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Contributors

TATIANA "rKr{urtNA, Mosoow StatE Universify

a L FR E D o l t o lr,
r Florida lotemaiional UniverBity

rcoR M. ARrEvrrcn, City Univenity of Nw York :. ll

unnre-c6crm BERTAT.[, Ir6litut fiir PhoEetik und Sprachverarbeitung,

Ludwig-Maximilians-uDiversitiit Mrinchen
orsA.NA BarLctlKow.r, Fiknwissenschaff und Mediendrarnatu@e der Johan-oas
Guteflb€rg-Universitit Maioz

MAR.TA v. FALIKMAN, Moscow State LtniveBity tud HSE, Moscow

IA.NETTE rnrrnnrCn, Llnivesit€ de Gendve

ELENA L. cRlcoRENKo, Yale University

vyAclrEslAv v- lvANov, Russian Slate University for drc Hunanilies in

Moscow aad tlre Univenity ofCaliforoi4 Los AngelEs

BELLA KorIK-FRrEDcrrr, David YeltiD CDllegE ofEducalion, Jerusalem

ALtsx KozvlLrhr, btendtiooat Center for the Eohancemenl oflaarning

Potential, ,erusalem

RoNALD MILLER, University of Krtazulu-Natal, South Africa

ELtsNA MoRozova,. Russian M€dical Acadsnry of Postgraduate
Qn s I e dip Io mno e) Education, Moscorv

o[-rvER sAcKS], t46rLc0"e > |!J€^/YO&E

.A,NN.A srETsElrrKo, Clily [.Inivenity of New York

EUcENE suBBorsKy, Lancasler Udversity

AARo rooME[.A, Taltinn University, Estonia

wffiLfM'
JAAN \rALstNER, Cla* lJnivenity

xl
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lcwr-zeuz-t+ c{-ruK2622lYarDikk} lsBN: 978 B 52 r 16269 4 trrrU.rO,O,O,rl

1 4 Cultural-historical
neuropsycholog i cal perspective
on learning disability
Tatiana Akhutina and Gary Shereshevsky

The goal of this chapter is to provide a tleoretical framework for con-

ceptualizing learning disabiliry and the methodology of its rernediation, based on
the Vygotsky Luria cultuml-historical theory ofdevelopment oftle higher rnental
functions drod ils appliaations. wE review some of the kcy aspecls of the Vygotsry-
y#i[$9oeical aDDruacn.
LUna oeuroDsvcnologrcar wErl asapplications
as.well
as as aPPlrca(oN orof th]; aoltoacl tlthe
tnls apprua
t*"
;;@F""fl ff"dtd;oi
i**$"ltfp"f€rieuiation 1onroa3.h,
or r.i"i"g
uming o*bi,ities,
disabitities, aDd consider the refl ection
reflection VtwJ;1ydlogl
oftbe ideas ofthe Vygolsky-Luda scbool ofrcuopsychology in tle contemPo- ./
rary iolerdisciplinary research. vy'e emphasize the relerance ofVygotsky's theoryof D(ACrUoliJ
dFalflic adl systemic locatization ofhigher psychotogical firnctions to lhescre_oce-
basEd advancam€nt ofthe practice ofdevelopmental clinical leuropsychDlogy and ,<
school neuopsychology. We describe thrE€ maio tlpes of learning disabitiries
and discuss conditions for optimal strabgy of remediation, *trich arise ftom tbe
\r'ygotsky-lLuria undeEtanding of the struclure and d,evelopment of higher mental
Iirnctions- Then tr€ shorv the practical applicalions ofthc priociples ofremediatlon
in programs d€wloped for remediation of inattentiol and problerns in executive
control h prcschool and early school-age children"
Befone proceeding, let us acknowledge Lev Vygotsky as I founder of culhral-
historical psychology. His rame is commonly associated with general and develop'
mental pqrchulogy, educatioml psychology, special edrcation, and psycholugy of
art, but his contribution to the deyelopment ofD€uropsychology as a field is rot so
welllknown. On the contrary, Lurial cotrtdbulion lD this freld is widely recognized.
According to the survey of neuropsychologists conducted by Charles Long in the
98Os, I-uria was named number one arnong the En founders uf neuropsycholory
l1

(Pucnte, t998). His influence remains strong today, and the editoD of rhe ftQzd-
book of school neumpsychologv called him in their prefac€ "the mast famous of all
neuropstchologisls" (D'Amato, Fl€tcher-Janzen, and R€ynolds, 2005, p. ix). why
do we nevertheless catl the approach that \€ arc developing the Vygolsky-Luia
approach? Thsre are mainly l\r,o reasoos for lhis. First, thE theorelical foundations
ofneuropsychology, its main principles, were crealcd by both scientists on the basis

