HOUG TO I f f LI N

~ HOUGHTON M IFFLIN BOSTON

Program Authors Content Consultants
William Badders Dr. Robert Arnold
Dire<tor of the Cleveland Mathematics Professor of Biology
arK! Science Proje<t Colgate Un~ity
Hamilton. New Yorlc
Clevek"irK! Munidpal $(0001 District
Clevek"irK!. Ohio Dr. CarlO. Barrenrin<!
A<<<><iate Prol...sor Humanit'"
Douglas Carnine, Ph.D. alld Biology
Professor of Edur;ation Un~ity of North Dakota

University of Oregon Grar.:f fQrI:~ North D3k0ta

E(lQene. Oregon Dr. Steven L Be<nasek
Df$lar1ment of Chtmistr'l
James Feliciani PrOncI!tOn UnivtfSity
Supervisor of lnstlUctional PrOncI!tOn. New Jtorsfy
Media arK! Technology
larK! O' Lakes. Florida Denni. W. Cheek
SIonior Managt'l'
Sde<Kt AppIkatiorts Internalionill
Bobby Je<lnpierre, Ph.D. Corporat"'"
Assistant Profeisor. Sden(e Edur;ation Exton, Penll$ytIoania
University of Central FJorida
Orlando. Florida Dr. Jung (hoi
Sd>oot of BOoIogy
Georgia Tilth
Carolyn Sumners, Ph.D. Atlanta. Georgia
Director of Astronomy and Phys ir;al Sciences
Houston Museum of Natural Science "'of. John Conway
Houston, Texas Df$lar1 ..... t of Ph)"i<>
Univerlity of California
0..... California
Catherine Valentino
Author·in ·Residence
Houghton Mifflin
Weit Kir.gston. Rhode IslarK!
C~t C 2001 bt' fIouojlton Mifflin C~. AI r91\'; r~.
NO poor1 of !tIi$ wort< ,.". be reprOOxed CO' nill'l\l'l'lillfd in any form CO' bt' ¥'f ~ eIe(~onir: CO' rned\arIiuII, includnr.l
phoI~ng CO' rt(CO'ding, CO' bt' ¥'f ir1formatior1 "CO'age CO' renieYal ')'Stem wiltlout prior writteo pormi'Wn of IIoughton
Mifflin Cornp;III)' """'" """ ''''f¥ng is . """"", pormillfd '" fflIt<aI '''II'friIlI't I.... _ ..., inqIlir... to S<hoot
~rroMiom, 222 8edeIey SI.. Bolton. MA 02 11 6

Pr;ued in !t>o USA.

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Content Consultants
0.. Robt<t D.1iley
DMwon 01 At*niI "'" VtI~
ScifncK
WKl Virginii Un""",!),
Ma<g;>nKlWn. WKt \Ii'gitlOa
11<. Thomas D.1viK
IOOP/USIO So:itnCt StMcn
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CoIege S\I1IOII. ~qs
0.. Ron OubtNil
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lInMniIy 0I1iftlis ~ CNu90
0Iug0. IIinois
1I<. 00mG . ~1
I'foInwr of BioIo9I'
u..-.rt; 01 M ~ . Deaborn
DNtbom. Mldoigln
0.. Mkhatl R. Geller
AIIocim Proft»or. ~t 01
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5oudo Btnd. IndiInI
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Chfmimy Dfp3rtmtm
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ProlKlOf Melis... A. HintS
~oIC"""'1ry
0.. JonatMn M. llnc:oln
"''''toni PfoooIt & Don 01
lIrI<t.rgradwte Education
Bioormburg Uniwn.ity
BIoormbur ... ~ myl';Mlii
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Do""ld Li'QWY
Wildlife (~ So<ie!y
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0.. MMt L IbnlfitIcI
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llibbo. _Ifney
11<. Scon N""mtf
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lJn~!)' ofldaho
Moscow, k!3ho
Dr. Suunnt O·Connell
~t 01 EMth "'"
Enwormonloll ScifncK
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MiddlelliM .. Cuoot<aan
Dr. ltnntth h .......
As.s.I!.tant 1'foIn~ oI 'ME
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ErttJry-RIddie ~ Uo'I-.iI)'
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Betty PrH<t
Errgor>Hf "'" Plrylicist
Indialantic. Florida
Dr. Chantal Rtid
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0.. ToddV. Roytf
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0.. Kalt SdIolbf,'9
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0.. Ron SIOnt<
PrnfM .... Emoritu<, I'byWc< "'"
Asl/Ol'lOl"f"lj' Department
Bow1ing Gr_ Stalt Un...... ity
lIow1ing Green. Ohio
Dr. Domini< valtfltino. Ph.D.
Prn~ o.p.ron.mol ~
IJnivmity 01 RIIod. !oland
lftJIton. RIIod. !oland
0.. Sidney""""t.
PIoIessor EMeriM of Gtcb1J
OhooSwe~
CobI'IbuI,. Ohio
0.. Scon W.. ,inIt
PrnfMIOt ~~t 0/ ~
IfIdj..,.. Un"""'!),
Blom"nqton. Indiana
Dr. D.vid W,ig~1
Ilep¥tmtnt of Cllemt>1ry
V.oderbih lInMniIy
NWMIt,TeMHSH
 Using Your Textbook
The Nature of Science
In this section in the front of your book, you
will be introduced to scientists and to ways
of investigating science.

Units
The major sections of
your book are uni ts.
Unit Tido: is whJl the
un it is about.

Chapters are pan

01 a unit.
Discover! Information in this
unit will help you answl'l' Ihis
Independent Reading interesting quenion.
are books you (an read
on your own.

Chapters
Chapter Title tells what
the chapter is about

Lesson Preview gives

infonnation about
each IesSO<1.
Every lesson in your book has two parts.
Lesson Part 1: Investigate Activity

Why it Matters tel ls

why the scierxe you will
learn in ea(h Ie<;son
is i
Materials lists what
you will need 10 CondLKt
you r investi(;ation.
Inquiry Skill tells about
tr.e main inquiry skill for
ttle Inve<;tigale iKlivity. Science And Math
Toolbox reil'fl'flces
add itiooal inlom-.ation
I
i you r i

Procedure lists tr.e steps

you wil l follow to conduct
yom Irwe<;tigalion.
the i

Conclusion guides you Investigate More!

in !hink ir>g about your lets you take your
inve<;tigalion. investigation furthl'f.
Lesson Part 2: Learn by Reading
Vocabulary I~b tIM! nONI Main Idea tells yoo Visuals help you to
science words that you will learn . what ~ imponant. understand the text.

.-==:::
-
-.---
.- •

I )'<Iu che<k
asyoo text.

Lesson Wrap·Up

Review lets yoo che<~

Visual Summary your understand ing after
shows yoo differe11t
ways to summarize
who'

links connects
science to math arod Test Prep helps
other subjects. .-
..<.- yoo mM standards.
.-. Standards are important
goals for )'<Iur learning

.
Focus On
Focus On lets you learn more about a key concept in a chapter,

FocuS On typeS
indOOe: BiograJlhy,
H~tory of Scieflce.
Technology, Primary
SOurce, Litefature.
and Readers' Theater.

Sharing Ideas
has)'()U d1l?(k your
understanding and
write and tal k
about what you
have learned.

Extreme Science and Careers

btreme Science
Compart"; and
contrasts intefest ing
science information.

Caref!rs t~ls)'()U about PE'OPle

that wOI1< with science.
Chapter and Unit Review and Test Prep
These reviews help you to know you are on track with learning
science and read ing standards.

-------
-- ._--_
-----..
-_.. ' -------
------- ------
-.--
-__..
._- -
_._-
-~--~---

'-
.-
:::- .-.-

Unit Wrap-Up References

learn more about the Discover! question The back of your book includes
that started the unit. Also find a link to a sections you will refer to again
simulation on the EduPlace web site. and again.

Scien<e and
Math TooJbox
-.--
-'-
-'-
-.-.-
-.-.-
-.-- -- - •
•

--.--
--- --
 N. tloNiI EdUClltion Scie nce Stllnd. tds

Scienc. Cont.n. sundan:fs

Gt-. S4.A. "lIums NECES5AJI'I' TO 00 SOENlIfIC INOUIR'I'
• ...... t,fy _I;on< ""', <MI be • ....-,0<1 IIv""'ll'lKient,l;' ~.tiom.
• DHlgn and ,ond"", f .o"";f,,, irwn.;g.,.liotI.
• u.. _cpr"" ,OO/>.nd te<hniqun 10 gal~> anatyz •• fnd ;n'tf~el d.",_
• o.v.tlop _,;pl ;on .. e < plan.t;on~ prO<llaions, _ MOd.I. wng ~e.

• Thln~ ,,;t;'ally ,nd logkally \0 ""'~I I"" ,"I.tlonlhll>l btl~n ,..,;dIOf>CI and
e<p l.n.llon •.
• ~Kognlllind .nlly'" allemat;"'.<pl.n"lon..nd prO<li<llom.
• Communl<otl Kilntili< pr",O<IUfti .nd e ' pl.""Ion ..
• 11M mat"" ..... I"" in all a<pKt' 01 Kilntili< inquiry.
GRADES S4.A. UNDEIISTAHOlNGS "IOUT SOl NTIf lC INQUIRY
• D,fll<"" ~""" of """,,,10m ~ eI,fI.. en, ~in<II 0 1 KIo<!tIf;' _;g.,.tion<.
SoIno i~'i901iono iI"oivo - ' ' ' 9 and _.iblng~.. ~ Of
ovontl;"""" i _ <OItening 1f>K................. "-'1l<1li<_"'_
invoIw '""inti """" InfOlmation; _ iIIYoM ditc<Wl<y of now objoctIand
~ and _ involve m",-"'!I models..
• C... ,onl OO:!en, ili< knowlO'dgo and undet\landing guIdo KIon1,Ii< irwnti9<rlions.
Dill.. onl oo:ienl,l;' domain< tmploy difl.'en' .... lhods. 'Ofl tI>oot .... and
I<.nd"d'IO ....."'. oo:ionlll;. k nowl~ and ~I_ing,
• M"""....lia II Impon.on, in.iI 'If>Kts O'KI.n\ 1I1o; inqUiry.
• rt<hnology u>ed 10 glIM' dlt. In"""'ft a.;,u,Ky and . llows oo:lonll'" 10
Inaly. . . nd quanlify ''''''~. 0 1 in • • I<lg.lion •.
• kienti'i< • ..pI.nOtion. em~," ".ide",",
h..... Iog;..11y ,<)fflillent
.'lIu.... nt .. _ "'" oo:"nlll;' pri""pIn, MOdels, _Ih ......... Thl oo:"nt,l;'
,om"",nity a.;,epn _ ....... """ . < ~nOtlons unll! d~O<I by bette,
Kiont,';. ........ When """ d~a.;.monl ""..... oo:lenel ....."'ft.
• klene......"'ft Ihrouyh legitimate "'opIkiIm. _Ing _lion< and
CIUftYIng _ oo:ionli<tr upllnationo .. P«1 of KiIn.,I", Inquiry. Sc.ienlist<
......." "",.~ P'opo>ed 1>1' ot~ Kilnl"" 1>1' I""';ning .. ideo", ••
,oml*lntI """"'". idonbfying l auity 'e.."..;ng. poim;ng out lIatlmonts
u..t 9Obt)cord lhe _ I , _ "'9gftung 1It..-",\i¥e e~ ' iono IOf tho
...... -..Ir_.
• klint ,';' Inv.<tigationllOfflllimn ,,,,,,It
In now kIIH and pI;orl(>r'"", fOI
",rely. 9'1 .... 011 now ... lIhods co p'orldurrH IOf an In...tigation. or-.op
_ 1t<1\ooIo9"'10 Nnp-O¥I 1M <oIi«Ilen 01 ""to. All 0 1,,,"," ,,,,,,It.
,an
load 10 now in ...I;gltloo<.

GILlOn W .E. " a IUTlES Of TECHNOLOGICAL OESIGN

• Idenl lfy Ippr~l",e probll .... lor , e<hnoiook.1 de.lgn.
• ~9" a ..,.MIen Of prod"",.
• Imple .... nl I propo>ed dn<gn.
• E•• luolllt<hnol"!li<ll drH.ig'" 0< prod"" ••
• Com""",;'ot. "'" pr"'ft. of lodmoiog;'11 dnl9n.
The Nature
of Science
You Can Do What Scientists 00 .... 52
You Can Think like a Scientist .. . . . 54
You Can Be an Inven tor . . .. . .. . . 5 10
You Can Make Decisions ........ 514
Science Safety ................. 516
 Meet Dr. Dale Brown Emeagwali.
She works as a teacher and researcher
at Morgan State University in
Baltimore, Maryland. Dr. Emeagwali is
a microbiologist, which is a biologist
who specializes in studying single-celled
organisms, or microorganisms. The
goal of her investigations is to gain a
better understanding of the processes
that take place inside cells. Depending
on the question she Is Investigating,
Dr. Emeagwali may observe these
living things in nature or conduct an
experiment in the laboratory.
 Scientists ask questions. Then they
answer the questions by investigating
and e~perimenting. Dr. Emeagwali
has asked many questions about how
microorganisms ca rry out their life
processes, as well as how they affect
human health.
In one investigation, she demonstrated
that a certain che mi cal exists in a
type of bacteria called Streptomyces
parvu/us. Such discoveries add to the
basic knowledge of microb iology. Or.
Emeagwali is pleased, though, when
her work has practical applications in
medicine. In another experiment, she
demonstrated that certain molecules
co uld be used to stop t he formati on of
tumors in people with cancer.
Or. Emeagwali understands that for
each investigation she carries out she
must repeat the procedure many times
and get the same results before she ca n
conclude that her results are true.
Science
investigations
involve
communicating
with other
scientists.
In addition to laboratory
research, Dr. Emeagwali spends
time writirl9 papers about her
work in order to communicate
with othef scientists. She wants
other scientists to be able to
repeat her investigations in
order to check that her results
are valid. Dr. Emeagwali also
spends time reading about
the work of other scientists
to keep infOflTled about the
progress others have made in
microbiOlogy.
"
Think Like a
Scientist
The ways scientists ask and answer questions
about the world around them is called scientific
inquiry. Scientific inquiry requires certain
attitudes, or approaches to thinking about a
problem. To think like a scientist you have to be:
• curiouS and ask a lot of questions.
• creative and think up new ways to
do things.
• able to keep an open mind. That means
you c.onsider the ideas of others.
• willing to use measu rement, estimation,
and other mathematics skills.
• open to changing what you think when
your investigation results surprise you.
• willing to question what other
people tell you.

What kind of rock is this?

How did this rock form?
Where did the different
materials that make up
the rock come from?
 Use Critical Thinking
When you think critically, you make decisions
about what others tell you or what you read. Is what
you heard on TV or read in a magazine a fact or an
opinion? A fact can be checked to make sure it is true.
An opinion is what someone thinks about the facts.
Did you ever hear a scientific claim that was hard to
believe? When you think, "What evidence is there to
support that claim?" you are thinking critically. You'll
also think critically when you evaluate investigation
results. Observations can be interpreted in many ways.
You'll judge whether a conclusion is supported by the
data collected.

It luuh lik t: frdy"":mb

The book states that a
of different kinds of roc k
sedimentary rod fo rms when
(ame together to make this
roc k frag men ts and other sedi men ts
roc k. This mus t be a type
are pressed and cemented
of sedimentary roc k.
. ......~""
toge ther=
Science Inquiry
Applying scientific inquiry helps you understand the world
around you. Suppose you have decided to investigate
which color is easiest to see clearly in the dimmest light.

Observe In the evening. as daylight fades, you observe the

different colored objects around you. As the light becomes
dimmer and dimmer, you notice which color remains clear
to your eyes.

Ask a Question When you think about what you saw.

heard, or read, you may have questions.

HypothHis Think about facts you already know. Do you

have an idea about the answer? Write it down. That is
your hypothesis.

Experiment Plan a test that will tell if the hypothesis is true

or not . list the materials you will need. Write the steps
you will follow. Make sure that you keep all conditions
the same except the one you are testing. That condition is
called the variable.

Conclusion Th ink about your results. What do they tell

you? Did your results support your hypothesis or show it
to be false ?

Describe your eJl:periment to others. Communicate your

results and conclusion.
My Color Experiment
Observe As the light dims, dark colors such as dark blue
seem to disappear from sight first.

Ask a question I wonder which color can be seen most

clearly in the dimmest light?

Hypothesis Yellow is the color that can be seen most

clearly in the dimmest light.

Experiment I'm going to observe selleral differently

colored objects as I dim the light. Then I'm going
to observe which color 1 can see most clearly in the
dimmest light.

Conclusion The results support my hypothesis.

Yellow is the color that can be seen most clearly
in the dimmest light.
Inquiry Process
The methods of science may vary from one area of
science to another. Here is a process that some scientists
fo llow t o answer questions and make new discoveries.

Make Observations

Ask a Question

Hypothesis

I
00 an Experiment

Draw Condusions

.l
Hypothesis is Hypoth esis is
Supported Not Sup ported

Science Inquiry Skills

You'll use many of these skills o f inquiry when
you investigate and experiment.
• Ask Questions • Hypothesize • Record Data
• Observe • Use Variables • Analyze Dat a
• Compare • Experiment • Infer
• Classify • Use Models • Collaborate
• Predict • Communicate • Research
• Measure • Use Numbers
 Try It Yourself!
Experiment With Energy Beads
When you hold Energy Beads in your fist for a while and then
go outdoors and open your hand, the beads change from off·white
to many different COIOfS.

o What questions do you have about the Energy Beads?

o How would you find out the answers?
€) How (ould you use Energy Beads to test a hypothesis?
o Write your plan for an experiment with one variable using
Energy Beads. Predict what will happen.
 Bean
Inventor
Cassandra wCassie~ Wagner became
an inventor when she was 11 years old.
At that time, she was in middle school.
During the summer, she wanted to make
a toy for her pet cat. Cats are attracted
to catnip, a plant with a strong odor.
Cassie considered including catnip as
part of her toy.
When Cassie researched about catnip
on the Internet, she discovered that
some people thought an oil in the
plant will repel insects. She could find
no proof of that hypothesis, and so she
decided to test it herself. In her fi rst
experiment, Cassie put a small amount
of the oil from catnip onto a cotton ball.
She then observed whether mosquitoes
were repelled by the ball. They were.
With the help of a University of
Florida professor, Cassie ran further
experiments in a laboratory. She proved
that the spray she made with the catnip "It was over the
oil repelled insects just as well as bug summer, and I didn't
sprays sold in stores.
have much going on.
Cassie called her bug repellent
Bugnip, and she planned to have it I was just fooling
produced and sold to consumers. In the around."
future, her efforts may lead to other
inventions and better ways of repelling
bothersome bugs.
What Is Technology?
The tools people make and use, the things they
build with tools, and the methods used to accomplish a
practical purpose are aU t hnolc,,\ilY. A toy train set is
an ex.C1mple of technology. So is a light rail system that
provides transportation in a major city.
Scientists use technology, too. For eltClmple, a
telescope makes it possible for scientists to see objects
far into space that cannot be seen with just the eyes.
Scientists also use measurement technology to make
their observations more exact.
Many technologies make the world a better place
to live. Sometimes, though, a technology that solves
one problem can cause other problems. For example,
burning coal in power plants provides power for
generators that produce electridty for homes, schools,
and industries. However, the burning of coal also
can cause acid rain, which can be very harmful t o
living things.
A Better Idea
~Iwish I had a better way to . How would
H

you fill in the blank? Everyone wishes he or she could

do a job more easily or have more fun . Inventors try t o
make those wishes come true. Inventing or improving an
invention requires time and patience.
A company in Canada had a better idea in 1895. It
invented the first power tool. Today. many other tools
are powered by electricity-including this cordless power
screwdriver. Today, inventors are still improving power tool
technology, including using lasers and microwaves to drill
into steel. stone, and glass. Maybe, someday, you will have
a better idea for a new power tool.

Coi dlIIl Sa .... ...r

A pc". soudil_ bnI IOC.' ....
INW. letllSC It NIl .. bil." ,.. CM
use It .., .....*-
 How to Be an Inventor

o Identify a problem. It may be a problem at school. at

ho me, o r in your community.

e List ways to solve the prol»em. Sometimes the

solution is a new t ool. Other times it may be a new
way of doing an old job or activity.

o Choose the best solution. Decide which idea you

predict will work best. Think about which one you
(an carry out.

o Make a sample. A sample, ca lled a prototype, is

th e first t ry. You r idea may need many materials o r
none at al l. Choose measuring t ools that w ill help
your design work better.

o Try out your InvenUon. Use your prototype, o r ask

some else t o try it. Keep a record of how it works
an d what problems yo u f ind . The more times you
try it, the more information you will have.

C) lmprove your invention. Use what you learn ed to

make your design work better. Draw or write about
the changes you made and why you made them.

e Share your in\'entioo. Show your invention to others.

