Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Rheological properties and fluid dynamics of egg yolk

J. Telis-Romero a, C.E.P. Thomaz a, M. Bernardi a, V.R.N. Telis a, A.L. Gabas b,*

a
UNESP—Universidade Estadual Paulista, Departamento de Engenharia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 15054-000, São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
b
USP—Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil

Received 15 July 2003; received in revised form 13 November 2004; accepted 3 January 2005
Available online 19 October 2005

Abstract

The rheological behavior of egg yolk was studied at a range of temperatures (277–333 K) using a concentric cylinder viscometer.
Rheological behavior was pseudoplastic and flow curves fitted by the power law model. The consistency and behavior indexes,
dependent on temperature, were expressed by an Arrhenius-type equation. The rheological parameters, together with experimental
values of pressure loss in tube flow were used to calculate friction factors. The good agreement between predicted and observed val-
ues confirmed the reliability of the equations proposed for describing the flow behavior of the egg yolk.
Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Pseudoplastic; Power law model; Non-Newtonian fluid; Friction factor

1. Introduction 2001 were processed (American Egg Board, 2003),

Egg (Gallus domesticus) is a rich and well-balanced
source of essential nutrients for human diet composed
by fatty acids, iron, phosphorus, trace minerals, vita-
mins A, B6, B12, D, E, and K, and proteins of high bio-
logical value (Stadelman & Cotterill, 1995). It is one of
the most consumed foods worldwide, being an impor-
tant commodity in international trade. Brazil ranks the
eighth position among the egg-producing countries, with
an expected egg production for August 2003 of 3271
thousands boxes of 30 dozens (Aves e Ovos, 2003).
Egg production in the USA during 2002 was 73.18
billion table eggs (American Egg Board, 2003). In this
way, egg industry is an expressive segment of the food
market, with a large supply of egg derivatives, such as
dried, frozen and liquid egg-products, being used as
ingredients in food formulations or food services.
Approximately 30% of all eggs sold in the USA in
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 19 3565 4043; fax: +55 19 3565
4114.
E-mail address: gabas@usp.br (A.L. Gabas).
requiring shell cleaning and removal, filtering, blending,
pasteurization and freezing or dehydration.
During production, the egg industry deals with egg
yolk in a variety of temperatures and unit operations
such as pumping, pasteurization, frozen and spray
drying. In order to allow the adequate process design,
operation and control, knowledge of the rheological
behavior of egg yolk as affected by temperature is of
fundamental importance.
Several works are available about the influence of
temperature on the rheology of different fluid food prod-
ucts, including orange juice (Telis-Romero, Telis, &
Yamashita, 1999), fruit purées (Guerrero & Alzamora,
1997, 1998) and concentrated milk (Vélez-Ruiz &
Barbosa-Cánovas, 1998). On the other hand there is
almost nothing in specialized literature on fluid dyna-
mics of egg yolk.
1.1. Rheological models
A large number of fluid foods has a non-Newtonian
behavior—what means to say that they do not exhibit a

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.01.044
192 J. Telis-Romero et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197

Nomenclature

A empirical constant in Eq. (14) v velocity (m/s)

D diameter (m) XW water content (w/w)
DP pressure drop (Pa)
Ea activation energy for flow (J/mol) Greek letters
f friction factor e roughness (m)
K consistency index (Pa sn) c_ shear rate (s
1)
L length (m) g viscosity (Pa s)
n flow behavior index q density (kg/m3)
R universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol K) r shear stress (Pa)
Re Reynolds number r0 yield stress (Pa)
Reg generalized Reynolds number rw shear stress at the tube wall (Pa)
T temperature (K)

direct proportionality between shear stress and shear
rate—and different flow models can be used to describe
their flow behavior. One of the most extensively used is
the Ostwald–De Waele model, given by Eq. (1), also
known as the power-law model (Rao & Anantheswaran,
1982):
r ¼ K c_ n .
In Eq. (1), r is the shear stress, c_ is the shear rate, K is
the consistency index and n is the flow behavior index.
When fluid foods are concentrated, an additional resis-
tance to flow may appear, which is represented by the
yield stress, r0, in the Herschel–Bulkley model according
to Eq. (2) (Saravacos & Kostaropoulos, 1995):
r ¼ r0 þ K c_ n .
The rheological parameters K, n and r0, are influ-
enced by temperature and water content (Gunjal &
Waghmare, 1987; Ibarz, Pagan, & Miguelsanz, 1992;
Telis-Romero et al., 1999; Thomas, 2002). In order to
quantify the effect of temperature on the viscosity or
consistency index of Newtonian or non-Newtonian food
products, an Arrhenius-type equation (Eq. (3)), is fre-
quently used (Vélez-Ruiz & Barbosa-Cánovas, 1998):