The authols s'ould like to thank Ekat€dm Mabe),ct.a for 6si$ancs in FeFration ofrhig chapler for
poblic.ali nn.

lJo
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&ah a.d k oinq d-EabiliB 351

ofcultural-hisrorical corcepts sugg€sted by Vygotsky (Luri4 1965, .1980; see also

Khoms&ay4 1996; Akhdina,2003, Achutina, 2004; Glozoa4 2002; Toomela,
Chopter 13 in tllb volurc). Secondl Vygotsky made signtficart contdbutioos lo
our understanding of chilid psychological dlpvslopmenl in norm and parhology an4
consequmtly, a number ofadlvancements in cliildl neumpsychology are particularly
slbs€ly comecled with his idbas (Akhutina 2007).

wi
conceptualize the neuropsycbological approaohofibe vygotsky-Luria
$chool as a dynamic" systemic neuopsychology- This is a general direction ofcon-
lempornry neruoscicoce a-nd it is represent€d in a significarrt number of studies of
l€rrning diffiaulties: wabe4 2010i Firsher, Bernrstein, and [.flnordino-Yang, 2007:
Penflinglo& 1999, 2006; Berninger, 2004t B€roirger alld WiflL 2006; Grigorenko
md n',hples, 2008, to nam€ a few, A similar tendbncy is evident h tb€ publications
oD rlrotof control and derrlopmentall molor disorder,s thal are higl y influenced
by lhe ideas of ].{. A Bensteitr (Thelen, 1995 , 2W0; Dsmy and Tupper (2004).
Tbus, our respectjve positions are gening closer to each olhel. If sinilar ideas
can be foundl in the cortempordry pulilic:lions, why do ve rum t!) th€ idEas of
vyEotsky aftd Luria: In our opiaion rris is necessarJ. in the firs place because
their qorts contain a single iotegraX approach lo undels$nditrg the development,
flroctioniog, atrdl disinlegration of mental lirnctions in childler and addts. This
approach unites cultural-histDricd andl natural scaence-based p.sychology. Such an
in!€gral comprchensive approach,. to our knos,lcdge, has not had ar aoalog in
conrnmporary neuopeycholory. The key piinclples oflhe V),gotsky-Luda school
of fleuropEychology are that tb€ sysl€mic structure of higher menhl firnctions
(HIMR b necessarily conditlonedl by thEir social origin, and psychological func-
tional systems develnp fandl change) in fie course of r:hild dcvclopment based on
the hteractions betwffin biologicall faclors and th€ social enyironment. Modern
idiea6. many of which y.ill be meotioned here, are more rnosaic or fi'dgm€ntae/ as
a rule and offeo requirc alignmed withitr a more holistic framewur*-

,
The science neu,ropsychologl eslablished by vygot$ry-Luria stud-
o,f'
iE6 lhe fmctiLonal stnrqfrIle and briin urganizalion of higher mental filnctions.
Th€ basic coDcept of r europsyrholog, - higher menul fwcrions (also kaown as
higher psydtologicalfunctians) - was &veloped by Vygohky. Luda propos€d trro
close d€fioitiods of this concqrt The short ooe is tbat "the higher bu.man mental
firnction6 are 'social in their origio, sydernic in thtL sfucture, dynamic in their
ll r"i- :lzrnm
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trATIAF{A AXHI]iIIN?tr.ANO CARY S1I€RESHEYSXY

dlE\reloprnent"'(Luia, 1965, p. 390), The morE detailed defnition is thal they "'are
complex, selF-rcgulating processes, sociat by their origin, mediated by their struc-
lurE andl conscious, voluDlary by tiear mode of firnctioning" (Luria, 1980, p. 30
- thE. translalion $?s improved according to the Russian edition by tle aulhors of
the pJesent chaptel cf. Chapter l3 by Toomela, this volume). The basis for dis-
linguishing bqtween higher and lolr€r flreotal finctions was revis€d by Vygotsky-
The reason for thc revision'*as his transition to the systemic understanding of
higher mental fimclions: "Higher menlal fi.rnctions are not buill up as a second
storey over €lernentary process s, but are ne\v psychological systems that include a
cornplex fixerging of etementary f,mctions that witl be included in the nsw system"
andthemselves begir to aat according lo the new laws" (Vygotsky, 1999, p- 43; ssB
also his pri\.ate notes published in Zavenhnwa, 2Ot0)-
Let us slate the. rnain principles ofthe Vygotsky-Luria newopsycholog;z:

(ll) sr:oial genesis ofhlgher rnental functions (HMF),

(2) systernic sftucture of HME
(3) dynarnic organizalion and localizalior ofHMF.
principle of social genesis af HMF is convel'ed in this statement: "every
Th,e
funcfion in [a] chitdb cultural development appea$ on th€ stagE ts.icE, in tltro
p[aneg, first - social, then - prsychological; fusl betw€en people as an intennental
caiegory, theo within a child as an inlramontal cabegory" (Vygotsky, 1997b, p- 106;
cf. translation in WertsclL 1985, p. 60). Transitioo ftom jcint social functioning
to an indi\'ldualb mental fulction, in other words, lhe process of internalizalion,
the sarne lime, according to Vygotsky, transitiofl ftom ext€mal lo internal:
is,. at
"EvE[-y higtler menlal fi$rction was external beaaN€ it was social b€forc il becam€
an internal, striclly rnental function" (Vygotsky, 1997b, p- lO5)- For neuropsycho-
ofthe [oncap't of inrcrnalization th€ reader is referred to Toomela,
llogica|l aspects
1996a" ll996b; Akhutinz, 2003, Achutina, 2004-
Vygolsky describes thE sbges of internalization using the example of volunlary
actior6; "Fi(Sl, an inter+s),chological stage - I Drd,er, yDu exEcul€. lfhcn an exlra-
psyahologirsnl stage I b€gin to speak tD rnyself- llhen an intra-psychological stage -
two points o[ ihe brain which are excited from outside [that are exrerna]ly stimu-
llartedl havg the tend,ency to work in a uniEed system aod turn into ao intrdcortical
poinf' ( 1997a, p. 106)- Tbe stages oftrdosition from exlernal actions to speech and
fioaltry internal acti<r n, identified by vygotsky, arc v€ry sirnilar to tbc stages of volLro-
tairy action developm€ffdesoribed by P, Ya Galperin (Galperin, 1969). These stages
form rhe rnain patb of inten€Dlions lo rBrnediate or develop specific functions. We
fol[ow v]ggtslq,'s idea that "objectifeation of a disturbed funcrion, i.e., brioging
it outsidle and changing it into an external activity, is one afthe basic roads in the
cornpensation of disorders" Or'ygotsky, 1997a, p. 143). This theoretical platform
became the basis for crsafing thB rernedial programs reviewed later in th.is chapter.
We should meDtion that Vygotskyb ldeas on sociogenesis of ]lN4[ diagnosis
of the zone ofproximal developmenl, and learning arc more familiar to the west-
€rn scientific communiq than his understanding ofthe principles of systemic and

I
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C!JUK26?2-14 CUUK2622n-acnirsL) ISBN:97E 0 520 't62694 rvray Ze.ZOfn fO::l

Irain and learni{ d-Eability

dynanic organizatioor of Jimclions. They are being used in boih dwelopmental

edlLrcation ard rehabilitation and correction (Irophylaclics) of leaming dimcul-
ties (Cole, t985, 1996; Kozulin et a1.,2003; Kozulin and Gindis, 2007; Dani€ls,
Cole, and W€rtsch, 2007; Bodrorza and t€on& 2007; Bragr, Campos da Paz, and
Ylvisaker, 2005t Ylvisa.ker and Feeney, 2008).
The principle ofsyrtenic struch,re of HMF was postulat€d by Vygotsky but fir-
ther developed. by.A,. R. Luria. [D his main publication, Higher corticalfinctions
r',', naz,llu,ria wrote: ""We are indebted to Vygotsky for his detailed substantiation