Explain how it works. Tell how it makes an activity
easier o r more fun. If it did not work as well as yo u
wanted, t ell why.
 Make
Decisions
Trouble for Manatees
Manatees are large, slow-moiling marine mammals. An
average manatee is about 3 meters long and has a mass of
about 500 kilograms. Manatees are gentle plant eaters.
In summer, manatees can be seen along the ocean coasts
of Alabama. Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina. In winter,
they migrate to the warm waters of bays and rivers along
the Gulf Coast o f Florida. Living near the coast protects the
manatees from diseases they might (<lteh in (olde r waters.
However, there are dangers in living so close to land. The
great majority of manatee deat hs are caused by collisions
with boats. Almost all manatees have scars on their backs
from being hit by fast-moving boats.
Deciding What to Do
What can be done to protect manatees from harm?
Here's how to make you r decision about the
manatees. You can use the same steps to help solve
problems in yo ur home, in your school, and in your
community.
o LEARN Learn about the problem. Take the time
needed to get the facts. You could talk to an
expert, read a science book, or explore a website.

e actions ot her people could take.

LIST Make a list of actions you could take. Add

o DECIDE Think about

each action on your list.
Identify the risks ill1d
benefit s. Decide which
choice is t he best one
for you, your school or
your community.

o SHARE Communicate
your decision to
others.
 Science
Ii1J Know the safety rules of your school and classroom
and follow them.

Ii1J Read and follow the safety tips in each

Investigate activity.
!i1J When you plan your own investigations. w rite down how
to keep safe.
[i2r Know how to clean up and put away science materials.
Keep your work area clean, and tell your teacher about
spills right away.
[i2r Know how to safely plug in electrical devices.

Ii!! Wear safety goggles when you r teacher tells you.

[i2r Unless your teacher tells you to, never put any science
materials in or near your ears, eyes, or mouth.
[i2r Wear gloves when handling live animals.

[i2r Wash your hands when your investigation is done.

Caring for Living Things

[i2r learn how to care for the plants and animals in your
classroom so that they stay healthy and safe. learn how to
hold animals carefully.
 The life
Chapter 1
Cells ...................................................................A2
Chapter 2
Plant Systems ................................................... A46
Chapter 3
Traits of living Things ...................................... A80

Independent Reading

Barbara The Amazing Tlirough thl!

McClintock Amoeba Cell Wall
 Cells perform the
most basic functi ons of life.
Tiny bacteria and most protists li ve as
single cells. Yet large plants and ani mals
use trillions of cells to su rvive. Why aren't
any single·ce lled organisms as big as you?
l ea rning how cells function will help
you answer t his question.
LESSON

1
Cells are tiny fluid -filled
chambers with parts that
never stop moving. Why
are cells so important?
Read about them in Lesson 1.

LESSON
Some organisms exist

2 as single cells. How do

they survive?
Read about them in
lesson 2.

LESSON
All living organisms

3 can be grouped into

six kingdoms. What
are the kingdoms?
Read about them in
lesson 3.

LESSON
Blood, muscles, bones,
and nerves- are they
made of different types
of cells?
Read about it in lesson 4.
 What Are the
Parts of a Cell?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
All living things, from water Inquiry Skill
plarlts to hippos, are made of cells.
Communicate You can share
When you learn a bout the pa rts of
science results by making
celis and thei r functions, you can
sketches, charts, graphs. or
better understand how organisms like
models. and by speaking
this hippopotamus live and in teract
and writing.
with their environments.
Materials
• II lillQ:'<;Qpe
• prepared slides of various plant
and animal tissues

Science ilnd Math Toolbox

For step 2, J\"Vi(>W Using a
Microscope on page H2.
Get Closer!
Procedure
o Observe Work in a small group. Take turns
looking through a microscope at each
slide. Note the titles of the slides, which
tell the sources of the samples.
e Communicate Draw a picture of the ce lls in
each sample. Next to the picture write the
name of the sample, and w hether it comes
from a plant or an animal.
e Compare Compare drawings with the
other members of your group. Discuss how
all the plant cells are similar. Discuss how
all the anim al cells ore similar.
<) Use Models After you d iscuss the cells with
your group, draw a diagram of a typical
plant cell and a diagram of a typical
animal cell.

Conclusion
1. Communicate Discuss how your diagrams of
typical cells show the differences between
plant and animal cells.
2. Infer Compare the outer boundaries of
an animal cell and a plant cell. What
d ifferences between plants and animals do
the cell boundaries help explain?
3. Hypothesize 00 you think the cells of all I Use Models Cells vary a
I great deal in size. You r cells
plants and animals sh are the characteristics
you ident ified? How could you t est your are almost 100 times bigger
hypothesis? than a bacteria cell. Build or
draw a model to show the
difference in size between a
human and a bacteria cell.
v at1l by Reading
Cells
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Cells a re t he ba~it un it s of living thing s.
(ell .M Mit,os(oJ>es allow sde lli ists to le ... n about the p" rts and
nucleus ." funct ion s of celis.
orga nelle
." Building Blocks of life
READING SKill
The basic unit that makes up living things is
Compare an d Contrast
Use a Venn diagram to list the cell. All living things, from tiny bacteria to the
similarities and differences lnrgest whale, MC made of cells.
betwEen animal cells and When you look al mOSlliving things, you (annol
plant cells. see indivictunl cells. Thill is because most cells are
much too small to be seen with the unaided eye.
The invention of the microscope made it possible
for scientists to discover cells and the structures
'X) within them.
In 1665, English scientist Robert Hooke studied
a slice of cork under a microscope. He observed
that cork was divided into many tiny,
box-shaped sections. Hooke called these
se<:tions cells be<ause they reminded him
of the small rooms in which monks of
the time lived.
All of Hooke's observations abou t
cells involved the remains of dead cells.
Du tch microscope maker Anton van
Leeuwenhoe k became the first person
to observe li ving cells. He observed tiny
living things within a drop of water.

Year 1665 ~
Hooke used a microscope to
study thin slices of cork. He
observed thin, boxy sections
that he called cells .

• Lenon 1

The (ell Theory
By using new and improved
microscopes, scientists were able to
Ob<;f>TVe cPlls in mOTt> detail_ In IRIS,
Germlln scie ntist Matthias Schleiden
compared different plants (lnd plant
parts. He concluded that all plants
are made of cells. Another scien tist
drew the same conclusion about
animals. Twen ty years lale r, German
physician Rudolf Vircllow reasoned
that cells come only from other cells.
These conclusions were eventually
organized into a single theory known
as the celliheory. The theory states:
• AI! living things are made of one
or more cells.
• The cell is the smallest unit of it
living organism.
• Cells come from other cells.
Today, scientists continue to use
new equipment and techniques to
s tudy cells. The additional evidence
con tinues to support the cell theory.
.... Today
Scientists know that all living things are
made of cells. This image from an electron
microscope shows a nerve cell nucleus
magnified 3,980 times (3,980X).
Microscope Development
The earliest microscopes used a
single lens to collect and focus light.
In ti m p_ two Ipn<;f'~ ",prp comhin...-l
to fonn a compound ligh t microscope.
Its magnifying power is the power of
each lens multiplied together.
Modem light microscopes can
magnify obje<:ts up to 2,000 times, or
2,OOOX. That's powerful enough to sec
not just cells, bu t structures wi thin cells.
The electron microscope (EM) came
into use during the 1930s. EMs use
rapidly moving ehxtrons instead of
light to make images of objects. EMs
may magnify objects 4O,OOOX or mOTe.
Today, the scanning electron microscope
(SEM) has taken this technology still
further. SEMs allow scientists to study
the three- dimensional structure of the
surfaces of cells and other tiny things.
~ COMPARE AND CONTRAST How does
Hooke·s microscope compare to
microscopes today7
A7
Plant Cell
A large vacuole and
thick cell wall provide
shape and structure .
• ndopla,mic foticulum
The Parts of a Cen
Cells contain even smaller
structures called organelles. These
structures perform specific functions
in the cell.
Animal cells and plant cells
have many of the sa me orga nelles,
but some are qui te different. As
you read through this section, refer
to the organelle or cell part in the
illustrations.
Nudeui The nucl eus directs the
activities of the cell. 11 stores a
mole<:ule called DNA, which
de termines an organism's traits.
DNA stores genetic information,
which is passed from parents to
their offspring.
• Lesson 1
9019; appafatus
(ell Membrane The cell membrane is a
thin, flexible covering that surrounds
all types of cells. 11 allows food,
waler, and gases to enter the cell and
wastes to leave.
(ell Wall In plan t cells only, the
cell wall is a rigid outer layer that
surround s the cell membrane. The
cell wall prote<:ts the cell and helps
the plant stand upright. Pores in the
cell wall allow ma terials to pass in
and out.
(ytoplaim Between the nucleus and
the cell membrane is the cytoplasm.
All of the remain ing organelles are
located within the cytopl<lSm. They
are suspended there in a thic k fluid .

o A nucleus and
cylopl.sm
Ribosomes Tiny ribosomes arc
scattered throughout the cell. Unli ke
most other organelles, ribosomes
are not surrounded by membranes.
Ribosomes assemble compounds
called proteins. Proteins milke up the
structural components of celis, and
they allow the cell to perform nearly
all chemical reactions.
Lysosomes Lysosomes are small, ball-
shaped organelles that help the cell
break down nutrients and old cell
parts. Lysosomes are common in
animal cells, but rare in plants.
Vacuoles Vacuoles are membrane-
bound 5.1CS th(lt arc filled with fluid.
They store water, food, waste, and
o ther subs tan ces the cell processes.
Animal Cell
several organelles
are surrounded by
II cell membrane .
••
• ,..,,',....,,.,","1"",
_-=,:-\-_
•
"
Animill cells may have small
vacuoles. Plant cells, however, often
have onc large, central vacuole. When
the vacuole in a plant cell is full, the
cell is rigid. If the vacuoles in many
cells lose water, the plant will wilt.
Goigi apparatus The Golgi apparatus
receil'es proteins, then processes
them for "shipment" outside the
cell. This organelle is a system
of membranes. It modifies and
refines proteins, sometimes adding
compounds that will protect them
from being broken apa rt.
D COMPARE ANDCONTRlST Describe
diffe rences between plant ce ll s and
ani mal cells.
A9
Chloroplasts Found only in plants and
some protists, chloroplasts contain
pigments tha t absorb sunlight. They
use the energy to mnke food-.l
unique process nmong the organelles!
The pigment chlorophyll gives plnn ts
their gK"Cn color.
Mitochondria L..lrge, pennut-shnped
organelles, called mitochondria, are
known as the "power plnnts" of
the cell. Inside them, sugars break
apart as they react with oxygen.
The process releases carbon dioxide,
water, and a lot of energy
In both plant and animal cells, the
number of mitochondria depends on
the amount of energy the cell needs.
For example, a muscle cell requires a
great deal of energy, and so it has a
large number of mitochondria.
Endoplasmi( reti(ulum The
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
sys tem of membranes and tubes. The
membrant>s twist and turn through
the cell, creating passages through
which materials can pass.
A cell usu ally contains two kinds
of ER, called rough and smooth.
Rough ER is dotted with ribosomes.
This type of ER is common in cells
that secrete lots of proteins. Smooth
ER is not covered by ribosomcs. lis
activi ties include breaking down
toxic substanccs and cont rolling the
levels of certain chemicals.
~ (OMPARE AND (ONTRAST How is smooth
ER different from rough ER?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What are the three
main points of the cell theory?
Cells were first
discovered more than e VOCABULARY Wr ite a sentence
300 years ago. using the terms cell and nucleus.
Explain the role of the nucleus in
the cell.

e READING SKilL: Compare

Microscopes allow and Contrast How are the
sdentisu to look at and uses of a light micros<ope and
study cells. a scanning electrotl microscope
similar? How are they different?

o CRITICAL THINKING:
Evaluate How would you
Cells contain smaller determine whether a (ell (arne
structures called Irom an animal or a plant?
organelles. Each Discuss cell pans in your answer.
performs a sped fic
IUlKtion. o INQUIRY SKill: Communicate
Write a paragraph explaining
Unli ke animal cells.
how a cell membrane is similar to
plant cells are a cell wall? How is it different?
SUIlounded by cell
walls. They typically ..t TEST PREP
have a boxy shape. Which of these organelles is pan
of a plant cell but not an animal
cell?
A. mitochondria
B. cell membrane
C. chloroplast
MATH Make a Table A picture from a
D. nudeus
microscope has a width of 8 em. The power of
the microscope is l00X. What is the width of
the specimen that the pkture shom? ~ Technology
. . Visit www.eduplace.(omlscpltofilld
TECHNOLOGY Make a Diagram out more about tile parlS of a cell.
Research the history and design of the light
microscope, the electron microscope, and the
S(anning electron mkroscope. Choose one and
create a diagram to show how it works.
Al1
How Do S e
Organisms Live?
Why It Matters...
Single-celled organisms like this
dinoflagellate produce much of the
food and oxygen that sustain life on
Earth. Other single-celled organisms
are a major cause of disease.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
HypotheSize When ~ou
hypothesize, you suggest a
reason for what you have
observed and describe how you
will test your reasoning.

Materials
• llled)ur;ny wp
• warm water
• cup Of bowl
• teaspoon
• ~gar
• packet of yeast
• 2 SNlable plastic bags
• cafeteria tray
• paper tOW('ls
• lamp

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Making It Chart
to Organize Data on page H11 .
Watch Yeast Feast! Y~... t •
Water .. Vout+
Procedure Om. 5u ar Water

o Collaborate Work in a small group. In your

Science Notebook, make a chart like the
one shown.
e Experiment Pour 3/4 cup of warm water
(not hot) into <I cup or bowl. Stir in 3
teaspoons (tsp.) of sugar and 1 tsp. of yeast.
Pour the mixture into a sealable plastic bag.
Squeeze out as much air as you can. Seal
the bag completely. Rinse out the bowl.
e Experiment Repeat Step 2 using a second
bag. but this time do not include sugar.
o Experiment Place both sealed bags on a
tray lined with a paper towel. Set the tray
on a shelf or tabletop under <I lit IClmp.

o Record Data Check the bags at regular

intervals over the next day. Record what
you observe. Use either words or pictures
to describe what you see.

Conclusion
1. Compare Describe how the contents of
the two bags changed over time. Note
important differences in the bags that
you observed.
2. Hypothesize What do you think might
have caused the effects you observed? Design an Experiment Do
Propose a hypothesis. Describe how you yeast grow better in W<lrm ()(
could test this hypothesis. (old temperatures? Do they
need light to grow? Design
3. Compare Share your hypothesis with the an experiment to answer a
class. Compare it with those of other question about yeast growth.
students.
v afn by Reading
Single-Celled
VOCABULARY
(ilia p. <l.16
Organisms
diffusion p. A.11 MAIN IDEA In single-celled organisms. all life processes
flag<1lh,m p. <1.11 are carried out in just one cell.
osmosis p.A17

READING SKILL life as a Single Cell

Oraw Conclusions Use a All living things have the S<1lTIC basic needs.
(hart like the one shown to They need to take in food nnd get rid of wastes.
organize information about They need 10 digest nutrients so Ihcy ca n use
how single-<elled organisms and store energy. They also need to grow and
move. Then use the (harlto reproduce. Single-celled organisms carry out all of
draw (onclusions.
their li fe processes within onc cell.
Mos! single-cclled organisms can be seen only
with thc aid of a microscope. For this reason,
they are also known as microorganisms. Silcleria,
amoebas, and paramecia are examples.
The pho tograph below shows a diatom, which
also is made of one celL The cell is housed inside
a shell thai il ma kes. Dia toms are classified as
p rotists, a large and diverse group. Diatoms are an
important food source for fish, whales, and other
orgllnisms that live in w ilter.
When diatoms die, their shells do not brea k
d o wn. Instelld, they even tUll11y fo rm a soft, chal ky
.~~......",:m aterial. Deposits of th is material are found
~ all over the world. They arc used as
insulilting products, cleaning p roduc ts,
a nd e xplosives. Much of Earth's
petroleum Cllme from di iltoms .

... Diatoms
Diatoms live in fresh and salty
water. Their shells afe made 01
siliu, which is like glass. Some
diatoms may live togethef in a
group called a colony.
Interactions With Larger
Organisms
Single-celled organisms are all
around you! Someti mes their effects
are helpful. while at ot her times they
are harmful.
Bacteria, for exa m ple, do the
important job of brea king down the
remains of dead plants and animals.
They return materials from dead
organisms back to the environment,
... Beneficial
where new organisms can use them.
Bacteria also help produce and Bacteria
process some foods. Bacteria are used
Lactobacilli help
make yogurt
to produce yogurt, sour cream, and
and cheese.
buttermilk, as well as cottage cheese,
sauerkraut, and pickles. Did you
know tha t helpful bac teria live inside
you? In fact, your body needs cer tain Antibiotics are drugs that treat
bitl:tcri" to Jigest food p roperly ""0 b.>.:", .. i,ll infe.:liolls. They jnted",r",
to make vitamins. with the life processes of the bacteria
Bacteria can also be harm ful. Strep while not hanning hum an cells.
throat, Lyme disease, and tuberculosis Many algae are also single-celled
are just a few diseases that come from organisms. Like plants cells, algae can
different bacterial infections. Other make their own food using energy
bacteria cause disease by producing from the Sun. [n the process, they
poisons called toxins. give off oxygen. Much of the oxygen
in the air comes from algae in the
oceans. Algae are also a food source
for many ocean animals.
Yeasts are another type of single-
celled organism. Yeasts are used to
ma ke bread, vinegar, and ethanol.
an important gasoline additive. Of
the roughly 600 different types of
yeasts, a few cause diseases in plan ts,
animals, and humans.
~ DRAW CONCLUSIONS Why are bacteria
... Harmful Bacteria
These streptococ(i can cause illnesses important for all living t hings?
such as wep throa t.
 A p.'1ramecium gets food \'ery
differently. Its body has a fu nnel
called an oral groove. Small hairs
called cilia surround the openi ng to
the groove. The cilia move bac k and
forth , sweeping food parti cles inside.
At the bottom of the oral groove, a
membrane expands to form a vacuo le
around the food. When the vacuole
breaks off, food is carried throughout
... An amoeba takes in food by
the cell.
SUHounding it with a membrane ~c.. After it deli\'ers food, the vacuole
collects waste products. It then
Getting Food returns to the cell membrane and
releases Ihe wasles outside the cell.
All organisms need energy. Some,
like plants, make their ow n food.
Others take in or eal food from Ihe The cilia of a paramecium sweep food
oulside. par1icles toward the oral groove on
Single-cclled organisms get food tilt outer surf",e of tilt cell. •
in different ways. For exam ple, an
/lmocb /l ~tretche5 il~ mcmbrnne into
arms that surround a food particle.
As il closes in, the membrane forms
a sac, or vacuole, around the food.
Food is digested in the vacuole,
then absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Und igested food particles are
mo\'ed to the cell membraroc.
These wastes are washed orat
awa y as the amoeba
moves through
the water.

1 • lessoo 2
Diffusion
Some materials move directly
through the organism's cell
membrane. One way this occurs
is by diffusion. Diffusion is the
movement of particles from an area
of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration. This means that
particles travel from areas where they
are crowded to areas where they are
less crowded. .. Most euglena are green, single-
One of the most important celled organisms that live in ponds.
substances that passes through the They swim by spinnin\l their lon\l
cell membrane is water. Diffusion in whip·like structures, called fla\lella.
which water passes through the cell
membrane is called osmosis.
Sometimes, osmosis alone is not Movement
enough to control the flow of water Some single-<:elled organisms are
into or out of a ceiL If too much water able to move from place to place,
flows into II cell, the cell wil] swell much like anim .. ls do. Movement
This can damage or kill the cell. enables an organism to find food
As a result, some single-<:elled and shelter, or to escape preda tors.
organisms also use vacuoles to The amoeba moves by pushing its
remove excess water. In an amoeba, membrane forward. This creates a
large vacuoles release water through pseudopod, or "false foot."
the cell membrane. The paramecium moves by using
In a paramecium, small channels cilia. The cilia beat back and forth like
direct excess water into a contractile oars on a boat.
vacuole. When the vacuole is full, it Another single-<:elled organism,
pumps water out the cell membrane. the euglena, has a long structure
Diffusion and osmosis help that acts like a whip. The structure
explain why cells have such small is c.. l1ed a flagell um. It spins like the
sizes. To stay alive, cells need food, propeller of a boat.
gases, and other materials that diffuse
through the cell membrane. Yet ~ DRAW (ONClUSIONS Why do am oe b~ ~
beyond a certain cell size, diffusion ~nd p~r~meciil need moving part~?
could not take place fast enough. The
area of the cell membrane would be
too small to supply the cell's larger
volume.
Binary Fission
Bacteria reproduce through fission .

