Preach- Evasion – Dealing with the Shabab’s Funding,” Jane’s In
lead operative in Somalia after the death of Salah Ali ing and Combat’s (GSPC) alignment with al-Qa`ida in telligence Review, February 9, 2010.
Salah Nabhan in a U.S. raid on September 14, 2009. See late 2006 led to a resurgence in violence characterized 22 “Terror Charges Unsealed in Minneapolis Against
“Shabab’s Mixed Messages,” Jane’s Terrorism and Secu by large-scale suicide attacks in April, September and Eight Men, Justice Department Announces,” U.S. De-
rity Monitor, January 27, 2010; “Somalia’s Divided Isla- December 2007. See “JTIC Country Briefing – Algeria,” partment of Justice, November 23, 2009.
mists.” Jane’s Terrorism and Insurgency Centre, June 1, 2009. 23 Ibid.
15 “Al Qaeda in Yemen and Somalia: A Ticking Time 17 “Shabab Attacks AMISOM,” Jane’s Terrorism and Se 24 Bronwyn Bruton, “In the Quicksands of Somalia,”
Bomb,” report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, curity Monitor, July 12, 2010. Foreign Affairs 88:6 (2009); “Al Qaeda in Yemen and So-
U.S. Senate, January 21, 2010. 18 “Somalia’s Divided Islamists.” malia: A Ticking Time Bomb.”
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july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Another U.S. national recruited to al- Al-Shabab is also coming under The Punjabi Taliban:
Shabab, Omar Hammami (also known
as Abu Mansur al-Amriki), has emerged
increasing pressure from other Somali
factions, particularly Hisbul Islamiyya
Causes and Consequences
as a high-profile media representative, (another of Somalia’s Islamist of Turning Against the
appearing in numerous al-Shabab organizations that emerged from the State
propaganda videos and providing a collapse of the ICU). Tensions between
foreign face to the group. 25 the two groups intensified in October By Ben Brandt
2009 when Hisbul Islamiyya and al-
Conclusion Shabab militants fought each other for the kidnapping and murder of former
Each of these attributes—an increasingly control of the strategically important Inter-Services Intelligence officer and
radical agenda, a centralized leadership town of Kismayo. 30 Consequently, Usama bin Ladin confidant Khalid
structure, refined propaganda al-Shabab’s efforts are now largely Khwaja in March 2010 generated
machinery, and a foreign support focused on re-establishing its political a wave of analysis throughout the
network—suggests that al-Shabab and military credentials, and vying for counterterrorism community. 1 Although
will continue to evolve into a greater influence alongside other factions in analysts have offered a variety of
regional threat. Indeed, on July 15, Somalia’s Islamist movement. theories regarding both the nature of
2010, al-Shabab threatened further the “Asian Tigers” group that executed
attacks against Uganda and Burundi in As such, while al-Shabab’s successful Khwaja and their motives in killing
an audio statement aired on Mogadishu execution of sporadic, large-scale him, most have correctly noted that
radio stations, in which al-Shabab attacks abroad seems quite feasible in the the incident is symbolic of a broader
insisted that “what has happened in future, a protracted foreign campaign— splintering between Punjabi militants
Kampala was only the beginning. We in which al-Shabab develops and retains espousing allegiance to the Pakistani
will keep revenging what your soldiers external networks responsible for state and a younger generation that has
remorselessly did to our people.” 26 launching attacks against Ugandan and aligned itself with al-Qa`ida and Tehrik-
Burundian targets—appears beyond the i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), turning their
Concurrently, however, al-Shabab’s group’s present capabilities. guns on the Pakistani government and
evolution into a more overtly the West. It is important to understand
internationalist organization has Tim Pippard is Senior Consultant in the the manifestations of this fracture,
undercut some of its appeal and support Security and Military Intelligence Practice as well as its causes and potential
base within Somalia. 27 Al-Shabab’s hard of IHS Jane’s, and is currently Research consequences, to better gauge the threat
line interpretation of Islam (in which Director of an IHS Jane’s study entitled posed to the United States by what is
it is attempting to impose religious “Relationships and Rivalries: Assessing Al- frequently called the “Punjabi Taliban.” 2
uniformity on Somali society at the Qa’ida’s Affiliate Network.” He is Assistant
expense of traditional clan structures Editor of Perspectives on Terrorism (the Various Manifestations of Anti-State
and beliefs) has failed to resonate with journal of the Terrorism Research Initiative), Sentiment
many Somali citizens. 28 In addition, and former managing editor of Jane’s Khalid Khwaja’s execution is perhaps
while al-Shabab’s increasingly brutal Terrorism and Insurgency Center (JTIC). the most graphic manifestation of a
operational tactics—specifically suicide trend that has been occurring for some
bombings targeting civilians—have time, particularly within terrorist
enabled it to retain territory in central groups that had previously designated
and southern Somalia, such tactics have India or rival Muslim sects as their
also caused public outrage and alienated targets. One of the best documented
supporters, even in traditional al- fissures within a Pakistani terrorist
Shabab strongholds. 29 group dedicated to jihad against India
is that which occurred within Jaysh-
6
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
i-Muhammad (JM) in 2002-2003. In The sectarian group Sipah-i-Sahaba ties to al-Qa`ida and the TTP. 12 The
2002, members of JM were implicated Pakistan (SSP) has also seen members status of the sectarian group Lashkar-
in a number of attacks targeting leave to attack targets associated with i-Jhangvi (LJ) appears to be similar to
Pakistani Christians in Punjab, while the Pakistani state and the West. 9 that of HuJI, as many of LJ’s amirs have
in 2003 Masood Azhar, the founder of been implicated in plotting attacks
the group, expelled a dozen ranking It is important to note that most Punjabi against the state. 13
JM members after revelations that they militants sympathetic to al-Qa`ida and
had organized attacks against Western the TTP move away from their parent The role of Lashkar-i-Tayyiba (LT,
and Christian targets in Pakistan groups in less dramatic fashion than or LeT), perhaps Pakistan’s most
without his authorization. 3 In July of JuF and HuMA, and many appear to prominent terrorist group following
the same year, he reportedly informed maintain links with both their original the 2008 Mumbai attacks, is less
the Punjab governor that he had made organization and al-Qa`ida and the clear. Although the LT’s leadership
the expulsions, that he should not be Pakistani Taliban. A report last year has remained relatively loyal to the
held responsible for the actions of the Pakistani military, members of the
expelled members, and that the expelled “The July 2007 storming of group have broken away to assist in
members should be arrested. 4 attacks against the state. An example
Lal Masjid (Red Mosque), of this can be seen in the case of Umar
Azhar’s decision caused a major a notorious center of Kundi, an LT member who left after
schism within the group, as members quarreling with the group’s leadership
deserted Azhar and joined the expelled Deobandi militant activity over its subservience to the Pakistani
individuals to form Jamaat-ul- in Islamabad, is frequently government and later assisted in attacks
Furqan (JuF). 5 Members of JuF were against Pakistani law enforcement and
consequently arrested in connection and correctly noted as intelligence facilities. 14 LT’s decision to
to an assassination attempt against an important catalyst in establish a presence in Pakistan’s tribal
then-Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz in areas and interact with al-Qa`ida and
2004, and Rashid Rauf, who helped Punjabi militants’ decision TTP members operating there has likely
mastermind the 2006 liquid explosives to strike the state.” facilitated this process. 15
plot that targeted trans-Atlantic flights,
was described by an intelligence source A 2009 LT plot to attack the U.S. and
as having utilized cooperation from UK embassies in Dhaka, Bangladesh has
members of JuF. 6 Today, JuF is thought chronicled the saga of a JM commander given rise to rumors about the emergence
to constitute part of the so-called wounded in a drone strike while of a faction within the group advocating
Punjabi Taliban, which has executed meeting with Taliban leaders. He was open attacks against Western interests.
attacks throughout Pakistan; Maulana protected from arrest by his men while The fact that a retired Pakistan Army
Abdul Jabbar, who previously served recuperating in Bahawalpur 10 and was major affiliated with LT helped David
as Azhar’s deputy, is described as being later believed to have sought refuge Headley plot a terrorist attack in
involved with training fighters for JuF in a JM seminary. 11 His case shows the Denmark last year further amplifies
in North Waziristan. 7 overlapping memberships that many these concerns. 16 If elements within
individuals hold in the region. LT continue to plot increasingly brazen
Other Pakistani terrorist groups attacks against Western interests, it
focused on Kashmir have exhibited In the case of Harkat-ul-Jihad-al- could force an open schism within the
noteworthy fissures as well. A group Islam (HuJI), the group’s leadership group, and drive members espousing
calling itself Harkat-ul-Mujahidin al- appears to have been involved in the an anti-Western agenda into greater
Alami (HuMA) emerged from Harkat- decision to turn against the state. Amir conflict with LT’s leadership and the
ul-Mujahidin (HuM) in 2002, executing Qari Saifullah Akhtar and operational state.
a string of attacks in Karachi against commander Ilyas Kashmiri currently
Western businesses, the U.S. Consulate, reside in Waziristan and enjoy strong
and then-President Pervez Musharraf. 8
(HuMA),” located at www.satp.org. There is some de- 12 Bill Roggio, “Top Al Qaeda Leader Linked to 5 Ameri-
3 Amir Mir, “The Maulana’s Scattered Beads,” Outlook bate as to whether Harkat-ul-Mujahidin al-Alami rep- cans on Trial in Pakistan,” The Long War Journal, April
India, September 1, 2003. resented a true splinter faction of Harkat-ul-Mujahidin, 17, 2010.
4 Ibid. or was merely a ruse used by the group to stage attacks. 13 LJ is closely affiliated with the SSP. For details, see
5 Ibid. Given the Asian Tigers’ recent vilification of Harkat-ul- “Obituary: Qari Mohammad Zafar,” BBC, March 2,
6 For more information, see the South Asia Terrorism Mujahidin and its long-time commander Fazlur Rahman 2010.
Portal file on “Jaish-e-Mohammed (Army of the Proph- Khalil as “proxies” of the ISI, however, it appears reason- 14 Sabrina Tavernise and Waqar Gillani, “Frustrated
et),” located at www.satp.org. able to assume that it represents a genuine splinter. Strivers in Pakistan Turn to Jihad,” New York Times, Feb-
7 Amir Mir, “South Punjab Threat,” The News Inter 9 Shahzad; Schmidle. ruary 27, 2010.
national, October 25, 2009; Asif Shahzad, “Pakistani 10 Bahawalpur is a major hub for Jaysh-i-Muhammad; 15 Stephen Tankel, “Lashkar-e-Taiba in Perspective: An
Militancy Spreads to Country’s Heartland,” Associated Masood Azhar was born in the city and currently resides Evolving Threat,” New America Foundation, February
Press, June 16, 2010. there. 2010.
8 For more information, see the South Asia Terror- 11 Matthew Rosenberg, “Taliban Wages War on Police 16 U.S.A. v. Abdur Rehman Hashim Syed, “Criminal Com-
ism Portal file on “Harakat-ul-Mujahideen Al-alami in Pakistan,” Wall Street Journal, May 28, 2009. plaint,” Northern District of Illinois, 2009.