of the thesis that higher men[al functions may exist only as a resull of interaction
betrveen the highly dijferentiated brain structures and that each ofthesc structul€s
makes its own specific contribution to the d)manxic whote" (Luri4 1980, p- 3a)-
Here is what Vygotsky wrote o& this topic in his last work: "It [research] denon-
st!-ales. . . that no specific function is ever connec'Gd with tb€ activitl' ofone single
brain cenler. lt is al$ays the prcduct oflhe ht€gral acrivity ofstrictly differeftiatE4
hierarchically iltercontrected centels" (l99la, p. 140)-
The undFrstanding of the q.stemic slructure of HMF altowed for determining
their localization in the brain and op€ned the door to fte analysis of their com-
ponents. One of the contemporary cognitiw neuroscientists Doted that the main
conlribution of cllinioal neluopsychology is not the discovsry oftbe brain substra-
tum of mental funptions but ratier the aDalysis oftheir components. Tbis analysis
was brilliantly completed by A. R Luria- [n fssays oz ,he pylchoplwiolory of
writing (1950\ Luria piooeered lhe lask of describing the structure ofa compler
funcrional slstem of }|,rilirg in norm using neufopsychological methodology.
Tbe advancements in cl inical neuropsychology, inc luding the analysis ofthe c om -
ponEorts oli HMF! worLrldl have been irnpossible without the nsw diagnostic approsch
suggesled by Vygotsky and funher developed by Luna. Based oo the systemic
character of HMF, Vygotsky idel/fieg{he primary impaired componeDt (pr imary w#€>
defec0, the secondary systemic-qonsequ€nqes of the pdmary defect, aod tertiary

+e*,RFae-f+e-
a,ornpensalory reorB;i;t ir t{u2Affiu^tesion synorome io aault patients
(or ofabnornnl developrnent in children). The exact same approach was used by
f^ PftASrz.gD WvAIs\tTl
the. contenporaD. Russian aulhors to address learning difficulties. For example, OF
Ii.-F*i6Nr iAfluE

'K* in the very cofirmon dys€x€cutive syndrome of lea-rning disabitities lhe prinaru
defct is the underdevelopmelt of prograltming and control firnctioos (executive
fi.lnctioDs)- Operations such as orientation wilhin a task, ptatrnhg, switching to
olther actions" and inliibitory contol are disturbcd as part ofthis syndrome- All of
thes€ slmptoras arg oxamples of lhe rnanifestation of a prima4' defecl, The proF
K
lems with al[ gnoslac (perceplioD) and mnestic (nEmory) processss that rcquir€
concenlratiotr of atlention, checking and reviewing perceived infornation, active
memorization" etc. conslitule the serc,tdar! d4ir6- Furthermore, children with
tlds s)androrroe can dwelop compensaton, reotgaoizotion: positive adapliye and
negativ€ maladaptive. The self-talk such as self-commands and self-discussions of
llte task (i.e. a trd.rNition from lhe intrapsychological level of a yoluolary acllon
to the extra-psychotogical level) are examples of a pDsitive reorganization. Adopt-
iug the role of a class clown (to attnct auention, to withfuaw from the situarion
I Trim .ia7mm x lTarnm T'!p: l0.54lmm GtlIFr. l8.98mm
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]TAIIANA AXH UITIN4-AND GARY SHERESHEVSXY

of faillure. and to incrcase setf-appmisal) is an example of a tregatiye compensa-

lionr.
The differentialion betweeD p mary and se{ondary dofecls is one oflhe distinc-
til/e featurE$ of the diagnostic methods of the [-uria-Vygotsky n€uropsychology
school.
The priutiple of dynanic orysnizafion and.localizotion of the HMF| suggests
a variability of thE functionb stfl.rcture and ils localizatioD- vygotsky spoke abgul
ttiris in his- 193 [ puhlication (Vygotsky, 1998, p- 133] and in more detail i{us ONE OF +.try