• --
P;uent Ct ll Gene tic Information Cell Oivides
Copied Two Identical Ct lls

Reproduction Budding is another form of

Organisms must produce more of
thei r kind if the sp«ies is to survive.
The process is called reproduction.
Single-celled organisms reproduCt' in
di fferent ways.
One very simple type of
reproduction is called binary fission.
A bacterial cell reprod uces in this
way. Recall tha t a cell contains genetic
information tha t is transferred from
one generation to the nex t. Before it
divides, the parent cell makes a copy
of its genetic information.
Once the cell grows longer and
its genetic information is copied, the
Ct'll pinches in the middle. The two
sections break apart to form two new
cells. The genetic information in each
cell is the s,lme so both cells will ha\'e
the same exact traits.
reproduction, In budding, a small
knob, or bud, fonns on the parent
cell. The bud contains the same
genetic informa tion as the parent Ct'11.
When the bud grows to the size of the
parent cell, it breaks off. The new cell
is iden tical to the parent. Many yeast
cells reproduce through budding.
Binary fission and budding are
forms of asexual reproduction. Only
one parent is involved in this type
of reprod uction. The offspring of
asexua l reprod uction are iden tical to
the parent.
Some single-celled organisms
can also reprod uce through sexual
reprod uction, Two parent cells are
involved in this type of reproduction.
The offspring have a combination of
traits from both pa rents. Dependi ng
on thei r environmen t, yeas t and
algae switch between these types of
reproduction.
~ DRAW CONClUSIDNS How do yeast and
baderia reproduce 7

<III Budding
Yeast is just one of the single·celled
organisms that reproduce by fOl ming
buds and blanches .
• Lenon 2

Bao:;te';a a,~ s;ngl ~·
celled O'9"nisms. Thev
can be ha' mful 0'
benefidal.
To stay alive. single·
celled or9"nisms tak e
in food and other
materials. Many move
from plao:;e 10 plao:;e,
Some single·celled
organisms reproduce
th,ough binary fission.
and others reproduce
th,ough budding.
MATH Make a Graph Suppose you have . t TEST PREP
one amoeba tha t reproduces every hour. as
do all its offspring. Draw a graph to show the
population growth over five hours. Assume that
no amoebas die. Do you think such growth
could continue withou t end?
WRITING Expository Research a harmful
or beneficial bacteria species. such as one
described in th is lesson. Write a repan about
the effects of the species on people's lives. Do
the bacteria affect your life111 so. how1 /-t
'iii.
Review
o MAIN IDEA Which neWs do
single·celled organisms have in
common with on:;anisms that
have more than ooe cell?
o VOCABULARY Write a senle!lce
or shon paragraph using the
terms diffusion and osmosis.
f) READING SKILL.: Draw
Conclusions Suppose you
discover a microbe that has bom
cil ia and a flagellum. What mighl
you conclude about the purpose
of the cilia?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
What might happen if you take a
medicine that is strong enough to
kill almost all of me bacteria in
your body?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Hypothesize
Do yeast need air to grow?
Propose a hypothesis to answer
this question. Describe an
experiment to test it.
Single·celled organisms use
flage lla, cilia, or pseudopods to
A. move from place to place.
B. break down food.
C. reproduce.
D. pump out water.
Technology
Visit www.eduplacuomlscpl
to find out mor~ about !oiogl... {~ l ed
a<gMl;';ms.
 History of Science

Louis Pasteur
What causes food to spoil? Two hundred
years ago, people believed that tiny living
arose from the food. This id(,11 was called
spontanoous gener,ltion. [\ meant that life
could assemble itself from nonliving paris.
French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1899)
argued thill microorganisms came only from
their own kind, just as larger organisms do. He
proved the case against spontaneous generation
with the experiment shown to the right.
How Gin spoilage be stopped? Pasteur found that
heating beverages kills or slows the tiny creatures inside them,
II process now called pasteurization in his honor. Pasteur also
identified b.1cteria and viruses that (;'lIS(' human diseases, and
suggested ways to prev('nt infections. In Pas teu r 's time, the
typict11 surgeon might not even wash his hands!

W-~
 SOCIAL STUDIES

... Pasteur's experiment shows that the

bacteria that tlouded the broth must have
(orne from the air, not the broth iuelf.

o h~t eu. p.epa.~ two sealed flfils,

eacll holding dear broth. He boiled the
broth to kill bacteria In diem.

• At a pasteurization plant,
milk Is heated in large vats.
The temperature is high
enough to kill bacteria, but not
too high to damage the milk.

o Afte. a lew day5. die brotll remains

de¥ in both fla~ks. Pasteur bruks the seal Pasteurization
01 one fla~k. helps prated milk
from bacteria. •

Sharing Ideas
t READING <HEex Ac<ording to the idea of
spontaneotJS generation, wily does food
spoil11s this explanation (Qrrect1

2. WRITE ... BOUTIT Describe pasteurization.

o Days later. tile broth in the ~ealed
flaskremain~ clear. The broth In the
1 TAlX ABOUT IT Compare physicians"
approathes to cleanliness in Pasteur's
unseal~ flasJc be<omes brown and cloudy.
time and today.
 How Do the Cells of
Organisms Compare?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
By comparing organisms, Inquiry Skill
scientists learn more about th em.
Classify Whe n you classify,
Comparing and classifying organisms
you group object s by their
also helps scientists understand and
cha racteristics.
make accurate predictions about
newly·discovered life forms. Materials
• index cards
• colored pencils or markers

Stience and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Making a Chart
to Organize Data on page H1t.

~
•
, -
Sort What You See
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. In your
Science Notebook, list 15 different living
organisms.
e Use Models Write the name of each
organism on a separate index card. Include
a drawing o r photo of the o rgan ism on
the card.
e Classify Group the index cards according to common characteristics
of the organisms. Name and describe each group.

Flowa'

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data With your group, create a
chart or diagram that shows your
classification scheme.
2. Compare Share your classifications with
another group. How is their classification
scheme different from yours?
3. Classify Work with your group and reclassify
the living organisms. Chose a different
characteristic to classify them by.
Inve'Stigate More!
Research Use the Internet
or books at the library to
research other organisms.
perhaps some you have
never seen before. How do
these organisms fit into your
classification s<heme?
v at1l by Reading
Classifying Living
VOCABULARY
fungi p. "'26
kingdom p.1I.24 MAIN IDEA Scientists class ify living things by comparing
protist p.1I25 and con lfasting ttleir physical characteriSlics.

READING SKill
Classify Use a (hart to
organize am:! classify
information about organism~
Six Kingdoms
YOll probably sort your clothes into separate
groups. Perhaps you put socks in one drawer
and shirts in another. You might also sort books,
magaZines, or COS. The process of sorting things
by how Ihey are alike and how they arc different is
known as classifica tion.
Scientists usc a system of classification to sort
living things. Originally, people sorted li ving
things into two groups-plants and animals. The
diffe rences between the two groups seemed dear.
Animals could move around. whereas plants could
not. The two grou ps reproduced in different ways
and usually looked quite different from each other.
Once the microscope was invented, however,
classification became more complicated. As
scien tists quickly discovered, many tiny org.:misms
had some traits of plants and some traits of
animals. Their cells did not eX.:lctly match either of
the cells you explored in Lesson 1.
Today, most scientists recognize six ki ngdoms
of living things. A kingdom is a large group into
which organisms are organized according to their
trai ts. Th ree of the six kingd oms are made up
mostly of organisms that are microscopic!

... tn th is picture, you can see organisms

from the animal (squiHet), plant (moss), and
fungi (mushlOom) kingdoms. You can' t see the
protiUs or the bacteria, but they're there!
 Od, ... dwI,Khristics
Bacteria sing1e..:elled • live alooe or in coiooies
(two kingdo<l>o) • cannot move independently
• lack 11 nucleus

mostly Ilngle..:elled • live ~Iooe or in coiooies

Prot ists • some ca n move independently.
-~,
• some rIlOSt find lood. some lni'lke food

mostly multi..:elled • live alooe or in coiooies

Fungi • do not move nJependently
• decaying Ini'Itter or living

multi-celled • speci~li;red cell!;

Pla nt • do not move from plao;e to plao;e
• produce lood using sunlight

multi-celled • specialired cell!; organired into

complex systems
Animal. • can ,no ... independently
• feed on all other kingdoms

Bacteria
Earth is home 10 a huge number
of bacteria. The cells of b.lc teria
are described as pro karyotic. This
means that they do not con tain a
nucleus or organelles surrounded by
membranes.
There are two bacteria kingdoms:
eubacteria and archaebacteria. Most
of the bacteria Ihat affect you are
eubac teria. Archaebacteria are usually
found in harsh environmen ts, such as
hot ven ts along the ocean floor. Sollty
lakes, and hot springs.
Protists
Most pro ti sts are microscopic,
singl~llcd organisms. Unlike
bacteria, however, protist cells are
eu karyotic. This means they have
a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles. The cells of a fell' prolists
have a cell wal L Some protis ts can
make their own food.
The protis t kingdom includes
protozoa (such as amoebas and
paramecia), most types of algae
(induding diatoms and seaweed),
and slime molds. Prolists may be the
most diverse kingdom.
D UASSIFY How are bacteria a nd
prot ists alike? How are they d ille rent?
 Some fungi are harmful. They
ca use disease and spoil food. Other
fungi are used as foods or to make
foods and medicines. Fungi do an
important job in nature by breaking
down once-li\'ing matter. In this way,
Spores are pro tu ted by
thf (ap until they drop fungi recycle ma terials and enrich
Or Ire bloW!! away. the soil.
Gillt _ ---.J Mushrooms develop from tiny
The gills produce spores that aT(' small enough to be
The mushroom sl;tlk spread by the wind. The spores
'''''~ holds the ~p up so become buried under leavcs or soil.
the, wind ~n (atch There they grow into long, brnnching
ani! carry thf spores.
, structures called fil aments.
As the filamenls gnlher nutrients
from the soil, a button appcMs above
the ground. This bu tton grows into a
full mushroom with a stalk (lnd 11 ca p
at the top. The smooth top of the ca p
protects the gills underneath.
The gills release spores when
the mushroom is full grown. The
wind blows the spores ilwny and the
process begins all over again.
Fungi
Most organisms in the fungi
kingdom are multicellular, which
means they consist of more than one T Some musllrooms..lih this Illorel, afe
cell. Fungi absorb food , and they help edible. Others (onlain deadly toxins. Only
break down dead plnnt nnd animal an upert should pi(k wild mushroollls!
mntler, Their cells hnl'e orgnneJ1es
(lnd a nucleus, which mnkes them
eukaryotic cells. Like pl(lnt cells, they
also h(l\'e cell walls, but they do not
ha\'e chloroplasts.
Fungi range in size from
microscopic yeast to I(lrger
varie ties. You might see shelf fungi
on tT('e branches. Fungi indude
yellsts, molds, mildews, rusts, and
mushrooms.
1 • lesson 3
 In addition to containing
chloroplasts, plant cells hal'e other
characteristics that make them
different from organisms in other
kingdoms. Recall that plant cells
have a cell wall and a large, central
'" Mosses are among the simples t and vacuole. These structures provide
smallest plants. They live in moist places,. strength and support, and they allow
usually down along the ground. plants to grow much taller than
protists or fungi.
Plants
What are three UnKlures
Plants are complex, multicellular
",, ~" be fotlnd in plant cells?
organisms. They vary in size from the
tiniest mosses to the tallest trees. As
you learned earlier, plant cells contain
a nucleus and organelles. This makes
plant cells eukaryotic cells.
The charilCteristic that almost all
plants hal'e in common is the abilit)'
to use sunligh t to make food. This
process ts called phOiosynthests.
In th is process, organelles called
chloroplasts absorb energy from
su nlight. Plants use that energy
to convert carbon dioxide and
wa\(>r into sugar and oxygen.
Plants, and the animals that eat
them, use the energy stored in the
sugar to carry out their life
processes. So, when you eat plants, '" Baobab
you are gaining energy that was trees can live
stored during photosynthesis. for several
In addition, all animals depend thousand years.
on the oxygen that plants produce These 1iY1! on
the island of
in order to survive. When you
Madagascar.
breathe, you take in oxygen and
release clITbon d ioxide. Plants take in
the carbon dioxide you release and
produce more oxygen that you
need. Plants aTe an essential part
of this cycle.
Animals
Look in the mi rror and you will
see an organism from the animal
kingdom. It's you! Animals range in
size from almost microscopic insects
to gig~n ti c whales.
Ani mals are complex, multicellular
organisms. Most animals can move
independently, at least at some point
in their lives. All respond to stimuli,
such as touch or the smell of food.
Unlike plan ts, animals cannot make
their own food, because their cells
lack chloroplasts. Animals get food
by eating other organisms.
Scientists divide the animal
kingdom into smaller groups in
many different ways. One way is by
separating anim;lls that have in ternal
skeletons from animals that do not.
Animals Ihal do nOI have Internal
skeletons or a backbone are called
inverteb rates. They include insects,
clams, worms, snails, and crabs. To
support their bodies, invertebrates
have strong muscles or thick outer
coverings.
• Internal skeletons allow
vertebrates to support targer, more
(omple~ internal organs.
Animals that have internal
skeletons and backbones are called
vcrtebra h.'s. They Include fish, frogs,
snakes, birds, and horses. Humans
arc vertebr~tes as well. An internal
skeleton gives support to an animal
and protects its inlemal organs.
Vertebrates are the largest
animals. They are not, however,
the most numerous. Most animals
are invertebrates. In fact, abou t 99
oul of every 100 ani mals are
invertebrates. Why do you
think Ihis is so?
~m«i!ii In whllt ways are
invertebralM and ~Iebrllies
lIlih lind differlMt?
<01 Invertebrates. such as this sea
slug. do not have ~ backbone or
an intemal skeleton.
 Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA Wha t are the six
kingdoms into which living things
ale classified?
Kingdoms of life
o VOCABULARY Define the tellll
kingdom. Describe how scientists
\ use kingdoms to classify living
p'obryoles things.
~ryot es
(bacteria)

/ "- €) READING SKILL: Classify

How do fungi cells differ from
ba<leria ) ... ba,t.,ia plant cells? How are they alike?

/' o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply

List two ways in which animals
.1 .1 I and plants differ from one
"tim
BB .r.irn.als another. Re late these differences
to the cells of plants and animals.

/ o INQUIRY SKILL: Classify

Explain why scientists use celi
in..,l1ebfates ( _ttbr.te, ) stlL'cture to classify living things.

.,e TEST PREP

Which kingdom is made mostly
of single·celled eukaryote'!?
A. eubacteria
ART (reate a Poster Research one B. archaebacteria
venebrate group such as amphibians, fish, C. protists
reptiles, birds, or mammals. Make a poster that
D. fungi
shows the unique characteristics 01 the group,

WRITING Poetry Wlite a poem about

~ Technology
one of the kingdoms of living things. Include , . VISit www.eduplace.comlS( pi
facts about the kingdom in the poem. to fifld 001 more about clas,,;!yiflg
or~nis~,
 How Are
Cells Organized?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
How are you able to digest food, Inquiry Skill
or move from place to place? How
Ask Questions Scientists ask
are you able to catch a baseball,
questions about organisms,
or dance in t ime to music, or solve
objects, and events. Science
a math problem? In humans and
inquiry helps test t he answe rs.
other mult icellular organisms. cell
organization makes all the processes Materials
of life happen.
• mlCros<ope
• prepared slides of various an imlll
tissues

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 2, J!!'Vi!!W Using a
Microscope on page H2.
Exploring Tissues
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. In your
Science Notebook, draw a chart !ike the
one shown. Use the chart to record your
observations of different types of tissues.
e Observe Take turns looking through the
microscope at each type of tissue.

e Record Data Record your observations

by drawing one ce ll in the tissue. Then
draw several celis, showing how they are
arranged.
(» Communicate With the group, discuss
the function of each type of tissue you
studied. What part of the body did the
tissue come from? What was the shope of
the cells in the tissue?

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data How do all the cells in a single
kind of tissue compare?
2. Infer What can you infer about the
functions of all the cells in one kind of
tissue? How would you define tissue?
3. Draw Conclusions Humans and other
animals have a wide variety of tissues in
their bodies. What advantage does this
variety provide?
Ask Questions You have
seen sev"e!"al e~amp l es of
animal tissues. Make a list
01 questions yoo ha'/l! about
what you saw. Share your list
with your class. Choose one
question to find the answe!"
to in this book, the lillfary, or
on the Int!!fne!.
v af1l by Reading
Cell Organization
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Cells join together to perform bask life
organ p.AH functions in mullk ellul,,, org,misms.
organ system p. Al3
tissue p. Al3
Multicellular Organisms
READING SKill Unlike a single-celled organism, a multicellular
Main Idea and Details organism is made up of more than one celL In
Use a graphic organizer like these organi sms the cells work together 10 perform
the one shown to organize life processes. The cells are spe<:ializcd, which
the ma in idea and details. means thaI they perform only certain functions. By
working logelher, these cells meet the needs of Ihc
organism as a whole.
Cells come in many shapes and sizes. The shape
of a cell often relates to its function. Nerve cells, for
example, are long and have many branches.
This shape allows them to deliver ele<:lricaJ
impulses over long dis tances. Skin cells arc
generally f1al and arranged close together, In this
way, they form a protective layer around the body.
Muscle cells are larger than other cells. Their many
fi bers can contract and relax to cause movement.
Cells in multicellular organisms are organized
In most multicellular at different levels. First, they are organized into
orga nisms, cells are
orga ni zed as the chart
shows. l'

~
Relaxed

( Tissues )
0;> Contracted
( O''Jans )
(
• )
...
Organ Systems

... Cell ... Tissue

( Organism ) co"~,. ,<hi. filaments allow muscle Muscle celis are bundled to crea te
to contract and relax. a strong. contracting tissue .
• Lesson 4
tissues. A tissue is a large group
of similar specialized cells. Muscle
tissue, for example, consists of long
bundles of muscle cells. E.lch bundle
of muscle tissue is held together
by its own covering. Like their
component cells, muscle tissues
contract and relax.
Similarly, nerve cells form nerve
tissue, bone cells form bone tissue,
and skin cells form tnc tissues of the
skin. A tissue gets its characteristics
from the particular type of
specialized cell that forms it.
Together, tissues of different types
make up organs. An orga n is a group
of related tissues that perform a
specific function. The heart, brain,
stomach, and li\'er are examples of
organs.
EV Cll if two OTg;IllS aT\: nmdc frum
the same kind of tissue, they can be
\'ery different in appearance and
function. For example, bones in the
middle car look and function much
diffl'n>ntly from the bones in
and legs.
Organs arc organized into organ
systems. An orga n system is II group
of related organs that work together
to perform a specific function. Most
mult icellular organisms have sever.ll
orgnn systems.
Organ systems combine to form
the entire organism. On the next
pages, you will read about different
organ systems in humans. They
work together to keep you alive and
healthy.
Plants have organs and organ
sys tems, too. Roots, stems, leaves,
and frui ts are organs of a plnn t.
Specialized tu bes that run through a
plant form an organ system called the
vascular sys tem.
What is a n o.gan syste m7
Organism
The muscular system _ . ks
with other systems to help
the girt lift and grow.

Organ System
All of tM sblet~1 mU'SCles
mab up ~ (omplu $ystem
that mo¥f1S tM body.

Organs
Mu~ (l etissues
make up organs
ulled muscles. which
pull bones and olfle.
parts of the body.
----=
Circulatory System
The circulatory system is
rt'Sponsible for bringing oxygen and
nutrien ts to all the cells of an animal's
body. It also takes carbon dioxide and
wastes away from the cells.
The heart is the ccnlral organ of
the circulatory system. The heart is
made of muscle tissue that pumps
blood. The blood tr.wels to the rest
of the body through a network of
arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries carry blood away from
the heart, while veins carry blood
back 10 Ihe heart. Capillaries are tiny
tubes that connect arteries to \'eins.
The capillaries are thin enough to
let gases, nu trients, and wastes pass
between the blood and body cells.
In humans, the heart is divided
In to four sections, or chambers.
Veins from the body drllin into the
righ t at rium. The blood passes to the
righ t ventricle, wh ich pumps it to
the lungs. There, the blood takes in
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
The blood returns to the heart
through the left atrium, then passes
to the left \'entricle. The left ven tricle
is the la rgest and thic kest chamber.
II pumps blood into the arteries that
travel to all parts of the body.
Most animals have some type of
heart and circulatory system, but the
structure can vary. A frog's heart, for
example, has three chambers instead
of four. Fish hearts have only two
chllmbcrs. An earthworm has five
hearts, ellch with only one chllmber.
Fish Human
two ,imple
dlamben
''''''
two atr ia iIIId
one vent, ide
two atria and
two ventr icles
1 • l esson 4
 The opposite process occurs when
Respiratory System you exhale. When the chest muscles
The respiratory system brings and diaphrilgm relax, the spo1Ce in the
oxygen to the blood, and removes chest decreases. This forces ai r out of
carbon dioxide from it. In humans yo ur body.
and other land animals, the central All ani mals need oxygen, so all
organs are the lungs. animil ls have some sort of respiratory
When you inhale, air is brough t system. Insects take in air through
into the lungs through two tubes tiny holes in the exoskeleton called
called bronchi (singular: bronchus). spiracles. Fish take in oxygen through
Each bronchus branches into smaller organs called gills.
and smaller tubes. The smallest tubes
l('ad to grapclike sacs called alvroli
(si ngular: alveolus).
The al\'ooli a~ surrounded by
capillaries. Oxygen passes from the
alvroli into the blood, wh ile carbon
dioxide passes from the blood in to the
alveoli.
Air moves in and ou t of the lungs
so well because of the changing
size of the chest. When you inhale,
muscles attached to your ribs tighten
and pull upward. The diaphragm,
which is located at the bottom of
your chest, cont racts and pulls
downward. These actions expand
your ch('st, maki ng mo~ space. Air
flows in to your body as a result.

