AUTCON-01758; No of Pages 12

Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The

process of expanding from 3D to computable nD
Lieyun Ding a, Ying Zhou a,b,⁎, Burcu Akinci b
a
School of Civil Engineering & Mechanics, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
b
Civil & Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh 15213, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The utilization of Building Information Modeling (BIM) has been growing significantly and translating into the
Received 20 September 2013 support of various tasks within the construction industry. In relation to such a growth, many approaches that
Received in revised form 19 March 2014 leverage dimensions of information stored in BIM model are being developed. Through this, it is possible to
Accepted 14 April 2014
allow all stakeholders to retrieve and generate information from the same model, enabling them to work
Available online xxxx
cohesively. To identify gaps of existing work and evaluate new studies in this area, a BIM application framework
Keywords:
is developed and discussed in this paper. Such a framework gives an overview of BIM applications in the
BIM construction industry. A literature review, within this framework, has been conducted and the result reveals a re-
3D search gap for BIM applications in the project domains of quality, safety and environmental management. A com-
nD putable multi-dimensional (nD) model is difficult to establish in these areas because with continuously changing
Computable conditions, the decision making rules for evaluating whether an individual component is considered good
Modeling quality, or whether a construction site is safe, also vary as the construction progresses. A process of expanding
from 3D to computable nD models, specifically, a possible way to integrate safety, quality and carbon emission
variables into BIM during the construction phase of a project is explained in this paper. As examples, the process-
es of utilizing nD models on real construction sites are described. It is believed to benefit the industry by provid-
ing a computable BIM and enabling all project participants to extract any information required for decision
making. Finally, the framework is used to identify areas to extend BIM research.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Many researchers have evaluated the effectiveness of Building Infor-
mation Modeling (BIM) applications within different educational or in-
dustrial settings [1]. In addition, many practitioners have acknowledged
the potential benefits of this new technology, such as Sacks et al. [2],
Chen et al. [3] and others [4,5]. To date, BIM is accepted as a process
and corresponding technology to improve the efficiency and effective-
ness of delivering a project from inception to operation/maintenance
[6]. In the last decade, BIM has received a considerable amount of atten-
tion by researchers. A number of case studies have been published that
show useful BIM implementations on actual construction projects. In
The BIM Handbook, 10 case studies have been thoroughly explained
[7]. In addition, Hartmann and Fischer proposed to use 3D/4D models
for design review from the perspective of constructability [8]. Rüppel
and Schatz designed a BIM-based game for fire evacuation simulations
[9]. Zhou and Ding presented a 4D visualization technology for safety
management [10]. Case studies such as these have served as a starting
⁎ Corresponding author at: Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan
430074, China; visiting scholar at Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh 15213, USA.
E-mail addresses: ying_zhou@mail.hust.edu.cn, yingzhou@andrew.cmu.edu (Y. Zhou).
point for practitioners to better understand how BIM can be applied
on their projects.
From a previous research review, it is seen that utilization of BIM in
the construction industry can help practitioners by improving visualiza-
tion, communication and integration in construction operations [11].
However, some practitioners still hesitate to adopt these innovative
tools [12]. Some surveys have been conducted to evaluate the extent
and benefits of applying BIM in the construction industry in different
countries [13–16]. According to the survey conducted by Young, archi-
tectural/engineering/construction (A/E/C) participants did not identify
much value in using BIM [12]. Therefore, a framework is needed to un-
derstand the clusters of work and less focused areas to push the re-
search on and utilization of BIM throughout the life-cycle of facilities
for multiple stakeholders. A well-rounded BIM application framework
might give the practitioners a broader view of the use of BIM applica-
tions to support construction project management and help them to
better understand the benefits of implementing BIM on their projects.
Formulating a comprehensive framework provides an opportunity
for the researchers to identify future BIM research and implementation
directions and it would enable application of these sophisticated
technologies in the whole life-cycle of projects [17,18]. This paper
offers a starting point for the development of such a framework. It