R6PfF,n-s
last repor("fhe p,nblem ofd,evelopment and disiriegration ofhigher mental fiinc-
tioffi" {V},gotsky" 1995 unfortunalEtythis report wasnotiocluded inhis Collecterl
K
M'gd(s). Luda wote about this priflciple too (Luria, t973, 1980; Luria, Sirnernit-
skaya, andl Tybulevich, I 973).
The dy mrnic localization occrus due to: (1) the modification of lhe slructue
of fimctions 1lxrougt ontogenesis; (2) the modification of the fun0lional slructule
depending on the levst ofautomatization; ard, (3) the possibility ofusing ditrereol
means tro acllrieve the same result {for example, different stlatq3ies of information
processing: lirolistic vs. analyric).
The principles of syslemic and dl,namic oBanization ard localization of the
HI4FS impty tlral the developrnent of psychological i.rnclions in norm as well
as pafhotogy is not serial or additiv€ (io a sense thal one firnctional module is
ad'dcd to aDofier wilhout chang€ or reDrgaoizalion of thE system as a wholeJ.
Althougli some of the functions may be more elementary or earlier 10 develop,
rhey become .reorganized durfurg the pro€ess of developm€nt and arE integraled
irnto a new s)stern. For erflnple, this can be seen in the development of more
complex 6orms of memory. To an extenl, this is reflected in contemporary research
ard theory. To illustrals, Anderson et al. (2001.1 note that lhe development of and
irmpxovernent in inernory functions in children is closely rclaled 10 the increas€d
proc€ssing spE€d ard improvPment in EKecutivE functioDs, 'while the lalter, in lurn,
are closely rctated to the dweLopment of verbally mediated and logical thinkiog.
It has aLlso been Dooed thal the increase in processing speed during chitdhoDd is
rclare4 in a di erent way, to the devslopme of ex€c!.rti\re firnclions (Coswami,
1998; Bjorklund, 2000; Andcrson et al., 2001).
A good illmlr-atlon of the VygDtsky Luria principles of systemic and dynamic
uganization offurctions is also the data relrted to language disorders in childrstr
wilhl rigl t- and left-tremisphere ltsiuns- [nfaots (ten i {frt rn months) demon-
sff,.t-t{€Nl
strate more delayed development of both lamguage comp'rehension and production
in cases of right-hernisphere lesions, and toddlcrs (ninetcetr to lhfuty-one months)
show nnole delayed developmenl of word poduution and near normal comprehen-
sion incases of lefl-ternporal-lobe lesions (Thal etal." l99l; Wulfeck, Trauner, ard
Taltal, l99l; Sliles el al., 1998). The nrst fact aboul the role of right-hemisphere
lesicns (in light of widely known lelt-hemisphere dominance for most language
firnations in adulrs) confiffns the dynamism of the orgarizatior atrd localization of
laog{Lrage filnctiom. The interprctalion of the second fact is more complicated Fint
of alll ra,e have to answer thE quEslion: based on the given data, can ua conclude
 Trio" 247mm x l74rnm Top: no.i4.lmm Guner: IB.g&nnr
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J
".r

Erain ard lBaminq disability 355

thaf irrtwo-yeaf-Dld clirildren language production is supportEd by bmin structures

of tlm left temporal lobe? The answer is: no, it is a secondary defect of imperfect
conaprehension- Tlrc alrnost nonnd rcsults in the comprehension lafks could be
explained by a cornpensatory slmtegy ol're\.ing on differenl (not analylic phono-
logical bul glolial) fefltiwes, ofwords; processed by the intacl righl lremisphere (cf.
Bates e al., t99t; Dick Et al., 2005).
The Vygotlry-Luria prinoiptes of systemic and dynamic organization of func-
tions ir| ttEir ontogenesis serves as a framerryork for interprelatiofl of varying effecls
ofrsimilar brain lesions; depending on which stage oftht development a giv€n furc-
lion is at, This hras innportant irnplicalions for clinical asses$T,eDt afld intervention,
aDdlfor rEsEa[ch on localizariofl of t-unction, as variables such as agg al bnin itsult,
type of Eompensalotry Frror€sses affer insult (Spreeq Risser, and Edgell, 1995;
Kollb andl Fautie, 199?; Nass, 2002; Frarnptoo, 2004), lime €lapscd after insull
(Simemitskay4 985; Anderson el a1.,2001.), fcuus ofbrair lesion (Simernitskaya,
1985;, Kolb andlFantig 199?; Nass, 2002), and level ofautomalization of fu:rction
(Segaflowitz and Hiscock, 2002) need 10 be considered- The modifcation of the
firnctionall slructurE. and localization depending on thc level of automatizaticn is
discrib€dl in detail hy Debora Waber in the sixth chapter ofher book (Waber, 2010,
pp. 105-120). [n R!.lssian li]temturc it is widely kDown ftom the wDrk of Nikolay
Bemstein (1967, 1996).
The possibilily of using rniiff€rrnt rneans to achisve similar rssults Dn a given
cognilive rask has been described in dnclopmental neuropsychologr (e.g. Got-
lllieb,.20O ; Temple, 1997; ToornEta, Chapler 13 itr this l,olume), and a neod to
assess the nneans by wlhich a normal resutt on a given iask has bsen achieved in
order tu un€over hidden delicits or compensatory process€s has been emphasized
(Karmi off-Smithl 1997; Johnson and Karmiloff-SrnilLL 2004). Furthermore, th€
w€nl-{knowri Prccess Approach to neruropsychological assessment emphasizes task
anall$is andldiscwery of lhe means by which a rcsull is achieved" in ord€r to assis
with lleslon llocalirzation asiwell as attainnenl of a profile of impaircd and preserved
firnctions (Milberg, Hebhen, and 1986; Kaplan, 1988; White and Rose,
199?; Poreh, 2000; Shear" 2007i.