Caterpillar
Insects It t in iI"
through holes
caUed spiracles.

fish brtathe
through organs
(ailed gills.
 Digestive System Undiges ted food, along wi th
water, mucus, and o ther substances,
You r body cannot use the foods pass to the large intestine. The
)'ou eat in their origi na l forms. large intestine absorbs most of the
Instead, they must be broken down. remaining wat('r. In addition, bacteria
The digestive system brellks down in the large intestine m:lk(' substances
food into simpler substllnces. th(' bod)' can usc, such as vit:lmins K
Digestion begins in the mouth. and B. An)' remain ing material leaves
Th('re, food is chewed and mixed the body as was te.
with a fluid called saliva. The chewed
food then passes into Ihe esophagus
and on to the stomach.
When food enters the stomllch,
cells release gllstric fluid s that brellk
down the food further. At the sa me
time, the stomach muscl<'S contract
to mix and gri nd the food. Food then mouth __
p<1SSCS into the small intestine.
C hemicals from the liver and the
p<1ncreas enter the first part of the
small int<'Stine, where th ey break
down food even fu rt her. Cells In the
lin ing of the small in t<'Stine produce
lldditional chemicals that complete
the digestion process.
The small intestine is !inC'(] with
m illions of tiny, fingerlike projections
called villi (singular: \'ilIus).
Nutrients from the digested food
pass from villi into the blood. p;tn(' U$

Murnan 1 "",1m

Al6 • Chapter 1 • lesson 4 )

Nervous System Nervous Systems
Have you ever used your big
toe to tes t the temperature of bath
wate r? In such a case, the toe sends
a message up to the brain. The brain
interprets the message, then sends a
new mess.1ge to muscles in the arms
and hands to adjust the hot or cold
water tap!
Grasshopper Earthworm
Your nervous system takes actions Grasshopp~rs have E",thwofms h"ve
like this all the time. It rffeives and brains, but Can jump reuptors that sense
processes information, and it controls usi n9 onty nervt'S lig ht. touch, vibration.
how the lxxIy reacts and moves. near the tegs. and chemicals.
The nervous system is made of
specialized cells called neurons.
Neurons receive and send
informa tion in the form of electrical
impulses. In s.ome ways, neurons
act like elfftric wires, although the
impulse they cilTry are very different
from electricity. _ _ ,,'o"t cord
The brain is the central orgiln
of the nervous system. The human
brain is composed of more than 100
billion neurons! Indiv idually, those
neurons do very li Ule. Yet working
together, they allow your brilin to
think, remember, learn, interpret
infonnation from the senses, and
control movement of your lxxIy.
Ex tending down from the brain
is a thick cord of nerve cells called
the spinal cord. Nerves fan out from
this cord to the rest of the lxxIy. The
spinal cord is protffted by a thick
series of bones called vertcbrile.
These bones make up your backoone.

i! Wh"t "re the import"n t

fuo,;;;~ of the hum"n br"in?
 Mus(ular and Skeletal Systems
The muscular system of the
human body has three types of
muscle tissue:
Smooth Smooth muscles look smooth
under a microscope. They are also
called involuntary muscles because
they contract without your conscious
control. Smooth muscles control
breathing. blood pressure, and
ffiO\'ements in the digestive system.
Cardiac Cardiac muscle is found only
in the heart, where it makes the heart
beat. Like smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle is involuntdry.
Sk,l,tal Skeletal muscles, also called
voluntary muscles, are attached to
the bones. 1hey pull on bones and
move them. Skeletal muscles also
help shape the body and prot('(t
its in ternal organs.
Bones are held together by stringy
tissues called ligaments, and they are
attached to muscles by tough tissues
called tendons. Bones, ligaments, and
tendons make up the skeletal system.
The skeletal system provides
shape and support, prot('(ts tissues
and organs, and lets the body move.
rn addition, blood cells are mllde
inside mllny bones.
Vertcbrdtes have an intemal
skeleton and a backbone. Many
invertebrates ha\·e hard externdl
,." ,10.', '''''''ed
exoskeletons.

.. A ha.d ,xo~keleton
COVtlS this ghou crab.
1 • lesson 4
Endocrine and Excretory the middle of the back. As blood
passes through the kidneys, waste
Systems and excess water are fi ltered out of it .
The rush of energy you feel when They then travel from the kidneys to
you are frightened or excited is the bladder and then out of the body.
produced by the endocrine system. The excretory system plays a very
The endocrine system consists of importan t role. Withou t it, wastes
glands. A gl and is an org~n that wou ld qu ickly poison the body.
sends chemical messengers called
hormones to other parts of the body. ~1 \11iiIj.Jt· What is the rote of the
exuetory system?
Hormones affe<:t the activity
of cells far from where they are
produced. They d iffuse into the blood
and are carried to where they are
needed. The body produces many
types of hormones. Each one acts on
a specific type of cell.
Endocrine glands are located
throughout the body. The thyroid
gland, which is located in the
nL"I.·k r"'giun, <';Ulltrub the l>u<.Iy's
metabolism, or how cells provide
energy. The adrenal glands, which
are loca ted above each kidney, are
involved in the body's reaction to
dangerous or frigh tening situations.
And the p~ncreas, which is in the
abdomen, main tains blood sugar
levels.
The excretory system is
responsible for removing wastes from
the body and maintaining the body's
water balance. Re<:all that undigested
food is removed from the large
intestine. It is the excretory system
that ta kes over from the digestive
system and flushes the waste from
the digestive tract.
The kidneys are another important Excretory System
part of the excretory system. They The eKeretory system is responsible for
are bean-shaped organs located near ridding the body of waste.
 Other Systems
The human body contains other
organ systems as well. For example.
the lymphatic system circulates a
nuid called lymph. This helps keep
tissues free of excess fluid.
The in tegumentary system
includes the skin, fingernails and
hair. The skin has inner and outer
layers of specialized tissues.
The immune system defends
the body from bacteria and o ther
discasc-causing agents. It produces
antibodies and distributes them
through the blood. An tibodi es are
proteins that help fight disease.
All body systems work together in
many ways. When you exercise, for
example, your nerves and musclcs
work together to move your skeletal
system. Nerves also increase your
heart ratc and slow your digestion,
whi le a hormone helps move sugar
into your hl<Xld. Usually, all of this
happens without you even realizing
it. The body is an amazing machine!
Dodors use
x-ray images
to view soO
m.
orga ns. ... r
,/
A40 • Chapter 1 • Lesson 4
LI------ -
Keeping Healthy
You can follow many simple
steps to stay healthy. To kill harmful
bacteria, wash your hands often.
Always cover your mouth and nose
when coughing and sneezing. This
will help stop the spread of harmful
microorganisms.
Eating fresh foods that are rich
in vitamins gives cells the nutrients
they need. Refusing to smoke or take
drugs keeps cells strong so that they
can resist infection. Exercising keeps
muscles flexible. Exercise also helps
you breathe more deeply and your
body work effi ciently.
~I ' tmli!f' What is the function
of an tibodies?
• (ares for young people
Pediatrician
• admi~islers Va(<inal~
• treats illnesses
• cares for th<! skin
Dermatol09 i St
• treats skin conditions,
such as acne
Orthopedist
• cares for bones, joints.
and their related muS(les
• treats injuries and disease
• (ares for th<! eyes
Ophthalmolo9ist
• checks vision
• treats diseases of the eye
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What processes
take place in the capillaries?

E) VOCABULARY Write a senlence

or short paragraph using the
lelTllS tissue and organ.

Cif<ulatory 9 READING SKillS: Main Idea

Systtm and Details Choose two human
body organ systems. Destribe the
main function of each.
[)ig.. tiv~
Systtm
--F'- o CRITICAL THINKING:
Apply How are vertebrales
and in~ertebrates different from
each other?

o INQUIRY SKILL:
Ask Qu estions Give examples
MUS(ular _-""-'-
System of questions that scientists might
ask about a cell. a tissue. an
organ, an organ system, and an
organism .

.emT PREP
A major organ of the nervous
system is the
A. stomach.
B. brain.
e. kidney.
D. lung.

MATH Make a Graph Research the average Technology

body length of horses, cats, and humans. Make Visit w_.edupla(uomls(pl to firld
a bar graph to compare body lengths to the out more about ,,,Iorganization.
lengths of the small in testine, listed on p. A36.

HEALTH Write a Report Research one of

the human organ systems (overed in this lesson.
Write a report on common diseases that affect
the system. Share your find ings with the class.
A41
READING : Compare and Contrast
 Vocabulary
Complet e each sentence wi th a t erm f rom the l ist.
1. hillllples 01a(n) __ include the sIo:eletal system, respiratory cell A6
system, and circulatory system. <ilia Al6
2. A(n) _ is made up of a (1Oup of rtlattd c~1s that wor1r. togethef diftvsion AI7
to perfonn a n..ction. flagellum A1 7
3. In many c~ls. genetic information is stortd in the _ fungi A26
kingdoms A24
4. Water diffuses through the crn membfane by a process tailed _
lIudeus AS
5. Stroctllrts called __ move a paralTll'(ium mud1 as oars move ..... All
a boat. orgaotelles AS
6. Animals and plants are classified in separate _ organ system A33
CKITIosis A17
7. Single·celled organisms with nl.lClei are I1'lOSt likely _
protins A25
8. Mushrooms and other __ get their energy by dt'Caying dead
tiuue A33
organisms.
!t. Unlike other _ n~ are not surrounded by membranes.
10. A group of related tissues that work together form a(o) _

~ Test Prep

Write th e letter of th e best answer choice.

11 . According to tile (~I theory, cells are 13. Protists are usually single-<elled and are

""-
A. ~ in plants and .nimals
always _
A. specialized
B. largest parts of tile bcxtt B. like aoimak in struaUfl!
C. SIIIiIllest units 01 lift C. prokaryotic
D. SIIIiIllest particles on £arth D.tu~

12. The kidneys and the bladdtf iofm paf1 14. Oxygen "om the air you breathe is
of an importan t _ transferred to blood ill the _
A. ItvtI of organiloltion A. alveoli of tile lungs
B. organ system B. nose and nasal passages
C. c~ular struaure C. /\eart
D. kingdom D. bone marrow

A«. Ch~'~P"";" '==>-_________________________~

 Inquiry Skills
15. Classify Photo A shows a bad~ium.
Photo B shows a p."otist. Name one similarity
and one diff~ence between the two.
16. Infer Describe how a disease of the
circulatOlY s~tem could harm another
system of the body. Give examples of
dilferent kinds of damage.
Map the Conc.ept
The chart shows four categories. Place each
word Of term within a category.
17. Evaluate Suppose someone discovers
a new form of bacteria that eats plastic.
What might be the good and bad effects of
this discovery?
18. Analyze What oth~ body systems does
the circulatory system affed? Describe the
role of the circulatory system in the body.
19. Synthesize What are four characteristics
that scientists can use to compare
organisms? List specific examples of
organisms that have these characteristics.
20. Apply Smoking damages the respiratory
system. sometimes by thickening the walls
of alveoli. 'NIla! health problems would a
smoker experience as a result?
Performance Assessment
Diagram l evels of Qrgani:l;ation
Draw a diagram that sIlows the relationship
among celis, tissues, organs, and organ systems
in an organism.

alveoli
chromosome
digestive
endocrine cell tissue organ organ system
esophagus
immune
neuron
nucleus
smooth muscl e
villi
lESSON

1
Tiny structures inside
these plant cells use
energy from the Sun
to make food. How
do they do it?
Read about it in lesson 1.

Plants defy gravity by

making water go up.
How do plants move
water up stems?
Read about it in lesson 2.

LESSON

3
Wild animals and even family pets can help
plants to grow. How do animals help plants?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 How Do Plants
Produce Food?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Almost all livi ng things need Inquiry Skill
plants to survive. Plants make
Experiment WIle n yo u conduct
food and give off oxygen. Animals.
an experiment, you plan and
including people, eat food and
(affY out an invest igation to
breathe oxygen. The process thro ugh
test a hypothesis.
which plants use energy from the Sun
to make food makes life as you know
Materials
it possible.
• geranium plant with at least
4 1ellves
• squares of cottoo cloth
(10cm xl 0cmj

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Making a Chart
to Organile Data on page HIt.

2
Keeping Green
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. In your
Science Notebook, draw a cha rt like the
one shown. Use the chart t o help you test
this hypothesis: Plant leaves need sunlight
to stay green.
e Experiment Place your plant in a sunny
window or plant it out side in a sunny,
sheltered spot. Use the doth squares to
cover at least three leaves. Leave at least
one leaf uncovered to serve as a control.
e Predict How do you think t he different
leaves will change over time? Record your
prediction.
e Record Data Check the plant every day
and give it water if t he soil is dry. Every
two days, re move the cover from one or
more leaves. Record your observations,
then cover the leaves again.
e Analyze Data Discuss the differences that
you observed and recorded. Compare the
effects of blocking sunlight for two days,
four days, and si x days.

Conclusion
1. Use VarialHes What was the variable in
Investigate More!
this investigation? How did you change it? Design an Experiment
WhClt was the control? Plan and conduct an
experiment on plants that
2. Analyze Data Review the hypothesis and tests anothe-r variable, such
your prediction. Did you find evidence to as water or soil quality.
support the hypothesis? Explain why or Des<:ribe the control in your
why not. experiment.
\.eat~ by Reading
Prod Food
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Plants uS<! tnergy from the Sun 10 make
chlorophyll f ood. They combine carbon dioxide am:! w at er t o make

..,,,""
p. "51
chloroplast p. /l.Sl sugar, .md re lease oxygen in the proen s.
pho t osynthesi5
stomllt. Photosynthesis
READING SKILL You aTe constantly using energy to conduct all of
Seqllenu Ike iI chart to
you r life processes. You need energy to breathe, ea t,
show tile Si!qU!'IK1' of steps move, thin k, and even sleep.
in photosynthesis. The energy you use ul timately comcs from the
Sun, Recall from Chapter 1 that pla nts transform
( ) the energy of sunlight inlo chemical energy stored

( • )
in food. Plan ts, lliong wi th some protists and
bacteria, accomplish this through a process called

( •- )
photosynthesis.
During photosyn thesis, plants combine water
and ca rbon diox ide into compounds called sugars.
They release oxygen in the process.

Sugars aTe a plant's food. The
plant stores sugars in its tissues and
breaks them down when it needs
energy. When an animal eats the
plant, it can uS(' the stored sugars.
And when a larger animal eats the
plan t-eater, it too obtains energy
originally stored in plants. In this
way, all anImals depend on plants
for energy.
In Chapter 1 you learned that
photosynth esis takes place in
organelles called chloroplasts. The
number of chloroplasts in a cell
depends on the organism. Some tiny
algae cells have only one chlo roplast,
while the cells in the leaves of a tree
m(lY each contain more th nn fifty.
Most chloroplasts have the Solme
basic structure. Each is surrounded
by h\'O membranes. Another system
o f membranes courses through the
interior of the chloroplast. These
membranes look like fl at sacs
arranged in stacks called grana.
Inside the membranes are a
variety of pigments. A pigment
Is a substance that absorbs light.
The most importan t pigment in a
chloroplast is chlorophyll.
'--------
'" Plant cells (on tain Ofganell~ (ailed
dlloroplasts.lnside them, light energy
is changed 10 cMmlc.a1 energy.
A In~lde a chloroplast. ~ta(ks of
membranes called grana (ontain
chlorophyll, which absorbs ~unlight.
Chlorophyll absorbs most colors of
light, but not green. This means that
when sunl1ght hits chlorophyll, grem
light is reflected to you r eye. This is
why pl;m t parts that contain l(lrge
amounts of chlorophyll look green.
How does photosynthesis work?
When light strikes chlorophyll, the
energy is used to split apart water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
Later, during a series of chemical
reactions, the hydrogen joins with
ca rbon from carbon dioxide to form
suga rs. The oxygen gas is released.
Photosynt hesis is a unique
process, and it's hard to imagine life
on Earth wi thout it. The nexl time
you look at a tall tree or other p lant,
remember that almost all of its matter
came from only water and carbon
dioxide.
~"(.jIn:!J' What happens during the
p4"O(ess of photosyn thesisl

Plant leaves
In almost all plants, leaves hold
most of the plants' chloroplasts. You
can think of leaves as the food factory
for a plant.
Plant leaves come in many
different shapes and sizes. They can
be round or heart-shaped. They can
be smooth or have jagged edges.
The bro.1d, fla t portion of a leaf
is called the blad;>. Sci;>ntists group
leaves by the structure of the blade.
A simple leaf has a blade that is one
piece. Oak trees and apple trees have
simple leaves. A compound leaf has
a blade that is divided into parts.
Rose bushes and palm trees have
compound leaves.
Leaves are made of different
tissues. The outer layer is ca11ed the
epidermis. The cells in this tissue
have a waterproof coating that
prevents wat;>r loss.
Remember that a plant needs to
exchange gases with its environment.
Small openings in the epidermis
allow oxygen and carbon dioxide
to enter or leave the cells. They also
allow water vapor to leave. These
openings are called stomata, and are
scattered about the underside of the
leaf. The word stomata comes from
the Greek word stoma, which means
mouth. You can see from the picture
that stomata look like small mouths.
Specialized structures that act like
gates control the opening and closing
of the stomata. When they open,
carbon dioxide enters the leaf while
oxyg;>n and water vapor ;>xit.
• Lesson 1
leaf Types
Many bladM
Simple Leaf Compound Leaf
A simple leaf has A compound leaf has
a single blade. The many blades. This leaf
larger its wria<e type may promote
area. the more gas e ~ {hange .
sunlight it {an take in.
Stomata often open during
dayligh t when photosyn thesis occurs.
At night, stomata usually dose to
keep water In. Stomata can also open
and close in response to Changes in
the environment. During dry spells or
on hot days, a plant's stoma ta might
stay doS<'d to conS<'T\'e wa ter.
Most of the cells that perform
photosynthesis lie just below the
epidermis. These cells arc arranged
wilh many air spac;>s between lhem
so that carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
wa ter can flow freely.
Coursing through I;>aves are long,
thin structures called veins. Veins
carry mat;>rials in and out of the leaf,
serving to connect the leaf's cells to
the rest of the plant. You will read
more about this structure later in this
chapter.
~11(,j1IM' How are the tissues of a
leaf arranged?
 Energy
Energy 01 sunlight
powers the pro(ess
01 photosynthesis.

Water
Water is
transported
up the plant
into the leaf.

Chloroplasts
Chloropla<its
use the energy
nl sunlight to
make suga.s from
carbon din,ide
and water. The
process also
releases o"Ygen.

.r- lowe •
epidermis
Oxygen

dioxide Vapor

.... Stomata
like gate keepers. stomata
open and close to let gases
in and out of the leaf.
 2.200
>.000

••• -•••• '.'"

,,"00
••
1 •0 '.'"
,
•~ •
· .- '.'"
'.000
- ..,..,
0= ."
... "E

,.,
• 1980
•
A"",. i<a

"" Region

~ Both carbon dioxide and oxygen cycle

Carbon and Oxygen Cydes
Why doesn' t the air run out
of oxygen, or fill up with carbon
dioxide? The rcason is tha t oxygen
(lnd carbon dioxide cycle through
the environment. As yOll have read ,
plants take in carbon dioxide and
give off o xygen. Both plants an d
(lnimals use oxygen to brea k down
sugars. In the process, they release
carbon dioxide. Together, pla n ts and
llnimals re<:ycle thl.' gases they both
"eed.
Human activities can upse t the
carbon and oxygen cycles. Fossil
fuels, for example, contain stored
carbon. When people burn these
fuels, induding coal, oil, a nd na tural
gas, the carbon is released as carbon
dioxide.
• Lesson 1
throu!lh pl~n's. ~nim"ls.. and Earth's
atmosphere. Cutting down forests can
upset the balance that this qcle provides.
Unfortunately, deforestation continues all
over Earth.
Today, people are burning fossil
fuels at a very fast rate. The result
is a rapid return of carbon to the
atmosphere. [n addi tion, people are
also cutting dow n forests, including
wide tracts of rain forests in South
America and other places. This
means that fewer trees are available
to remove carbon and release oxygen.
~ SlQUlNCl How do carbon and o><ygen
cycle through the atmospllere?

During photO'lynth e~is.
plilnt~and so me oth er
organisms use carbon
dioxide and water
to make sugars and
release oxygen.
The green pigment
chlorophyll is found
in chloroplasts. This
pigmenl absorbs the
energy in sunlight to
power photO'lynthe~is.
Plants and ilnimal~
cycle carbon and
oxygen th rough the
environmen t.
MATH (reate a Formula Suppose tha t a
forest produces x amount of orygen per day.
Write a formula for the amount of oxygen a
fo rest half the size would produce in a year.
SOCIAL STUDIES MakeaMap
Rain forests and other forests contain a large
percentage of the green plants that live on dry
land. Research more about the world's forest
reSources. ( reate a map showing whe re they
are, how big they are, and how quickly they are
disappeari ng.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What are the two
main products of photosynthesis?
E) VOCABULARY Wr ite a short
paragraph using the terms
chloroplast and stomata. Describe
the ro le of these SlIuctures in
photosynthesis.
€) READING SKILL.: Sequence
Describe the purpose and steps
of photosynthesis. Why is this
process important to all life 00
Earth?
O CRITICAL THI NKING: Infer
A typical (aduS has a green
stem and th in, spike·like needles
that are not green. In which of
its parts does a cactus pefform
photosynthesis? Explain.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Experiment
Do house plants aHect the quality
of air in a house? Desuibe
an experiment to answer this
questioo. What gases would you
want to measure?
.tTEST PREP
In leaves. what do celiS just
below the epidermis do?
A. Produce hydrogen gas
B. Store nUllients
C. ~rform photosynthesis
D. (reate fossil fuels
~ Tec.hnology
'iii Visit w_.eduptacuom lscpl
to fond out more abooJl plants and
photosynthesis.
 Readers' Theater

IH
o
How do people use plants~
IS
The setting is the
Chung family living room. Ben reaches for the
remote (ontrol to find something worth
watching. However, just as he's about to
change channels ...