Ea
g or K ¼ A0 exp ; ð3Þ
RT
where g is the Newtonian viscosity, A0 an empirical
constant, Ea the activation energy for flow, R the gas
constant, and T the absolute temperature.
1.2. Friction factors in tube flow
One of the most important applications of rheologi-
cal parameters is to calculate the pressure drop during
flow, which is usually made through the friction factor,
f. The friction factor is defined as (Garcia & Steffe, 1987)
2rw
f ¼ ; ð4Þ
qv2
where q is the fluid density, v is the average flow velocity,
and rw is the stress in the wall, given by
DDP
rw ¼ ; ð5Þ
4L
In Eq. (5), D is the tube diameter and DP is the pres-
ð1Þ sure drop observed in a length L of the tube.
For laminar flow, the friction factor can be obtained
from a simple function of the generalized Reynolds
number, which is identical to the dimensionless form
of the Hagen–Poiseuille equation (Darby, 1996):
16
f ¼ ð6Þ
Reg
ð2Þ
in which

n
Dn vð2
nÞ q 4n
Reg ¼ . ð7Þ
8ðn
1Þ K 1 þ 3n
Eqs. (6) and (7) can be used for both Newtonian and
power law fluids, since for Newtonian fluids n equals 1,
and K equals g, so that the generalized Reynolds num-
ber (Eq. (7)) reduces to Re = Dvq/g.
According to Rao and Anantheswaran (1982), con-
sidering that non-Newtonian fluids are in general highly
viscous, they will be found more often flowing in the
laminar regime than in turbulent regime. This fact is
reinforced because very high pumping pressures would
not be economical for typical production rates encoun-
tered in practice and, also, because the transition
Reynolds number is higher for pseudoplastic fluids than
for Newtonian ones.
Under turbulent flow conditions, the existing correla-
tions to estimate the friction factor are semi-empirical.
For Newtonian fluids flowing in rough pipes with
Re > 4000, the Colebrook equation is commonly used
(Eq. (8)). This is an empirical modification of the von
Karman equation to include the effect of wall roughness
(Darby, 1996):
 J. Telis-Romero et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197