7
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Causes for Splintering Among Punjabi Militant has noted that Abdul Rashid Ghazi Anger among members of Punjabi
Groups stated two months prior to the storming terrorist groups was compounded by the
Various factors have caused fissures of the mosque that organizations such Musharraf government’s acquiescence to
within Punjabi terrorist groups and as SSP and JM were experiencing an the U.S. invasion, as well as its decision
between these groups and the state. increasing number of defections among to assist the United States by curtailing
The July 2007 storming of Lal Masjid their ranks. 22 Multiple assassination militant operations in Kashmir to
(Red Mosque), a notorious center of attempts against Musharraf in December improve relations with India. 27 Members
Deobandi militant activity in Islamabad, 2003 and other members of Pakistan’s scorned the corresponding acquiescence
is frequently and correctly noted as an military and government by members of many leaders of terrorist groups to
important catalyst in Punjabi militants’ of Punjabi terrorist groups prior to July Musharraf, 28 despite their previous fiery
decision to strike the state. 17 This point 2007 also illustrate this phenomenon. denunciations of the United States. 29
is graphically illustrated by the massive One particularly cutting comment on
increase in mass casualty terrorist The relationship between many Punjabi this subject came from ranking JM
attacks in Islamabad, Lahore, and terrorist groups and the former Taliban member Abdullah Shah Mazhar, who
Rawalpindi since mid-2007. According government of Afghanistan is another gave as his reason for leaving the group:
to data provided by the U.S. National cause for the ongoing rifts within “Maulana [Masood] Azhar has nothing
Counterterrorism Center, for example, Pakistan’s jihadist community. During to do with jihad anymore and that
terrorist attacks in Lahore killed a the Taliban’s rule of Afghanistan, a was why we broke away from him.” 30
total of 30 people from May 2004-July large number of Deobandi terrorist Similarly, Punjab Law Minister Rana
2007, yet have killed approximately groups established strong relations with Sanaullah has stated that when leaders
229 people from August 2007-June al-Qa`ida and the Taliban government of SSP and LJ were flown in to negotiate
2010. 18 Similarly, terrorist attacks in (which shared their adherence to with former members of their groups
Islamabad killed 25 people from July Deobandi Islam 23 ), established training when the latter attacked the Pakistan
2004-July 2007, yet 171 people since. 19 camps in the country, and fought Army’s general headquarters last year,
The significance of the attack on Lal alongside the Taliban against the the leaders were reportedly told, “You
Masjid is also illustrated by the attack Northern Alliance and ethnic minorities are traitors, you have left the right
on the Manawan Police Training School such as the Hazara. 24 The tight linkages path.” 31
outside Lahore in March 2009, where between the Pakistani groups and the
attackers reportedly shouted “Oh red Taliban regime were exemplified by A final factor that may cause splintering
mosque attackers, we have come” HuJI’s Qari Saifullah Akhtar’s reported among Punjabi terrorist groups is
during their assault. 20 Similarly, the status as political adviser to Mullah the influence of al-Qa`ida, which has
Ghazi Force, which has staged several Omar, as well as by Masood Azhar’s
attacks against the Pakistani state, was visit to Mullah Omar following his 27 Amir Mir, “The Jihad Lives On,” Asia Times Online,
named for Abdul Rashid Ghazi, one of release from an Indian prison. 25 The March 11, 2005; Tim McGirk, “The Monster Within,”
the two brothers who served as heads of U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in Time Magazine, January 19, 2004. Musharraf noted in
Lal Masjid. 21 2001 engendered strenuous resistance his autobiography, In the Line of Fire, that Mohammed
by many Punjabi terrorist groups; Jamil, a suicide bomber who attempted to kill him in
Despite the likely role of the Lal Masjid Amjad Farooqi (a member of HuJI later 2003, swore an oath against him after becoming embit-
assault in furthering breaches between tied to an assassination plot against tered after fighting NATO forces in Afghanistan. Ahmed
militants, other factors have contributed Musharraf) reportedly led fighters into Rashid described Jamil as a member of Jaysh-i-Muham-
as well. Journalist Nicholas Schmidle Afghanistan to battle NATO forces. 26 mad in his book Descent into Chaos. Some reports also
suggest that members of Lashkar-i-Jhangvi joined with
17 The Deobandi militant groups reacted more ve- al-Qa`ida due to Musharraf’s decision to ban Lashkar-i-
hemently to the storming of Lal Masjid than did LT. Jhangvi and engage in a major crackdown on the group.
First, because LT is an Ahl-e-Hadith organization and For details, see Lakshman.
therefore was not as well-connected to the pro-Taliban 22 Schmidle. 28 One example is Azam Tariq, then-amir of Sipah-i-
Deobandi elements at Lal Masjid. Second, because of 23 LT did not enjoy similarly close ties to the Taliban Sahaba, who was released from prison and allowed to
its Ahl-e-Hadith identity and organizational history of leadership due to its adherence to the Ahl-e-Hadith sit in Pakistan’s National Assembly, providing political
abjuring attacks in Pakistan, LT was also less involved sect, but did train in the Afghan provinces of Kunar and support to Musharraf’s government until Tariq’s assas-
with the Deobandi actors who constituted the already Nuristan during the 1990s. For details, see Daan Van Der sination by a Shi`a activist in 2003.
brewing insurgency. This information is based on per- Schriek, “Nuristan: Insurgent Hideout in Afghanistan,” 29 According to the Indian government, Azhar called
sonal interview, Stephen Tankel, July 2010. Terrorism Monitor 3:10 (2006). for “jihad” against the United States upon his release
18 Worldwide Incidents Tracking System, U.S. Nation- 24 See, for example, Ahmed Rashid, Taliban (New Ha- from an Indian prison. Similarly, Fazlur Rahman Khalil
al Counterterrorism Center, accessed June 16, 2010. ven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Peter Bergen, Holy of Harkat-ul-Mujahidin was a signatory of Bin Ladin’s
19 Ibid. War Inc. (New York: Free Press, 2001); Kanchan Laksh- 1998 fatwa that called upon Muslims to kill Americans.
20 Sabrina Tavernise, Waqar Gillani, and Salman man, “Deep Roots to Pakistan’s Sectarian Terror,” Asia Also see Steve Coll, “Time Bomb,” New Yorker, January
Masood, “Rampage in Pakistan Shows Reach of Mili- Times Online, July 9, 2003. 28, 2008.
tants,” New York Times, March 30, 2009. 25 Amir Mir, “HUJI Chief Still at Large,” The News Inter 30 Muhammad Amir Rana, A to Z of Jehadi Organizations
21 Abdul Rashid Ghazi was killed in the security assault national, September 23, 2008. in Pakistan (Lahore: Mashal Books, 2004).
on Lal Masjid. For details, see Animesh Roul, “Little- 26 Bill Roggio, “Taliban Claim Responsibility for Attack 31 Shahzad. Amir Mir reported that Fazlur Rahman
Known Ghazi Brigade Now a Major Player in the Punjabi on Pakistan Army Headquarters,” The Long War Journal, Khalil of HuM and Mufti Abdul Rauf, younger brother of
Jihad?” Terrorism Monitor 8:28 (2010). October 10, 2009. Masood Azhar, were flown in to negotiate as well.
8
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
preached violence against both the Afghanistan were directly affected by Qa`ida risks further alienating these
West and the Pakistani government. 32 the U.S. invasion in 2001. groups by drawing closer to anti-statist
As noted previously, members of elements. Al-Qa`ida’s affiliation with
Punjabi terrorist groups developed Consequences and Future Trends the TTP and Punjabi militants has also
ties to al-Qa`ida during their sojourns Various outcomes can be anticipated significantly damaged its image in the
in Afghanistan, interacting with and from splintering within Punjabi eyes of Pakistanis: the Pew Research
training alongside each other and thus terrorist groups and the alignment of Center recorded that the number of
creating an opportunity for ideological many of their members with al-Qa`ida Pakistanis who viewed al-Qa`ida
cross-fertilization. 33 Lashkar-i-Tayyiba and Pakistani Taliban groups. The favorably dropped from 25% in 2008
possesses additional bonds with al- mainline factions of groups wishing to to 9% in 2009. 41 This affiliation could
Qa`ida, such as its adherence to avoid conflict with the state will likely potentially erode the group’s credibility
the Salafi-like sect Ahl-e-Hadith, become marginalized as they continue among Muslims worldwide as well,
and the reported role of al-Qa`ida- to hemorrhage members to anti-statist particularly if the Punjabi militants
affiliated individuals in its founding. 34 groups. A recent estimate from a minister aligning themselves with al-Qa`ida are
Additional personal ties were forged in Punjab estimated that between 10- granted official permission to use the
during the exodus of jihadists from 20% of JM, SSP, and LJ members have al-Qa`ida brand. A precedent for this
Afghanistan following Operation joined the Punjabi Taliban. 37 At the can be seen in the group’s previously
Enduring Freedom. It is reported that same time, many dissidents may remain unpopular affiliation with Abu Mus`ab
Amjad Farooqi developed ties with al- involved with their former organizations al-Zarqawi in Iraq. 42
Qa`ida operations chief Abu Faraj al- to some extent, and attempt to co-opt
Libi in this period, later leading to the their resources and personnel. 38 The The consequences of the decision by
two working together in attempts to extensive training of many members many Punjabi militants to turn against
assassinate Musharraf. 35 Al-Qa`ida’s of Punjabi terrorist groups and their their state sponsors and frequently away
uncompromising adherence to struggle access to the resources of their former from their own militant organizations
against the United States and its allies organizations helps augment the ability will continue to play out in the months
in the Pakistani government likely of al-Qa`ida to train Westerners for and years to come. Although the
proved attractive to Pakistani militants attacks overseas, and may help it activities of these groups and individuals
frustrated with the relative inaction of mitigate the effects of drone strikes that may weaken al-Qa`ida’s global appeal
their own leadership. 36 Similarly, al- have killed many of the group’s most in the long-term, they pose challenges
Qa`ida’s call for a global jihad against experienced operational commanders. 39 to Pakistan’s internal stability and to
the West gained stronger resonance As illustrated by the aforementioned LT the security of the United States in the
when Punjabi groups operating in plot against the U.S. and UK embassies interim.
in Dhaka, Punjabi militants aligned
32 Usama bin Ladin reportedly called for Musharraf’s with al-Qa`ida could potentially use Ben Brandt is currently a threat analyst
overthrow in 2002, and Ayman al-Zawahiri did so in their organizations’ resources to strike in the private sector, prior to which he
2003, four months before twin assassination attempts against Western interests throughout monitored South Asian extremist issues
against Musharraf. South Asia. at the NJ Office of Homeland Security and
33 As is well known, a 1998 cruise missile strike against Preparedness, and researched terrorist
training camps in Afghanistan associated with Bin Ladin At the same time, many analysts have attack planning methodologies at Booz
killed a number of Harkat-ul-Mujahidin members, while argued that al-Qa`ida’s involvement with Allen Hamilton. He holds an MA in Security
Nicholas Schmidle reports that Qari Saifullah Akhtar ar- Pakistani militants engaged in bloody Studies from Georgetown University.
ranged a meeting between Bin Ladin and Maulana Ab- attacks against Muslims has strained
dullah of Lal Masjid in 1998. its relationship with its longtime allies
34 These include, for example, Usama bin Ladin’s men- among the Haqqani network and the
tor `Abdullah `Azzam and Bin Ladin associate Abu Ab- Afghan Taliban. 40 If this is true, al-
dul Aziz “Barbaros.” For details, see Bill Roggio, “Paki-
stani Court Orders Release of Lashkar-e-Taiba Leader,” 37 Shahzad. It should be noted that the minister in ques-
The Long War Journal, June 2, 2009; Evan F. Kohlmann, tion, Punjab Law Minister Rana Sanuallah, has been
“Expert Witness: Synopsis of Testimony from Regina v. criticized for his ties to Sipah-i-Sahaba.
Mohammed Ajmal Khan, Palvinder Singh, and Frzana 38 There is precedent for this form of cooption in the de-
Khan,” NEFA Foundation, undated. cision of many Pakistani terrorist groups to recruit at the
35 Roggio, “Taliban Claim Responsibility for Attack on annual ijtema of the apolitical Deobandi movement Ta-
Pakistan Army Headquarters.” blighi Jama`at. Similar trends have been spotted in other
36 The leadership of some groups, however, was in- theaters of operations as well: Noordin Top exploited his Fishman, “The Battle for Pakistan: Militancy and Con-
volved in tacitly assisting al-Qa`ida directly after 9/11. connections with Jemaah Islamiya to build his splinter flict in North Waziristan,” New America Foundation,
LT’s leadership directed elements within the organiza- group al-Qa`ida in the Malay Peninsula. April 2010; David S. Cloud and Julian S. Barnes, “Some
tion to provide safe houses and other forms of logistical 39 The impressive tradecraft displayed by both David U.S. Officials See a Growing Taliban-Al Qaeda Rift,” Los
support to foreign fighters, including members of al- Headley’s reconnaissance efforts and by the subsequent Angeles Times, May 11, 2010.