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
0926-5805/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
2 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

presents a framework of BIM applications generated from past project
implementations of BIM. The framework would guide research efforts,
which will enhance communications, share understanding and knowl-
edge growth among all the academic researchers and industry practi-
tioners, and integrate relevant concepts into a descriptive or predictive
model. A thorough literature review has been conducted to validate
the framework and identify the current research gap. The process of
how BIM applications expand from 3D to nD, specifically referring
to quality, safety and environmental management in this paper, is
described.
Such a framework would guide practitioners to applications of this
new technology and show researchers where the development of
deeper knowledge and better tools is needed. In addition, the main chal-
lenges of implementing BIM applications with potential solutions are
explained. The authors hope that this paper will inspire further develop-
ment of the research framework and guide future research into BIM
applications.
extension of BIM [32,39]. Although some have tried to differentiate nD
from BIM [40], most research has agreed that BIM represents the utiliza-
tion of nD models to simulate the planning, design, construction and
operation of a facility [39,41].
Application of BIM can be described as a process that expands 3D
data into an nD information model, which allows dynamic and virtual
analysis of scheduling [42–45], costing [46,47], stability [48,49], sustain-
ability [50,51], maintainability [52], evacuation simulation [9,53] and
safety [54] to name a few. This nD model provides a database allowing
all stakeholders to retrieve needed information through the same sys-
tem, which allows them to work cohesively and efficiently during the
whole project life-cycle. Therefore, to be useful to academic researchers
and industry practitioners, a BIM application framework must contain
three parts: all project management domains (examples are listed
above in italics), all stakeholders, and across the whole project life-
cycle. The three parts of the framework are defined in the following
sections (Sections 3 and 4).

2. Terms and definitions

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is defined as “a digital repre-
sentation of the physical and functional characteristics of a facility. A
BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility
forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle; defined as
existing from earliest conception to demolition [19].”
Many terms related to BIM have been adopted by researchers, such
as virtual design and construction (VDC) and multi-dimensional (nD)
modeling. Table 1 lists some of the widely used terms in both research
and industry studies and shows a summary of them by application
domain.
A BIM model is different from traditional 3D CAD models in which
3D CAD only describes a facility with independent 3D views, such as
plans, sections and elevations. If one of those views is modified, the
others must be updated accordingly. Further, data in 3D CAD drawings
are only graphical entities, such as lines, arcs and circles. On the
contrary, a BIM integrates semantically rich information related to the
facility, including all geometric and functional properties during the
whole life cycle in a collection of “smart objects” [20]. For example, a
valve or tube module within a BIM would also include its functional
and performance properties, such as material, supplier, maintenance
requirements, cost and delivery time, in a semantically rich way. Each
component is a “smart object” with all associated parameters stored in
it. The information of the properties can be accessed when needed by
any stakeholder. This important feature of BIM allows stakeholder
access to information and combinations of information to which they
have never before easy access.
As for other terms, virtual reality (VR) provides a tool which allows a
user to experience a computer-generated simulation of a real or imag-
ined environment [21–23]. 4D modeling utilizes BIM for project time
allocation and construction sequence scheduling simulations while
VDC is becoming a more accepted industry term to explain the use of
BIM to design and construct a project [37].
In terms of nD modeling, some researchers use nD to describe the
different maturity levels of BIM [38]. Some researchers define nD as an
3. BIM application framework
3.1. Overview
This section introduces the proposed BIM application framework, a
research and delivery map of existing research and implementation
projects which identify interrelationships between project domains
and requirements for further knowledge acquisition. This proposed
BIM application framework targets stakeholders to better understand
the current state of BIM applications and future BIM implementation
requirements.
A BIM framework must be comprehensive enough to address all rel-
evant BIM domains and implementation challenges as well as to present
key issues of project management in a systematic manner. On the basis
of the definition of BIM, this application framework consists of three
parts: 1) project domains listed, 2) stakeholders and 3) phases of the
project life-cycle. These are shown as the three axes in Fig. 1.
A particular research can be put in this framework using one of these
six options: 1) single BIM application within a single organization
through a single project phase; 2) single application within multiple or-
ganizations through a single phase; 3) single application within multi-
ple organizations through multiple phases; 4) multiple applications
within a single organization through a single project phase; 5) multiple
applications within a single organization through multiple project
phases and 6) multiple applications within multiple organizations
through multiple phases.
For example, as shown in Fig. 2, “a1a2a3a4” represents the utilization
of BIM for safety management from the owner's perspective, while
“b1b2b3b4” represents the utilization of BIM for cost management from
the perspective of different stakeholders, which are, in this case, the
owner, the contractors and the supervisors, also known as owner's
representatives. The “c1c2c3c4, d1d2d3d4” area represents the utilization
of BIM for design review during the planning and design phases by
different stakeholders. In this framework, application of BIM in the
construction industry can have 6 different levels based on the project

Table 1
Differences between widely used terms and BIM.