Characters
TV Announcer
Ben Chung:
A fifth-grade boy
Julia Chung:
8en's sister

A girl

Dr. George
Washington Carver:
Scientist
Dad:
Ben and Julia's father

( AS6 • Ct.ilpler 2 • l HSon 1 ,


Announcer: Stay tuned for our next
program, "The World of Plants."
Ben: (yawning): Do you mind if I find
something else to watch?
Julia: Go ahead. This show sounds
really boring.
Announcer: You're quite wrong, Ben
and Julia Chung of 333 Portland Road!
Ben: Julia! Did you hear that? He's
talking to us! (Bell and Julia Iet/n loward
ti,e TV.)
Announcer: That's right. Plants aren't
boring at all. In fact, some Me quite
surpnsmg.
Julia: Surprising? I doubt it. I already
know all about plants and how
important they are. Plants make the
food we cat and add oxygen to the air
we breathe.
Ben: And trees give us wood and
paper products. So you see, we
already know everything. Can we
please change the channel now?
Announcer: Hold on! Do you
know that rubber comes from
trees, too?
xl'ne 5wilc/,es quickly 10 a grove
of mbber IfI.'1?S. Birds, mal/keys,
and oilier allimals c/mlter ill IIII'
oockgrolilld.
Julia: Where arc we?
READING
Announcer: We're at a rubber tree
plantation in Brazil. You can find
farms like this in tropical regions all
over the world.
Ben: (pressillg on a 1,,'1'): These trees
don't seem bounder than other trees.
Dr. Galvez: (enlering): That's because
rubber comcs from the sap of a rubber
tree, not from the wood.
Ben: Who are you?
Dr. Galvez: I'm a research chemist. !
study ways to change raw rubber into
sturdy, useful products.
Julia: Like what? Car tires?
Dr. Galvez: Ycs. And many other
things, too----escalators, rain gear,
windshield wipers, and even pendl
erasers.
Ben (lookillg arollnd): I'm glad you're
putting these rubber trees to good use.
~-
Rubb er
Tile rubber
in most tires
begins ~s
sa p in rubber
t le~
 Dr. Galvez: Oh, yes. Today, people
usc more rubber than ever before. To
meet the demand, scientists are mi xing
natural rubber wi th rubber made in
laboratories.
Emily (ell/ering): Allow me to answer.
I'm Emily, lind this is my farm. Oil
from jojoba seeds is used in shampoo
and mll keup. Resellrchers are studying
how to use it liS a fuel, too.

Announcer: Than ks, Dr. Ga h'ez. lime
to meet nnother interesting plan t.
Scerle swilc/,cs 10 a t/es.>rl.
Julia: Now what?
Announcer: Welcome to Arizona. Meet
the jojoba plant.
Ben: It looks li ke an ordinary shrub
tome.
Announcer: Maybe so, but take a look
at these seeds. They're filled wi th a
very un usual oil.
Julia: What's so unusual about it?
Ben: Li ke gasoline or diesel fuel?
Emily: Yes. Think how useful that
migh t be! Instead of digging up fossil
fuels, we might raise plants li ke the
jOjObll.
Julia: I bet the seeds grow year after
year, too. We'd never run out of them!
Announcer; Ahll! Maybe now you
believe me when I say plants can
be surprising! Did you know thll t
citronella oil cOme~ from dried
grasses? People use it to repel insects,
especially mosqui toes.

Jojoba (ho HO bal Bamboo Foxglove Peanuts

• Sh~mpoos and ~in • fences and paneling • Oigitalis. a heart • food and cooking
lotions • furniture and 1100' medicine oil
• A pote ntial fue l mats • Paint<!; and varnishes
• Decora tion and art • Hundrl!'ds 01 other
uses !

( AS8 • Chapter 2 • Lesson 1 )

Emily: Don't forget s..1P from
the chicle trcc. It's used to
ma ke chewing gum!
Dr. Galvez: How abou t
so,1pwort? It's used to
make soap that cleans
delica te fabrics.

Dr. Carver: (I'IItl'riug): Hello,

everyone. I'm Dr. George Washing ton
C;uvcr. I'd like to remind you about
another important plant: peanuts.
Why, I invented more uses for
peanuts th;m anyone ever imagined!
Today, peanuts are used to make
ink, grease, shaving cream, paint, ... Soap ' rom the soapwort plant is used to
construction materials- clean valuable tapestries.

Ben: OK, O K! I' m convinced! Plants Dad (slrllkilJg ikllllud Julill gelllly): Hey,
aren' t boring! wake up, kids!

Julia: They're downright amazing! Ben and Julia: What? What happened?

Dad : You slept through a TV snow

abou t plants. I came in part way. I
though t plan ts were dull, but I was
wrong! Why, did you know ...
(BI'IJ flmIJulill/flugh')

Sharing Idea,
1 RfAOIHCi <HECK Wllat are three unusual
uses fOf plants?
2. WRn'EABOUTIT Whatarethe
advantages of using fuels from plants
instead of fossil fuels?
1 TW ABOUT IT What other products
Or. George Washington Carver
(1864-1943)
come from plants?
 How Do Plants
ove Materials?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Plant leaves need water and Inquiry Skill
minerals that are found in soil.
Predid When you predict, you
Without them, photosynt hesis (o uld
t ell w hat you think will happen.
not occur. Almost all plarlts have a
based on your knowledge
way to move materials upwards,
of previous cause-and-effect
against the downward pull of gravity.
pattern s.

Materials
• ~ pl~nl with (II 1~(I~t 4 L>rOdd
leaves
• petroleum jelly
• 4 plastic sandwich bags with
twisllies

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Making a ( hart
to Organize Data on page H11.

These pails catch sap

from maple trees.
Losing Water
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. In your
Science Notebook, draw a chart like the
Tim .
,
one shown. ~.

G Experiment Carefully smear petroleum ,

.~ .
jelly on the top and underside of one of
the plant leaves. Coat another leaf on t he
top surface only. Coat a third leaf on the ~.
,
..,,
underside only.
o Experiment Slide a bag over each of the
coated leaves and close it with a twist ,
tie. Cover a fourth, uncoated leaf with a
bag, to serve as a control. Label eClch bag.
".
Place the plant in a sunny window and, if
needed, water it.
o Predict Based on what you have learned
about leaf structure, predict what will
happen inside each bag.
" Record Data Check the leaves every hour
for three hours. Use the chart to record
your observations.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data With others in your group,
discuss reasons for your results. Consider Investigate More!
different explanat ions. Design an Experiment
2. Predict Based on your results, discuss with Plan a similar experiment
your group what will happen if you leave with a different kind of
the bags on t he leaves for two more days. plant. For example, you
Give reasons for your prediction. might choose a cactus or an
evergre1!n plant.
3. Experiment Continue the experiment for
two days or longer. See if your prediction
holds true.
"earn by Reading
Materials
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA PI"nts have spedalized tissues and use
nonvas<ular plant p. Ml natur,,' forces to transport wilt e r, miner"ls, and nutrients.
phloem p,A6,
transpiration .",
p,A63
Nonvascular Plants
vasc:ular plant
xylem p. .0.63
If you have ever observed moss on the side of
a tree, you know that not all plants have the same
READING SKILL structures. Mosses are examples of nonvascular
Text Structure Use the plants, wh ich lack true leaves, Siems, and roots.
headings in this lesson to They also lack structures that transport food, wa ter,
identify the ma in ideas of and other materials between plant pariS.
the text. In addition to mosses, nonvascular plants
incl ude liverworts and hornworts. They have few
spedalized cells and no complex organs.
Nonvasculnr plants are almost always small.
Thei r size is limited because they lack ways to
deliver water to dis tnnt parts. Instead, mos t of their
cells must be dose to the outside environment.
Gases, water, and minerals move directly between
the environment and the cells.
Although they are small, nonvascular plnnts fill
important roles in their environments. 6e<::ause they
absorb water, they help hold soil in place and keep
it from drying ou t.

Mosses a nd Liverworts
Nonvascular plants have no complex
organs. Some of their leaf·like tissues
are only one cell th ick.
 Vascular Plants Trunks and Stems
Most plan ts you can name,
including evergre('n tll2'C$,
flowering plan ts, and ferns,
are examples of vascular plants.
A vascular plant has special ized
tissues that transport materials Trunks
throughout it. Veins, whk h you Growth rings mark
read about in Lesson I, carry each year's IH!W
materials in and out of le,wes. xylem, or wood
Veins are examples of vascular tissue. The darker
tissues. parts show wtwe
The organs of vascular plants growth slowed at
the end of each
include roots, stems, and leaves.
season.
Roots anchor a plant in the
ground . They also absorb wa ter
and minerals from the soil. Some
roots store food for the plant as well.
v~ scul ~r
The stem sup ports the plant and
holds its leaves up in the air so they
can re<eive sunlight. The stem also
provides a way for water, minerals,
and food to move between th e
roots and the lelwes.
Stems contai n two important
kinds of tissues: xylem and
phloem. Xylem tissues conduct
water and minerals upward
from the roots. Phloem tissues
conduct food materials Stems
downward from tnc lea ves Stems grow wider
to tnc rest of tnc plant. by adding new
layers of xylem
A typical plan t stem has a
and phloem. New
ring of bundles containing both
layers grow on
xylem and phloem. A strip of
either side of the
tissue called the vascular vascular cambium .
cambium lies between the xylem
and phloem. Here, xylem and
phloem cells are produced.
f} TlIT STRUCTURE What are two types
of vascutar t issue?
·~--------------------------~CA~'~')
 Gravity
The Upward Flow of Water N:lod from
;
Usually, water flows downward . In thc s tems of
is pulled down
plants, however, water flows upward. How does 10 nourish th~
this happen? Water moves up in plants because of plant
root pressure, cohesion, and transpiration.
Water en ters roots because roots are dryer than
the surrounding 5Oil. The outer walls of roots
have specialized cells tha t keep Ihe wa ler from
Cohe5ion W.t~, and
leaking back out. Eventually, pressure builds and minerals ding to e3Ch
pushes water upward. other and to tht "flem
Root pressure alone is not strong enough walls. This forms a
to pu~h Wille r throuSh an rntirc plllnt. Water (olumn un~r I~n.lon
travel s the rcm;lindcr of Ihe trip tx-cause it is that rises up the stem.
pulled upwud.
Wlltcr molecules ding to each o the r as a
resul t of 11 force called cohesion. They di ng to
molecules of other substilnccs, too, and this
force is called adhesion. This forc:es water to
climb up lubes of xy l('m ti ssue.
An additional pull is needed to move
waler to Ihc tops of taller plants. That
pull is provided by tr.mspiralion. During
Root Pressure
transpiratio n, evaporation occurs through Root prHsurf
the leavcs of a plant. As wa ter movcs from pushes wate r and
the plnn t to the air, water is pulled upward minerals up.
through the plant to take its place. About 99
percen t of the water that enters the roots is
transpired by the leaves!
TUT STlUCTUftl What all! thrH fortn thaI
move wat~ r up tn a plant?

A64 • Ch.aple. 2 • te-sson 2

 Review
o MAIN IDEA How do force'! push
and pull materials through a
Nonv~s(ul~r plants do plant?
not have vessels to
transport water and a VOCABULARY Write a short
nutrients. paragraph using the terms xylem
and phlDli'm.

o READING SKill..: Text

V~s(u l~r plants have Structure List three details
specialized tissues about either xylem or phloem.
called xylem and
phloem for tran~portin9 O eRITICAL THINKING:
water and nutrient~. Hypothesize Suppose you
coated the leaves of a vascular
plant with a substance that
Water is moved upward prevents transpirati(l!l. How
in a vascular plant by
would this aHeet the movement
root pressure. cohesion.
of water up the plant?
and transpiration.
Q INQUIRY SKILL; Predict
Explain how materials in
pesticides in the ground might
end up in a plant's leaves.

.jJ TEST PREP

Evaporation from plant leave'! is
MATH Make a Graph Mix several drops of called
food (Oloring into a beaker of water. Place a
A. root pressure.
tall celery stalk into the beaker. After every 5
minutes, measure the height that the colored B. transpiration.
water traveled up the celery. Make a graph to C. OSmosiS.
show the data. What conclusion can you draw
D. cohesion.
from your results?

WRITING Expository Research the story

~ Technology
of maple syrup. Write an essay that shows how 'Ill Visit w_.edupta(uomlscpl
maple syrup is made, packaged, and delivered 10 fond out more aboor .aso:ul;rr iIIId
to your table. nonvaso:ular plan!!.
 How Do Plants
Reproduce?
Why It Matters ...
Many people enjoy flowers for
their bealltiful shapes and colors,
and for their pleasant scents, Such
qua lities are no acddent, Plants
use their flowers to attract animals,
and the animals help the plarlts
reproduce.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Analyze Data When you
anal yze data, you study the
information you collect,
looking for patterns that
might lead to a hypothesis
or to a conclusion.
Materials
• flower
• white paper or paper towels
• plastic kn ife
• hand lens
Inside a Flower D"'wing
of Outer
5~cw ...e
DraM"!!
of Indl.:l~
5~cw,"

Procedure
o Collaborate Work in small groups. In your
Science Notebook, make a chart like the
one shown here.

e Observe Place the flower on the white

paper and observe it carefully. Use the
hand lens to see details.
e Re<:onl Data Sketch the outside of
the flower. Add labels to show colors,
textures, and the numbers of each kind
of structure.
o Experiment Using the plastic knife,
carefully slice the flower in half from top
to bottom.
e Record Data Sketch the inside of the
flower. Add labels to record details.
(» Communicate Compare sketches with
other group members. Discuss any
differences you see. You may revise your
sketch to make it more accurate.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Were the same structures
visible on the outside and inside of the Inve'Stigate More!
flower? Explain.
Design an Experiment
2. Infer Why do you think plant scientists Plant seeds of field mustard
study the insides as well as the outsides plants or other last·growing
of plants? plants. Provide the plants
light, water, and warmth.
Observe and r«ord the
stages of their life cycle.
v afll by Reading
Plant Reproduction
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA PI"nls reprod uce !,Ising spores or seeds.
angiosperms p. 1I.70 They are d ispersed in di ffe re nt w"ys.
gymnosperms p,.o.69
pollinat ion
spores

READING SKILL
.'"
p,A69
Seedless Plants and Conifers
A plant's pattern of genera ti on, growth, and
reproduction is known as its life cycle. Scientists
Comp a~ and Cont rast
classify plants into two major groups according
Draw a Veon diagram to their life cycles. One group is the ~ plants,
to show how two types which reproduce with seeds. The second group is
of plants are alike and the seedless plants, which reproduce wi th s pores
diffenmt. or other structures.

Fern Life Cyd e

Spores Gametophytes
The wind scatters Some SpOrfi g.ow into
mature spores from st.uctu.es that p.odlKe
the sporangia. g:;~:,:;~;,::, male and
Sporangia f. "
Spores are produced
in sporangia on the
undersides of flonds.

Fern (
Tile zygote will gro.....
into a mature lern , Male and female cells join to
form the zygote. a process called
fertilization. A new plan! begins .

• Lesson 3
 One common seedless plant is Once the pollen grain lands on
the fern. Ferns grow throughout the a seed cone, it releases sperm cells.
United States, but they grow best These sperm cells can fertilize the
in warm, moist climates such as in ovules. This forms a new zygote,
tropical rain forests. Let's take a close which can divide and develop into
look at its life cycle. seeds. When the seeds mature, the),
Most large plants are seed plants. arc released from the cone. If the
Scientists further divide the seed conditions are right, a seed will
plan ts into two IMge groups. develop into a new conifer.
Plants wi th seeds that are not
~ (OMPUE AND (ONTAUT How a.e fe.n5
covered by a protective fruit arc
called gymnosperms, which means diffe.ent f.om conifers?
"naked seeds." Conifers, such as
pine, spruce, cedar, and redwood
trees, are the most common of the
Pine (ones produce pollen
gymnosperms. The seeds of these
(in the male cones) and
conifers develop inside cones. ovules {in the female
Conifers pTtXluce both male and (ones). Seeds develop in
female cones. Male cones Me smaller. the female (one.
They arc often located ncar the
tips of the bwnch ....s. FcmuJc COI1L"S
arc generally larger. Some types
of conifers produce both male and
female cones on the s.ame plant.
O ther types of conifers have male
and female plants that each produce
only one type of cone.
Male cones produce pollen. Pollen
is reproductive material that contains
male gametes, or sperm cells. Female
cones, called seed cones, contain
ovules. Ovules contain female
gametes, or eggs.
In the spring, pollen cones release
millions of tiny pollen grains in to
the wind. Man)' pollen grains fall
to the ground or land on water. But
some Me blown on to seed cones. Any
process tha t delivers pollen to eggs
is an example of pollination. With
conifers, the wind or air is the agent
of pollination.
 Flower Life Cycle
.....
Fruits are mature
plant ovaries. whi ch
expand to protect
and nourish se-eds.
Flowering Plants
The second large group of seed
plan Is are the angiosperms. An
angiosperm produces seeds within a
protective covering. Angiosperms are
also called flowering plants because
they store seeds inside flowers and
fruits. The flowering plan ts make
up the largest group of plants in the
world. In filct, nine out of ten plilnt
species ilre flowering plants.
Flowers ilre the reproductive
organs of angiosperms. They have
many parts, ilnd eilch has a purpose
relilted to reproduc tion.
The male reproductive organ is
called iI stamen. Two parts make up
( A70 • Chapter 2 • Lesson 1
Gennination
Gf rmination
o«u~when a
~ed SprOtlts into
a nfW plant.
Fertilization
fert ilization takes place
inside the ovary. whet!
a male gamete from the
pollen joins a female
gamete in the ovary.
the stamen: a thin filamen t, or stalk,
ilnd iI rounded iln ther. The anther
produces pollen, or male gametes.
The female reproductive organ of
iI flower is called the pistil. Pistils ilre
found in the center of a flower. Three
parts make up the pistil: the stigma,
the style, and the ovary. The stigma
is the sticky tip of the pistil. The style
connects the stigma to the ovary. The
ovary contains one or more ovules.
Keep in mind that nol all
flowering plants are identical. Some
flowering plants make both male and
female reproductive organs in the
S<1me flower. In other plants, they are
mildc in different flowers.
 Flowers contain tile
reproductive parts
of the plant.
The colorful. leaflike structures
of a flower are called petals. Flower
petals surround and protect the male
and female reproductive organs.
They also play an impor tant role in
pollination, as you will find out soon.
In flowering plants, pollination
occurs soon after a grain of pollen
lands on the sticky stigma. If the
pollen is from the righ t type of plant,
the pollen produces a tube that grows
through the style and into the ovule.
A sperm cell is released from Ihe tube
to fertilize the egg cell in the ovule.
The resulting zygote develops inlo a
seed that may eventually be<:ome a
new plan t.
Pollination
Pollen from the male anthe r
ruche~ the femal e ~tigma.
As the seed develops, the ovary
changes to be<:ome a fruit. The fruit
prolects and nourishes the seeds.
Fruits also attract animals that help
spread the seeds.
The frui ts you eat are matuTC
ovaries that surround the seeds
inside. These fruits include apples,
oranges, cherries, and berries. They
also include some foods you may not
thin k of as frui ts, such as tomatoes,
peppers. and cucumbers.
~ (OMPUE ANO (ONTIIAST How do
angiosperms differ from gymnosperms7
A11
 Pollination
Pollen ca n be dispersed in many
ways. Here are some examples.
Self-pollination [n some plan ts pollen
can move directly from the male
parts to the female parts. In peas and
beans, for example, a single flower
contains both parts.
Wind Some plants release pollen
into the w ind. These plan ts usually
produce large amounts of pollen
because much of it will be wasted on
the ground or in water.
Plan ts that depend on the wind
often have structures that expose the
pollen to the a ir. For example, some
plants have very long stamens that
reach into the open air. They also
may have stigma with feathery arms
tha t catch pollen from the air.
Corn is one example o f a wind~
pollinated plant. Male parts are
located ncar the top of the plant,
where the wind can catch the pollen.
Female parts arc located farther
down the plant.
,...-
... Honeybees have
thick leg hairs that
pollen clings to.
A Hummingbirds have long.
thin beaks that allow them
to reach the nectar inside
narrow flowers.
Water Some plants live in water and
use wa ter to carry pollen. The pollen
gra ins f10..1t from male parts to fema le
parts. Sea grasses use this method of
pollination.
Animals Flowers that have bright
colors or s trong fragrances are
usually pollinated by animals. The
colors and scents allract animals that
come to feed on a sugary nectar that
the flower produces.
As the animals gather nectar,
pollen becomes stuck on their bodies.
The pollen is deposited in different
flowers as the animals move among
them. Hummingbirds, bats, bees, and
butterflies all pollina te flowers in this
way.
Farmers who grow fruits often
raise bees as wel l. Bees help pollinate
the trees and they ma ke honey.
Seed Dispersal
Like pollen, ptant seeds are also
dispersed by different means,
Wind I-/,w(' you watched the feathery
seeds of a dandelion f1o.1t through the
wind? Dandeli ons, orc hids. and olher
plants ha"e small, ligh t seeds tha t
winds easily carry. The sc.>eds of black
milple trees are oo\'crE'd by thin, dry
fruits that ad as propellers.
Watt r Some plant seeds and fruils
lire spread by water. TheS(' fruits and " Do you Sei! the burrs on this
seeds con tain air chambers tha t help dog? Each burr hol ds seeds.
them to float. The large fruits of the The dog helps spread them
coconut palm, for example. can float away from the parent plants.
great distances on ocean currents. Many animals are attracted to the
This is why coconut p.llms often sweet taste of many fruits. As the
grow on small tropical islands. animal eats the fruit, it may disturb
An imals If you have c\'cr had OJ hurr so me of the seeds. The seeds drop
stu ck on you r clothing, you may to the ground where they may grow
have helped to disperse pl<lnt seeds. into new plan ts.
Burrs liTe fruits that stick to the fur of Animals can also help spread
animals. As an animal moves around, seeds by eating fruits. Some seeds
il spreads the seros to new locations. pass through an animal intact, and
thus Ix-oome part of its wasle. Fruit-
eating birds often spread plant seeds
in thIs way.