Qa`ida, fleeing Afghanistan after 9/11. Personal inter- LT assault on Mumbai are indicative of the skills Pun- 41 “Pakistani Public Opinion,” Pew Global Attitudes
view, Stephen Tankel, July 2010. Tankel is conducting jabi militants could conceivably leverage on behalf of al- Project, August 13, 2009.
research for his book, Storming the World Stage: The Story Qa`ida. 42 “Confidence in Osama bin Laden,” Pew Global Atti-
of Lashkar-e-Taiba. 40 Anand Gopal, Mansur Khan Mahsud, and Brian tudes Project, 2009.
9
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
The Role of Lal Masjid in the Formation of the in South Waziristan. 8 Fidaullah, who
The Ghazi Force: A Threat to Ghazi Force was arrested by Pakistan’s authorities
Pakistan’s Urban Centers For many years, Lal Masjid served in June 2009, also reportedly ordered
as an indoctrination and waypoint the beheadings of three men in Buner
By Syed Manzar Abbas Zaidi station for Islamic fighters traveling to District of the North-West Frontier
Afghanistan during the jihad against Province (NWFP) on charges of spying
pakistan is increasingly under siege the Soviet Union. More recently, the for security forces. 9
from militant factions that are primarily mosque became a jihadist symbol
based in the country’s northwest tribal of defiance against the Pakistan Niaz Raheem, the current leader of the
region. Most attacks are blamed on government’s pro-Western and anti- group, came from Swat in Pakistan’s
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), an jihadist policies. Students at Lal Masjid northwest, and was a student of Jamia
umbrella group of multiple Pakistani openly defied the writ of the state in the Faridia at Lal Masjid. 10 During his time
Taliban factions led by Hakimullah heart of Islamabad when they brazenly at the mosque, Niaz was in charge of
Mehsud. Disaggregating the various commandeered government buildings, communications for the women’s wing
militant factions part of the Pakistani kidnapped Chinese women who they of the Lal Masjid establishment, known
Taliban is more difficult. Yet details are accused of being sex workers and
emerging about a relatively new militant openly displayed weapons. 4 The leading
group that has undertaken a number of clerics at Lal Masjid, Abdul Rashid Ghazi
“In accordance with
deadly attacks on Pakistani government and his brother Maulana Abdul Aziz, the TTP’s tendency to
and Western targets. Known as the were responsible for a 2004 fatwa that
Ghazi Force, it emerged in the wake said Pakistani soldiers killed while
outsource operations to
of the government’s July 2007 siege of fighting the Taliban in South Waziristan other organizations, the
Islamabad’s Lal Masjid (Red Mosque), Agency of the Federally Administered
a bastion of extremist thought. The Tribal Areas (FATA) did not deserve
Ghazi Force appears to be
attack on Lal Masjid is largely considered a Muslim funeral or burial at Muslim the TTP’s ‘Delta Force’ in
a turning point in Pakistan’s struggle cemeteries. 5
against militancy, and the rise in Islamabad. Typically, those
domestic attacks since 2007 is seen as a On July 10, 2007, after a security that undertake attacks in
direct result of the incident. 1 standoff, government troops stormed
the facility, and there were heavy urban areas are locals who
According to Islamabad’s inspector exchanges of gunfire between fighters know the area and are able
general of police, the Ghazi Force in the mosque compound and security
has been behind some of the capital’s forces. The operation infuriated radical to blend in with the city’s
deadliest attacks since 2007. 2 The Muslims throughout Pakistan and population.”
official argues that the Ghazi Force is likely responsible for the rise in
dispatched a suicide bomber to attack domestic attacks in the country. The
the government’s commando unit Ghazi Force soon emerged, named
involved in the Lal Masjid siege in after Abdul Rashid Ghazi, the leader as Jamia Hafsa. 11 During the July 2007
September 2007, helped to recruit the of Lal Masjid who was slain during the security operation against Lal Masjid, Niaz
suicide bomber who blew himself up in government operation. 6 escaped the complex with other students
the offices of the World Food Program and took refuge with Maulana Sher Ali
in October 2009, was involved in a The Ghazi Force Enters the Jihadist Milieu Khan of the Akora Khatak seminary in
deadly suicide bombing at the Marriott Due to limited intelligence on militant Attock District of the NWFP. 12 While
Hotel in Islamabad in September 2008 groups in South Asia in general, it is at Akora Khatak, Niaz founded a
and attacked a NATO supply convoy in not completely clear how the Ghazi students’ organization of those who fled
June 2010. 3 Force developed. It is believed that Lal Masjid; this grouping was peaceful,
Niaz Raheem and a militant known as however, and did not yet have militant
This article profiles the Ghazi Force, Fidaullah co-founded the Ghazi Force overtones. 13 He eventually traveled with
identifies how the group was formed and with the support of two militants other Lal Masjid students to Swat, where
assesses its future trajectory. It finds known as Habibullah and Ajmal. 7 Niaz he reportedly came under the influence
that this relatively new militant group is a former student at Lal Masjid, while of Maulana Fazlullah. 14 Fazlullah then
is posing a growing threat to Pakistan’s Fidaullah reportedly indoctrinated
urban centers. students at Lal Masjid and convinced 8 Ibid.
them to join suicide training camps 9 Ibid.
10 Lal Masjid had two seminaries—Jamia Faridia, the
1 Syed Manzar Abbas Zaidi, “‘Red Trigger’: Lal Masjid 4 Zaidi. male madrasa, and Jamia Hafsa, its female counterpart.
and its Aftermath,” International Journal of Terrorism and 5 Ibid. 11 Personal interview, Amir Rana, director of Pakistan
Political Hot Spots 4:1-2 (2009). 6 Maulana Abdul Aziz was taken into Pakistani custody Institute of Peace Studies and internationally acclaimed
2 Kathy Gannon, “The Ghazi Force: Vengeful New Mili- shortly before authorities stormed the mosque com- researcher on militancy in Pakistan, July 2010.
tant Group Emerges in Pakistan,” Associated Press, July pound. 12 Ibid.
1, 2010. 7 Munawer Azeem, “Mastermind of Islamabad Suicide 13 Ibid.
3 Ibid. Attacks Arrested,” Dawn, June 1, 2009. 14 Ibid.
10
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
introduced Niaz to Hakimullah Mehsud fluid organizational structure are more Second, the Ghazi Force is anti-Shi`a,
in Orakzai Agency, who at the time important than numbers. The Ghazi which means its members can associate
was the TTP’s deputy amir for the area. Force appears to be relying on cell-based themselves with a range of sectarian
Hakimullah reportedly took Niaz under structures within the organization, groups in Pakistan that are operating
his wing, and instructed him to set up which amplifies their terrorist potential on the same ideological underpinnings.
the militant group that soon came to be and makes disruption more difficult. As a result, alliances with al-Qa`ida,
known as the Ghazi Force. 15 Moreover, the estimate of the Ghazi Jaysh-i-Muhammad, the Ilyas Kashmiri
Force’s cadre size is based on police network, the Punjabi Taliban and other
Although it is a distinct group, the interrogations with Fidaullah, who may groups are possible. Clear recognition
Ghazi Force can be considered a faction have downplayed the group’s numbers. from these groups, however, will
of the TTP umbrella organization. The Kathy Gannon, an Associated Press require the Ghazi Force to execute
Ghazi Force is believed to be based journalist who did seminal work on the more significant attacks or increase
in Orakzai Agency, with a possible Ghazi Force, believes that the group’s its numbers. Even though these bigger
training camp in Guljo in the adjoining terrorist credentials are just the tip of groups are also in intimate contact
Hangu District of the NWFP. 16 The the iceberg, and that there is more to the with the TTP, they tend to recognize
Ghazi Force is reportedly engaged in entity than their propensity to target other TTP “franchises” such as the
Islamabad. 18 Ghazi Force only if they prove worthy
“What is the future path of of attention. Thus, newly emerging
In accordance with the TTP’s groups have to prove themselves to the
the Ghazi Force? First, the tendency to outsource operations to TTP high command and its partners to
Ghazi Force is a relatively other organizations, the Ghazi Force “outbid” other small umbrella groups
appears to be the TTP’s “Delta Force” for attention and recognition. Judging by
new militant group; in Islamabad, similar to how Lashkar- its recent history, the Ghazi Force may
therefore, it will likely try i-Islam is employed for attacks in soon become a more prominent militant
Peshawar. 19 Typically, those that faction in Pakistan’s increasingly
to establish its reputation undertake attacks in urban areas are violent domestic militant milieu.
with a series of escalating locals who know the area and are able
to blend in with the city’s population. Syed Manzar Abbas Zaidi is the author of
terrorist attacks. These Fidaullah, for example, was arrested two books about the Taliban in Pakistan,
attacks are important in Islamabad, raising the possibility and has written extensively about the
that other members of the Ghazi Force subject in international scholarly journals.
to establish its jihadist use safe houses in Islamabad and He has been a lecturer of terrorism studies
credentials.” Rawalpindi. 20 In fact, they could still at a British university. His expertise
be using the Lal Masjid establishment to lies in the study of Talibanization and
“lie low”’ before activating operational transmigration of radical trends from rural
cells. 21 to the urban mainstream in Pakistan, and
resisting Pakistan Army operations a deconstruction of jihadist discourse. He
in the tribal areas side-by-side other The Future of the Ghazi Force currently works with the National Counter-
Taliban factions. The main role of the What is the future path of the Ghazi Force? Terrorism Authority of Pakistan.
TTP appears to be offering the Ghazi First, the Ghazi Force is a relatively new
Force sanctuary for its fighters along militant group; therefore, it will likely
with logistical assistance, whereas the try to establish its reputation with a
Ghazi Force retains a certain amount series of escalating terrorist attacks.
of operational freedom. Nevertheless, These attacks are important to establish
tactical decisions by groups under the its jihadist credentials. Islamabad’s
patronage of the TTP are reached by police force already consider the Ghazi
consensus of the TTP high command. Force a major threat, and are devoting
significant resources to countering the
At its core, the Ghazi Force consists of an group. The police are anticipating new
estimated 50 fighters. 17 At first glance, major attacks from the organization.
the size of the group appears small. Yet
other deadly groups have had a similar 18 Personal interview, Kathy Gannon, journalist, Asso-
sized cadre. The dynamics of asymmetric ciated Press, June 2010.
conflict are important in understanding 19 The TTP has a number of allied groups that it relies
these numbers, as guerrilla tactics and a on for attacks in urban areas. The Ghazi Force is used for
attacks in Islamabad, the “Punjabi Taliban” in Lahore,
15 Ibid. Lashkar-i-Islam and affiliates in Peshawar, and the Me-
16 This information is based on the police interrogation herban Mehsud group and affiliates in Karachi.
report with Fidaullah, one of the founding members of 20 Azeem.
the Ghazi Force. He remains in custody of the Islamabad 21 This is a view shared by many analysts alongside the
police. author who have studied this phenomenon, including
17 Ibid. Amir Rana and Kathy Gannon.
11
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
12
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
in Orakzai, due to the absence of the fire in Tori Mela. 19 Continuing with their Pakistan’s Offensive in Orakzai
Frontier Corps in the agency. Khasadars, atrocities, the Taliban chopped off the On March 23, 2010, Pakistan’s military
basically local security forces, are not hands of three men on theft allegations launched a major anti-Taliban operation
trained or equipped to combat well- in the Ghaljo area of the agency in the in Orakzai called Khwakh Ba dee Sham. 25 As
trained militants. As a result, the tribes first week of May 2010. 20 part of the offensive, the army blocked
were forced to fight against Taliban most of the entry and exit routes to and
fighters on their own. When the Taliban Today, the most active Taliban from Orakzai. Both sides reportedly
asked the biggest tribe in Orakzai, the groups operating in Orakzai are the suffered casualties, and the military
Ali Khel, to expel 100 Shi`a families Commander Tariq Group, the Abdullah claims that the dead included foreign
from the area, the Ali Khel convened a Azzam Brigades, Lashkar-i-Jhangvi, fighters, such as Arabs, Chechens and
tribal jirga to establish an anti-Taliban and the Ghazi Force. The Commander Uzbeks. 26
lashkar in October 2008. 14 The jirga, Tariq Group is headed by Tariq Afridi,
however, was attacked by a suicide On June 1, the Pakistan Army declared
bomber, who killed more than 82 tribal “Despite its recent that the military operation in Orakzai
elders. 15 This one attack decimated the was finished and the objectives achieved.
tribal leadership of Orakzai and paved
offensive, Pakistan’s This announcement, however, appears
the way for the Taliban to take control government has yet to more a public relations move than a
of the entire agency. 16 military reality. Air strikes in the agency
bring Orakzai under have continued through July, providing
After consolidating its hold on the control.” ample proof that military operations are
agency, Taliban militias announced far from over. 27 Moreover, according to
the enforcement of Shari`a, and residents in the area, Mamozai, Ghaljo
they established Islamic courts and and Shahoo are still under Taliban
complaint centers. Through mosque who is based in Dara Adam Khel, and is control. Some government officials also
loudspeakers, they urged people to considered the most powerful militant admitted in early June that terrorists
contact the Islamic courts to settle group in Orakzai. The Abdullah Azzam were putting up “stiff resistance” in
disputes in accordance with Islamic Brigade was reportedly involved in the upper Orakzai. 28 These results are not
law. The Taliban established a parallel attack on the Pearl Continental Hotel in surprising considering that Pakistan’s
political administration and levied jizya Peshawar and the killing of anti-Taliban military deployed just 5,000 troops for
(protection tax) on members of the local religious scholar Sarfraz Naeemi in June only three months (March 23-June 1) to
Sikh and Hindu communities. 17 In June 2009. 21 Lashkar-i-Jhangvi is a violent, clear Taliban militants from the territory.