Sample terms Information can be retrieved Design review Performance simulation Virtual simulation of Management of site Maintain facility Reference
from 3D building elements construction process constraints operations

3D CAD √ [20,21]
Virtual reality (VR) √ √ [21–24]
4D modeling √ √ √ [25–28]
VDC √ √ √ √ √ [29–31]
nD modeling √ √ √ √ √ √ [32,33,39]
BIM √ √ √ √ √ √ [7,97]

Other related terms: Integrated project delivery [34], computer integrated construction [35], building product models [36].

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. BIM application framework.

management tasks that are aimed for, the project stakeholders that are
involved in and the different phases that BIM is used in.
3.2. Current research within BIM framework
Recently, there has been a large quantity of work in BIM. It is
necessary to comprehensively review recent significant BIM work in
its application. The main objectives of this review are to: 1) validate
the framework proposed in Section 3.1; 2) reveal research gaps; and
3) try to evaluate future research and development trends.
The selected papers are from leading built environment journals in
the information technology research area. The searched journals are
Automation in Construction, ASCE Journal of Computing in Civil Engineer-
ing, Advanced Engineering Informatics and Journal of Information Technol-
ogy in Construction. The articles, published from 2006 to as current as
May 2013, are considered as recent work. In total, there are 135 papers.
This time-frame does not cover the early stages of BIM research in the
built environment, but is extensive enough to identify the emerging
research and development for BIM. The key words for searching are
“Building information modeling”, “Building information model” and
“BIM”. As the purpose of this paper is to focus on the implementation
of BIM, those articles that concentrated solely on BIM concepts or IT
techniques rather than BIM applications in the built environment are
not included.
Within the 135 papers, the current research can be categorized into
the following groups: 1) some explained and advanced the industry
foundation class (IFC) data schema [55–57]; 2) some explored how in-
formation is exchanged among different environments [58,59]; 3) some
proposed approaches to extract information from complex BIM models
[60–62]; 4) some tried to evaluate the benefits [4,30,63] and identify the

Fig. 2. Geometric interpretation of BIM application framework.

