Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Volume 2
The Panjabi language
A descriptive grammar
N. I. T olstaya
Translated by G. L. Campbell
INTRODUCTION 1
Va.re1s
Consonants
Stress
Tones
Script
2 VOCABULARY 16
Word Formation
Compounds
The main pret'ixes used in word formation
3 MORPHOLOGY 24
The noun
Gender
NUIlber
Case
v
vi contents
The adjective
Degrees of comparison
Th e numerals
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Possessive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Relative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns
Emph asising pronouns
Th e verb
Non-conjugated forms
Th e conjugated forms of the indicative mood
Simple forms
Conjugation of the auxiliary verb ho�a
Forms made from the participles
Indicative lI100d
Hypothetical mood
Subjunctive mood
Conditional mood
Th e passive
Formation of transitive and causative verbs
Compound verbs
Compound verbal formations
A dverbs
Classification of adverbs by meaning
Morph ological classification of adverbs
Postpositions
Primary postpositions and their basic meaning
Composite ( derived) postpositions
vii contents
Conjunctions
A ssociative conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
Particles
A ffirmative particles
Negative particles
Interrogative particles
Emphatic particles
Interjections
4 SYNTA X 66
5 SPECIMEN TEXT 73
Transcription
Translation
Vocabulary
Bibliography 78
Map 79
Introduction
1
2 Introduction
*
c. Shackle points to the emergence over the last few
of the later Sufi poetry were Shah Hussein and Bullhe Shah,
whose works were well kncwn, not only in India, but also in
Iran and in Egypt.
By the middle of the nineteenth century Urdu had made
itself pre-eminent in the Panjab; it was the language of
primary education, of legal proceedings and of the press.
A part from a rich folklore nothing was written in Panjabi
except Sikh religious works.
In the last quarter of the nineteenth century a movement
made itself felt among Panjabi intellectuals in favour of the
development of a literature in Pan jabi, and of naking Panjabi
the main medium for the social and cultural life of the
province. There ensued a struggle for the introduction of
Panjabi into the educational system and for the general use of
the Gurmukhi script.
At the same time, new literary genres began to evolve - the
novel, the short story and the play. These new literary
forms were also imbued with new ideas. The writers of the
first half of the twentieth century such as Bhai Vir Singh,
Dhaniram Chatrik, Nanda, Charan Singh Shahid and Puran Singh
took up the burning issues of their time - education for
women, remarriage of widows, social injustice. They ridi
culed Indian s who tried to be more English than thP English,
the stupidity and the conceit of the rich, the venality of
judges. The question of freedom for India was taken up with
particular enthusiasm. In 19 26 the leading writers united to
form the Panjab Literary Society.
The birth of the Republic of India in 19 50 gave a new
impetus to the development of Panjabi, as it is Indian govern
ment policy to encourage the grow th of local languages.
Panjabi is now recognised as the official language of the
State of Panjab; it is the language of educatiol1 both for
5 Introduction
VCJ4ELS
6
7 Chapter 1
- a
a low middle vowel, unrounded, as in 'father': akh I'}a
= to speak
u high back vowel, rounded, as in 'food': duja = second
u high back vowel, rounded, as in 'put': kUfi = girl
0 middle back vowel, rounded, as 0 in 'hate': lo�
necessity
ao (�) : middle back vowel, rounded, as in 'wall': faoj
army
These are all pure vow els, non-nasalised. - To each there
corresponds a nasalised counterpart: i, i, e, ie, a, a,
,...
u, ii, 0, ao. Nasalisation of final long vowels is
extremely common, especially in dialects.
TABLE I
High i u
i u
Middle e 0
,.... ,...
ae (E) ao (-;»
Low a a
Reduction of short a
CONSONANTS
voiced z 9 h
trill r
STRESS
TONES
horse
baha rI / b� ri / broom
The high tone is indicated by the same letters p laced after
leprous
cih / c; / tea
The even tone is not indicated graphically, that is, it is
used in stressed syllables which have neither h nor a voiced
asp irate: e.g.
bari / ba ri I door
ca / c;. I wish
13 Chapter 1
SCRIPT
� 8
k
�
x =
4;t
g
�
f �
z= ?
European punctuation is used in Panjabi, with the sole
difference that instead of the full-stop the sign I is used.