2008, six men were publicly executed sectarian group and an offshoot of the By comparison, operations in South
after a Taliban-established court found SSP. 22 The Ghazi Force is named after Waziristan and Swat were supported by
them guilty of kidnapping. 18 In January Abdul Rashid Ghazi, the former cleric more than 25,000 and 15,000 troops,
2010, the Taliban punished tribesmen of Lal Masjid (Red Mosque) who was respectively. 29 Nevertheless, it appears
who refused to remain in their village to killed when Pakistani security forces that Pakistan’s military has cleared
support the Taliban in the fight against stormed the facility in 2007. The Ghazi some areas in southern Orakzai to act as
security forces by setting 63 houses on Force is currently led by Niaz Raheem, a base camp from where it can continue
a former student of Lal Masjid, and is its anti-Taliban operations.
14 Syed Hasan Mahmood and Mushtaq Yusufzai, “Or- suspected of being behind many of the
akzai Blast Toll Rises to 82,” The News International, Oc- recent violent attacks in Islamabad and Conclusion
tober 12, 2008; Farhat Taj, “Life in Orakzai,” The News other populated areas in Pakistan. 23 Despite its recent offensive, Pakistan’s
International, February 11, 2009. government has yet to bring Orakzai
15 Mahmood and Yusufzai. The Commander Tariq Group is part of under control. The security services
16 Mukhtar A. Khan, “The Role of Tribal Lashkars in the TTP, while Lashkar-i-Jhangvi, the
Winning Pakistan’s War on Terror,” Terrorism Focus Ghazi Force and the Abdullah Azzam 25 This is a Pashtu expression meaning, “I will teach you
5:40 (2008). Brigade are closely affiliated with the a lesson.”
17 The Sikhs of Orakzai have lived in the agency for TTP. 24 26 Ikram Sehgal, “Counterinsurgency Operations,” The
centuries. When the Taliban took control of Orakzai, News International, April 29, 2010.
they discriminated against the Sikhs. In April 2009, 11 27 “At Least 38 Taliban Insurgents and Four Security
houses in the Sikh community were razed for not being 19 “Militants Burn Village in Lower Orakzai,” Dawn, Personnel Were Killed,” Express Tribune, June 23, 2010;
able to pay the Rs. 150 million ($1.9 million) jizya to the January 5, 2010. Manzoor Ali, “22 Suspected Militants Killed in Orakzai,”
Taliban, and the Sikh community—comprising 30-35 20 “Taliban Cut Off Hands of Three Tribesmen,” Dawn, Express Tribune, July 12, 2010.
families—had to shift from the Feroze Khel area to the May 6, 2010. 28 Iqbal Khattak, “Taliban Still Rule Half of Orakzai,”
nearby Merozai area in lower Orakzai. For details, see 21 Bill Roggio, “Arakzai Taliban Take Credit for Mosque Daily Times, June 3, 2010.
“Taliban Seize Houses, Shops of Sikhs in Orakzai,” Daily Suicide Attacks,” The Long War Journal, June 12, 2009. 29 Although Orakzai differs in size from South Wa-
Times, April 30, 2009; “Taliban Raze Houses of Sikhs in 22 Bill Roggio, “Taliban Torch Village in Arakzai,” The ziristan and Swat, there are likely more militants in the
Orakzai,” Dawn, April 30, 2009. There are also approxi- Long War Journal, January 5, 2010. agency and they appear to be in hardened positions.
mately 18 Hindu families in Orakzai. For details, see Mu- 23 Gannon. Therefore, it seems that the number of troops deployed
nir and Mir. 24 Ibid.; Syed Yasir Shah, “Unknown Group Claims Pe- in the Orakzai offensive was inadequate. For details, see
18 Bill Roggio, “Pakistan Signs Peace Accord in Orakzai shawar Hotel Bombing,” The News International, June 11, “Brief: Military Operations In Orakzai Over?” Stratfor
Tribal Agency,” The Long War Journal, July 19, 2008. 2009. Global Intelligence, June 2, 2010.
13
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
need to approach the Orakzai campaign The Growing Threat of This article provides background on
in a more “intelligence informed Muslim female participation in violent
manner,” concentrating on breaking the Female Suicide Attacks in extremism, shows how certain clerics
Taliban from within. There are chances Western Countries have encouraged female participation
for success in this approach, as during in jihad, and finally examines how al-
the past two years there have been a By Houriya Ahmed Qa`ida may adapt its strategy to make
number of occurrences where Taliban use of this tactic.
factions have fought each other over in january 2010, U.S. intelligence
disputes in Orakzai. officials warned that al-Qa`ida in Female Participation in Violent Extremism
the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)—the Hizb Allah, the Shi`a Islamist group
In August 2009, for example, 21 Yemen-based group responsible for based in Lebanon, first introduced
militants were killed when two Taliban the attempted Christmas Day airline suicide terrorism in 1983. 5 Although it
groups clashed for control of the Akakhel bombing in the United States—is was the first religiously motivated party
area of upper Orakzai. 30 In April 2010, training female suicide bombers to to use this tactic of warfare, secular
more clashes were reported, when six attack countries in the West. 1 In nationalist groups popularized female
Taliban, including a local commander, May 2010, AQAP itself issued a call suicide bombings in 1985 on behalf of
were killed in Orakzai during infighting to Muslim women to join the jihad the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. 6
between two rival Taliban factions led movement in Yemen. 2 U.S. officials Indeed, according to one 2009 study,
by Mullah Toofan and Mullah Rafiq. 31 reportedly believe that these women 85% of female suicide attacks have been
There were also reports of a Taliban may have a “non-Arab” appearance carried out by secular organizations. 7
commander who defected to his Ali Khel and have Western passports, making it
tribe over the Taliban’s poor treatment easier for them to evade detection while By 2004, however, the Palestinian
of Shi`a in Orakzai. 32 Although the traveling. 3 group Hamas employed a female suicide
senior Taliban leadership was able to bomber—Reem al-Rayashi. 8 Since that
prevent these infighting incidents from There are growing concerns that al- attack, the tactic has been emulated by
spreading, it does show that there are Qa`ida will start deploying women a number of militant Islamist groups
possible rifts that can be exploited with in its global fight against Western waging jihad, especially in Iraq. Abu
a more nuanced understanding of the states and their interests. The group is Mus`ab al-Zarqawi, the deceased leader
Taliban factions operating in Orakzai. clearly reaching out to Muslim women of al-Qa`ida in Iraq (AQI), claimed
and asking them to participate in its responsibility for the group’s first
Tayyab Ali Shah is a freelance political “struggle” against the West. This year, female suicide bomber in September
and security analyst specializing in the for example, female suicide bombers 2005. 9 By November of that year, AQI
Taliban and other Islamic extremists. He have already attacked in Russia, Iraq claimed responsibility for an additional
is a Pakistani Pashtun and has a post- and Afghanistan. Belgium convicted five female suicide attacks, which
graduate education in Political Science, one woman of leading a terrorist group, included one Iraqi-born woman, Sajida
Business Administration and Public while Muslim convert Colleen LaRose Mubarak al-Rishawi, whose bomb failed
Policy. He has extensive experience in is currently facing trial in the United
community development, policy advocacy States for wanting to fight violent jihad. 4 5 Cindy D. Ness, “In the Name of a Cause: Women’s
and political education with both Pakistani These signs, combined with the ongoing Work in Secular and Religious Terrorism,” in Cindy D.
and Afghan Pashtuns. He moderates the concern of homegrown militants, make Ness ed., Female Terrorism & Militancy: Agency, Utility,
Pakhtunkhwa Peace Forum and has written it increasingly likely that the United and Organisation (London: Routledge, 2008), p. 18.
for The Jamestown Foundation, Pakistan’s States or Western European countries 6 Lindsey A. O’Rourke, “What’s Special about Female
Frontier Post and the Daily Times. will experience their first female suicide Suicide Terrorism?” Security Studies 18:4 (2009). Other
bombing in the future. examples of secular militant groups that used female
suicide bombers include the Kurdistan Workers’ Party
in Turkey, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in Sri
Lanka and the Palestinian al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade.
7 Ibid. O’Rourke also states that female suicide bomb-
ers have detonated from approximately eight times in the
1 A May 2010 magazine published by AQAP, Sada al- 1980s to more than 100 since 2000. For details on that
Malahim, includes an article by the wife of AQAP’s sec- claim, see p. 696.
ond-in-command, Said al-Shihri, calling on women to 8 The militant Islamist group Palestinian Islamic Jihad
join the jihad in Yemen. also started using female suicide bombers. Hamas and
2 Ibid. Islamic Jihad are not the first Palestinian groups to have
3 Phil Sherwell and Sean Rayment, “Al-Qaeda Has embraced female terrorism. Fatah’s militant al-Aqsa
Trained Female Suicide Bombers to Attack the West, Martyrs Brigade (a nationalist group) was the first to in-
US Officials Warn,” Daily Telegraph, January 23, 2010; troduce female suicide bombings against Israeli targets
30 “Hakeemullah’s Followers in Orakzai Clash; 21 Anthony Browne, “Western White Woman a Suicide with Wafa Idris in January 2002. For more information
Killed,” Dawn, August 12, 2009. Bomber,” The Times, December 1, 2005. see O’Rourke, pp. 697-698.
31 “Taliban Infighting Claims Six Lives in Orakzai,” 4 “Belgium Convicts Terror Suspects,” BBC, May 10, 9 Little is known about AQI’s first female suicide bomb-
Daily Times, April 2, 2010. 2010; “Muslim Convert Colleen LaRose, aka Jihad Jane, er. See Christopher Dickey, “Women of Al Qaeda,” News
32 Taj. Faces Terror Charges,” Guardian, March 10, 2010. week, December 12, 2005.
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july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
to detonate when she executed a cross- In the United Kingdom, where a AQI. 21 Reports suggest that Degauque
border attack in Amman, Jordan. 10 total of five women were convicted was one of many female Muslim converts
Since then, Iraq has seen a number of for Islamism-related offenses, three in Europe to have been targeted for
female suicide bombers, as recently as acted as protectors for their respective recruitment to carry out suicide attacks
July 2010. 11 fiancé, husband or brother-in-law in in Iraq and Pakistan. 22 In January 2010,
the July 21, 2005 failed suicide attacks the Sunday Times reported that a British-
Afghanistan and Pakistan have also in London, of which one described her Somali female medical student traveled
witnessed female suicide bombers. 12 husband as a “martyr.” 18 Of the other to Somalia to help the al-Qa`ida-linked
Afghanistan nearly saw its first in two, one was convicted of distributing al-Shabab group. 23
December 2007: the woman, who a terrorist publication that encouraged
claimed she was from Pakistan, was The motivations for females to
arrested before attempting the suicide “The fact that Ayman participate in violent jihad are not
attack. 13 By May 2008, however, the categorically known, but some suggest
Afghan Taliban reportedly claimed al-Zawahiri’s wife that women fight out of a sense of
responsibility for a successful female issued a call to women revenge—particularly Chechen “Black
suicide attack. 14 Pakistan also saw its Widows”—and to protect their male
first female suicide attack in December to participate in jihad counterparts or country. 24 For example,
2007, and in January 2010 two teenage and ‘martyr’ themselves Hawa Barayev, the first Chechen female
girls claimed that they decided to suicide bomber, committed the act
become suicide bombers after hearing suggests that al-Qa`ida in 2000 to not only aid Chechnya’s
speeches from a leader of the Pakistani may change tactics and independence but to set an example
Taliban, Maulana Fazlullah, but later for men to follow. 25 Comparatively,
changed their minds. 15 Security officials follow in the footsteps of some Palestinian suicide bombers
in Pakistan are concerned that the groups such as Hamas are thought to have fought to regain a
Pakistani Taliban may have recruited sense of honor, as seen in the case of
“hundreds” of female students from or its own Iraqi affiliate, Reem al-Rayashi. 26 Yet examples such
Islamabad’s Red Mosque (Lal Masjid), a AQI.” as Colleen LaRose, who as “JihadJane”
hotbed of Pakistani radicalism. 16 cited religious reasons to fight jihad,
can lead to the conclusion that women,
The United States and Western Europe just like men, can participate in jihad
have yet to suffer a female suicide attack. others to conduct jihad abroad; the for ideological reasons.