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
4 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. (a) Percentage of BIM publications from the viewpoint of project management domain; (b) percentage of BIM publications from the viewpoint of project life cycle.
challenges [64] of BIM; and 5) some started to establish a BIM frame-
work for different purposes [97,40,65,66]. In terms of the BIM imple-
mentation studies, Fig. 3 depicts the percentages of BIM research
articles within the framework presented in the above sections. In
some research, other techniques such as Augmented Reality (AR)
[67–69], Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) [70,71], Laser Scanning
[72,73] and Geographic Information System (GIS) [74–76] are proposed
to be combined with BIM to assist in quality inspection, data acquisition
and other functions.
The percentages of different research articles from the viewpoint of
the project management domain and project life cycle are shown in
Fig. 3. Papers that focus on multiple domains for multiple phases are
counted under each relevant category. From the literature study, few
authors mentioned for whom their system/products were designed or
what stakeholders would benefit from the research [77,78,88]. As the
requirements for different stakeholders are not the same, it might be
easier to get the industry to implement the research products on real
construction sites if the authors addressed the benefits to specific users.
It is not surprising that design review has the highest percentage of
research articles published. The reason might be because design is the
longest-standing application of BIM and feedback of design-related
BIM activities is in relatively high frequency [79]. However, BIM re-
search articles for the construction phase are rapidly catching up to
the pace for the design phase. Also, schedule management articles are
tied for second place for specific domain articles. At least partially,
these results are because the benefits of BIM applications in the design
phase have captured so much attention from researchers and practi-
tioners in the built environment, that many of them have begun to ex-
tend the application area of BIM to the construction phase [77].
Table 2 lists all the references to papers that belong in this category.
Within the articles focused on the construction phase, safety manage-
ment, quality management and low carbon emission research are a
relatively low percentage in research literature.
Based on the review of the literature, BIM applications can be
classified into two categories which are listed in Table 3: 1) 3D based
applications and 2) 4D (3D models plus schedule) based applications.
Table 2
Papers on the BIM for schedule management during construction phase.
Classification criteria (from the viewpoint of BIM References
application framework)
Construction phase Schedule management Designer [80,81]
Supervisor [81–87]
Contractor [70,76,78,81–83,85–88]
Owner [70,81–88]
Operator
Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
Since performance and functionality of a facility can be analyzed
based on 3D models, 3D based applications can be applied in the design
phase and operations phase. For example, energy consumption, facility
performance and evacuation procedures can be simulated and evaluat-
ed before the facility is constructed. The results of these assessments can
help architects improve design proposals. In addition, after the facility
has been constructed, the information stored within 3D models can be
used for operations management, and maintenance plans can be auto-
matically generated from the previously entered “smart objects” in the
shop instructions for each component. From the previous research re-
view, it is known that 3D based applications such as design review are
the most common studies in this early stage of nD application research
[91]. Much research has been conducted into 3D applications, specifical-
ly in the design review, evacuation simulation, energy performance and
facility management domains.
However, 4D models are needed to depict, visualize and analyze the
constantly changing variables that occur as the construction phase pro-
ceeds. As 4D models provide virtual visualization of the construction
process, BIM applications for the construction management, specifically
the schedule, cost, quality, and safety control, should be based on 4D
models.
Time, cost and quality have been the basic criteria for project success
[92] while safety and environmental impact gained a lot of concerns in
recent years [93]. In some research, quality, safety and environmental
impact are proposed to be important aspects in construction manage-
ment as establishing a risk free work place and reducing environmental
pollution are vital for a successful project [94]. It can be seen from Fig. 3
that there is a BIM related research gap for the project domains of qual-
ity, safety and carbon emissions. In comparison to other domains, few
research studies have has been conducted so far in these domains. The
reason might be that these project domains are more complicated to
quantify than cost management and schedule control. For the schedul-
ing and cost management domains, it is easy to retrieve and compare
the actual data to the planned schedule and project budget, and man-
agers are constantly updated with this information. However, because
of continuously changing conditions, the standards or decision making
rules, for evaluating whether an individual component is considered
good quality or whether a construction site is safe, vary as the construc-
tion progresses. In addition, another reason might be that the main pur-
pose, for the stakeholders of a construction project, is to gain economic
profits. Speeding up the progress and saving costs are the most impor-
tant issues for them. Therefore, establishing the 4D/5D models to man-
age scheduling and costs was the first developmental priority. However,
with economic and cultural progress, “people-first value” is gaining
publicity. Gaining economic profits is no longer the only goal of project
management, as much public attention is being paid to the environment
and to safety/security.
 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 5

Table 3
Example categories of prior work on BIM applications.

Project domain Related literature Information integrated Required information

environment

Design review [87,89,90] 3D Geometric data, spatial features, component type, specifications
Evacuation simulation [9,53] 3D Geometric data, spatial features, component type, specifications, social psychological and social
organizational characteristics of the occupants
Energy performance [50,51] 3D Geometric data, spatial features, component type, material information, geographical coordinates
Facility management [52] 3D Geometric data, spatial features, component type, operation specifications
Schedule management [42–45] 4D Geometric data, spatial features, construction schedule plan
Cost management [46,47] 4D Geometric data, spatial features, component type specifications, construction schedule plan,
quantities of component, unit price information