Chapter 2
Vocabulary
16
17 Chapter 2
WORD FORMATION
Compounds
svaeman self-respect
"
san- = with
sanman esteem
sanjog union
ham- = with
hamdard I sympathy
ka- , ku- , dur- (indicates negative, unfavourable
qualities)
kar;p ugliness
kumatt bad opinion
durghap;a misfortune
ni- , nis- , nir- = without
nitaJ}.a powerless
nisphal fruitless
nirdo!; not guilty
19 Chapter 2
be�l unreasonable
beant endless
ba - = with
b a x3.:>ar knowin;r
-k
j acak inves tigator
-dar
zindndar land-owner , landlord
-ban
bagban gardene r
-van
dhanvan = rich man
The fol lowing morphemes are used to make diminutives or nouns
of endearment :
-e l , - ica , - ci , - fa , (-fI) :
-ap
s ia.r:ap wisdom
-pan
bacpan = ch i ldhood
-pal}
bholapal} kindness
-gi
narazgi = dissatis faction
22 Chapte r 2
-ti
mi�ti = quantity , measure
Morphemes used to make name s of countries , place-names :
- s tan, -is tan
h indus tan India
p;tkis tan Pakis tan
-a
bhukha hungry
-akal
9-ar;tkal appalling
-ael
� usae l angry
-a l u
k i rpalu gracious , kind
bringing sorrow
-ik
i tihas ik h i s tori cal
-it
dukh i t pained , afflicted
-I
muglaI mogul
-Ila
rangIl;t colourful
-sar
mi lar:sar friendly
-dar
samajhdar reasonab l e , intel ligent
-man
saktimiin powerful
23 Chapter 2
-mand
a l!- lmand reasonable
-vant
sukhvant happy, lucky
-var
tal!-atvar strong
-van
dhanvan rich
-val
san jhi va l collective
Chapter 3
Morphology
THE NOUN
Gender
24
25 Chap te r 3
the cas e of inanimate nouns/ one mus t cons ult the dicti onary :
e.g.
balad (m . ) b ul l
j a �� ( m . ) peasant ( ' j a t ' )
j ama ( f. ) class
panj�aQ ( f . ) Pan j abi woman
viakaraQ ( m . ) grammar
The grammatical gender of certain inanimate nouns is
uns tab le : e .g.
th a ( m . and f. ) p lace
lam ( m . an d f. ) a rmy
ghatt ( m . and f . ) grass
Feminine nouns can be formed from many masculine nouns
e i the r by changing th e final -a to -i : e.g.
ghora ( m . ) horse
gho;:- i ( f . ) mare
or by adding -it -fi , -Qi , -ni to mascul ine nouns ending
on a consonan t : e.g.
j a�� ( m . ) pe asant jaHI ( f . ) peasant woman
bal ( m . ) boy balf! ( f . ) girl
gum ( m . ) mus ician ��! ( f . ) female mus i cian
z imin&r (m . ) =. landowner zimIndarnI ( f. ) = female
landowner
Numbe r
horse horse s
dog dogs
Nouns of re lationship form an exception to this rul e , as do
nouns of Sanskri t origin and a few of Iranian origin : e.g.
bhra brother bhra brothers
neta -= leader neta leaders
p i ta father p i ta fathers
dada rive r daria rivers
:.
Femi n ine nouns , apart from those ending in -a , -a, form
=
thei r direc t plural by adding the ending -a : e.g.
b hae� s i s te r bhael}a s is ters
�
Case
.::
l Umb a� ( m . ) fox l Umba � nu fox ( acc . ), to the
fox
gho � I ( f . ) mare gho �I ute on the mare
sabbh a ( f . ) mee ting sabbh a wal � from the meeting
The p lura l ob lique form of masculine nouns ending in -a or
.: .:
-a i s formed by adding -i a to the base of the word : e .g .
.
=
mw;t�a (m . ) boy m�9i a nu = boys ( acc . l , to the boys
= .::
sarna ( m . ) time sami a to in ti me s
.::
Feminine nouns which have a p lura l direct case ending in -a
.::
or -wa , remain unchanged in the p l ural obl ique : e .g.
gal l a words ga ll a n a l = w i th , by words
.::
mawa mothers mawa nu = to, of mothers
.:
A l l other nouns take the ending -a in the plura l ob lique
case : e.g.