Women have, however, remained on the other, Houria Chentouf, was convicted
peripheries of major terrorism plots or for attempting to smuggle a USB stick
acted as propagandists for al-Qa`ida’s into the United Kingdom containing
global narrative. In Belgium, Malika files that may have been useful for
el-Aroud was convicted and sentenced terrorists. 19 Chentouf was discovered
in May 2010 to eight years in prison for with hand-written notes that indicated
“leading a terrorist group linked with she was considering making herself and 21 Karla Cunningham, “The Evolving Participation of
al-Qaeda,” which recruited people in her children “bombs for the sake of this Muslim Women in Palestine, Chechnya, and the Global
France and Belgium and sent them to religion” for they seek “revenge.” 20 Jihadi Movement,” in Ness, p. 95. Cunningham states
Afghanistan for fighting. 17 that Degauque was “tasked by al-Zarqawi.” Also see
Where Western women have “Journey of Belgian Female ‘Bomber,’” BBC, December
participated in combat activities, they 2, 2005.
10 Ibid. Also see “Jordan Shows ‘Would-Be Bomber,’” are known to have done so outside of 22 Cunningham, p. 95.
BBC, November 13, 2005. Western countries. In November 2005, 23 Richard Kerbaj, “UK Students Recruited for Somali
11 “Suicide Bomber in Government HQ in West Iraq Europe saw its first suicide bomber in Jihad,” Sunday Times, January 24, 2010.
Kills 3,” Reuters, July 4, 2010. Iraq, when Muriel Degauque, a white 24 Farhana Ali, “Dressed to Kill: Why the Number of
12 O’Rourke. Belgian convert aged 38, detonated Female Suicide Bombers is Rising in Iraq,” Newsweek,
13 “Afghans Detain Woman with Bomb Under Burqa,” explosives in Baghdad on behalf of July 30, 2008. “Black Widows” is a reference to Chech-
Reuters, December 24, 2007. en women who have committed suicide out of revenge
14 “Female Suicide Bomber Kills 15 at Crowded Afghan 18 The three women are Yeshiemebet Girma, Mulume- for losing their brothers, husbands or sons in the war
Market,” Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, May 15, bet Girma and Fardosa Abdullahi. Police found a note in against Russia.
2008. the Muslim convert Yeshiemebet Girma’s handwriting 25 Ness, p. 19.
15 Sze Leng Chan, “Pakistan’s First Female Suicide that described her husband, Hussain Osman, as a “mar- 26 Ibid., p. 28. Reem al-Rayashi was thought to have
Bomber Killed Near Christian School,” Christian Post, De- tyr.” See “Wife of 21 July Plotter Convicted,” BBC, June been involved in an extramarital affair. It is argued that
cember 5, 2007; “Swat: 2 Suicide-Bomb Girls Presented 11, 2008; “21 July Plotter’s Fiancee Jailed,” BBC, July 11, her motivation may have been to regain a sense of honor.
Before Media,” Geo TV, January 9, 2010. 2008. Similarly, Samira Jassim in Iraq allegedly confessed to or-
16 For details, see Jeremy Page and Zahid Hussain, 19 “Woman Produced ‘Holy War’ Leaflet,” BBC, Feb- ganizing the rape of potential female suicide bombers to
“Female Suicide Bomber Joins Pakistan Violence,” The ruary 3, 2009; Russell Jenkins, “Mother of Six Houria later convince them that becoming a suicide bomber was
Times, October 17, 2009. Chentouf Hid Terror Manual in Burka,” The Times, No- their only escape from “shame.” See Deborah Haynes,
17 “Belgium Convicts Terror Suspects,” BBC, May 10, vember 3, 2009. “‘Female Suicide Bomb Recruiter’ Samira Ahmed Jassim
2010. 20 Ibid. Captured,” The Times, February 3, 2009.
15
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Legitimizing Female Suicide Terrorism stronger psychologically than women, jihad. Yusuf al-`Uyayri, al-Qa`ida’s
Militant Islamist groups are who might not be able to stay hidden leader in Saudi Arabia who was killed
increasingly adopting female suicide and alone.” 32 Hamas changed tact in in 2003, issued a pamphlet, The Role of
terrorism because it serves their 2004, however, when Reem al-Rayashi, Women in Jihad Against the Enemies, aimed at
ideological goals and is highly effective. a mother of two, believed she would women that implicitly encouraged them
Women are generally subject to more attain martyrdom and become one of to participate. 36 He lionized women in
relaxed security checks and attract the 70 houris (nymphs) promised to early Islamic history who fought jihad
less suspicion, and their attacks garner male suicide bombers. 33 Shaykh Yassin and stated that they should be role
greater media coverage; female suicide explained why the group used a woman models for women today. Al-`Uyayri went
bombings have more shock value for the first time: further to dismantle traditional religious
because women are considered less arguments that require permission for
likely to commit acts of mass violence. 27 For the first time, Hamas used women to fight: “But if the Jihad becomes
Moreover, the increasing willingness of a female fighter and not a male an individual obligation (fard `ayn), then
militant Islamist groups to use female fighter. It is a new development no permission is needed.” 37 He argued
suicide bombers reflects shifts in in resistance against the enemy… that the jihad al-Qa`ida is currently
attitudes. Female terrorism has gained Resistance will escalate against confronting is fard `ayn: “And in our
intellectual legitimacy, and this tactic this enemy until they leave our time jihad is an individual obligation.” 38
of warfare has received scholarly, albeit land and homeland. 34 This jihad, according to al-`Uyayri,
Islamist, backing. 28 applies equally to both men and women,
Despite Yassin’s statement, Hamas and that the latter do not require the
Egyptian scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi, did not deploy its second female permission from a male guardian
one of Sunni Islam’s preeminent clerics, suicide bomber until November 2006 to fight. 39 Al-`Uyayri provided the
has justified the use of female suicide with Fatima Omar Mahmud al-Najar, religious and intellectual justification
terrorism against perceived “occupying” showing that Hamas has not yet adopted for female jihad, although fell short of
powers, such as Israel. He issued a fatwa these bombings as a regular tactic. 35 explicitly sanctioning it by stating that
(religious edict) that states: “…committed women should instead support their
Muslim women in Palestine have the A similar intellectual shift may be men. 40 By 2004, al-Qa`ida launched
right to participate and have their own occurring in al-Qa`ida. Usama bin the first online jihadist magazine aimed
role in jihad and to attain martyrdom.” 29 Ladin’s 1996 Declaration of War Against the specifically at women, al-Khansaa. 41
He also said that women can embark Americans indicated that women should
on a “martyrdom” operation “without only play a supportive role in the fight By December 2009, sympathetic jihadist
a mahram (male guardian, a husband or against the West. He instructed women forums posted a letter by Ayman al-
male relative they cannot marry).” 30 Al- to “instigate their brothers to fight Zawahiri’s wife, Umaymah Hasan, titled
Qaradawi’s fatwa makes it permissible in the cause of Allah” and glorified
for women to fight alongside men when women who did so. By the early 2000s, 36 The exact publication date of the pamphlet is un-
jihad becomes fard `ayn—an individual however, al-Qa`ida moved toward known, as the English translation published by at-Tib-
duty during times of war that requires legitimizing female participation in yan Publications makes no mention of it. Al-`Uyayri,
all men and women to participate—and however, mentioned in the pamphlet Hawa Barayev,
they can do so without the permission 32 O’Rourke, p. 696. who committed suicide in 2000, and al-`Uyayri was
or accompaniment of a male guardian. 31 33 Hala Jaber and Uzi Mahnaimi, “Husband Took Wife killed in 2003. This pamphlet can therefore be dated
to Suicide Bombing,” Sunday Times, January 18, 2004. to sometime between 2000-2003. An English version
Hamas, inspired by the Muslim In a video, al-Rayashi reportedly said, “I want to be the of the pamphlet is available at www.islamfuture.files.
Brotherhood, provides the best example first woman to carry out a martyr attack.” For details, see wordpress.com/2009/12/the-role-of-the-women-in-
of this shift, with its spiritual leader, Margot Dudkevitch, “Suicide Attack at Erez Crossing fighting-the-enemies.pdf.
Shaykh Yassin, claiming at the start Kills Four,” Jerusalem Post, January 14, 2004. 37 For details, see al-`Uyayri’s pamphlet. For legitimiza-
of the second intifada: “Men are more 34 Dudkevitch. tion, al-`Uyayri cited the classical scholar al-Qurtubi
efficient because they are better at 35 Steven Erlanger, “Grandmother Blows Self Up in who wrote: “There may be a situation where it is obliga-
hiding out with the bomb…They are Suicide Attack on Israeli Forces,” New York Times, No- tory for everyone to go out, and that is if jihad becomes
vember 24, 2006. Al-Najar is the last known female sui- an individual obligation…The one who has a father [i.e.
27 O’Rourke; Debra Zedalis, “Beyond the Bombings: cide bomber claimed by Hamas. According to one study, mahram] can go without his permission, as well as the
Analysing Female Suicide Bombings,” in Ness. Palestinian suicide bombings have been in decline since one without a father.” Al-`Uyayri also cited another clas-
28 Cunningham, p. 93. 2005. See Yoram Schweitzer, “Palestinian Female Sui- sical scholar, Ibn Qudamah, who argued the same.
29 The exact date of al-Qaradawi’s fatwa is unknown. It cide Bombers: Virtuous Heroines or Damaged Goods?” 38 Ibid.
is referenced, however, in a question and answer discus- in Ness, p. 131. Another study claims that this decline is a 39 For further analysis of al-`Uyayri’s pamphlet, see Da-
sion dated November 6, 2006 on the Islamic religious result of effective Israeli counterterrorism measures. See vid Cook, “Women Fighting in Jihad?” in Ness.
website IslamOnline.net. Hillel Frisch, “Motivation or Capabilities? Israeli Coun- 40 Ibid., p. 46.
30 Ibid. terterrorism Against Palestinian Suicide Bombings and 41 The magazine is named after a famous Arab poetess
31 This is different from fard kifaya (collective duty), Violence,” The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, who wrote eulogies in early Islamic history about her
where the duty applies to the Muslim community collec- December 2006. A 2008 BBC report, however, states male relatives fighting in jihad. Articles in the magazine
tively, but means that not every Muslim has to perform that Palestinian Islamic Jihad is training women as sui- advised women on how to support jihad. See Sebastian
an act such as jihad as long as a sufficient number of com- cide bombers. See “Just Married and Determined to Die,” Usher, “‘Jihad’ Magazine for Women on Web,” BBC, Au-
munity members fulfill the duty. BBC, October 13, 2008. gust 24, 2004.