BIM applications have just begun to quantify and objectively analyze
the quality and safety control project domains. A time-space collision
detection model was proposed to optimize a construction plan [95,
96]. The structural health of construction components was analyzed
by integrating a 3D BIM model with engineering simulation software
[49]. Previous research provided a qualitative method to combine a
BIM model with safety or quality information. Limited research has
been conducted to establish a computable safety/quality BIM model
from the perspective of using mathematics to work out the degree of
safety or quality status as is possible with cost management and sched-
uling. As the degree of safety or quality status varies with the construc-
tion moving forward, a computable BIM-based safety or quality control
model is difficult to establish.
It has been acknowledged that BIM was used for its 3D visual data at
first, and was then expanded to nD applications [97]. The key challenge
of this expansion is the method to establish the nD model and identify
the types of information that need to be integrated into the 3D model
to accomplish different purposes. The following sections discuss the
process of developing computable and 4D based BIM applications for
the quality, safety and carbon emission project management domains
as a start point.
4. BIM application examples
4.1. Quality management based on 4D
Quality management plays a crucial role in the construction indus-
try. Difficulties in quality management are primarily caused by the fol-
lowing: 1) Quality inspection items for individual components are
scattered in different national, industrial and urban code guidelines
[98]. Site workers are not usually well-educated people [99]. The neces-
sity of referring to a series of different code books leads to on-site
misunderstanding of quality control standards; 2) Ignorance of the im-
portance of tracking the behavior of on-site personnel making it is diffi-
cult to determine who is responsible for quality accidents; and 3) Most
of the existing methods of quality control focus on the completed com-
ponents, but quality failures occur due to the process of construction
[100].
The key process of building a 4D based quality management model is
to establish the POP (product–organization–process) model based on
BIM. This is totally different from the cost management model. For
cost management, once the unit price is linked with the corresponding
components and activities, the actual cost and planned cost can be easily

Fig. 4. A hierarchical structure of the product information in a bridge project.

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
6 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 5. Inspection items for “monolithic cast-in-place reinforced concrete beam”.

calculated. However, in quality management, such a calculated model
cannot be directly established. A POP model including the quality status
of individual components, the responsible organization, and the quality
inspection process should be built into a quality management model in
the construction industry.
The POP model is proposed to complement 3D product models with
process and organization models to support both design and construc-
tion [101]. This idea is suitable to solve the quality management
problem in the construction industry because it integrates the product
information, organization information and process information within
one model, specifically referring to a BIM model in this research.
Product information is defined in this research as a hierarchical struc-
ture of the products/elements for different kinds of construction projects.
For example, this hierarchical structure has been established for a bridge
project in this research. The monolithic cast-in-place reinforced concrete
beam can be subdivided into individual elements, see Fig. 4.
As discussed before, for each element, the inspection items are
scattered in different national, industrial and urban code guidelines.

Fig. 6. An example of the relationships between “product” and “organization”.

3D Module Activities Quality Checklist 4D-based Quality model

Guidelines

responsible person
concerned

Inspection results

Quality status

Fig. 7. 4D-based quality model of a construction project.

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 7

Table 5
Value of severity of consequences Cf.
Quality
Inspection Items Level Guess value Description

The first level 0.0–0.2 The risk severity is extremely small

The second level 0.2–0.4 The risk severity is little
The third level 0.4–0.6 The risk severity is medium
The fourth level 0.6–0.8 The risk severity is high
The fifth level 0.8–1.0 The risk severity is extremely high