.::
me z ( m . ) table me za ute on tab les
kurs I (L) = chai r k ursI a ute on cha i rs
The vocative case is the form use d to address someone . In
th e s ingular maSCUl ine, nouns ending in a consonant take the
ending -a to form the vocative : e.g.
h e puttr a Oh son !
he rabb a Oh God !
Feminine nouns in the s ingula r make a vocative by adding
-e to the direct case form : e.g .
ni dh Ie ! Oh daughter !
sika rane ! Oh huntsman's wi fe!
In the p l ura l , all nouns make a vocative in 0-: e.g.
dhIo! daugh ters !
putt ro ! sons!
The p l ural ins trumental form is made w i th the ending -i .
(Old Pan j ab i had several ways of forming the instrumental
case , including forms ending in -i and -hi ): e .g.
hatth I wi th hands
akkhI with the eyes
29 Chap ter 3
'mE ADJECTIVE
The two characte ris ti c endings of adj ectives in Panj abi are
::
-a , -a (mas culine ) and -i ( feminine ) . The adj ective
normal ly precedes the subs tantive i t quali fies and agrees
w i th it in gender , number and cas e ( d i rect or ob lique) •
the base to form the p lural ob l ique . Othe r adj ecti ves
remain unchange d , excep t s abbh = a l l , wh ich takes the
=
ending -na :
s abbhna mi la � malik the owner of all the fac tories
Th us :
.::
cange gho�e fine horses; cangi a gho�ia � of fine
horses
.::
nawe ghar = new houses; nawia ghara da = of �ew hous es
sapha l kamm s ucces s ful works; saphal kamma da = of
s ucce s s ful works
Feminine adj ectives ending in -i do not change for the
:
ob lique cas e of the singular , but take -a in the plural in
both dire c t and obl ique cas es : e.g.
ca �gI gho !I = good mare ; cangI ghO�I �a of a good mare ;
_
cangIa gho�I a = good mares ; cangii 9hofIa da of good mares
An adj ective qua l i fying a noun in one of the other ob lique
cases i s p ut in the ob l ique cas e: e .g.
mae ap�e hat thI kamm karda ha I do the work wi th my own
hands
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
'mE NUMERALS
caotha fourth
,...,
33 Chapter 3
sac?he +
tihaI
ge rh 11
addha I
dha i 21
The numera ls addha and paoQa are formal ly declinable
adj ective s (not to be con fus ed with sava and sa�e whi ch are
indeclinab l e ) .
Col lective numerals are formed from the cardinals ('-10
inclus i ve ) by adding the s uffixes -e , -e : e.g.
dove coup le
tinne threesome
care foursome
pan j e five of • • •
dase ten of
Another way o f forming col lectives is analy tica l ly by means
of the pos tposi tion � in i ts various forms : e.g.
doha de do = couple
34 Chapter 3
h undred of
=
panja dii panj k U{Ia five gi rls
Multip l i cative numeral s are cons tructed by means of the
word -g �a (= times ) : e .g.
do-gW]a or d� i two times
tinn-gW]a or ti�i three times
caoqUQa or caoQa four times as big
panj- gW]a five time s as big
s ao-gW]a a hundred time s as big
Certain adj ectives and adverbs may appear in the rol e of
inde fini te numerals :
anek many
hor stil l more
bahute many
s abbh all
sare wholly , a ltogether
The particle k u (= about , approximately ) and the pronoun
koI (= someone ) are also used to form indefini te numerals :
e.g.
panj ku about five
s ao ku about a hundred
koi das rupae about 10 rupees
PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns
sing . pl . s ing . pl .
direct mae
,..,
asi tu tusi
= =
ob lique mae , mae as a , s a tae , tae , tusa , tus a ,
�
me asa tu t uh;
Pos s e s s i ve pronouns
Re flexive pronouns
These include nominal and adj ecti val pronouns and , associated
with the la tte r , adverbial pronouns . Two degrees of prox-
imi ty are dis tingui she d : ' thi s ' and ' that ' , i . e . near a t
h an d and further away .
( a) person , obj e c t :
ih , aeh this , these
uh , aoh that, those
S ingular P l ura l
ih i s , ih ih ihn a , inha
aeh ...... ,.... -
aes , aeh aeh aena , ahina
uh us , uh uh uhna , unha
,.. -
aoh aos , aoh aoh aohn a , aona
I n terrogative pronouns
(a) person :
k ao,: = who?
ob j ect :
ki = what?