The stqd_y ofthe dyrNamic organDation and localization of ftmctioffi lsd

r/ygotslk)r lo a very irnportant conclusion (vygots[", I 995)- H€ cDmpar€d the con-
sequences ofl@sions with ttre same localization in children and adults. Subordinal€,
underlying operations suff€r mor€ in aduhs, but the defect is compensal€d W tls
top ler{€ls. [n chil]dren, by contrasl, overlying operations thal are iD the process of
dbv€lopfnenlt and thal require the participatior of the affected component, suJfer
rnore. For exarnple,. in the cases of underdevelopme of visual perceptiun the
 I Trin: teTmm x ll.{mrn Trrp: Io.54drmm Cutten l8.98mnr
lcuur:ez-r+ cuuK:622. \rsDiErf rsBN s780i2r ?626e4 ,trU.rO,U ,Oaal

356 TA'IANA AKHUTIN,\AND CARY STIDRESUEVSKY

acquisition ofvocabulary and speech as a who[e is afected, wbicb" in tur'n, causes

prohlems io the development ofverbal thin-king an4 al the same time, delay in the
developrnent uf visual thinliing, i,e. parlial defects qan causE significa[t underde-
veloprnent ofa nunrber ol-HMF in children (Vygolsky, 1995; ct Dobbing, 1968,
1975);!n contemporary neuroscience tls consept of a '?€v€topmenlal cascade"
:bt+l E-ktrfr vfrJ (Kffilotr-Smitlh. 2002) reflects very simitar Ldeas.

D€sop.{b@ FY s-e.u,e rnfur} *:,HTH,f,:H";lilJjt, H'#ffil'# ::l-

yf nrS \"/oE[L \^/k5 nections"; andl.the fr:rrnations which emerge much "Tff}i;H#'JJ
lat€rand thatare less connecled
Pp F,GOf1EM At lD witlrr the, primary dedvative factor are more easy to €liminate with the help of ped-

@Ewr.s oovEpfiE r^, A

:h*Tl.ii
,;,LTffi
iltr;:ffi1,*i,'":;"i?J::il.:T*"ffii$:"TlJ,:
PA P6$L BV €Ll LnfiDFAI in *le procsss of the child's d,evelopmenr. The undentanding of developrnent as a
AF/bA jvrDNyttsrutswyfu,r)il::TXT, jff trl;,Tffi#T.J",*1ffi:ffi#Tfl:ft1I'j#T,
'trheseideas,dbvelopmcntofafunctionandbuildingoffirnctionals)'stsmsisapmA
,/
sbi.listic sefregvlatory procets. vygotsky corNtanlly uses the "drama" metaphor
when desffibing il (see, for example, Vygotsky, 1993, pp. 253, 282JE3). Ftere he
joios Potitz€r ( l92g) with his idea that psychological facts can be best understood
as a'jdranna,'' a sponlaneou.sly unfotding and evolving scenado, and offen cites
Gesell (11990):

All developmenl in tlre presenl is based ao pasl devElopmeot. Deyelopment is

not a sinnpb nlllcton which car be whotly determif,ed by adding -tr unils of
heredity to Irmils olE vironmeot. ll is a historical complex tthich. al every
$tagE, reveals the past which is a part of it. In othEr words, the aiifrcial duality of
environment and hercdity can misdirect us, for it leads us away fmm tbe f8ct thal
development is u tontintous se{-conditioning pro.""ss. (vygotskt I q93, pp.
?82 and ?53, emphasis addcd; see alsu yygotsky, I 988, pp, 147, 283, $nd D.
Elkuoin "Epilogue." in vygotsky. 1998. p, 300)