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july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
“[A Letter] to the Muslim Sisters.” 42 The violent jihad in South Asia and Europe, as the United Kingdom and the United
letter stated that women should follow and women who had the ability to travel States, are targeted for recruitment.
in the footsteps of those who “martyred” into Europe in support of jihad. 45 She is Moreover, the fact that Reilly, along
themselves in Palestine, Chechnya, accused of agreeing to kill a Swedish with Degauque and LaRose, is also
Afghanistan, Somalia and Iraq. For resident and using the internet to solicit a white convert to Islam worryingly
the first time, women are openly called funds for terrorists. 46 In an online suggests that converts, often in search
upon by al-Qa`ida to participate in its YouTube forum, she posted comments of a new identity, are easy prey for al-
jihad against the West, which is made as “JihadJane” stating her desire to Qa`ida or at least its violent ideology. It
permissible by the group because jihad is become a “martyr in the name of Allah” is suspected that the group may want to
considered fard `ayn. The letter described and that her appearance would allow her groom the next generation of operatives
“martyrdom” as an aspiration, and the to “blend in with many people.” 47 She is by targeting women with the ability to
author asked for women to aid Islam also accused of traveling to Europe in move freely and without suspicion in
by fighting alongside men. 43 Women August 2009 with the intent to live and Western countries. Nevertheless, the
should also encourage each other, the train with jihadists. 48 extent to which women are actually
letter stated, to “not abstain from this targeted by al-Qa`ida’s central
religious obligation.” 44 Differing from LaRose’s alleged attempts to radicalize leadership to become suicide bombers
al-`Uyayri and al-Qaradawi, however, others online are not uncommon. is still unclear.
the letter said that women should have a Houria Chentouf is believed to have
male guardian during combat activities: been radicalized online by visiting Conclusion
“Jihad is fard `ayn on every Muslim man jihadist forums. Similarly, Nicky Reilly, The fact that Ayman al-Zawahiri’s wife
and woman, but the way of fighting a 22-year-old man convicted in 2008 of issued a call to women to participate in
is not easy for Muslim women for it attempting to commit a suicide attack in jihad and “martyr” themselves suggests
requires a mahram.” The letter continued the United Kingdom that same year, is that al-Qa`ida may change tactics and
to say, however, that also believed to have been radicalized follow in the footsteps of groups such
online by two men with alleged links as Hamas or its own Iraqi affiliate, AQI.
we should aid our religion in to al-Qa`ida living in the Afghan- If so, female converts who have the
several ways and should keep Pakistan border region. 49 In fact, posts advantage of blending in and possibly
our selves in the service of the encouraging women to participate in evading security measures would be a
Mujahideen, and we should fulfill jihad are increasing on militant Islamist likely target. The internet has no doubt
whatever they ask of us, may it be forums, including English-language become an efficient way to propagandize
through monetary aid to them…or ones such as Ansar al-Mujahideen and and win over recruits worldwide. It
participation in fighting or even al-Qimmah. 50 This indicates that women is no coincidence that there has been
through a martyrdom operation. from English-speaking countries, such a recent increase of posts on jihadist
forums that eulogize and call on women
This apparent discrepancy over male 45 U.S.A. v. Colleen R. LaRose, Eastern District of Penn- to participate in jihad and “martyrdom
guardians is perhaps an attempt to sylvania, 2010. operations.”
appease more conservative followers of 46 Ibid.
al-Qa`ida. 47 Ibid. The legitimization of female terrorism
48 Ibid. There have been training camps in the United as an individual duty by militant
Al-Qa`ida’s Strategy Kingdom, which members of the July 21, 2005 cell at- Islamist groups shows that they believe
The case of Colleen LaRose parallels tended. These camps were run by Mohammed Hamid Muslims are facing a growing existential
what al-Qa`ida may be hoping to and Atilla Ahmet. Hamid was convicted in 2008 of so- threat from the West and “occupying”
achieve in the West: an increase of liciting to murder and providing terrorist training, and powers. Hamas is fighting on behalf of
“homegrown” sympathizers among Ahmet in 2007 of soliciting to murder. See “Top Extrem- Palestinians against Israel, making its
Western women who are able to provide ist Recruiter is Jailed,” BBC, March 7, 2008. attacks specific to one territory. Al-
logistical and operational support. A 49 Duncan Gardham, “‘Al-Qaeda’ Terrorists who Brain- Qa`ida, on the other hand, is currently
white convert and U.S. citizen, LaRose washed Exeter Suicide Bomber Still on the Run,” Daily fighting its jihad to target those it
is alleged to have recruited men to wage Telegraph, October 15, 2008. perceives as posing a threat to Islam or
50 A May 2, 2010 post included a video of a female Muslims worldwide. If group tactics are
42 Al-Qa`ida’s publishing house al-Sahab originally fighter in the Ogaden region in Ethiopia. Forum mem- copied, it may be only a matter of time
issued this letter in Arabic and it appeared on jihadist bers praised the woman for her bravery. For details, see before the United States and Western
websites on December 17, 2009. For details, see “Wife of www.ansar1.info/showthread.php?p=75107#post75107. European countries are attacked by a
Al-Qa’idah’s Al-Zawahiri Urges Muslim Women to Sup- A January 29, 2010 post asked women to follow the ex- female suicide bomber.
port Mujahidin,” BBC, December 17, 2009. The letter ample of al-Khansaa and support jihad. For details, see
was translated into English by Dar al-Murabtieen Pub- www.alqimmah.net/showthread.php?t=13736. A Febru- Houriya Ahmed is a Research Fellow at the
lications and was posted on the militant website Ansar ary 2010 post detailed how a woman should support her Centre for Social Cohesion, the first think-
al-Mujahideen. All quotes from the letter are taken from husband’s jihad. For details, see www.alqimmah.net/ tank in the United Kingdom to specialize
the English translation of the letter uploaded on Ansar. showthread.php?t=13736. An August 2009 post includ- in studying radicalization and extremism
The PDF file, however, is no longer accessible. ed a letter intended for Muslim women praising them for within Britain. She is co-author of Hizb
43 The letter states: “...the Muslim women should work their virtues and dignity in the jihad cause and “martyr- ut-Tahrir: Ideology and Strategy and
beside men to defend her religion and land.” dom…at the hands of a kafir [non-believer].” For details, Islamist Terrorism: The British
44 Ibid. see www.ansar1.info/showthread.php?t=16807. Connections, published by the Centre.
17
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
Countering Terrorist Measuring CFT Effectiveness 2009, the data for EU member states is
Financing: Successes and Measuring the effectiveness of CFT even less precise, but 21 persons were
convicted of financing the Liberation
efforts is challenging since the metrics
Setbacks in the Years tend to be either insufficient or Tigers of Tamil Eelam, and more than
Since 9/11 unavailable to researchers. Merely 80 persons arrested for financing
studying convictions in court and separatist groups in Spain and France,
By Michael Jonsson asset forfeiture vastly underestimates which following the same method would
the achievements, whereas indicators be expected to result in 40 convictions. 8
following the 9/11 attacks, efforts to such as intelligence gathered, terrorist The number of convictions seems to
counter the financing of terrorism financiers deterred or impact on the be increasing, but remains modest
(CFT) became a centerpiece of internal dynamics of terrorist groups in relation to the Herculean efforts
counterterrorism policy in the United is challenging to access and quantify. demanded of financial institutions. 9
States and in several European When assessing the most obvious
countries. These efforts have spanned indicator—number of convictions Critical Trade-Offs for CFT Policies
a broad range of policy tools. New on terrorist financing charges—the In terms of assets seized from suspected
organizational units have been created, 1 achievements thus far are modest. For terrorists, the total amount of assets
intelligence gathering platforms the United States, a partial study found frozen rose dramatically shortly
invented, 2 substantial diplomatic 59 convictions from 2001 to 2007, with following the 9/11 attacks, but then
pressure exerted against “passive state 16 acquittals and another 15 charges leveled off and are now increasingly
sponsors of terrorism” 3 and multi- dropped due to plea bargains on other being challenged in court by some
agency analytical units have become an charges. 5 Since then, the number of of the individuals targeted by such
integral part of U.S. counterinsurgency convictions seems to be increasing. asset freezes. 10 Legally complex, the
efforts. 4 Yet in spite of the extensive Whereas in 2006 eight out of 54 international asset seizure regime is
intelligence assets and research efforts convictions in terrorism-related cases subject to a number of due process
poured into understanding the field involved material support charges, 28 concerns and seems unlikely to yield any
during the past decade, practitioners out of 35 did so in 2009. 6 Comparing dramatic achievements in the future. 11
and academics remain deeply divided convictions across jurisdictions is Overall, CFT efforts face a number of
over the effectiveness of these efforts. complex and can easily be misleading, daunting policy trade-offs—personal
but in 2006 eight percent of all 703 integrity versus data access, financial
This article presents some measures arrests in terrorism cases in the integrity versus investor friendliness,
of the effectiveness of CFT efforts and European Union were on terrorist
criticisms from scholars regarding financing suspicions. Following a the “material support” provisions of the United States,
negative side effects of these policies. It crude estimation—since no exact data which may skew the comparison somewhat.
then explains why terrorism financing exists—this would be expected to result 8 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2010 (The
has proven challenging to prove in court, in approximately 20 convictions. 7 For Hague: European Police Office, 2010), p. 27. Obviously,
outlines some alternative responses from not all arrests result in prosecutions the same year, so
intelligence agencies and concludes by 5 Adam Liptak and Leslie Eaton, “Mistrial is Latest Ter- these numbers are mainly mentioned by way of illustra-
suggesting complementary indicators ror Prosecution Misstep for the U.S.,” New York Times, tion. Financing of Islamist terrorist groups is also a ma-
by which to judge the effectiveness of October 27, 2007; Robert Chesney, “Federal Prosecution jor concern—20 Algerian and Moroccan citizens were
CFT efforts. of Terrorism-Related Cases: Conviction and Sentencing arrested in 2008 in Spain alone, mainly on suspicions
Data in Light of the ‘Soft Sentence’ and ‘Data Reliability’ of financing and recruiting for such groups. For details,
and Critiques,” Lewis & Clark Law Review 11:4 (2007): pp. see “Country Terrorism Report: Spain,” U.S. State De-
879, 884. This study only covers the 18 U.S.C. § 2339B partment, 2008. In January 2009, 17 Algerian citizens
and 50 U.S.C. § 1705 statutes, whereas the terrorism were arrested across Europe on suspicions of terrorism
financing offense in the United States usually also in- financing. For details, see “Terror Fundraising Group
1 David P. Friedovich, “Tracking and Disrupting Ter- cludes 18 U.S.C § 2339A and 2339C statutes. Hence, the Held in Italy,” The Western Mail, January 13, 2009.
rorist Financial Networks: A Potential Model for Inter- total number of convictions on terrorist financing may be 9 From 2001 to 2009, the total number of Suspicious
Agency Success,” congressional hearing before the U.S. higher. For details, see “United States Mutual Evaluation Activity Reports filed by U.S. financial institutions in-
House Armed Services Subcommittee on Terrorism, Un- Report,” Financial Action Task Force, June 23, 2006, pp. creased from approximately 200,000 to over 1.2 million.
conventional Threats and Capabilities, March 11, 2009. 38-39. See the SAR Activity Review, June 2010, p. 4.
2 Such as the Terrorist Financing Tracking Program 6 “Introduction to National Security Statistics on Un- 10 Steve Kiser, “Terror Finance: An Analysis and Simu-
tapping into SWIFT data. See Eric Lichtblau, “U.S. Sifts sealed International Terrorism and Terrorism-Related lation for Affecting Al Qaeda’s Financial Infrastructure,”
Bank Data in Secret to Block Terrorist Financiers,” New Convictions,” U.S. Department of Justice, March 26, Pardee RAND Graduate School, 2005, p. 135; Craig
York Times, June 23, 2006; John Snow, “Bank Data Re- 2010. Calculations by author, covering provisions 18 Whitlock, “Terrorism Financing Blacklists At Risk,”
port: Treasury Dept’s View,” New York Times, June 29, U.S.C § 2339A-C and 50 U.S.C§ 1705. Washington Post, November 2, 2008.