S ingular P l ural
Relative pronouns
Emphasising pronouns
xud , ap = self
s abbh all ( ob lique : sabbhn a)
sara a l l , the whole of ( declinable adjective )
sabbh kujh a l l ( indeclinab l e )
har ik each , every ( inde clinab l e )
s arba t = a l l ( indeclin ab le )
anek = ( ob lique case aneka)
THE VE RB
Some perfecti ve parti cip les are formed i rregularly . The mos t
important are :
kama to do kIta ( m . ) , kid ( f . ) done
j a�a to go gia , gai having gone
marna to die moia , moi having died
pina to drink p i ta , p i ti drunk
kahi!)a to s ay kiha , kah i said
de�a to give di ta , did given
laeI}a to take lia , lai taken
As a rule , the perfective particip les of transitive verbs are
pas s i ve in meaning . Other participles have an active
meaning .
The compound participle is formed by combining the s i mple
parti ciple of any verb wi th the perfecti ve participle of the
verb ho!)a ( = to be) . The compound participle is perfective
or impe rfective , depending on the simple participle used ;
thus, impe rfective
pafhda hoia = reading (pres . part . ) , engaged in reading
(present or pas t)
looking at (pres . part . ) , engaged in looking
at (present or pas t)
perfective
vekhia hoia seen
kI ta hoia done
The compound participle agrees w i th the word it de te rmines in
gender and number .
The absolute form of the participles , both simple and com-
pound , may be used in an abso lute sense . In this case , the
=
participles take the ending -ia, and are not declined : e.g.
� - �
. . nu parhdia
mae munde hoi a s �ia I heard the boy reading
-- �
Simpl e forms
The simple forms , made by adding the pers onal endings to the
verbal base , include the impe rative mood , the s imple s ub j unc
tive forms and the forms of the simple future which are
deri ved from the latter .
The only forms us ed of the imperative mood are those of the
second pe rson , s ingular and p lura l . The second person s i ngu-
lar is i dentical wi th the verbal base :
kar do !
b ae � sit!
The morpheme -0 is added to these forms to make the plural
impe rative :
k aro do !
b ae �o sit!
The singular forms are us e d i n addressing menbers o f family or
intimate friends ; in other contexts it is us ed s ligh tingly .
A long s i de these imperative forms there are also the so-
.
called polite or respectful forms , made by adding -i ( -vi )
to the ve rba l base for the second person singula r , a�d - io
( -vio) for the second person plural : e.g.
. -
tu b ae � I please s i t
tu pivi p lease drink
t us i bae�io please s i t
tus i pi vio please drink
42 Chapter 3
The auxi liary verb ho�a - whi ch is also the copula - enters
into the composi tion of mos t of the remain i ng inflected forms
made from the parti ciples - the indi cative simple pas t and
present , the s ub j unc tive , the hypoth e tical and the condi tiona l
moods .
The simple present indi cati ve of hOQa :
Singular P lura l
mae ha asi ha
-
S i ngular P lural
,.., .:: =
mae s a asi sa
'"'
tu s ae tus i sao ( sao )
-.J
uh si uh s an
The s ub j unctive :
S ingular P lura l
--- -
mae hova as i hoi e
tu hove tus i hovo
uh hove uh hor:' (hovan )
Hypothe tical mood and future indicative :
Singular P l ural
mae hova g a ( f . hova g i ) as I hovage ( f . hova g Ia )
. .
tu hov; ga ( f . hove g i ) tus i hovoge ( f . h ovogI a )
uh hovega ( f . hoveg i ) uh hOr:'ge ( f . hOr:'g ia )
Condi tional mood :
S ingular P lura l
. .
mae , tii , uh hunda asI , tus i , uh hunde ( f .
( f . hundi ) f . hundi a )
S i ngular P l ura l
. .
�e b ae �da ( f . b � � dI ) h a as i ...b ae thde
. ( f . b ae thdI
.
i ) ha
....
;:
bhI f vi co avaza aunde han = voices rise from the crowd
For th i s meaning , howe ver , another cons truction is normally
pre fe rred - a combination of the s imple participle of the
main verb w i th the perfective participle of the verb rahiQa
( = to live , dwel l , s tay ) plus the present tense o f the
auxi liary : e.g.