What a.e
i ways t hat poll en and seeds a' f!
dispersed1

.. Sud dispersal
un depend on
wind, but an imals
are also efficient
at spreading seeds.
 Flowers fnIits and s •••
Gra~~es Avocado
• many smalillowers • Ileshy Iruit
clustered together • one la rge se-ed
• lIowers can be arranged • seed imide fruit
in ma ny different ways

Sunflower
• head is made up 01
many ~malillowers
• each II(lW(!r produces
~ "'"
(om
• clusters of male lIowers
{ailed tasseis
• fl'm<lle IIow€n cootained
in ears
• grains made by female
"-
Variety in Flowering Plants
Angiosperms grow in most places
on Earth _A fcw species cvcn live in
ocean wate r. Angiosperms around the
world have developed an amazing
variety of structures to help them
reproduce in their environmen ts.
Flowers exist in many di fferen t
sizes, shapes, and colors. Water lilies
have some of the largest flowers.
Clover, sedges, and grasses have
some of the smallest. The most
common flower colors are red,
yellow, w hite, and blue.
Fruits also exist in many sizes,
from tiny berries to large coconuts.
Fruits grow around different kinds
and numbers of seeds. Pomegranates
have many tiny seeds. A grape or
A74 • Chapter 2 • Lesson 1
Orange
• Ileshy fruit
• many small ~
• se-eds located in (Oi!'flter
Strawberry
• lIeshy fruit
• many tiny seeds
• se-eds spo-ead throughout
surface
apple might havc two or three seeds.
A cherry or avocado has only one
>«d.
People have lcarned to ta ke
advantage of this variety in flowers,
frui ts, and seeds. Humans eat not
only seeds and plants, but also
flowers . Cauliflower and broccoli arc
examples of flowers that people eat.
Farmers plant seeds at the start
of each growing season. The ability
to grow crops from seeds has helped
humans thrive and flourish for
thousands of years.
~ (OMPARE AND (ONTUST How do people
t"ke "dvant"ge of the v"rie ty in fl owers,
fruits, and seeds?
 Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA What are the most
numefOUS types of plants?

f) VOCABULARY Wr ite a sentence

An9io~ms or short paragraph using
the terms gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
'ep'od".. b\' 'eproduce b)'
f) READING SKill.: Compare

•
spo'ong", ,- •
FI..-"
and Contrast What do
sporangia, cones. and flowefs
have in common? How are they
diffefent?

• ~
• o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Explain why many gardeners
plant flowers that attract bees
and butterflies.

~ ... o INQUIRY SKILL: Analyze

0' Wow Oata Give three reasons why
angiosperms are the most
successful plants on Earth .

.tTEST PREP
All flowefing plants prodlXe
seeds and
MATH Make a Xile Drawing Suppose
a bee~per has 180 acre'l of clover and A. fruits.
9 honey~ hives. How many acres must B. other edible parts.
each hive pollinate in order for the clover C. brightly colored petals.
to reproduce? Make a scale drawing of the
farmer's land, showing the location of each hive D. sporangia.
and the size of the plot of land it is on.

TECHNOLOGY Make a Poster ~ Technology

Research ways that farmers depend on inse<:ts
't!!i Visit w_.edupla<uomlscpl
to fond out morf aboot plant
to help in crop pollination and reproduction. '!'P'oou<1ion.
Make a poster that features one kind of inse<:!.
Show how it helps farmers.
 Is it a giant worm from outer space?
An undersell erell'ure? No, you' re looking lit a mllgnified
burr- a tiny seed with hooks. Mllny plllnts depend
on wind lind wllter to scatter their seeds. Others rely
on IInlmals to lell\l'e them in droppings, But burrs are
hitchhike rs. They travel by hooking themselves onto
animals' fur- and people's clothlngl
Through a microscope, you can
see a strong resemblance betwe en
a burr and a strip of the hooked
faste ne r clilled Velcro' M • This is no
coincide nce, Inventor George d e
Me stral got the idea for the tiny
hooks of Ve lero' M from studying
the clingy burrs that he plucke d
from his dog's fur.

Crab a ride! s""'~ pl~nt

spe< les, lih (o(kle bum, have
lite rallv hit(hhiked anMS North
Am eri(a and Europe.
READING : Compare and Contrast

Super cling! Burrs cling

tight, and so does Velcro - .
A piece of Velcro '~ the size
of two hands can support
the weight of a small car!
 Vocabulary

Complete ea( h se ntence wi th a term from the list.

1. The green pigment in plants is c~led _ angiospt"n, A70
2. The process by whim plants use solar energy to make load chloroptlr11 ASl
is _ chloroplast ASl
gymn<Kpeml 1169
3. Openings called __ let ail' and water in and out 01leaves.
nomoascular P',lIIt 1162
<A __ has vessels to cany water, minerals. and nutritnts. ......... "3
5. Tiswes known as _ transport water from a plant's roots to photosyntltHis MO
its leaves. pollination A69
....K A68
6. The plant tissUl'S that trallSpOfl ootrients <1'Nay from the leaves
are _ stomata A52
tr,lllspiration A6-4
7. The process of __ takes place when evaporation occurs v,lSw'ar pl,lIIt A63
through the leaves of a plant. xylem A63
8. Seedless plants reproduce by releasinq _
9. The process 01 delivering pollen 10 eggs is called _
10. _ are plants that produce seeds with a protective covering.

I Test Prep
Write th e letter of the best answer choice.
11 . Chlorophyll has the ability to _ 13. Some nonvilS<ular plants have the
ability to _
A. tr~ <arbohythlH
B. po-otect tilt ctll from the Sun
C. absoIto 190t ftlI'i"9Y
D. build tel ~Is
.....
A. transport water iItld minerals through

8. help control moisture in lhriI_ioolimtnts

C. rk!o.oelop strong stems iItld leaves
12. People rely on photosynthesis in plants fOf D. prodUCt >:yItm iItld phloem
food and _
14. Angiosperms procb:t their ~metes
A. olC'f9l!l1
inside _
B. carbon dioxide
C. chlorophyll A ,,,,,,,,"
D. minerals B. ~angia
C. cones
D. stems
A78 • Chapter 2
 Inquiry Skills
15. Synthesize 1000tify at least two
fu nctiOlls for each of these plant parts.
16. Experiment Describe an experiment
that would help show which plants attract
butterilies. Propose an hypothesis about
whether butterflies are attracted to a
specific color or shape of flower.
Map the Concept
The chart shows thr~ processes. Place each
word or term in the correct column. Some words
go in more than OIle categot)'.
Critical Thinking
11. Apply Why do moss plants grow best in
damp places, such as the floor of a forest?
Would mosses grow well in dry. sandy soil?
Explain.
18. Analyze l ist three different ways that
seeds are spread from place to place. and
indude OIle example of each. Why is seed
dispersal important to plants? Why is it
important to humans?
19. Synthesize A perfect flower has both
male and female parts. An imperfect flower
has ei thel' male or female p<lrts. but not
both. How would a plant tha t ma kes
imperfect flowel's be able to reproduce?
20. Experiment A student mixes a few
drops of food coloring In a glass of water.
She places a stalk 01 celery in the glass,
and observes the colored water climb
slowly up the stalk's tissues. What does
this show about the way water trav~s
through a plant?

chloroplasts stomata Performance Assessment

fruit cohesion
gametes evaporation Diagram a Plant
germination water Draw and label a diagram that shows the major
oxygen fertilization p<lrts 01 a flowering plant. Then draw the same
solar energy root pressure diagram. but write labels to show funct;oos
instead of names of p<lrts.

Upward
Photosyntl>esis Reprodu(tion
Movement
LESSON

1
This flamingo was born
with some traits and it
acquired others. What
determines traits?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
Certain traits

2 help organisms
to survive. Why
are some traits
more common
than others?
Read about them in
Lesson 2.
 How Are Traits
Inherited?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
A trait is a physical or behavioral Inquiry Skill
characterist ic of an organism. Every
Analyze Data When you
person has a unique combination
analyze data, you look for
of tra its. You have a set of traits
that belongs to you alone. Yo u also patterns in information you
have (ollected.
have traits yo u have acquired from
interacting wit h your environment. Materials
• index cards
• pencils

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 3, review Making a Chart
to Organize Data on page H11.
Trait Tabulation
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. Your
team will get a tetter. Assign a number to
each person in your group. for e~ample.
your group letter might be C and your
number might be 5, or C5.
o Observe Copy th e chart shown at right
onto an indel<. card. Write your number-
letter code, not your name, on your card.
Answer the questions in the chart.
e Collaborate Collect your team's cards
and exchange them with the cards from
<!nother team. Then work with your team
to (Ount the number of people with each
trait. Work in the same way with each of
the other teams.
o Record Data Tally the results for everyone
in the class. Prepare a circle graph. bar
graph. or appropriate chart of your choice
to show the dClta.

Conclusion
1. Use Numbers How did the data change as
you counted more people in the class? Why
is it important that scientists use a large
number of samples when doing research,
such as you did in th is activity?
II Design an Experiment
With your tea(~r's
permission, survey students
2. Evaluate Of the five traits you studied, in other classes about the
which could change as a person grows five traits. Is the additional
older? Which always stay the same? data consisten t with the
data from your d(lss? What
3. Analyze Data For each trait, which form did
conclusions (an you draw
you find to be the most common?
from your results?
v afn by Reading
Traits
VOCABULARY
acquired trait
chromosome
....
.",
MAIN IDEA living things inherit many t';,Iits from their
parents. They acquire others from tlleir environment.

'" .", Traits of Organisms

gene
heredity
mutation
.....'"
p,11B7
Do you look li ke anyone in you r family? People
tend to look like their parents and grandparents
nucleotide p,A81 because of heredi ty. Heredity is the process through
which trails are passed f["Qm parents to offspring.
READING SKILL Humnn trai ts that are pnssed by hcredity-or
Sequence Use a chart like inherited traits-include face shape, hair color, and
the one below to show blood type. The color of an animal's fur, the shape
the ordl'f of events in DNA of its ears, and the arrangement of its teeth are also
replication. examples of inherited trails. The colors of a flower
o r the shape of a fruit are examples among plants.

DOD An inheri ted trait Gill also be a behavior, such as

the way a spider spins a web.
Not every trait that you can observe is passed
down by heredity. Some trai ts are acquired. An
acquired trait is one tha t an organism develops
after it is born. Some acquired trai ts come from the
environment, o thers arc learned, and s till others arc
brought about purposely.
Acquired Traits
Flamingos are known for their
beautiful pink color, which sets them
apart from other large, long-legged
water birds. The color comes from
pigments in shrimp and certain algae
that flamingos eat.
The pink color of flamingos is an
example of an acquired trait. This
kind of trait comes from in teractions Learned ...
with the environment. In a similar Organisms can acquire traits, like
way, organisms can acquire traits the ability to ride a skateboard,
from food, soil, water, and other by learning and remembering
elements in their environment. skills and information.
Some acquired traits are learned.
You were not born knowing how to
ride a bicycle or a skateboard-y,"
learned how to ride. All types of
animals learn behaviors. Dogs can
learn to follow commands, lions can
learn to hunt, and birds can learn how
to sing songs. An acquired trait of this
kind is called a learned trait.
Manipulated traits are traits that
people deliberately change. Plants
and animals have been manipulated
for thousands of years. Breeders
mate animals or cross plants with
the most desirable traits. Gardeners Environmental ...
also control the shape and design of a Organisms (an acquire traits from
plant to keep some plants small or to their environments. A flamingo is
give others interesting shapes. pink because it eats pink 1000.
Some traits arise from
combinations of inherited and
acquired featuTCS. For example, a
person may inherit the capadty to
be tall. However, the trait will show
Manipulated ...
itself only if combined with proper Manipulated trai ts, such as coiled
nutrition and exercise. bamboo, are created by human
design. People '-In change both
How migh t a plant develop
inherited and acquired traits.
an acq uired trai t]
Chromosomes and Genes
What determines the inherited
tr<lits of an org<lnism? The
information is stored within the
cell nucleus in a molecule called
deoxyribonucleic <ldd, DNA. A DNA
molecule consists of two, long parallel
strands. The str<lnds coil around e<lch
other like edges of a twisted l<ldder.
Molecules of DNA are p<lssed
from one generation to the next
during reproduction. Rffall that
reproduction is the process through
which organisms make offspring.
For DNA to be passed to offspring,
<l cop)' of the molecules must first be
made.
In cells that are not dividing, DNA
and protein are found in a loose form
tha t is spread out within the nucleus.
This form of DNA, called ch romatin,
is difficult to see even under a
light microscope.
Cells and DNA
Organism
In the (ell~ of a
human, an onion
plant, or any
organism, a molecule
called DNA con trols
all cell activity. ~
• Lesson 1
As the cell gets ready to divide,
however, the double strands of DNA
coil tightl)'. These shorter, thicker coils
of DNA form rod-shaped structures
called chromosomes. Chromosomes
are visible under a microscope.
As a cell is dividing, each
chromosome consists of two identical
h<llves c<llled chromMids. The central
region that holds the chromatids
together is called the centromere.
In the bodies of most organisms,
all cells have an even number of
chromosomes. In (<lcl, they form
pairs. The chromosomes in each pair
<lre simi 1M, but nol identical.
The number of chromosomes
per cell is different in different
species. Humans, for example, have
46 chromosomes in each cell. Dogs
h<lve 71:1, c<lls have 31), <lnd fruit flies
have 8 chromosomes.
Cell ...
Just before the cell divides.. in
DNA (oi ls tightly in to rod·shaped
chromosomes..
 In every plant and animal, one
type of cdl is made with only half the
chromosomes of other cells. These are
the cells used for reproduction. They
are called gametes, or egg and sperm
cells. Human gametes, for example,
contain only 23 chromosomes.
When two gametes combine,
their chromosomes bc<ome part
of the nucleus of a cell of a new
individual. The cell has a complete
set of chromosomes.
There are many more trai ts
than there are chromosomes. The
reason is tha t the information in one
chromosome can determine many
traits. Each trait of an organism is
dctennincd by a short segment of DNA
known as a gene. One chromosome
can have hundreds of genes on it.
Chromosome ..
A chromosome is made of two iden tical strands,
called chromatids. joined at th e centromere. The
DNA is organized into units called genes..
The Structure of DNA
The basic units of DNA are called
nud eotides. E.1ch nucleotide is made
up of a phosphate, a sugar, and a
nitrogen base. There arc four possible
nitrogen bases.
Recall that a molecule of DNA
resembles a ladder. The phosphate
groups and sugar molecules make
up the sides of the ladder. Pairs of
nitrogen bases make up the steps.
Pairs form only between specific
bases.
The order of the nitrogen bases
determines the genes of the organism.
Because the bases can be arra nged
in a great number of ways, a great
number of genes arc possible.
~liJ,]l!M' Why do body cells have
twice as many chromosomes as gametes?
DNA ..
The information in DNA ;s coded
by its arrangement of nitrogen
bases. A single DNA molecule may
have billions of base pairs!
A87
 DNA Replication
During replication, a DNA molecule
separates. Each strand is used to form a
new DNA molecule. A
DNA Replication
Before a cell divides, an exact
copy of its DNA is made. This
process is called DNA replication.
To begin the process, the str~nds of
the DNA molecule sepa rate along
their nitrogen bases. This part of
the process resembles unzipping a
zIpper.
Quickly after, bases floa ting
around the nucleus attach to the
bases of unzipped strands of DNA.
Remember that bases always pair
up in the same combinations. T hat
means that the same type of base
that just separated from one strand
attaches to take its place.
This process happens to both
of the unzipped strands. When all
the bases are in place, a new strand
has formed on each of the original
strands. In this way, two new DNA
molecules are formed, each identical
to the original.
ASS • Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
The two new molecules are identical
to the original. A
Protein Synthesis
What is so important about the
order of bases in the DNA molecute?
DNA directs the production of
substances catted proteins. Proteins
control most of the life processes
in cells. They are also necessary for
building and maintaining cells. It is
the proteins that cause certain traits
to be expressed in an organism.
Proteins are made up of smaller
units known as amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids
that can be arranged in many
different combinations. The specific
arrangement of amino acids
determines the na ture of the protein.
Recall from Chapter I that proteins
are formed on cell organelles called
ribosomes. By means of intermediate
molecules, DNA directs the order in
which amino acids are arranged to
form these proteins. Through this
action, DNA controls all cell activities!
 Mutations

Can you find the mutation?

Mutations Can a mu tation be passed to an

Occasionally, an error occurs organism's offspring? This depends
during the process of DNA on the «,II in which the mu tation
replication. This kind of change is occurs. If the muta tion affects a
called a mutation. gamete-a sperm «,11 or an egg
A mu tation may cause a change in cell-the mu tation may be passed
the proteins formed in a cell. Many on to the next generation.
mutations arc harmful because they Mutations tha t affect body cells
decrease an organism·s chances tor only:lrc no t p:l55Cd nlons.
survival. In rare cases, mu tations ~iU 11!l:1!i How does a
are hel pful because they resul t in mutation affect the traits of
desirable trai ts. an organism?
Some mu tations are neithe r
ha rmful nor helpful. Even if they
result in changes to the organism's
proteins, the changes are less obvious
and do not directly affect the survival
of the organism.
Ma ny mutations occur by
chance. Other mutntions are caused
by environmen tal factors called
mu tagens. Ultraviolet radiation from
the Sun and «,rt.lin chemicals, such as
some pestiddes, can act as mutagens.

Do you see the different streaks and

colors on the (orn kernels? They Cilme
from mutations---(hanges to the
normal replication of genes. ...

Genes and Health
Some human di seases Me
inherited because they result from
mutations in one or more genes.
Sickle cell anemia is a disorder that
results when a person inherits a
mutated gene for the production of
hemoglobin. In blood, hemoglobin is
the protein that carries oxygen.
In this disorder, one of the nitrogen
bases in the gene for hemoglobin
is changed. This error results in the
production of protein that causes red
blood cells to be shaped like sickles
instead of the normal donut shape.
The sickle shape prevents the cells
from working properly.
Cystic fibrosis is another inherited
disorder. This is a disease that results
from genes that produce a defect
in proteins that con trol the flow of
certain materials inlo and out of cells.
Some other inherited diseases
include hemophilia and muscular
dystrophy. Hemophilia is a disease in
which the blood does not clot properly.
Muscular dystrophy causes the
muscles to break down over time.
Another type of genetic disorder
occurs when chromosomes do
not separ.lte properly during
reproduction. Recall that
ch romosomes are copied before a cell
divides. The copies split apart, and
one copy goes to each new cel~. Oo\\,.n
syndrome occurs when a specific pair
of chromosomes does not separate
properly. The extra chromosome
results in physical problems and
some mental retarda tion.
~ 'jHI!l:!j. How does sickle c~ll anemia
.. ff~cl human he .. lth1

CrUM:
lilHosls
~mucus~'
-
(Ioggir.g longs and d~'iw "~ad.
Sickle (ell anemia produ-ces
blood (ells in an abnormal
sickle shape. Sickle celb block
other blood (elil. T
Pr~ts body" from producing doI1lng
Hemophilia factors, rtwitir.g in onoonlr<)llf(/ blefdirlg.

Prevents body" from mating pr~

MOS<lIlar
lor rouS<if (tlls. rewitirlQ in ~
riy5trophy
...........
Crfat~ rf(/ bIorxI ctlh shiIpfd like
~ Skt1t ctlls bIod; odltf (.ts
in tht bIoodstrtanl and (\0 not any
f i much GrY9M.