1 e=D 1:255
pffiffiffi ¼
4 log þ pffiffiffi ;
f 3:7 Re f
where e/D is the relative roughness of the tube.
An empirical relation that approaches Eq. (8) was
proposed by Drew, Koo, and McAdams (1932), and
Govier and Aziz (1972), and has the advantage of being
simpler, as it is explicit in f:
f ¼ 0:00140 þ 0:125 Re
0:32 .
For power law fluids, probably the best-known corre-
lation is that presented by Dodge and Metzner (1959),
which is also based on Eq. (8):
1 4   0:4
pffiffiffi ¼ 0:75 log Reg  f ð1
n=2Þ
1:2 . ð10Þ
f n n Inc., 1995). The suitability of the fitted functions was
In contrast with Newtonian fluids, there is no effect of
pipe wall roughness in Eq. (10). According to Darby
(1996), there is evidence that the roughness is not as sig-
nificant for non-Newtonian fluids as for the Newtonian
ones. This is supposed partly because the majority of
non-Newtonian turbulent flows lies in the low Reynolds
number range, and partly because the laminar boundary
layer tends to be thicker for non-Newtonian than for
Newtonian fluids. If the flow perturbations due to the
roughness elements lie entirely within the laminar sub-
layer, the disturbances will be damped out.
Considering that there is a lack of published informa-
tion on fluid dynamics of egg yolk, the main purpose of
this work was to determine rheological properties of egg
yolk, as well as to develop simple correlations for pre-
dicting these properties under different conditions of
temperature. The rheological data were used to calculate
friction factors for tube flow based on widely accepted
correlations. These results were then compared with
those determined from experimental values of pressure
loss in tubes.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Egg yolk samples
The liquid egg yolk for this study was provided di-
rectly from the processing line of an egg breaking plant.
The moisture content of the initial batch was determined
in a vacuum oven (48 h, 333 K, 100 mm Hg), resulting in
54.04(±0.43)% of moisture (wet basis). The pH of the
samples was 6.40 ± 0.04.
2.2. Rheological behavior
Rheological measurements were carried out using a
Rheotest 2.1 (MLW-Germany) viscometer, Searle type,
equipped with a coaxial cylinder sensor system (radii
ratio, Re/Ri = 1.04). A thermostatic bath was used to
control the temperature within the range 277–333 K.
193
The speed of the rotating cylinder varied from 0.028 to
ð8Þ
243 rpm. Shear stress (r) were obtained by multiplying
torque readings by the viscometer constant, whereas
shear rate (_c) were obtained according to Krieger and
Elrod (1953).
The accuracy of the viscometer was checked using
two fluids with well known rheological properties: ethyl-
ene glycol and chlorobenzene (Perry & Chilton, 1986),
ð9Þ which present Newtonian behavior. Twenty-three repe-
titions were accomplished to determine the rheological
properties of each fluid at 268, 283 and 343 K for ethyl-
ene glycol and 251, 273 and 293 K for chlorobenzene.
Fitted functions were obtained by using the nonlinear
estimation procedure of Statistica software (StatSoft,
evaluated by the coefficient of determination (r2), the
level of significance (p), and residual analysis, as well
as by the relative error (Eq. (11)) between observed
and predicted values:
jobserved
predictedj
D% error ¼ 100 . ð11Þ
observed
2.3. Pressure loss measurements
The apparatus, shown schematically in Fig. 1, consists
of a heat transfer section, where egg yolk was heated or
cooled by flowing through a large thermostatic bath,
kept at constant temperature. The heat transfer test sec-
tion was composed by a set of three horizontal copper
circular tubes with internal diameters of 6.3, 7.8 and
10.2 mm and thickness of 1.4 mm. The total length of
the section was 3.1 m providing a maximum length-to-
diameter ratio (L/D) of 492. Differential pressure trans-
mitters (SMAR model LD-301) were used to measure
static pressure at five different positions along the equip-
ment (620, 1240, 1860, 2480 and 3100 mm from the
heated tube inlet). Egg yolk was pumped by a peripheral
pump (KSB model P-500) at temperatures between 313
and 334 K and between 273 and 310 K using a gear
pump (KSB model Triglav). The wall temperature of
the tube was kept constant by a thermostatic bath of sil-
icon oil (Marconi), which was pumped by means of a
centrifugal pump (KSB model C-1010). A static mixer
was placed at the end of the equipment to homogenize
the final temperature (Tm) of the egg yolk. A HP data
logger model 75.000-B, an interface HP-IB and a HP
PC running a data acquisition and control program writ-
ten in IBASIC monitored temperatures and pressures.
Measurements were accomplished to 112 different
conditions for laminar flow and 64 conditions for turbu-
lent flow. After adjustment of the desired flow rate,
the differential pressure data were recorded (10 data at
5-min intervals).
Egg yolk densities at different temperatures, neces-
sary to calculate friction factors, were evaluated using
194 J. Telis-Romero et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

an empirical correlation (Eq. (12)) presented by Coim-
bra, Gabas, Minim, Garcia-Rojas, and Telis-Romero
(in press):
q ¼ 1295:72
0:0559T
284:43X W ;
where q is the density in kg/m3, XW is the water fraction
in kg water/kg total mass, and T is the temperature in K.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Flow behavior
The accuracy of the viscometer was checked compar-
ing the measured viscosity of ethylene glycol and chloro-
benzene with data presented by Perry and Chilton
(1986) and the maximum relative error (Eq. (11))
observed was 1.82%, whereas the maximum standard
deviation of experimental replicates was 3.90%.
Rheograms of egg yolk for different temperatures
from 277 to 333 K were obtained and the results are
showed in Table 1. The egg yolk exhibited non-
Newtonian behavior, which could be attributed mainly
due to the presence of phosphate and lipo-proteins
and other complex molecules. According to Damodaran
(1996) high-molecular-weight soluble polymers, such as
these proteins, greatly increase viscosity even at very
low concentrations.
Flow curves could be well fitted by the Ostwald–De
ð12Þ Waele model, in the range of temperatures from 277
to 333 K and they determined the flow behavior index,
n, and the consistency index, K. These rheological
parameters are presented in Table 1. The behavior index
showed values varying from 0.842 to 0.881 indicating
that, in this range of temperature, the egg yolk is
pseudoplastic (shear thinning) in nature. The consis-
tency index varied from 0.064 to 1.742 Pa sn and, in
the same way as the Newtonian viscosity, decreased
when increasing the temperature.
The flow parameters K and n could also be correlated
as functions of temperature, resulting in Eqs. (13) and
(14), respectively. The function represented by Eq. (13)
was able to adjust the experimental data with coefficient
of determination (r2) equal to 0.990 (p < 0.05), while Eq.
(14) correlated the behavior index against temperature
with r2 = 0.919 (p < 0.05):