BIM component
Fig. 8. An example of a BIM component and its related quality inspection items. (For inter-
pretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)
Therefore, the inspection items must be evaluated/confirmed by
measurement against all related codes/guidelines. An example is given
in Fig. 5.
For organization information, all stakeholders are responsible for the
quality of construction. For example, in Fig. 6, the responsibilities of
different participants with regard to the inspection items of a bridge
product are shown. In Fig. 6, if a block is shaded, it means that the
corresponding stakeholder has responsibilities for the relevant inspec-
tion item. Relationships between “product” and “organization” can be
established by collating the scattered codes/guidelines.
The process of 4D quality information modeling is shown in Fig. 7.
The 4D-based application is the information carrier for both schedule
and quality information. All national, industrial and urban code guide-
lines regarding one inspection item are integrated as text-based
through the BIM application. Then, real-time quality status information
can be continuously displayed within a 4D BIM application. A quality
checklist for each activity can be provided during the 4D simulation.
For each component, its related activities and quality checklist can be re-
trieved at just the right time during construction, see Fig. 8. Therefore,
the official construction codes/standards can be populated in a BIM for
reference data. Once the inspection data is retrieved, the status of each
component can be generated by comparing actual quality inspection
data with the standards. The color of a component reflects the status
of this quality inspection item: Unconstructed (gray), under construc-
tion (purple), constructed, but not yet inspected (green), inspection
failed (red), and inspection passed (blue). Because a POP model has
been established, not only the quality status of each element can be
continuously retrieved from the model, but also, the responsible stake-
holders can instantly know when quality standards are not met, and
therefore, they have the opportunity to take immediate corrective
action. The results of this corrective action can be traced through the
model as well.
4.2. Safety management based on 4D
The risk level on construction projects rises and falls continuously
during the whole construction process. For example, the safety risk dur-
ing excavation of the foundation pit is always high, but drops dramati-
cally after base plate construction is completed. In other words, the
risk and the affected area shift frequently as activities get executed.
Therefore, safety needs to be controlled from the perspective of both
time and space and, therefore, on the basis of a 4D management tool.
The principle of safety management based on a 4D BIM application is
illustrated below.
The construction sequence of foundation pit construction using the
open cut method includes: 1) Constructing the earth-retaining struc-
ture; 2) dewatering; 3) excavation of the 1st layer; 4) steel bracing of
the 1st layer; 5) excavation of the 2nd layer; 6) steel bracing of the
2nd layer; 7) excavation of the 3rd layer; 8) steel bracing of the 3rd
layer; 9) base plate dredging; 10) base plate setting; 11) steel bracing
stripping of the 3rd layer; 12) median plate; 13) stripping of the 2nd
layer; 14) loft plate setting; and 15) stripping of the 1st layer.
The main safety risks existing in this construction process can be
classified into the following types: 1) retaining pile collapse; 2) land-
slide hazard in excavation procedures; 3) bracing structure deformation
in excavation procedures; 4) water inrushing; 5) damage to adjacent
buildings; 6) seepage caused by fractured retaining piles; 7) bottom
heave caused by artesian water; and 8) crane operation failures.
Usually, different types of safety risks exist at the same time during
the construction process. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze how
different risks combine in foundation pit excavation procedures.
According to the Guideline of Risk Management for Construction of
Subway and Underground Works, published by Ministry of Construction
of the People's Republic of China, risk analysis should be evaluated for
two issues: the probability of occurrence and severity of consequences
[102]. Therefore, in this research, a method based on dependability is
used to evaluate different types of risks.
Risk degree r is defined to represent the risk level. Pf stands for
the probability of consequences and Cf stands for the severity of
consequences.
Therefore; r ¼ 1−ð1−P f Þð1−C f Þ ¼ P f þ C f −P f C f : ð1Þ
The value of Pf and Cf can be retrieved and calculated by the expert
investigation method. According to the rules established in Tables 4 to
6, an example of the risk level of each activity in foundation pit excava-
tion using the open cut method is detailed in Table 7. The initial data
was retrieved by expert investigation. Furthermore, the relationship
among an activity, its main risks, and the affected components/area
can be established, which is shown in Table 8. Therefore, the safety
risk evolvement pattern can be displayed based on a 4D model, see
Fig. 9. It can be used as a dashboard to assist site workers in deciding
which structural elements are unstable and what behaviors should be
Table 6
Value of risk level r.

Table 4 Level Estimated Color-coded Description

Value of risk probability Pf.
Level
The first level
The second level
The third level
The fourth level
The fifth level
value
The first level 0-0.2 The risk can be ignored
Guess value Description The second level 0.2-0.25 The risk level is low, but needs some attention
The risk level is acceptable, but needs to be
0.0–0.2 The risk possibility is extremely small The third level 0.25-0.3
monitored
0.2–0.4 The risk possibility is little
The risk level is not acceptable, and some action
0.4–0.6 The risk possibility is medium The fourth level 0.3-0.35
should be taken to prevent accidents
0.6–0.8 The risk possibility is high
The risk level is not acceptable, and construction
0.8–1.0 The risk possibility is extremely high The fifth level 0.35-1
work should be suspended

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
8 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Table 7
Risk level of each activity in foundation pit construction using open cut method.
Construction Risk Earth- Dewatering Excavation Steel Excavation Steel Excavation Steel Base plate Base Steel Median Stripping Loft Stripping
sequences level r retaining of the 1st bracing of the 2nd bracing of the 3rd bracing dredging plate bracing plate of the 2nd plate of the 1st
structure layer of the 1st layer of the 2nd layer of the 3rd stripping layer layer
layer layer layer of the 3rd
Main risks layer

Retaining pile
collapse 0.492 0.019 0.074 0.056 0.056 0.074 0.074 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.074 0.074 0.056 0.056 0.019

Landslide
hazard in
excavation 0.479 0.025 0.100 0.075 0.075 0.100 0.100 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025
procedures