Ago • Chapt er 3 • Lesson 1


Trilits (an ~ i nh~ r it~ d
from parents or
a(quir~d from the
environment
DNA in (hromosomes
contains genes that
determine the traits
of an organism.
Mutations oxcur when
the bases in a genetic
sequence change.
MATH Make a Bar Graph Research the
number of chromosome pairs in fi~e different
species. Create a bar graph that compares them.
Does the number of chromosomes per celi
relate to the complexity of the organism? Draw
a conclusion from your data.
TECHNOLOGY Write a Do(Umentary
Scientists continue to de~elop new technology
to study and manipula te DNA. Research the
Human Genome Project. genetic engineering, or
other scientific advances. Presen t your findings
in the style of a television documentary.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What material
carries the information that
determines genetic tra its?
a VOCABULARY Write a
sentence or short paragraph
using the terms gerJ('s and DNA.
f) READING SKill..: Sequence
What steps take place durillQ
DNA replication?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
How do mutations affect an
organism? Why can some
mutations have no effect?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Analyze Data
What in/()(mation would a
scientist need to discover whether
a disorder had a genetic cause.
an environmental cause, or a
combination of the two?
.e TEST PREP
Human traits are most accurately
described as
A. almost entirely genetic
in origin.
B. both inherited and acquired.
C. almost entirely learned Irom
other humans.
D. like those of plants.
Technology
Visit www.eduptacuomlscp llQfiod
out more about herl'd<\)'.
A9I
 •
dFranklin
(1920-1958)
In 1962, James Watson, Francis Crick, and
Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize
for discovering the structure of DNA. Yet their
achievement I"\'lied greatly on it WOlTh1n who was not
so honored. Alas, Rosalind Franklin hild died four
years earlier.
As 11 you ng girl, Franklin was energetic and
talk.1Iive, often arguing politics with her father. She
excelled in school, especially at science. She became
the fi rst woman in her family to gr.lduate from
(;olll'ge with a science degree.
Her mos t famous works are her x-ray pictures of
DNA, such as the one shown here. Other scientists
had tried to t"ke pictures like thi s. However,
Franklin recognized that DNA changed its shape
in water. She ca refully and precisely added just the
right amount of water to her specimens. From her
pictu res and other data, she determined much about
the shape and composition of the DNA molecule.
One of Franklin's colleagues described her with
these words: H •••Miss Franklin was distinguished
by extreme clarity and perfection in everything she
undertook. Her photographs are among the most ----
beautiful of any substances ever t<lken. "

Compare Franklin's X·ray

----
U

picture to tile illustration

of DNA on page A81 . ...

~2 • o...pte. 1 • le-sson 2 )
 READING

Lynn Margulis (1938- )

In the 198Ds, scientists studying cells
discovered something they did not expect.
Mitochondrin, the cell pMts that produce energy,
have their own DNA! This DNA conlmls only
the mi tochondria. [t works apart from the DNA
in the nucleus.
Yet, the discovery did nol surprise everyone.
Years earlier, biologist Lynn Margulis predicted just such a finding.
The prediction was pari of a larger idea she proposed about cell
history. It is Cill!ed the endosymbiont hypothesis.
According to this hypothesis, mitochondria and chloroplasts
were once smilll, free·living cells, much like bacteria. At some
point, a larger, amoeba~1ike cell engulfed some of them. Yet, instead
of breaking apart, the small cells stayed alive inside the larger cell.
After mnny cycles of reproduction, they became cell parts.
The endosymbiont hypothesis explains much about
mi tochondria. As for Margulis, she now is recognized as an
insightful and dedicated scientist.

Animal Cell Sharing

Unique features of I. READING (HE(K What
mitochondria did Frankl in and Margulis
• Able to use oxygen show about DNA?
• Surrounded by a
double membrane 2. WRITE ABOUT IT
• Divides separately What does Margulis'
from the rest of hypothesis explain about
th e cell cells?
• Kas its own DNA
that resembles l TAlK ABOUT IT Which
bacterial DNA science skillS did Ffanklin
Nudeu~ and Margulis pradice?
 Why Are Some
Traits Very Common?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
For a species to cont inue, its Inquiry Skill
members must reproduce. Sometimes,
Use Models When you use
new individuals are exact copies
models. you make an object
of one parent. Other times, they
that helps you understand a
are similar to two paren ts, but not
concept or process.
exactly like them. When the two
young giraffes become Materials
adults, they """"' ~ • 4 each of 3 shapes of beads
traits to young or buttons, with e.w. in
thei r own. I I I)

Science and Math Toolbox

fof step 2, review Making a Chart
to Organize Data on pagt H11 .
 , ,
Chromosome -0
r.... lt
'" --0
Combinations
~"

- -
~
-
e -
Procedure
o Use Models Model genes on chromosomes
by stringing three beads on each chenille
"',
~.
I "-I
stem. Refer to the chart to find the
meaning of each type of bead. Thread the
ear shape gene first, t hen the eye color
gene, and then the gene for hair color.
Separate the chromosomes into two pairs
to represent two parents.
e Record Data In your Science Notebook,
dra w the bead shapes and colors on the
chromosomes for each parent. Create a
chart to organize your data.

e Experiment Take one chromosome

from the first parent to form a gamete
chromosome. Repeat for the second
parent. Draw the gamete chromosomes
in the chart. Then combine them to form
the chromosomes for a new cell called
a zygote. Draw the ch romosomes of the
zygote in the chart.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Is it possible to predict the
offspring's chances of having a certain hair
color, eye color, and ear shape? Why or
why not?
2. Use Models Make a model of two parents
whose traits are exactly alike and model
the offspring's chromosomes. Are the traits
of this offspring more predictable than
those of the f irst offspring you modeled?
Design an Experiment
Find O!Jt what happens when
you add more choicl?S of trailS.
Make models with several
choices for f!je color, hair
color. and one other trait.

'.
 How Traits
VOCABULARY
adaptation p. <l.l01
Are Passed
asexual p. <l.96 MAIN IDEA Over many generations. species develop
reproduction traits that help them to survive.
dominant p,<l.99
hybrid p,<l.99
recessive p, <l.99 Asexual Reproduction
seledive breeding
sexual
reproduction
.'"
p. <1.100 You learned in Chapter 1 that some organisms
need only one pMcn t to reproduce. In asexual
reproduction, offspring are produced from one
parent. B.1cteria and many protists typically
READING SKILL
reproduce asexunlly.
Cause and Effect Use a
Re(:all tha t fission and budding are the simplest
(hart IiI:!:' the one below to
types of asexual reproduction. Spore forma tion,
show the effects of selective
breeding. which you read about in Chapter 2, is another kind
of asexual reprod uction. Yeast, for example, may

DO produce spores that are spread by water and wind.

Ench spore cnn grow into n new yensl orgnnism.
When nn organism reproduces nsexunlly,

DO an exact copy of DNA is passed from parent

to offspring. Generation after generation, the
offspring hnve the same genetic material, or DNA.
Mutations are the only sources of new traits in
this type of reproduction.

Plant lets are offspring that break off

or are cut away from the parent plant.
Each plantlet can become a separate
plant wi thout fertilization. 'Y
 Regeneration
Star/ish, or su stars, u n
grow n~w arms to r~l'lac~
thos~ that hav~ b~~n cut off.
This r~g~n~ration is a form
of as~ . .. al r~prod .. ction.

In the simplest organisms, such Another asexua l process in some

as bacteria, most or all reproduction animals is regeneration. For example,
is asexual. Other organisms use flatworms called plallaria can
asexual reproduction part of the time. rcgcncr;>tc. If ;> pl,In"'i" is cu t in h;>lf,
Many fungi and plants, for example, each half will grow to produce two
alternate between asexual reproduction whole worms.
and sexual reproduction. Cells divide during both asexual
Yeast also alternate. A yeast reproduction and regeneration. In
produces buds asexually. The bud both processes, the new cells have
brea ks off from the yeast cell and exactly the same DNA as the original
begins to grow. At other times, the cells. Replicating and passing on the
yeast produces male and female same DNA helps ensure tha t traits
gametes. These cells can combine to will stay the S<1me.
make a new yeast cell.
Plants have several different
!) UU~I AND IfHCT How many parent
asexual structures. Some plants ce lts are needed for asexua l ' eprod uction7
produce long stems or roots that
then grow plantlets, or baby plan ts,
that break off from the parent. Other
kinds of plan ts can grow from root
cuttings or from stem fragments.
Budding
Hydra are animals that rep roduce asexually
by bu dding. They can also reproduce using
female and ma le game tes. ~
Sexual Reproduction
SeKuaJ reprodu ction occurs when
a female gamete joins with a male
gamete to form a new organism. In
addition to yeast and algae, animals
and plants also pr~ctice scKual
reproduction.
A flowering plant has male and
female reproductive structures in
its flowers. Pollination occurs when
pollen is transferred from the male
part, a stamen, to the female part, a
pistil. A sperm cell released by the
pollen then fertilizes an egg cell.
In Lesson 1, you learned that
gametes contain half the number of
chromosomes as in the organism's
other cells. When a sperm cell
combines with an egg cell, the
chromosomes become part of the
same cell. The result is a cell with a
complete set of chromosomes.
In this way, the offspring Tc.:eives
one chromosome in each pair from
each parent. Each chromosome
contains genes that determine the
traits of the offspring. The offspring
receives two genes for each trait.
Different genes may code for
different forms of the s.1me trait. For
example, suppose a bee carries pollen
from a red flower to a yellow flower.
The offspring may receive a gene
for red flower color and a gene for
yellow flower color. Red and yellow
are two forms of the same trait-
flower color.

Pollen contains mate A bee Of other pollinatof
sea cells that have the lfanspollS male genetic
male genes. material from flower to
flower.
egg is loca ted deep
in the flower. The bee
brushes the pollen on to
the female pam as it
looks for n«tar,
 1ne form of a trait Ihal is expressed
depends on the charaCI~iSlics of
the genes. Some forms of a Irait are
dominant and others are recessive. If
an offspring receives genes for two
diff('rcnt forms of a trait, the trai t of
the dominant gene is ex pressed. The
recessive gene is not expressed.
Suppose red flowers are dominant
for a particular plant. An offspring
plant that receives a gene for red
flowers from each parent will ha\'e
red flowers. So will an offspring plant
that receives a gene for red flowers
from one parent and a gene for
yellow flowers from the othCT parent.
The dominant trait is expressed
instead of the re<:cssive trait. Only
offspring that re<:eive a gene for
yellow flowers from each ~..,rent will
have yellow flowers.
....
The 'ertilizHi fogg conl,lins
DNA 'rom bolh paren
.--_~ __-.J
embryos, Or fir51
(elis, of the n!'X1
generation. Their
DNA comes from
An org.1.nism that has two
identical genes for a trait is Solid to
be purebred. A purebred org.1nism
can have two dominant genes or two
re<:cssive genes. An organism that ha s
two diff('ren t genes for the same trait
is called a hybrid.
The offsp ring of hybrids may
express traits that are different from
eitncr p.1rent. Think again about the
red and yellow flowers. Suppose a
bee carries pollen from a red flower to
a red flower. Because red flowers are
dominant, you might think that all of
the offspring will have red flowers.
If the parents are hybrids, however,
they each carry a gene for yellow
f1owers-t'ven though you don ' t see
it. If an offspring happens to re<:eive
a gene for yellow flowers from each
parcn!, It wtll CXpTt.'SS the n'C~:'s~lvc
trait of yellow flowers.
~ CAUSE AND UfEO tn se~UilI
reprodtKtlon, how many cells uea te
a new organism ?
flowers
display the trails of
their spe<iM and
the dom inant trails
of their particular
vilriilnlS.

Ancestral Plant?
Broccoli, cauli flower, and Brussels sp routs are just a lew 01 t he variants
deri~ by selective breeding from an ancient cabbage plant.
Selective Breeding
For thousands of years, humans
h,we identified and worked to il1Cl'Case
desirable traits in plan ts and animals.
Long before scientists knew about
chromosomes and genes, farmers
and shepherds were breeding plants
and animals to obtain offspring with
useful trai ts.
The practice of breeding plants
and animals for desirable traits is
known as selective breeding. Through
selective breeding.. humans try to plan
the arrangement of genes in offspring
without actually changing the genetic
material in any way.
One method of selective breeding
involves combining parents with two
A100 • l esson 2
Bruss~ls sprouts
or more different trails. This method
is known as hybridiz,ltion. TIle go.11 of
hybridiz,ltion is 10 produce a hybrid
organism with the best traits from
both parents.
For example, a plant breeder might
cross a rose planlthal produces large,
fragrant nowers with a rose bush thai
does not have thorns. The desired
result would be a plant that produces
large, fragrant flowers and does not
have thorns.
Selective breeding may produce
plants and animals that survive
specific environments. For example,
red winter wheat is a hybrid that
grows in cold weather. It allows
fanners to harvest two whea t crops
a year, even in cold clim,ltes.
 Another method of selec tive Why do you think people
breeding invoh'es combining plants breed thornless roses? ..
and animals with the S<lme or similar
traits. In this way, a bn.:'«1er can Today. farmers and
predict that the traits of the offspring ranchers use technology
will be very similar to the traits of to impro\'c crops and
the parents. animals. For example, food
This method, known as additives can stimulate hens
inbreeding, is in some ways opposite to 1..1Y more eggs or cows to make
to hybridiza tion. Breeders sometimes more mi lk. Some crop plants
practice inbreeding to keep II breed release compounds that kill insect
pure. Horses and dogs, for example, pests. Also, computers make it easier
are often bred pure so th.lt offsp ring to document selective breeding
maintain the s.l me traits as their procedures and to identify pMtcms in
parents. the results.
One drawb.l ck of inbreeding
(.lust lND HFECT v.mt is the intended
is thOlt it reduces the chances thllt
lin offspring will inherit new result of selediwe breeding?
combinations of genes. This means
th at the genetic information among a
generll tion is very 5;m;llIr.
If similar organisms lire ('xposed
to changes in their environm('nt, such
as harsh w('lIth('r or discll se, all may
suffer. In a population where some
of the organisms have a different
gene tic makeup, at least some may
su rvive such condi tions.

Some cows are bred to

produce beef. Others art
bred to produce milk.
Adaptations flowers. A parrot's be3k is short and
thick, which leis i t crack open seeds.
In nature, favOT<Ible trails are
Other adaptations help orgilnisms
not necessarily those traits that are
defend themselves. Spines or stinging
preferred by humilnS. They Me traits
rays keep predators away or wound
that help an organism to survive.
those that get too close. Thorns,
Any trait thilt helps an individual to
spines, or tough leaves protect plants
survive in its environment is called
from being eaten.
an ada ptation.
For e:'tample, flowers of pond
plants will be exposed to many water
insects. Those plants thai can be
pollinilted by waler insects have an
advilntage over other plants. This
trili t milkes Ihese plants more likely
to survive and reproduce in their
environment.
A favorable trilit in one
em'ironment may not be {avorilble
elsewhere. The same plant that is
pollinilted by water insects would
suffer in a dry, desert environment.
Some adaptations help organisms
to find food. The shape of iI
pelican's beak is an i1daptation that
allows the bird to scoop up fish. '" AI. bladd~1l k~~p this seaweed fl~ tjng.
lening its tuves bMIc in the Sun.
A hummingbird's long. thin beak
is ad3pted to feed on nect.lr inside

'" I'or<upl~ quills are

adaptations th~t d~f~nd
against prfdatOf$.
 Ca mo uflage Wa rning coloration Mimicry
The walking slick is an The red and yellow pattern of The king snake gets e~tra
insect that looks like a twig. the poison arrow frog signal protection from looking like
It is well hidden. predators that it is to~ic. a coral snake.

Ca mouflage Many adaptations protect Mi micry The ability to look like

organisms from predators. The ability
II) bl.,,,d i,,11) lit., ~unl)u"di"g~ i~
known as camouflage. Organisms
wilh camouflage can hide from
predators.
For example, some inse.:ts look
\'ery much like the flowers of their
favorite plants. ~ typically gather
honey at the times of day when
shadows are deepest. Their black
stripes blend into the shadows.
Wa rning Coloration Bright colors
often indicate that an organism is
poisonous. The colors warn predators
to stay away. The bright colors of
many frogs warn other organisms
thallhe frogs are poisonous. A
predator that cats one poisonous frog
is not likely to cat any others!
Did you know that man)' birds
avoid eating red inse.:ts? Red insects
often are poisonous.
another species is known as mimicry.
All I)'g,"ri~m miglrl mimiL 'Ull)th."
species th at is more threaten ing
to a predator. The kin g snake, for
example, is not a poisonous snake.
However, it mimics the poisonous
cor,11 snake, which most predators
will avoid.
Sometimes two species ha\'e
adaptations that work together.
Butterflies, for example, are attracted
to plants tha t have man)' flowers
in large clusters. The butterflies can
eat nectar without using too much
energy fly ing from flower to flower.
In return, the butterflies help the
plants by transferring pollen from
one flower to anolher.
~ UUS£ AND EffECT What is a n
a dapta t ion?
A10)

Organisms reproduce in
one of two main ways:
Muua lly with only one
parent Of se ~ ually wi th
two parents.
Through selective
breeding. people crute
offspring that have
desirable traits.
Ad~pt"tions help
individuals to survive in
their environments.
MATH Makt,,(hart R~af(han
endangered species, such as t!'le bald eagle Of
Florida panther. Make a chart that shows t!'le
knoWfl population of the species at different
times over the last SO years.
WRITING Explanatory Research the
history of horses in t!'le United States. Find out
when hOfSeS arrived, how they were used, and
how people have (hanged horses. Write a report
to show what you learned.
""04 ' Chapter 3 ' lesson 2
Review
o MAIN IDEA What process do
huma~ use '0 influence the traits
of a species?
o VOCABULARY Write a sentence
or short paragraph using the lefms
aSl'lIwl and adapt4licn.
o READING SKilL: cause and
Effect What are IWO possible
effects that changes in envirorment
can have on a s.pe<ies7
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Synthesile Compaie the
benefits and ~awbads of
asexual reproduction and sexual
""""""'"
o INQUIRY SKilL: Use a Model
How could you cr~t." model
to show the passing down of
a recessive trait through three
geflefations7
~TEST PREP
An Cldaptation is best described as
A. a series 01 learned or acquired
traits.
B. the result of e~perimentation
by humans.
C. a trait that is favorable to
survival.
D. an ane-mpt to grow stronger
than other OI"ganisms.
~ Technology
ill V~it www.e duplace.comlK pitofind
out mort about ~tions.
 Chef
Chefs prepare all kinds of creative and
tasty d ishes for restaurants , They also work at
schools, office buildings, and other places that
serve food. Chefs must have excellent cooking
Skills. Because foods come from living things,
chefs need to know the nutritional value of
different plants, animals, and fungi. They also
need to know how to makE' d ifferent foods
look appealing and taste delicious.
What It Takes!
• A certificate from a cooking school or
training on the job
• Keen senses of taste and smell
• An artistic flair. to prepare attractive dishes

Botanist
Botany is the scientific st udy of plants.
Bot anists may work to develop heartier
crops or cures for plant diseases. Or they
may resea rch new drugs from planH of
the rain forest .
Some botanists trave l the wo rld t o study
unusual plants. Others work in laboratories,
conducting experiments on plant parts
and plant cells. Still others work with
far mers, dieticians, lands,app,:;,~~~:;;;::"
or other people who work v
What It Takes!
• A degree in botany, biology,
or ecology
• An interest in plants
• An appreciation for na ture
TRE",,,

, ...
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I \ J
\
This breed 01 Polish thkken lias been
,aiseil 101 at least SOO years. Today
people raise fancy thkkens like these
for fun, pro/it, and competition.

This hen is the offspring of a Polish

rooster and an Arautana f.iule hen.
She got her lufte<.! he~d from Dad
and her fluffed-up body feilthe,s
from Mom.
READING : Compare and Contrast
 Chapter 3 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete each sentence with a term fro m th e list.
1. A tra it developed through learning is a(n) _ . acquired trait A84
2. A chemical sequence of DNA, or ~ determines a trait 01 adaptation AI 02
an organism. asexual re production A96
3. A(n) __ is made of a phosphate, a sugar, and a base. chromosome A86
DNA A86
4. The reproductive material known as __ appears in two
dominant A99
strands coiled around each other.
gene A87
S. A(n) __ is a change in the arrangement of bases in a gene. heredity A84
6. Bacteria multiply by _ hybrid A99
7. A_ trait is expressed even if only one gene IOf that form of mutation AS9
the trait is inherited. nucleotide AS7
recessive A99
8. A(n) __ trait is only expressed jf an organism has two genes
for that form of the trait. selective breeding AI 00
sexual reproduction A98
9. ~armers practICe __ when they male organisms With
ooirable traits.
10. Any trait that helps an individual to survive in its environment
isa(n) _

' Test Prep

Write the letter of the best an swer choice.
11 . Both traits from the environment and
learned traits are _
A. passed down through the chromosolTlO?S
B. ta...ght by parO?!1ts to offspriog
C. always the re<;u~ of human intervention
O. acquired by individua ls in each ge!leration
1]. In asexual reproduct ion. _
A. nucleotide-s join to form gene-s
B. the olfs.pri"9 has exactly the S<l1Tll! ONA as
the parent
C. male and female gamete-s join
O. the offspri"9 inherit traits from two parO?!1ts

12. In Ofganisms that reproduce sexually. 14. Humans can change the tra its of other
the number of chromosomes in body cells organisms through _
i, __ the number in gametes. A. selecti~ breedi"9
A.ooe-half C. twice B. introduc i"9 new predatoo or prey
B. ooe-third O. four time-s C. chaoging the environment
O. all of the above
A108· Chapter ]
 Inquiry Skills
15. Ana lyze Data Copy or trace the diagram 17. Synthesize Explain why it is nKessary
below. Choose labels from the list below to in se~ ual reproduction for the gametes
label the parts of the diagram. to have half the number of chromosomes
chromosome DNA found in body cells.
nitrogenous bas es gene 18. Apply Botanists and farmers save seeds in
ce ntromere a seed bank. Explain the purpose of a seed
bank. How can two seeds from the same
plant ~ies be different?
19. Synthesize Explain why asexual
processes are important to organisms that
reproduce from two pilrents.
20. Apply list th ree inherited or acquired
traits that help you survive. and explain
why each tra it is an advantage.

16. Use a Model Draw a diagram that
traces one pe.-son·s chromosomes back
through at least th ree generations (parents.
graooparents. and great·grandparents).
Performance Assessment
Describe Selective Breeding
Use beads and chEflilie stelllS to model the
process of selective breeding. Describe how gene
numbers change from generation to generation.