2006. 7 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2007 (The 11 For example, the Swedish section of the informal mon-
3 Daniel Byman, “Passive Sponsors of Terrorism,” Sur Hague: European Police Office, 2007), pp. 14-16. Assum- ey transmitter al-Barakaat was removed from the UN
vival 47:4 (2005): pp. 117-144. ing the same prosecution rate (43%) and conviction rate and EU sanctions lists in October 2009, presumably as
4 Such as the Threat Finance Units in Iraq and Afghan- (85%) as that for the total sample of cases (which possi- an indirect result from a 2008 European Court of Justice
istan. See John F. Burns, “Iraq Insurgency has Funds to bly overstates the real number) this would result in ap- decision that found the defendant had not been granted
Sustain Itself, U.S Finds,” New York Times, November 26, proximately 20 convictions. Some of what is reported as a right to be heard by the court. See “Al Barakaat stryks
2006. “facilitation” in the European Union report is included in från FN’s terrorlista,” Sveriges Radio, October 26, 2009.
18
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
due process versus being able to freeze Achievement of CFT Programs for The Challenges of Prosecuting Terrorist
very liquid assets, among others. 12 Counterterrorism Efforts Financing Cases
The most difficult trade-off, however, Current and former intelligence officials In assessing these diverging views of
is that between humanitarian aid and with first-hand experience of CFT efforts the effectiveness of U.S. and EU CFT
countering terrorist financing, as in practice have vigorously defended efforts, a few basic points need to be
epitomized by contemporary Somalia. these policies. The Federal Bureau of emphasized. Terrorist financing is
Investigation, for example, argues that in extraordinarily difficult to prosecute
The shuttering of Somali informal money a sample of 500 terrorist investigations, in court due to the nature of the crime.
transmitter al-Barakaat following 9/11 42% of the cases had information Terrorist financing operations, for
was later roundly criticized for cutting from Suspicious Transaction Reports example, tend to be cash-based, involve
remittances to Somalia by half, while included in the case file. 17 So-called loosely regulated organizational
producing no or very few prosecutions. 13 financial intelligence has also allegedly entities (hawaladars, charities, NGOs)
Five years later, Dalsan, another Somali helped prevent terrorist attacks such and involve multiple jurisdictions.
money transmitter, collapsed, with as the 2006 airport plot in the United Moreover, the target countries often
the UN Monitoring Group on Somalia Kingdom and tracking down senior lack efficient law enforcement, or their
noting that “one of the reasons for the terrorist leaders such as Hambali, the impartiality is questionable. 21 A few
bankruptcy was that an ICU military suspected mastermind behind the 2002 simple evasive measures by the terrorist
leader managed to divert a large amount Bali bombings. 18 financier can also make the case vastly
of money to help financially support the harder to prove, such as infiltrating an
organization in its fight for the control Sources outside of government have existing NGO, diverting only a fraction
of Mogadishu.” 14 Today, al-Shabab has also claimed that certain wire transfer of money collected to terrorist aims,
begun “taxing” aid offices, impelling companies have been cooperating with using encrypted e-mails or talking in
many agencies to leave in spite of the U.S. intelligence agencies in monitoring code on the phone. In the one successful
dire humanitarian situation. 15 There is money transfers to terrorist suspects, prosecution on terrorist financing
no simple solution to this conundrum, yielding important intelligence and charges in Sweden, two men who were
and it is still not clear whether it is tactical successes. 19 The U.S. Treasury transferring money to Ansar al-Islam
the legitimacy of al-Shabab or that of Department has also vigorously in northern Iraq used several of these
the international community that will defended the Terrorist Finance Tracking techniques, making the admission of
suffer the most. Program, which taps SWIFT data on guilt by one of the men arguably crucial
interbank transactions, pointing to some to the guilty verdict in spite of extensive
Somewhat cursorily summarized, these 1,550 leads shared with EU countries circumstantial evidence. 22
aspects—the low number of convictions, and a number of attacks prevented as a
the problems of the terrorist asset freeze result of the program. Undersecretary In two failed prosecutions against the
regime and the negative impact on for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence al-Aqsa Foundation in Denmark and
development finance—have led several Stuart Leavey also stated on July 9, 2010 Sweden (prosecuted separately) that
academics to conclude that the current that data from the program had provided were suspected of financing Hamas,
CFT regime is not working as well as it support to Norway in its arrest of three the final acquittal in both cases hinged
should. 16 individuals suspected of plotting an largely on the court finding much of the
attack against the country. 20 evidence provided by Israel to be either
inadmissible or not credible, with the
Such self-evaluations obviously need Danish court divided on several counts. 23
12 Ibid.; James Kanter, “Europe Resumes Sharing Bank
to be taken cautiously and are close Issues of mutual trust and confidence
Data with the US,” New York Times, July 8, 2010; Laura
to impossible to verify, but they still in its human rights record may explain
K. Donohue, “Anti-Terrorist Finance in the United King-
underline a fundamental divergence why Spain has been fairly successful
dom and United States,” Michigan Journal of International
in the perceptions of the relative in combating the financing of the
Law 27:303 (2006): pp. 399, 407.
effectiveness of CFT efforts writ large. ETA with French assistance, whereas
13 John Roth, Douglas Greenburg and Serena Wille, Turkey is increasingly irritated by
“National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the
United States – Monograph on Terrorist Financing,” 17 John Pistole, deputy director of FBI, speech given at 21 Law enforcement agencies in countries that are re-
2004, pp. 57-86. American Bankers’ Association’s Money Laundering peatedly attacked by terrorist groups may either commit
14 Nazzir Abdulazis al-Nasser, “Report of the Monitor- Enforcement Conference, October 22, 2007. human rights abuses or other transgressions making
ing Group on Somalia Pursuant to Security Council Res- 18 Matthew Levitt and Michael Jacobson, “The Money evidence inadmissible in court, or the country may sim-
olution 1676 (2006),” United Nations, November 2006. Trail: Finding, Following and Freezing Terrorist Fi- ply be judged to be in a “war-like situation” against the
15 Christian Larson, Michael Jonsson and Nir Artzi, “Tax nances,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, group, lowering its credibility.
Evasion. Dealing with the Shabab’s Financing,” Jane’s In November 2008. 22 Michael Jonsson and Klas Kärrstrand, “Money Prob-
telligence Review, March 2010. 19 Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside lems – Tackling Terrorist Financiers in Sweden,” Jane’s
16 Thomas Biersteker and Sue E. Eckert, “Conclusion: America’s Pursuit of its Enemies Since 9/11 (New York: Si- Intelligence Review, February 1, 2007, extensively citing
Taking Stock of Efforts to Counter the Financing of Ter- mon and Schuster, 2006). the final verdict.
rorism and Recommendations for the Way Forward,” in 20 “US: Anti-Terror Program Leads to Arrests,” United 23 Michael Jonsson and Christian N. Larson, “Scandina-
Thomas Biersteker and Sue E. Eckert eds., Countering the Press International, July 10, 2010; “The Terrorist Fi- vian Trials Demonstrate Difficulty of Obtaining Terror-
Financing of Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. nancing Tracking Program: Questions and Answers,” ist Financing Convictions,” Terrorism Monitor 7:5 (2009),
289-304. press release, U.S. Treasury Department, June 24, 2010. citing court transcripts from both cases.
19
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
what it perceives as a lack of European As for sentencing, convictions on impact varies between groups, but there
cooperation in combating the financing terrorism charges resulted in 16 years have been signs that both the ETA and
of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party. 24 imprisonment on average, national the core of al-Qa`ida are struggling to
security 7.5-10.4 years and for other obtain sufficient funding. 33 Whereas
Alternative CFT Approaches for Security charges 1.2 years. 29 Hence, less severe single terrorist attacks can be cheap,
Services crimes related to logistical support maintaining an efficient terrorist
Challenges to prosecuting terrorist resulted in less severe sentences, network is not, and even single attacks
financing cases implies that security but may nonetheless be efficient in have frequently been underfunded,
services are often forced to adopt other disrupting logistical networks and underlining that this remains a critical
tactics, such as focusing on intelligence planning. It is difficult to study the concern for terrorist groups. 34
gathering, pursuing less serious same trend in the European Union
criminal charges or aiming to disrupt, due to lack of data, but in 2006 19% Groups that have access to drug
deter or simply slow down terrorist of Islamist terrorism suspects were trafficking—such as the Kurdistan
financing networks. As Matthew Levitt arrested for either preparing or Workers’ Party and the Revolutionary
has argued, one option is to move from carrying out an attack, whereas 27% Armed Forces of Colombia—are
criminal investigations toward “silent were arrested on suspicions related to difficult to starve of funding, whereas
monitoring” and intelligence gathering. 25 “facilitation” or “false documents.” 30 In other groups seem to be more critically
In theory, such monitoring of financial Sweden, the case of Yassin Ali provides dependent on outside support. As such,
intermediaries can help map out both a case in point. Ali was arrested in CFT efforts will not herald the end of
support networks in country “A” and February 2009 on suspicion of terrorist terrorist groups, but they have opened
operative cells in country “B,” but this financing to Somalia, but was released a new front and created a new set of
typically requires additional intelligence in April without charge, then convicted techniques for making life harder for
from other sources, strong mutual trust in October for bookkeeping errors and such groups. Reversely, intelligence
between the countries and well-resourced added to the U.S. Office of Foreign officials focused on CFT issues arguably
intelligence agencies on both ends. Assets Control (OFAC) list by April need to better address the negative
2010. 31 impact of some of their policies,
Another less noted approach is including civil liberties concerns and
“pretextual prosecution,” also known as Conclusion disruption of humanitarian aid since
“the Al Capone strategy,” which refers Bridging the divide between scholars the main battlefield against terrorist
to pressing charges on less serious and intelligence officials, other possible groups is not that over money, but
but easier to prosecute charges. 26 For indicators for taking stock of CFT over legitimacy in the eyes of the
example, in a data set of “terrorism effectiveness includes asking whether population.
associated” cases in the United States terrorist groups have been forced to
compiled by New York University, change their methods for collecting or Michael Jonsson is a Ph.D. candidate at
in only 42% of cases the “top charge” transferring funds to slower or more Uppsala University and a former Fulbright
was on either terrorism or national burdensome means, whether would- Scholar at Georgetown University. He is
security grounds, whereas 29% were be terrorist financiers have been also a Partner at the AML/CFT Group,
racketeering, drug crimes or commercial deterred and whether specific terrorist consulting the International Monetary Fund
fraud, embezzlement and theft. 27 In the groups show signs of having trouble on issues related to countering financial
so-called Lebanese Hizb Allah cigarette acquiring sufficient funding. 32 The crime. This article summarizes some of
smuggling case in which more than $2 the findings of a study carried out for the
million was allegedly channeled to Hizb 29 Ibid., p. 14. Swedish Armed Forces Headquarters.
Allah, only one of 13 defendants was 30 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2007, p. 20.
indicted on terrorism charges. 28 Due to the complexities of comparisons across multiple
legal systems and languages, carrying out comparative
24 Michael Jonsson, “Cashing up – Funding the Basque studies such as that compiled by New York University is
Battle for Independence,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, Feb- decidedly more challenging within the European Union,
ruary 1, 2008; Michael Jonsson and Svante Cornell, which typically makes researchers dependent on the in-
“Kurds and Pay – Examining PKK Financing,” Jane’s formation presented in the annual EU Terrorism Situa-
Intelligence Review, March 13, 2008. Also see the EU Ter tion and Trend Reports.
rorism Situation and Trend Report 2010, which cites the 31 Stockholms Tingsrätt, Dom Mål B 23273-07, October against business owners, increased public appeals for
successful cooperation between France and Spain in 17, 2009 (court sentence); “Recent OFAC Actions,” U.S. donations or intercepted messages indicating a lack of
countering the financing of the ETA. Office of Foreign Assets Control, April 13, 2010. funds, or simply an increase in seemingly underfunded
25 Matthew Levitt, “Follow the Money: Challenges and 32 Terrorist groups may, for example, abandon the for- attacks.
Opportunities in the Campaign to Combat Terrorism Fi- mal financial system, making it harder and costlier to 33 Jonsson, “Cashing up – Funding the Basque Battle for
nancing,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, transfer money where and when they need it. Deterrence Independence”; Nathan Vardi, “Is Al Qaeda Bankrupt?”
March 6, 2007. may include both making diaspora groups more cogni- Forbes, March 15, 2010.