Bracing
structure
deformation in
the excavation 0.472 0.020 0.039 0.039 0.078 0.078 0.078 0.098 0.078 0.098 0.098 0.078 0.078 0.059 0.059 0.020
procedures

Water
in rushing 0.531 0.026 0.051 0.077 0.077 0.103 0.103 0.128 0.128 0.128 0.051 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026

Damage to
adjacent 0.525 0.054 0.071 0.054 0.054 0.071 0.071 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.089 0.071 0.071 0.054 0.054 0.018
buildings

Seepage
caused by
fractured 0.571 0.263 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053
retaining piles

Bottom heave
caused by 0.637 0.026 0.053 0.079 0.079 0.105 0.105 0.132 0.132 0.132 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.026
artesian water

Crane
operation 0.439 0.094 0.038 0.057 0.075 0.057 0.075 0.057 0.075 0.057 0.075 0.075 0.057 0.075 0.057 0.075
failures

Risk level of each

activity 0.281 0.248 0.256 0.283 0.335 0.344 0.405 0.404 0.405 0.258 0.216 0.208 0.189 0.180 0.133

Corresponding color Yellow Blue Yellow Yellow Orange Orange Red Red Red Yellow Blue Blue Green Green Green

avoided in the current state. Site workers have previously had little in-
formation to improve their real-time, on-the-spot decision making,
but now, it is possible to have continuous, real-time visual warnings of
danger to consider.
4.3. 4D computational model for carbon emissions
In the global context of climate change, facility construction causes
a large amount of energy consumption [103]. Carbon emissions have
caused great concern. Dynamic calculation of carbon emissions dur-
ing the construction process can be realized based with a 4D BIM
application.
Carbon sources during the construction process can be classified into
three categories: 1) Caused by building materials and construction
waste, 2) directly caused by the fuel consumed by construction machin-
ery and equipment, such as diesel and gasoline; and 3) caused by elec-
tricity, referring to the power consumed by construction machinery and
equipment. Carbon emissions of various building materials contribute

Table 8
Main risks and affected components/areas with the construction sequences.

Activities Main risks Affected components/areas

Earth-retaining structure ⑥, ⑧ Retaining piles, areas around the hoisting equipment

Dewatering
Excavation of the 1st layer
Steel bracing of the 1st layer
Excavation of the 2nd layer
Steel bracing of the 2nd layer
Excavation of the 3rd layer
Steel bracing of the 3rd layer
Base plate dredging
Base plate
Steel bracing stripping of the
3rd layer
Median plate
Stripping of the 2nd layer
Loft plate
Stripping of the 1st layer
②, ⑤ Retaining piles, neighboring area and buildings
All risks at this stage Refer to the adjacent activities
are extremely low
⑧ Steel bracing structures, areas around the hoisting equipment
②, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑦ Retaining piles, longitudinal slope, steel bracing structures, bottom of the foundation, neighboring area and buildings
②, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑦, ⑧ Retaining piles, longitudinal slope, steel bracing structures, bottom of the foundation, neighboring area and buildings,
areas around the hoisting equipment
②, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑦ Retaining piles, longitudinal slope, steel bracing structures, bottom of the foundation, neighboring area and buildings
②, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑦, ⑧ Retaining piles, longitudinal slope, steel bracing structures, bottom of the foundation, neighboring area and buildings,
areas around the hoisting equipment
①, ②, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑦ Retaining piles, longitudinal slope, steel bracing structures, bottom of the foundation, neighboring area and buildings
①, ③, ⑤, ⑧ Retaining piles, steel bracing structures, neighboring area and buildings, areas around the hoisting equipment
①, ③, ⑤, ⑧ Retaining piles, steel bracing structures, neighboring area and buildings, areas around the hoisting equipment
①, ③, ⑤ Retaining piles, steel bracing structures, neighboring area and buildings
⑧ areas around the hoisting equipment
All risks at this stage Refer to the adjacent activities
are extremely low
⑧ areas around the hoisting equipment

① retaining pile collapse; ② landslide hazard in excavation procedures; ③ bracing structure deformation in the excavation procedures; ④ water inrushing; ⑤ damage to adjacent
buildings; ⑥ seepage caused by fractured retaining piles; ⑦ bottom heave caused by artesian water; ⑧ crane operation failures.