Ea
K ¼ 9:77  10
9 exp ; ð13Þ
RT


A
n ¼ 1:064 exp
. ð14Þ
T

Table 1
Flow parameters for egg yolk at different temperatures
Temperature (K) 277 284 291 298 305 312 319 326 333
Consistency index,a K (Pa sn) 1.683 0.958 0.787 0.421 0.276 0.167 0.148 0.087 0.072
Behavior index,a n 0.843 0.846 0.857 0.854 0.858 0.859 0.872 0.871 0.879
a
Valid for shear rates between 70.2 and 512.4 s
1.
 J. Telis-Romero et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197
The flow parameters estimated by Eqs. (13) and (14)
exhibited good agreement with experimental values. The
relative error between observed and predicted values,
calculated according to Eq. (11), presented an aver-
age value of 8.44% with a maximum of 19.16% for K,
and an average value of 0.115% with a maximum of
0.309% for n.
In Eq. (13), the term corresponding to the effect of
temperature on the consistency index is similar to
an Arrhenius-type equation (Eq. (3)), permitting the
calculation of the activation energy for flow (Ea). The
activation energy obtained for the egg yolk was of
43,651 J/mol. This magnitude is comparable with values
reported by Telis-Romero, Cabral, Gabas, and Telis
(2001) for coffee extract, Vélez-Ruiz and Barbosa-Cáno-
vas (1998) for concentrated milk and by Tang, Munro,
and McCarthy (1993) for whey protein concentrated
solutions. A high value of activation energy means that
there is a large effect of temperature on the consistency
index (Holdsworth, 1971). The temperature dependence
of the flow behavior index is also exponential and the
constant A in Eq. (14) assumes the value of 64.75 K.
The relatively low value of constant A indicates that
the flow behavior index is nearly independent of
temperature.
3.2. Friction factors
In order to evaluate the performance of the system
for pressure drop measurements, experimental data ob-
tained during flow of ethylene glycol were used. Pipe
dimensions, experimental density and measured pressure
drop were substituted in Eq. (4) to calculate the friction
factor, f, which was then correlated with the Reynolds
number calculated by Eq. (7), using the experimental
rheological parameters—in this case n = 1 and K = l.
These results are shown in Fig. 2 that also includes pre-
Laminar region
Turbulent region
f=16/Re
Friction factor
10-2
Drew, Koo & McAdams equation
103 104 105
Reynolds number, Re
Fig. 2. Experimental and predicted friction factors for ethylene glycol.
195
dictions of Eq. (6), for the laminar region, and Eq. (9),
for turbulent conditions. There was a good agreement
between experimental and predicted values, indicating
the adequacy of the applied methodology.
Experimental friction factors for ethylene glycol were
also submitted to nonlinear regression analysis, resulting
in Eqs. (15) and (16) for laminar and turbulent flow,
respectively:
15:94
f ¼ ; ð15Þ
Re0:994
0:137
f ¼ 0:00141 þ . ð16Þ
Re0:324
Eq. (15) was adjusted in the range of 165 < Re < 2105
with r2 equal to 0.989, and the obtained parameters were
similar to the theoretical values present in Eq. (6). Tak-
ing into account the turbulent region (Reynolds number
varying from 9428 to 25,141), Eq. (16) that resulted in
an r2 value of 0.889, could be compared with the corre-
lation proposed by Drew, Koo, and McAdams (Eq. (9)).
In this case, the parameters obtained in the present work
were a little different from those in Eq. (9), but of same
order of magnitude. These results also confirm the suit-
ability of the experimental apparatus.
Tube flow experiments were also carried out during
heating of egg yolk and the experimental pressure loss
data were used to calculate the friction factor, according
to Eqs. (4) and (5). Densities were evaluated at the aver-
age temperature between the initial and final conditions
attained by the egg yolk during flow, using Eq. (12).
Fig. 3 shows the experimental friction factors mea-
sured for egg yolk in conditions of pseudoplastic behav-
ior. The generalized Reynolds number was calculated
with flow parameters obtained from Eqs. (13) and
(14). In this region (Re < 2000), the relative error calacu-
lated by Eq. (11) indicated a good agreement between
100
Turbulent region
Laminar region
f=16/Reg
10-1
Friction factor
Dodge & Metzner equation
10-2
n = 1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
10-3 0.2
102 103 104 105
Generalized Reynolds number, Reg
Fig. 3. Experimental and predicted friction factors for egg yolk.
196 J. Telis-Romero et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 191–197