Vygotskff states: "the iundamenhl m€thodological issue in pedological research

is to discovcr ltrc internal logic in the drama of shild developmenl, to discover lhe
dynamic linh a.rnong irs wrious crises and events" (1993, p. 253). V]€otslry calls
liis poinl of view causal dynamic in conkast to phenoo?ica[- This approach allows
fo r moving away fiom the s imptistic, mechanical cause-and-eJfect utrde$tanding of
the developmenral prucess and its deviations. [t is very similar lothe modern "con-
st!uctivisti" view ofdeveloprnent thal includ€s tb€ ideas ofprobabilistic epigenesis,
nelafional causality, and the extreme importanca ofd)mamic interplay (: "dr na"]
of.)arious factors in the pmcess ofdevelopme (GDttlieb, 1992; Jobnson, 1997;
Kaionildtr-Smith, 2002).
Genes; organisrn, and environmenl (social en.l/ironm€nt in lhe first place) consti-
trulr iihe "coactive" dey€lopmrntal tractoN, Gcnes bring their biascs into the system
amd thus dsfine not a specffic skill, such as reading, but "do main-relevanf' functions,
i.e. fr.rnctionsrthal are geneticclly coonecled, for er<arnple by belotrgilg to the same
type ufinpul (Karmilotr-Smith, 2002). Similarlythe state Dfcertain brain structur€s
 I frin: NZmm x I Xmm TDp: l0-5.l4mm G.fiec l8.98mm
lcutnnaz-r+ ctitjK2d2zr'{asdirsl) ISB}i: 97E 0 521 762694 M^y Z6-m14

Brain ad learning disabilit) 357

specific skill bul ''donaain-relevant"

btrfuirgs ts biases iorto a syst€nir andl dbfinras nrDt a
firnction s, for exarnpl€, sur c€.ssfirl dev€flopmenl ofmotor or auditory functions. I-el
us corisider tilis stal€ment in more delail.
Vygptslq, andl ILuria, along wilhr lhe firmous Russian physiologisl N. A. Bem-
steim, belliev,ed lihal ttre history ofliehavior orga[ization in phytogexesis is reflected
ior tlhe struotue of tlire brain: "'the brain prcserves iu itself in a spatial lorm the
doournentedl tempofal s€quenca of dsvelopment of h,ehavior" (VygDtsky, 1998,
p| [2]D; andlthaf "the developnenl of hrain proc€eds ac€ording to laws of strati6-
caliron and supersfiruqture o,f Eew stories o\er the old" ryygd&lryt-I997b, p. 102);
new strnrctues a.rc built on top ofthe otdvhile preserving the prirdtFal rElatedness,
the same\r,orking stylE the'tommon factor'' (Luri4 1970, p. 370, see also pp. l0t-
103). This is why, whLer dbscribing the aplrasia syndromes, Luria no1 cnly talks
aboul lardguage itgalf lut considers r€lated non-verbal d€Iiciencies as well. This
approach is veryfigtfar tD the mDdern idbas of "embodied cognilion": "language
en
!/# (as wellll as other abstact or bigler oder skills) energes Aon ard is intinately

,K* tiinkedl
rirs
to, tbe rnffe evonldionarily enEenched s.snsorimotor subslralE6 that allow
to offrigr€hend (auditory/visual) and produce (molor) if (Dick et al., 2005, p.
238)- Due to coonmon rnorphogenesis and close flnctional coffIeclions, cartain
brdio sftuctures arc mofe clo.selly associated wilh each other and the disturbaoce
in dhe lunctionin&ofonE \ivill, with high probability, cause tbe dysfuaclion ofthe
other" Tlhesq "'d<rrurain-rclevanf' cennections need lu be considered when analyzing
sp0rptDm-complExesr of dewloprnenlall dEviations (this is the approach that A. R.
I-u-ria callled "factor zualysis" or "syndrome anall,sis").
'llo, bellier udbrstand flifs appmaah to interpr€ting syndromes as "domain-
lelevant " [b't us conslder one of lhe comrnon rypEs of leamillg diffculties: prDb-
lleens \i/itlir readlng and wriiting caused by 'phonological deficit." This is one of
dhe mosli shdied s4drornes in th€ cortemporary body of research on teaming
dlisalbilities. ltccording to Sha)"$'itz axd Shaywitz (2005), "the phoDological deficit
ts dowaiw-specfic;1hat is, it is ilndependent of olher non-photrrological abilities.
[n partic !lar, the h,igher cxder cognitive and linguistic funclions. . . such as gen-
enal intelligence and reasoning; vocahlary and syniax are genemlly inlflrcf G.
f032" ernphasis added)- Acsordirag to our dat4 fte phonological ccfirit is domain-
relbuanl; il means,that the syndrome usuallly includes a.lso a decline in sbort-lerm
aMitory-verball rnenrory poor vocabrrrlary, and a s€€ondary decline in the vari-
abiliry of syntEctic struclures; these dsficiencies are accompanied by diffculies
in perception of non-verbal inforrnation; specifcatly rh)'thms which occur with
tligher thar in'ridental probabirlity (Akhutin€, 2004; Vetichenko\r4 Akhutina, ard
flnsbakov,a, 2001). Il is u,rrth rememliering thal Luri 's tests aimed at the analysis
of temporall lohe fimclions includb both verbal tasks and non-verbal rblthm tasks.
Oua understarding of this syndrome is compatible s.ith ttl9 data obtained in
ps,yoho-gcn€tic researcb. Se\€ral memliers of a now *,ell-known KE farlily (atr
extendbd famiw! abou,t hatf of whom exhibit deyelopnrenlal verbal dyspraxia)
dliagnosed witlDr SLI (sev€re afticulirtion difficulties accompanied by gramrnatical
impairment) cause.d by an allelic vadation in the FOXF2 gene, also experienced
ll r,-,c:lzfin * I l+mm Top: 10.- 4nlm C'uiEr l8.98mflr
I
cuurzez-r+ cuuK-2622/YasnirsL) lsEN: 978 E 52 N 16269 4 fr{ay ZO. ZUr+ rl:Vl