� �
- - _ -
,...
tu bae�ia ( f . bae � I ) h ae tus I b ae �e ( f . b ae �I a ) ho
uh b ae � ia ( f . b ae !=h I ) hae uh b ae �e ( f . b ae !=h I a ) han
A transi tive verb us ed in thi s tense or in any other tense
incorporating the perfective parti ciple agrees not w i th th e
s ub j ect ( ob l ique cas e ) which i s marked b y th e pos tpos i tion �
but with the di rect obj e c t whi ch is not marked; where no
direct obj ect is expressed, the verb is always in the th i rd
person masculine s ingula r : e . g .
� �
Hypothetical mood
The pass i ve
( intrans . ) ( trans . ) IN
-
,....
daofna to run dUfaUl)a to chase d llt' va UQ a to caus e to be chased
dekhl}a to look , see dikh a Ul)a , dikhl;iUl)a , dikhvaUl)a to caus e to b e shown
dikhall}a = to show
s ikh!)a to learn s i khaUl)a , s ikhlaUl)a , sikhvaUIJa to cause to be taught
s i khalna = to teach
de!)a to give du;iUl)a , diva Ul)a , di lvaUIJa to cause to be handed
di laUl)a = to hand ove r ove r
ro!)a to weep ruaUlJa , ruvaUl)a , rUlvaUl)a to caus e someone to be
ruall}a to caus e to made to weep
weep
50 Chapte r 3
Compound verbs
ADVERBS
kado when
-
POSTPOS I TIONS
.:
us nu chac;IcJ ke e xcluding him
is to vadh ke apart from this , over and above this
kujh din a hoe a few days ago
61 Chapte r 3
::.
vag like
vi ckar , viskar in , among
The adj e ctive yoga (or j oga ) ( = proper , s ui table) is used
as a pos tpos i tion agreeing with the noun governed by the whole
pos tpos i tional ph rase : e.g.
me re yogi ro�i l i a = bring me bread s ui tab le for me
The pos tpos i tion mara (= becaus e o f , as a res ult o f ) agrees
with the s ub j e c t : e.g.
uh bhar da mara nahi aia he di d not co�e because of
fear
.::
sarm dIa maria kuria nahI aia the girls did not come
because of embarrassment
( confusion )
CONJUNCTIONS
I
ki �ki
-
k i uj u
cunki beca�e
- --
tahio
-
ta j o
(hI
I
res ult :
:: i::�� ki
and s o , there fore
ju
,I ·
(cl in tention , aim
ki
-
ta ki
-
ta j o that
-
mata
mate
i s lai k i in order that , s o that
(d) con d i tion .
kadI
ki te
jad
j ekar
· . .
· . . ,
· . .
· . . ,
, ta
, ta
�
ta
..
-
ta
I _hen . . . , then , i f .
. . , then
je · . .
, ta
(el comparison :
- �
k i , mano = as i f , like
( fl explanation :
ki , j u , pai = that
64 Chapte r 3
(g) place :
j 1 tthe • • . , utthe = whe re • . • , there
(h) re lation :
j o = who , whi ch , that
(1) concess ion :
bhave . . . , par
}
- -
although
bhave . . . , phi r v i
c att e . . . ,
cahe . . . , ta k i
c att e , par
phi r vi
• • •
1 even i f . . . , none the less
(j) ti me :
ki a l l at once
}
jad ki when
j ad , ta � then
when ,
. • •
. • •
j ad • . • , U
j ad to = s ince when
j ad takk ( k i ) unti l
j is same • . • , ta when . . • , then
PARTICLES
Negative particles
na not
nab ! no , not
The particle ma t is us e d only w i th negative i mperative
forms .
65 Chapter 3
Emphatic particles
INTERJECTIONS
Syntax
The s ub j ect
effort)
= '" ::
asa tinn m��ia nu vekhi a s 1 we saw three boys
� �
66
67 Chap te r 4
.::.
tae nu kis ne bulaia who cal led you?