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 9

Fig. 9. Dashboard for safety control during foundation pit excavation processes.

the most to total carbon emissions in the construction stage [104]. and construction plan. Consumed material information can then be re-
Formula (2) provides an approach to calculate the total carbon emis- trieved from the construction site as used. Meanwhile, the data source
sions of building materials [105]. for carbon emissions per one unit of building material can be acquired
from International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) or local standards
E8¼ Ep þ Et þ Ec þ Eo þ Er such as Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability
X
> Ep ¼
> Q mi α i ; carbon emissions of the comsumed building materials (BEES) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology
>
>
>
> in the USA. Therefore, the carbon emission curve can be generated as
>
> X
at the raw material production stage
>
>
> Et ¼
> Q mi Lti ε i ; carbon emissions of the comsumed building
the construction process moves forward. In addition, this method can
>
>
>
> be used to evaluate and optimize different construction methods by
>
> materials at the material transportation stage
>
> X comparing the total carbon emissions of current and alternate methods.
>
> E ¼ Q η ;
>
> c mi i carbon emissions of the comsumed building materials
>
>
>
> at the construction stage of buildings
>
> X
>
> Eo ¼
>
> Q mi Y i μ i ; carbon emissions of the comsumed building 5. Conclusion and future work
>
>
>
> materials at the operation stage of buildings
>
> X
>
> This paper proposes a framework for BIM applications in the
>
> E r ¼ Q mi i i ; carbon emissions of the comsumed building
ω λ
>
>
>
> materials at the waste recycling stage construction industry. Using this framework, it is possible to classify
>
>
< existing research projects into to six categories based on the project
Q mi ¼ the consumption amount of material i ð2Þ
> management tasks that are aimed for, the project stakeholders that
>
> α ¼ the unit emission coefficient of material i
>
>
i are involved in and the different phases that BIM is used in. Such a
>
> Lti ¼ the transportation distance to the construction site of material i
>
> framework could possibly help in understanding the landscape of the
>
>
> εi ¼ the unit carbon emission coefficient of unit distance of the
> existing work and identifying gaps in the prior research. Classifying
>
>
>
>
>
> corresponding transportation means existing research studies using this framework, we have identified
>
>
> ηi ¼ the unit carbon emission coefficient of material i at the
> that relatively few research projects have been conducted for the
>
>
>
> project domains of quality, safety and carbon emissions. The paper has
>
> construction stage
>
> described approaches to quantify and analyze quality, safety, and
>
> Y ¼ the service life of material i
>
> i
>
> carbon emissions using BIM on real construction projects.
>
> μ i ¼ the annual unit coefficient of carbon emissions of material i
>
> In most past projects, funds were invested into the creation of 3D/4D
>
> ωi ¼ the recycling ratio of material i
>
> models for only one application in one domain or one phase. Further
>
>
>
> λ ¼ the unit carbon emission coefficient of different recycling research is needed to explore how the same or upgraded 3D/4D models
>
: i
methods: can be easily upgraded to manage multiple domains. Additionally, from
the literature review, some of the main challenges for implementing
This method of building a 4D computational model for carbon emis- BIM applications are generating the 3D models, retrieving the job site
sions is illustrated in Fig. 10. When using this method, the required 4D environmental information and updating actual data from the job site,
BIM application can be produced with the existing design drawings within the 3D models, as the construction process moves forward

Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009
10 L. Ding et al. / Automation in Construction xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
3D Module 1 Activities
Carbon emission - time curve during the construction process
roofworks
Major Structure
decorations
Ground Foundation
Fig. 10. Computational model for carbon emissions based on 4D.
[106]. Integration of BIM applications with other techniques is regarded
as an effective way to address some of these problems.
Laser scanning and image processing might be used to generate 3D
models [107–109] while augmented reality could be used to retrieve
actual environmental information from the job site [84,110-111]. As
for collecting job site data, one approach is to use RFID. The data ac-
quired by RFID could be quickly transferred into the 4D BIM application
which changes the display appearance of the corresponding module
[70]. Also, integration of RFID and BIM can be utilized for safety monitor-
ing during construction, which is another method of using a BIM
application for safety management.
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Please cite this article as: L. Ding, et al., Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of expanding from 3D to
computable nD, Automation in Construction (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2014.04.009