Table 2
Fanning friction factor correlation for the laminar flow of power law food products according to f ¼ a1 =Reag2
Product a1 a2 r2 Source
Ideal power law 16.0 1.0 – Theoretical prediction (Eq. (6))
Egg yolk 13.1 1.0 0.98 This work
Applesauce 14.14 1.05 – Steffe et al. (1984)
Canola honey 16.0 1.00 0.99 Sopade et al. (2004)
Coolibah honey 16.0 1.00 0.98
Salivation Jane honey 16.0 1.00 0.99
Yapunyah honey 16.12 0.99 0.99
Mayonnaise 15.4 1.0 1.00 Rozema and Beverloo (1974)
Mustard test 1 12.3 1.0 0.98
Mustard test 2 11.2 1.0 0.95
Orange concentrate (sifted) 13.7 1.0 0.98
Orange concentrate (crude) 9.9 1.0 0.91
Apple juice concentrate 18.4 1.0 1.05
Apricot pulp 12.4 1.0 0.95
Pineapple pulp 13.6 1.0 0.95

experimental values and those predicted by Eq. (6)—the
average error was 8.74% with a maximum of 12.84%.
Some other researchers had correlated friction factors
during laminar flow of non-Newtonian fluids in circular
pipes against the generalized Reynolds number and the
results are similar to those presented in this work, as
can be observed in Table 2. A comparison of these cor-
relations indicates that Eq. (6) will tend to slightly super
estimate the friction factor for many non-Newtonian
food products. According to Steffe and Singh (1997),
this may be due to wall slip or time dependent changes
in rheological properties that can occur in suspension
and emulsion type food products.
For higher Reynolds numbers, the experimental data
were compared with those predicted by Dodge and
Metzner equation (Eq. (10)), resulting in a good agree-
ment: the average relative error was of 5.77% with a
maximum of 9.06%.
The data presented in Fig. 3 may be considered of
limited importance, since they only confirm the suitabil-
ity of already widely accepted correlations for predicting
friction factors—the theoretical Eqs. (6) and (10). On
the other hand, the good agreement observed between
friction factors calculated from experimental data on
pressure loss and those estimated from the measured
rheological parameters can be taken as an indication
of the reliability of the models obtained for describing
the rheological properties of egg yolk (Eqs. (13) and
(14)).
4. Conclusions
The rheological behavior of egg yolk showed to be
pseudoplastic and dependent on temperature. At tem-
peratures in the range of 277–333 K the Ostwald–De
Waele (power law) model satisfactorily fitted the flow
curves and the consistency and flow behavior indexes
were expressed as functions of temperature. Friction fac-
tors measured during heating of egg yolk in laminar and
turbulent flows through circular tubes could be well cor-
related in terms of the generalized Reynolds number.
The good agreement between values predicted by theo-
retical equations and experimental values confirmed
the reliability of the equations proposed for describing
the rheological properties of egg yolk.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the financial support from
Sao Paulo State Research Fund Agency, FAPESP
(Proc. 2002/02461-0), the fellowship received from
CNPq/PIBIC to the student Marina Bernardi, and the
technical support given by João Jesuino Demilio and
Vanderlei Telles.
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