.::.
mae teri bhae nu viah t � pahi la vekhia
The case may arise where one s ub j ect governs two or more
predicates containing perfective parti ciples of both trans i -
tive and in trans i ti ve verbs . I n this case , th e s ub j ect wi ll
appear ei ther in th e direct or the oblique case according to
wh i ch type of participle is contained in the predica te c loses t
to i t ( the s ub j ect) ; and each of the ve rbs wi l l take i ts own
due form irrespecti ve of the form of the s ub j ect : e.g.
h e came down and
drank a cup of tea
unha ne patrika pafhi te gharo niklia
he fin i shed reading the pape r and wen t out of the hous e
Secondary componen ts
In the s imple sen tence the s ub j ect s tands at the beginning and
th e predicate at the end : e .g.
harI ne gurmIt n u vekhia = Hari s aw Gurmi t
The obj ect usually pre cedes the predicate ; the direct
obj e c t fol lows the indi re c t : e.g.
s a� j amat ne i k munde n u k a l ap�a mani �ar c� lia
yes terday our class pi cked a boy to be class monitor
( pre fe ct)
The attribute precedes the word qua l i fi e d : e.g.
uh kurup , patla la�ka s 1 = he was a n ugly , thin boy
A predicative adj unct follows the word quali fied and pre cedes
the predicate : e.g.
ku�1 rondi hoI gha r a vafi weeping , the gi rl ran into
the hous e
Spatial and temporal modifi ers are placed be tween the s ub j ect
and the predicate . Temporal modi fiers us ual ly precede
spatial ones : e.g.
ik vidiarth1 savere skul a i a in the morning one pupil
came to s chool
These modifiers may also s tand at the beginning of the
sentence : e.g.
�
a j j us ne mi ttr nu vekhia = today he saw his friend
Adverb i a l phrases of manne r are p laced between th e predi ca te
and the ob j e c t : e.g.
- -
COMPOSI TE SENTENCE
TRANSCRIPTION
- -
� �
... ...
g i � I s I cI za l i a� laI . uh aj � a rI � iha�
m � -mu � -ke wlna
�
c I za dI gIn tI g i n dI rah I sI j ehrIa
. k aI; dina to ghar vi c
- � . -
73
74 Spe cimen text
TRANS LATION
VOCABULARY
78
ji
\
,
._
. , r ,
'-
r-
Kabul
� '->'
r-...
_
- rr--- ------
r'
(
-�
� '��\.
. '"
'hawa, :. ifQ !
• • ••� . )
... ..
.
. . ..
: J1 S".au ..
'
. ,._,
\. ' ,
.. . ... .
,,
/: -
. ... . .
.
-�-
•
�
.'
. ..
. ..
' .:t" " CJ. • . • . '':>
. � .
I � . .':
\
\
j ) � ! . \ "" \'
O"'�:ol'Ip.�\ . 't :':!,�""\,
.
l....
0
.
- , �,
':
.. . . ..
" \.
(.
. . .
'r
�� • •••• . ' /I "�'f�<:)'t
.... \
..
J
.-"
. _-
I! ,,'r
"'
� ,.:
i ,
( 't�� - -f
! 'Am"IS .,) '�j
•
( � ... . ,� ,
.
'
j
!i - � ,�
'
�
l
/
,r'
.., �� I!.'"
't
/
- � .IL'
,",I"
'
•
/(/
'I.�
p.\, \
5·'
"I
. .I
.
/.
.
A"
... �
.
�
:I" )
:'1\-1\
MJlL WJlI
Pa" .I. 0 :
.. . .. ...
. . . . ....
:...
r
�.?
,_/
•
#?' ( I
! , ..,.
p.\.\' . <I.........
, . . I) I
u'i'o\ . / . . J. . . .
�
p.� . . , .
.
. :.. ..
. ....
.:
Vol''' ..... , \
.
..,
. ( I
'
./
Oelh, \>9......
· · · · ·· "l
l
.....
j
I ', _. _ ' _ '
. ! �.
79
LAN G UAG ES OF AS IA AND AFR ICA
1 The Swah i l i Language
2 The Panjabi Language
3 The Languages of South Asia
4 The Polynesian Languages
5 The Hausa Language
The Panjabi Language
Panjabi (or Punjab i ) is spoken by about 35 mil lion people in the
Panjab region of Pakistan and India. and is the vehicle for recording
the teachings of the gurus of the Sikh religion. In the last thirty years
its use for official documents. education and literature has grown
considerably.
This is the second volume i n the Languages of Asia and Africa
series. The book was originally publ ished in a very limited edition in
the Soviet U n ion and has now been fully revised by the author for this
new translation into English .