358 NATIANA ,{K}I LI-TI N'A.AND CARY STIIRESHEYSXI

dirfficuJlies in production ofrhythmic movemstrb ofthe halld as well as perceplion

o,f rhytbm {see Karrniloff-Smitlu 2005; cf. Konopka el al., 2009). Difficulties in
proc essing of the non-tinguistic auditory girnuli (e.g. npidly occuring tones) wer€
also noted in thE sh.rdy conftrcted by 'lirllal ( 1980); hov/ever, unlike the author, l}e
dro eot snggest the dire€t strict causal relatioffhip bet\aEen the difficulti€s in tte
procrssing of nom-linguistic auditory stimuli alld the phonological deficit.

[-et us retum [o thE topic of"coastive"' d]evelopmertal fa,ctols. W'e have )€t
to con$ider the rDle oflhe environment in the developmenlal processes, Althougb
aclknowle ging llle important role ofEnvironment, the modern "constructivists," in
our opixioo, dii, nat pay suffrcieol altention to the difforeDcas between biolog ical aad
so c ial env irolrlnent. Vygolsky, on the cotrtrary, drawing a c [ose analogy bsl\,I€en thE

child t deve topmenl and the evolution ofspecies, also shows the ditfercoces tletween
tnie child's dievelopment and rhe dEwlopment of animals and human ancestors:

The history oftie child culturil devetopm t must be coDsidered as analogous 'lu
, the living process af biological evolurion, to how ner. species ofanimals
developed gradually, how in the prucess ofthe struggle For existeDce, the old
species becam€ extinct, how catastrophically adaplalion oflhe living organisms
to nature proceeded. . . IntIodur':..ed ifltq th9 history ofchild developlnsnt at tlle
salne liinc is thd coDcept ot-qjoiict tial is, contradiction or clash bdn€eo the
oahlral aqd th6 historlcaL the primiti\€ ard the cultual, the organic atrdtbg
funrs social. fvygotsky, 199-lb,p. Z2I)

Explai0hg this idra of V writes tll,at "it is exactly in the

ftctor of ideal form lhat the deyelopmsnt ofhigher menial fi.rnctions is slnrlty dif-
fibrexnt ftom the processes of biological evolutioD and cu.ltural development through
lnristory" (Meshcheryrkov, 1998, p, 46).
In th€ c{rurse ofhuman llfe a prolonged periud is dedicated to the deyelopm€nt of
vitallly imrportaot social forms of behavior and leaming. This period has nu aralogs
[n rhe anirnal worid: child devElopmenl includes the process of internalizatiotr of
social forns pf behavior (1hus, l1€ are goiog back to the fust principle). Vygostky
stated:
*Learlling leads developrxeot " lhus emphasizing fte rote ofsocial environ-
rnent; ho$€v€r, in his opinion, environment, alt}ough the main characlsr, is by no
means tlae onJLlr one in the '"developmental drama." This postulale is very important
to cons der when creatirlg educational ald remedial methods, Unfortunately, in
mary theoretical and practical stqdies of education afld remEdiation thc preseftce
of atllirer "charactErs" of dev€lopmental drama besides the social enviroomEnt is
largely ignorsd The neuropsychological approach lo d,evelopmert and corgction
of F{MF s airned at considering social as wetl as biologlcal developmental facton.
Followilg Vygotsky, we consLder tle '"developnental s).ndrome" {in norrual or
aboormal deve [opnxenl ) a biosoc ial unity tfi ar En'{elops nol only tfi E '' soc ial situatio{r
ofdeveloprneDt," eg. a fbrm ofadull-cbild interaction that is specific to every age