26 Chesney. zant of the risk of abuse of charitable donations to conflict 34 Jacob N. Shapiro “Terrorist Organizations Vulner-
27 Karen J. Greenberg ed., “Terrorist Trial Report Card: zones, and increasing pressure on key countries to rein abilities and Inefficiencies: A Rational Choice Perspec-
2001-2009,” Center on Law and Security, New York in donations from a few wealthy donors. As for groups tive,” in Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas eds.,
University School of Law, 2009, p. 18. having trouble financing themselves, signs may include Terrorist Financing and State Responses (Palo Alto, CA:
28 Ibid., p. 11. increased waves of extortion letters or non-lethal attacks Stanford University Press, 2007).
20
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21
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
shot to death in front of hundreds of a 7-year-old boy as an informant.” – New walking through the same area. Two
people at a football ground. – BBC, June 8 York Times, June 9 Afghans were also killed. – New York Times,
June 11
June 8, 2010 (YEMEN): Yemeni June 9, 2010 (IRAQ): A suicide bomber on
authorities announced that they detained a motorcycle targeted a U.S. Army patrol June 11, 2010 (IRAQ): A suicide bomber
dozens of foreign nationals, including near the town of Muqdadiyya, 50 miles in a vehicle killed two U.S. soldiers and
Americans, suspected of having ties to northeast of Baghdad. Two civilians were at least three Iraqis in Jalawla, Diyala
al-Qa`ida. – UPI, June 8 killed in the blast. – Reuters, June 9 Province. – Reuters, June 11
June 8-9, 2010 (TURKEY): Turkish police June 9, 2010 (IRAQ): A 16-year-old June 11, 2010 (PAKISTAN): A U.S.
arrested 17 suspected al-Qa`ida members al-Qa`ida member was arrested just drone strike killed at least 10 suspected
in an operation spanning several regions moments before he planned to detonate militants in North Waziristan Agency of
in the country. – Ennahar Online, June 9 a suicide vest to kill a Shi`a cleric in Tal the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.
Afar, Ninawa Province. – Reuters, June 9 The militants reportedly belonged to the
June 9, 2010 (UNITED STATES): Syed Pakistani Taliban faction led by Hafiz Gul
Hashmi, who pleaded guilty in a U.S. court June 9, 2010 (PAKISTAN): Suspected Bahadur. – BBC, June 11
on April 27, 2010 to a charge of conspiracy Pakistani Taliban militants torched 50
to provide material support or resources NATO supply trucks on the outskirts of June 11, 2010 (PAKISTAN): Pakistani
to al-Qa`ida, was sentenced to 15 years in Islamabad, killing at least seven people. police arrested two Pakistani Taliban
prison. Hashmi, a Pakistani-American, The incident marked the first attack on militants who were planning “terror
was arrested at London’s Heathrow NATO supply trucks this close to the attacks” in Karachi. The men, accused
Airport shortly before boarding a flight to Pakistani capital. – Guardian, June 9; AP, of being members of Tehrik-i-Taliban
Pakistan on June 6, 2006. – AFP, June 9 July 1 Pakistan, were allegedly planning to
bring a suicide bomber to Karachi from
June 9, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): Taliban June 9, 2010 (SOMALIA): A French North Waziristan Agency, but their plot
militants shot down a NATO helicopter security adviser who was kidnapped was foiled. – AFP, June 11
in southern Afghanistan, killing four in Somalia in July 2009 appeared in a
soldiers. – AFP, June 9 video posted on jihadist websites. “I ask June 11, 2010 (ALGERIA): A suicide
the French people to do everything for bomber drove a truck into the barracks
June 9, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): Taliban my release,” said the hostage, identified of an elite police unit in Timizar, 60 miles
militants in Helmand Province accused a as Denis Allex. Allex, who is being held east of Algiers. The blast killed at least
seven-year-old boy of spying and hanged by al-Shabab militants, said his captors nine people, including four police officers.
him in a public execution. A witness said demanded the end of French political and Al-Qa`ida in the Islamic Maghreb is
three militants executed the boy in front military support to the Somali government suspected of being responsible for the
of 150 people in Sangin district. – CBS and the withdrawal of all foreign military blast. – AP, June 11
News, June 10; ABC News, June 10 advisers and private security firms from
Somalia. – AFP, June 9 June 12, 2010 (YEMEN): Militants blew up
June 9, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): A suicide an oil pipeline in Yemen’s Marib Province.
bomber ripped through the wedding June 10, 2010 (IRAQ): A suicide bomber Authorities accused the militants of
celebration of a man who had joined an killed three members of an anti-al-Qa`ida belonging to al-Qa`ida, although other
anti-Taliban militia in Kandahar Province, militia and two Iraqi soldiers in Baghdad. officials said they were tribesmen. – Saba,
killing 40 people. The Taliban publicly – AFP, June 10 June 12; Voice of America, June 12
denied involvement in the attack. – New
York Times, June 9; CNN, June 10 June 10, 2010 (PAKISTAN): A U.S. drone June 12, 2010 (PHILIPPINES): Authorities
strike killed three suspected militants discovered the bodies of three Filipino
June 9, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): The near Mir Ali in North Waziristan Agency loggers, who were recently beheaded
New York Times reported that Taliban of the Federally Administered Tribal by Abu Sayyaf Group militants in the
insurgents in Afghanistan have stepped Areas. – BBC, June 11 southern Philippines. – New York Times,
up an assassination campaign aimed June 13
at officials and individuals tied to local June 10, 2010 (INDIA): An Indian
governments in the south. According to newspaper reported that David Coleman June 13, 2010 (IRAQ): Fighters wearing
the article, “Government assassinations Headley, who is currently in U.S. custody, Iraqi military uniforms raided Baghdad’s
are nothing new as a Taliban tactic, but told Indian investigators that Pakistan’s Central Bank, killing at least 15 people.
now the Taliban are taking aim at officials Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) guided The militants used a suicide bomber and
who are much more low-level, who often the Lashkar-i-Tayyiba operatives who at least four other bombs to break into
do not have the sort of bodyguards or carried out the November 2008 terrorist one of Baghdad’s most heavily guarded
other protection that top leaders do. Some attacks in Mumbai. – Times of India, June 10 facilities. The Islamic State of Iraq
of the victims have only the slimmest claimed responsibility. – Guardian, June 13;
connections to the authorities. The most June 11, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): A suicide Bloomberg, June 13
egregious example came Wednesday in bomber wearing a burqa detonated his
Helmand Province, where according to explosives in a bazaar in Zabul Province,
Afghan officials the insurgents executed killing two NATO soldiers who were
22
july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
June 14, 2010 (PAKISTAN): The Afghan in Saudi Arabia’s rehabilitation program June 23, 2010 (IRAQ): Gunmen killed
Taliban captured dozens of Pakistani for former al-Qa`ida militants. – Reuters, three police officers in Mosul, Ninawa
soldiers after attacking their checkpoint June 19 Province. – AFP, June 24
in Mohmand Agency in Pakistan’s
Federally Administered Tribal Areas. June 19, 2010 (PAKISTAN): A U.S. aerial June 23, 2010 (INDONESIA): Indonesian
The Afghan Taliban said it captured 40 drone killed 12 militants in North Waziristan police arrested Abdulah Sunata and
Pakistani troops during the cross-border Agency of the Federally Administered charged him with planning a Mumbai-
raid. – BBC, June 16 Tribal Areas. – Reuters, June 19 style attack in Jakarta. Sunata was
once a “poster child” for Indonesia’s
June 14, 2010 (YEMEN): Yemen’s Defense June 20, 2010 (IRAQ): Two suicide deradicalization program. – AP, June 25
Ministry said that it foiled an al-Qa`ida bombers detonated explosives-laden
plot to attack vital facilities in Marib vehicles outside the Trade Bank of Iraq in June 24, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): Police
Province. – Reuters, June 14 Baghdad, killing 26 people. The Islamic found the bodies of 11 Afghan civilians
State of Iraq claimed responsibility. in Uruzgan Province. The civilians were
June 15, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): Taliban – Reuters, June 20 allegedly killed by Taliban fighters, and
militants overpowered a seven-man all of the bodies had been beheaded.
police post in Ghazni Province, killing June 20, 2010 (IRAQ): A suicide bomber – AFP, June 25
five policemen. – AFP, June 14 targeted a police patrol in Shirqat, Salah
al-Din Province, killing at least six police June 24, 2010 (IRAQ): A suicide bomber
June 16, 2010 (PAKISTAN): Pakistani officers and two civilians. – CNN, June 20; attacked a checkpoint in the Shifa
helicopters and heavy artillery killed BBC, June 21 neighborhood of Mosul, Ninawa Province,
38 militants in Bajaur Agency of the killing four policemen. – AFP, June 24
Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Ten June 21, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): A female
paramilitary soldiers were also killed. suicide bomber killed two U.S. soldiers in June 24, 2010 (IRAQ): Two suicide
– AFP, June 16 Kunar Province. – CNN, June 21; Wall Street bombers wearing military uniforms
Journal, June 22 killed one Iraqi soldier and wounded five
June 16, 2010 (PHILIPPINES): Abu more at an army base in Mosul, Ninawa
Sayyaf Group militants freed Carl Rieth, June 22, 2010 (SWEDEN): Authorities Province. – AFP, June 24
a Swiss-Filipino man held hostage by the arrested a Swedish man in Stockholm
group since April 2010. – AFP, June 16 who is suspected of planning an attack in June 24, 2010 (IRAQ): A roadside bomb
Somalia. The arrest came one month after exploded in Baghdad as an Iraqi police
June 17, 2010 (UNITED STATES): A new another Swedish man was detained on the patrol passed, killing two officers. – New
federal indictment against Faisal Shahzad, same charges. – AFP, June 22 York Times, June 24
the suspect in the attempted bombing of
New York City’s Times Square on May June 22, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): A bomb June 24, 2010 (PAKISTAN): A Pakistani
1, 2010, claims that he received $12,000 targeted Azizullah Safari, the head of judge sentenced five Muslim American
from the Pakistani Taliban to carry out the public health department in Kunduz men from the Washington, D.C. area to 10
the attack. – Washington Post, June 18 Province, killing him and injuring two years in prison for terrorism offenses. The
people. – Voice of America, June 22 men, all friends from northern Virginia,
June 17, 2010 (AFGHANISTAN): A were arrested by Pakistani police in
suicide bomber in a vehicle targeted the June 22, 2010 (INDONESIA): An Sargodha in December 2009. – Bloomberg,
police headquarters in Andar district of Indonesian court sentenced two Islamic June 24
Ghazni Province. Three police officers militants to jail for their role in the suicide
and three civilians were injured. – CNN, bombings at the JW Marriott and Ritz- June 26, 2010 (IRAQ): Gunmen shot
June 17 Carlton hotels in Jakarta in July 2009. to death four jewelry store owners and
Supono (also known as Kedu) received robbed more than a dozen shops in
June 19, 2010 (YEMEN): Militants attacked a six-year sentence, while Rohmat Puji Falluja, Anbar Province, possibly in an
the main police intelligence headquarters Prabowo (known as Bejo) was given effort to finance insurgent operations.
in the southern Yemeni capital of Aden, seven-and-a-half years. – AFP, June 22 – New York Times, June 26
killing at least 11 people. The insurgents,
wearing military uniforms, used assault June 23, 2010 (UNITED STATES): U.S. June 26, 2010 (PAKISTAN): A U.S.
rifles, mortars and grenades against the General Stanley McChrystal, commander drone strike killed two militants in North
facility. They reportedly freed a number of U.S. forces in Afghanistan, resigned Waziristan Agency of the Federally
of prisoners. Authorities believe that al- his post in the wake of controversial Administered Tribal Areas. – AFP, June 27;
Qa`ida in the Arabian Peninsula may comments he made in an article published The News International, June 26
be responsible. – Voice of America, June 19; by Rolling Stone magazine. McChrystal will
Telegraph, June 19; Reuters, June 26 be replaced by General David Petraeus, June 27, 2010 (UNITED STATES):
the head of U.S. Central Command and Leon Panetta, the head of the Central
June 19, 2010 (SAUDI ARABIA): A Saudi the former commanding officer in Iraq. Intelligence Agency, told reporters that
security official said that approximately – Fox News, June 23 there are probably only 50-100 al-Qa`ida
25 former detainees at Guantanamo Bay fighters in Afghanistan, and that there is
returned to militancy after participating “no question” that most of the terrorist
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july 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 7
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