Map the Concept

Draw a Venn diagram like the one shown here.
Write each term listed below in the space fO!' Asexual Sexual
reproduction reproduction
asexual reproduction. sexual reproduction.
O!' both.
budding one parent
DNA pollination
fertiliza tion regeneration
mutations two parents
 Write the fetter of th e beu l . Water and nutrients!fom soil now to
answer choice. the leaves of a vascular plant through

1. Which shows the mature ovary of an

A. ptJloem.
angiosperm?
8. ij)Ofes.
C. stomatil.
D. K)1em.

4. The "master molecules" that determine

A. an OI'ganism's traits are calledl ___
A. amino acids.
8. chromatids.
C. DNA.
D. genes.
B. ' - /

5. Which is NOT a trait that this girl probably

inherited from her parents?

c.

D.

2. Which Ofgar.elle directs the activities

01a cell1
A. hairstyle
A. "'''''''''' 8. ~ color
8. Golgi appdfatr.rs
C. lysosome C. nose me
D. nucleus D. mouth shape

( All 0 o uniIA)
5. 'Mlkh organ system indude5 the thyroid Answer the following in
gland, ~enal glands. and pancreas? complete sent ences.
A. nefVOOS system 9. Name two di!oeases caused by single-celled
B. excretory system OIganisms. Explain 00w each disease
C. endocrine system makes people sick.
D. circulatory system
10. Some traits help animals to survive. Name
1. Which is NOT used during photosynthesis a trait you have tha t helps you SUI'INe.
to make food? Explain how this trait benefits you.
A. carllon dioxide
B. sugar
C. sunlight
O. water

a. Which OIyanism belongs to the fungi

killQdom?

• •
•
~.~ .
A.
•
=

c.

D.
 Everything the cell takes in and lets out must pass through the
(ell membrane. Cells may grow larger as they re(eive food and
oKygen. The larger the (ell grows, however, the more nutrients it
needs to stay healthy. Beyond a (ertain (ell siz e, the (ell membrane
(annot take in nutrients qukkly enough.

If tfle sugar cube doubles in

You ran {Ompare a cell to
a SIl9<lr cube. In this cube.
me ratio of surfa<e area to
volume ~ 6 to 1.
widtll, the ratio of SIlrface
area to volume decreases
to 3 to 1.11 a cell grew like
this. food arK! oxygen could
not diffuse qu ickly enDll9h
for til e cell to survi~.
Instead of g,oy;ir>g larger
and large.', cells divide
imo new cells. To survive.
h(lW(!ver, eadl new cell
must continue to borde!- a
supply of food and oxygen.

I
•• .J
".

VOIu~: t , ... ' VDI_: 8 un' Vohne; 2 un'

Surface Area: 6 em' S<Jrf",. Ar." 24 un' Surface Aru: 12 em'

In al l living thir>gs. cell size is limited by the ratio of surf<Ke area to volume.
Shoold ceH volume increase too much, the demarK! for food arK! oxygen woold be
greater than the amount that diffusion can supply, This explains why each of your
cells is about tfle size of an amoeba. You just ha~ ma ny more of them!
Learn more about cell $ize$ and the ratio of $urface area to volume.
Go to www.edupla<e.com/scp/torunasimulation.

Al12· Unit A
 Interactions
Among Living
Things
Chapter 4
Ecosystems. Communities, and Biomes .............. 82
Chapter 5
life in Ecosystems ............................................ 834

_ _ Independent Reading _ _

Life on the Biomes Father Eusebio

seumgeti Francisco Kino
 The ea rs of a
jackrabbit measure one-third
t he length of its body! How do long
ea rs help a jackrabbit su rvive in hot
places? In th is unit. you'll learn how certain
characteristics help anima ls survive in
their native habitats.
LESSON
Sunlight, water, air,

1 plants, animals, and

you- how do you and
other living things
interact with the
environment?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
Lots of rain or plenty of

2 sunshine-in which type

of biome do you live?
Read about it in lesson 2.

Producers, consumers,
decomposers- '.n
you find your way
around a food web?
Read about it in lesson 3.
How Do Living Things
Form Communities?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
You 'ive in a community made up Inquiry Skill
of trees and grasses, pets and people,
Observe When you observe,
and all tile other living things in your
you use your senses to
area. Living things interact with one
determine and describe the
another and with nonliYing things. In
properties of objects and
nature, everything an animal needs
events.
to survive-including food, air, and
shelter--<omes from the living and
Materials
nonliving things in its environment .
• :.<.Iii
• 500 ml Ileaker • water
• teJlarium • earthworms
• organic maller, such as
peal moss or decayed leaves
Look at Life
Procedure
Safety: Wash your hands after setting up the
terrarium.
€I Collaborate Work in a small group.
Measure 500 ml of soil in the beaker. Pour
the soil into the terrarium. Spread a t hin
layer of organic matter over the soil. Add
1~ ...... rlym ECO<I)'<Ium
earthworms and a handful of food scraps,
such as apple peels, to the terrarium. lIVI"" no",," !'Io.'. . .1 no''''"
e Predid Add water to one side of the
terrarium until the soil is slightly wet.
In your Science Notebook, predict how
the earthworms will react to the water.
Loosely place the lid on the terrarium.
Place it out of the sunlight.
e Classify Make a (hart in your Science
Notebook like the one shown. Classify
the things in the terrarium as living or
nonliving.
<) Observe Each day for one week, carefully
observe the earthworms and their
environment .
. , Record Data Write down your observations
in your Science Notebook, Indude the time
and day of each observation. Inve'Stigate More!
Design an Experiment
Conclusion Predict whether eanhwl)lms
1. Observe What interactions did you observe grow largest in fine, coarse.
between the earthworms and their or rocky soil. How could you
environment? test your prediction? Run
an exptfiment with your
2. Infer Based on your observations, what do teacher's approval.
earthworms need to survive?
v atll by Reading

VOCABULARY

.
MAIN IDEA An ecosystem is a commun ity of different
(ommu nity p. 87 pl,ml s .md a nimals, as well il S t he waler, soi l, a nd other
ecosystem ~
nonlivi ng thi ngs in the ilrea .
pOpu lation ,~

READING SKill
Main Idea and Details
As yoo read. write down
deta ils that des<:ribe
ecosystems.
What Is an Ecosystem?
If yOll put your head on the ground of a forest,
what would you sec? You might notice ants
marching in line, or worms burrowing through
the soil. Fuzzy mosses might tickle your nose, and
twigs and bits of leaves might stick in your hilir.
A section of forest floor is one example of an
ecosystem. An ecosyste m is made up of all the living
and nonliving things that interact in one place. [n
a forest, the living things range from tiny bacteria
find earthwonns to t~ towering ilbove. Nonliving
things include sunlight, soil, water, a nd air.
Scientists define and study smnll ecosystems,
such as a rotting log or a pnlch of soil under a tree.
They nlso study lnrge ecosystems,
such as a large forest or prairie.
Regardless of size, everything in
nn ecosystem in terncts.

Small Ecosystems
Soil, a rotting log, fungu~
moss, and a lizald are all part
01 this small ecosyste m.
 The Florida Everglades is " large
ecosystem in southern Florida. The
land is swam py, co\'ercd by a thin
layer of muddy water. Grasses grow
tall because only a few cypress trees
block the sunlight.
Closer to the ocean, salt water
mixes wi th fresh watcr in shallow
lands callcel est uaries. Mangrove
trees thrive in estuaries, as do newly
hatchcel fish and shrimp. Many birds
ncst in the mangroves and fish the
waters for food.
1ne plants, birds, fish, and other
organisms of the Everglades make
up a community. A community is
the group of living things found in
an ecosystem. These living things
depend upon one another for food,
shcl ter, and other needs. They also
depend upon the nUll living things
in thc ecosystem.
Organisms tha t live well in one
ecosystcm might not survive in
another. Alliga tors, for example,
find food and shelter only in warm,
wet places. They also must drink
lots of water to fl ush wastes from
their blood.
Li ke the alliga tor, the roseate
spoonbill is well suited for life in the
Everglades. Its tall legs and strong
feet are ideal for wading. [t shakes
its open bill through the water to
captu re small fish and other animals.
i! i j Oescribe some interaction s
ilmong living th ings in the Everglades.

Large Ecosystem
The F[orida Evtrglldts includes
a communi ty 01 many living
thing$, induding cyprts$, bird$,
panthtr$, and aliigltors.

Populations
You CM! learn a great deal by
stud ying an individual plant,
animal, or other organism. But
to understand how an ecosystem
functions, )'ou need to study
populations. A population consists of
all the members of the same type of
organism that live in an ecosystem.
TIle Everglades e(osystcm
includes populations of mangrove
and c)'press trees, alli gators and
spoonbills, and a wide variety of
other species. TIle birth or death of
one plant or animal is not likel)' to
change the Everglades very much.
But what if a disease killed all the
mangrove trees? Or a new animal
species began nesting where the
spoonbills nest? E\'ents like these can
affect the cnlLre commumty.
To evalua te ecosystems, scientists
consider factors that affect the whole
communit)'. One majorconcem for the
Everglades is the water supply. lhe
Everglades depends on fresh water
flowing from the north. Yet human
needs are draining that suppl)" and
those needs are growing every yeM.
In an ocean ecosystem, which
fish wou ld you suspect are most
important in the community?
Arguabl)', the answer is the smallest
fishes, including herring and
mackerel. These fish are food for
bigger fish, which in tum are food
for sharks, killer whales, and other
big animals. Without large numbers
of small fish. many other animals
would starve.
Why are small fiU!
np,n,", in ocean ecosystems?

feeding Relationships
Small fish nl algH lind other plant
life. ;vwI they are food for larger
fISh. fet-ding relationships like these
~re a pari of all ecosystem!..

£cosystems art made
up of all tile living
and nonliving things
th,t In teract in a gi_
,,~.
A community is
m.1de up 01 different
p"pula ti"ns ollivi",!!
things in an ecosystem.
A poplliation (OfI$ists
01 all the m_btf$
01 tile same type "I
o'!p"ism that live in a
community.
.,e TEST PREP
MATH Make an Estimate A stable
population of slll<Ill beach crabs is the primary
lood soorce lor a certilin type of sea bird.
The "illls support a population 01 ilbout 500
bi,ds. Chilnges in the en~ironment result in a
30 percent increase in the (rab population.
About how ITIiIny individllills might one e~
to find in the sea bird population in later years?
TECHNOLOGY Maku Poster Use
the Internet or library to uplore wtlich types of ~ Technology
technology sdentists use to study ecosystems.
.iii.
Share your results with the class by making iI
poster. Use words and images to explain how
the technology works and IIow it is used.
Review
o MAIN IDEA How do §cientis\S
classify the parts of an
ecosystem?
6 VOCABULARY Use the terms
ecosystem, communit): and
pcpuldrion to describe the area
where you live.
9 READING SKILL: Main Idea
and Details What nonliving
things are loond in ecosystems?
Why are they important?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
What might happen if one
population in an ecosystem
disappeilred? Give an example.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Observe
Go ootSlde With a partner and
carefully observe a small patch
of grass. Classify the things you
~e as living or nonliving .
What ITlilkes up an ecosystem?
A. plant and animals only
B. water. air. and otller nonliving
things
C. all the living and nonliving
things and tlleir interactions
D. one populiltion only
Vi$it w_.edupt;w:uomlscpl
to find out fflOft aboot f(OSYS~.
"
 What Are Biomes?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Is your area usually hoi and wei, Inquiry Skill
or (old and dry? Are there thick
Analyze Data When you
forests or tall grasses? These types of
analyze data, you look for
factors affect many parts of your life,
patterns in the information to
including the kind of home you live
make inferences, predictions,
in and the clothes that you wear.
All plants and animals afe affected and other generalizations.
by their environments. The prairie
Materials
dogs shown below live very well on
• different-colored pencils
the grasslands. but would not survive • calculator
on the tundra or in a rainforest.
Earth 'S different regions support Science and Math Toolbox
different kinds of living things. For step I, review Making a line
Graph on page H13.

rw .,
,
,
,
Compare Climates
Procedure
o Use Numbers In your Science Notebook
make a line graph using data in the
temperature ch art for Des Moines, Iowa
and Iquitos, Peru. Plot the months on the
x-axis and temperature on the y-axis.
Use Numbers Use th e data in the precipitat ion chart to
make a bar graph in your Science Notebook. Plot the
months on the x-axis and precipitation on the y-axis.

Use Numbers Calculate average annual rates of

precipitation and temperature for both places.

Jwe~. r.mpcrawre
Jan. ~ •. Mar. ,~.

"" Jun. Jul. Aug. "p. 0<, "~. "".

D.o~ Moln .... -n ~, ~,

" n
'" 0<
= ,~

'" n 4<

I,\u l~ ~ ~,
= ~<
= u, U< = = ~<
'" '"
A~"'e' f're<;Jpit.1ltion

Dee Mol" ...

Iquito<>
". ". ,..
'""
u ..
'"
~
...
Mar.

.. .. ..
~
"'pr.

~
""
11.m

260m
Jun.

\~

\~
om ... ... ,.. ...
Jul. ~,.

om 16 om ' 2 0"
"F

n ..
0<,
"~
". ,""..
19 om U . . 26.m

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Describe temperature and Design an Experiment
precipitation patterns in both places. Whi ch Study a globe to find a city
place receives more precipitation? Is of the same latitude as Des
precipitation constant throughout the year? Moines. Ii
101" that city. How do their
2. CGmpare Use the data to compare Des Moines climates compa re? Make a
and Iquitos to your community. chart or graph to show data.
v afn by Reading
Biomes
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Biomes 'lre '3'ge regions of Earth. filch
biome p. 81l biome h<l' a (haracteristi< dim ... e that determines its
dimate p. Bl, <ommunities of living things.
desert p. 81 4
grasslands p. 814 Earth's Major Biomes
taiga II- 81 S
temperate forests p. BU A biome is a large group of ecosystems that
tropical rain forests p. SH
have similar characteristics. Study the map below
tundra p. SIS
to find the six major land biomes.
What makes biomes different from one anothe r?
READING SKILL The most important factor is climate. Climate refers
Text Structure A<, YOU read, to the type of wellther that occurs in an area over
use the heads and subheads a long period of lime. Some climates are rainy,
to outline the lesson. while others are qui te dry. Some have a variety
of temperatures, while others are almost always
hot or cold. Different climates support different
populations of living things.

Earth is home to six major land biomes. In each

biome, {limate affects the kinds of plants and
animals that live there. T

World Biome5

4 • l esson 2
 Forest Biomes
Forests are home to tall trees and
the animals that live in them. Forests
are part of two biomes. Tropical rain
forests are very rainy and hot. Some
ra in forests get more than 600 em (240
in.) of rain each year! Tempera tures
range from (lbout18°C to 35°C (64"F
Q
to 9S F), which is like a hot summe r
that lasts (Ill ye(lr.
Bec(luse of the moisture and
warmth, tropica l r(lin forests arc
tC<!ming with life. In f(lct. more kinds
of plants and animals live in this
biome th(ln in any other. Its huge
mass of plants produces much of Location: near the
Earth's oxygen. Some of these plants equator
might supply new medicines and Climate: Warm and wet
o ther useful products.
The other type of forest blome,
tem pera te forests, experiences four
d istinct seasons: summer, f(lll, winter,
and spring. Temperatu res r(lnge from
a chilly - 3(JOC (- 22QF) to a warm 30°C
Q
(86 F). A temperate forest receives
perhaps one-fifth the rainfall of a
tropi cal forest .
These forests are home to (lnimals
such as white-tailed deer, rabbits,
skun ks, squirrels, and black bears.
The trees include maple,
oak, hickory, and beech.
These trees lose their leaves Temperate Forest
in the fall and are dormant Location: e~stern North
through winter. The fallen Amerk~ ~nd other pl~, ~s
leaves decay on the ground Climate: four distinct
and (ldd nutrients to the soil. seasons
r.) TEXT STHUCTURE Compare the
climates 01 bo th fOreSis.
 Grasslands and Deserts
Grasses cover the land in the
grasslands biome. Trees are few and
far between.
There are two main types of
grasslands: prairies and s<wannas.
Prairies are found in temperate
regions, such as the central United
Slatcs. Temperatures may dip as low
as - 40"C ( - 400F) in win ter and 50ilr
to 38°C (100"F) in summer. Pra irie
animals include prairie dogs, coyotes,
hawks, and grouse.
distinct
Most s.wa nnas are found in
warmer regions, such as central
Africa. Yearly temperatures typi cally
remain above l80C (64°F). Elephants,
gir.,ffes, lions, and zebras call the
savanna home.
A S<lvanna receivcs as much as
100 cm (4Q in.) of rilin each year. But
the s.wa nna has a d ry season, as do
other grasslands. That's partly why
trees are scarce in this biome-they
do not thrh'e for long periods
without water.
The desert is the driest biome.
Most deserts receive less than 25 cm
(10 in.) of ra in each year. In fact, some
deserts may not see a drop of ra in all
year long.
Cacti, sagebrush, and other pl;mts
are found in many deserts. Desert
plants and anim.lls are adapted to
!i\'C wi th little water. Cacti, for
exam ple, ha\'e a waxy COMing and
spiny lea\'es to help reduce water
loss. Earth's dricst deserts conta in
little life. These deserts are filled wi th
Mndy dunes that streich seemingly
wit hout end.
Taiga and Tundra
The taiga biome has long, severe
win ters and short, cool summers.
Temperatures may reach lOoe (SO°F)
during only one to three months e<lch
ye<l r. The t<liga is fairly dry, each year
receiv ing only abou t 50 cm (20 in.) of
precipitation, mostly SIlOW.
The most common trees in the
taiga are conifers, such as pines, firs,
llnd spruces. The leaves of these trees
are th in, wa xy needles thllt help keep
in w<l!er. Their leaves do not fall 1111
llt once when the wellthcr turns cold. nortllern
Animllls of the taiga incl ude moose, North Amerit, ltIId
Eurasi,
deer, and wolves.
Climate: ~re
As harsh as tnc taiga can be, it
wintelS and sIIo.t ~oot
is mild compared to the tundra.
The tundra is Ea rth's coldest
biome. h~ving ~n ~"er;oge win ter
temper;o ture of -34'1: (-29"F). The
ground is frozen for hundreds of
meters down. and lower layers stay
fro1.en all year long. This frozen
ground is called permafrost.
In summer. temperatures hO\'er
just under JO"C (5O"F). As the ground
thaws. the tundra becomes swam p)' Lo~tion : neal tM
and covered with mosses. lichens, I
llnd dwarf-li ke trees. Mosqui tO<'S
th rive in the shorl summer.
Other tundra animals include
polar bears. caribou. and reindeer.
These anima ls have adaptations tha t
help them survive in this cold biome.
Pola r bears, for example. have a thick
la)'cr of fat to keep them warm.
~ 1!JjI3l;li !,!i!j!' How do temperatures
compare in t he taiga and lundra?

Marine Biomes
Look back at the ma p on page
B12. Oceans COVCl" about 70 percent of
Ea rth 's surface! They art' home to the
marine biomes.
U ving things need special
adapta ti ons to live on or ncar the
ocean short'. This is because the wa ter
le" el keeps changing wi th the tides.
The intertidal zone is the arca that
ocean tides co\·er and UTlCover in a
regular cyde. Sometimes this zone
is under water, and other times it is
exposed to the Sun and air.
Intertidal Zone
Mussels. sta stars.
and Cfabs live in ttle
(onstantiy (hanging
(oOOitions of ttIe
intertidal lOne.
- I.~ kelp plants in
In this zone, an ima ls such as da ms
and mussels attach sticky threads
to roc ks so the waves won' t wash
them away. Other an imolls, including
many kinds of crabs and some
snilils, can move about over land and
und en,'ater.
just beyond the shore is the ncar·
shore ...one. In some pIOlC('S, this zone
is home to an und erground forest
of ta ll, brown seOlWeed called kelp.
Otters and other animals li ve among
the swaying stalks.
The presen(e of water and sunlight defines
the zones of marine biomes. Different
plants and animals li .... e in each. T
fish and other marine
lile live among the
some nur-shofe zones.
 Still farther out to sea is the
open ocean zone. Here, the wa ter
is deep and (old. Tiny algae floa t
near the surface. Algae nre plan t-li ke
organisms, and most are singlc-celled.
Ik<::nuse nlgae nre so numerous, they
produce most of Enr th's oxygen! They
also provide food for ocean an imals.
Even when the wn ter is clear,
sunlight mostly reaches a depth of
only nbout200 me ters (660 ft). So, the
~ TElT STRUCTURE
floor of the open ocean is very cold
and dark. Organisms here usc spedal
adnp tations to survive such n hnrsh
environment. Some fish produce their
ow n ligh t, just ns ligh tning bugs do
on land. The light helps them to hun t
for food.
Other unusual organisms include
the giant tubeworms that live by
vents on the ocean floor. These vents
release heat nnd gnscs from Earth's
interior. The tubeworms are unusual
because the ven ts--not the Sun--.1re
the source of their energy. Bacterin
ncar the vents ma ke food using
hented chemicnls, n process unli ke
any other on Earth.
Compa re the
condition~ in th e th ree ~one~ of t he ocean .

Dolphins. whales.
and je llyfish spend
much of the ir time
near the surface in
open ocean ~0 f>l'S.

Open Ocean lone

HUge ~chools of Fa ngtooth fi sh and other

he rrin9, tuna, and crea tures have ada pted to
other fish live in the cold and darkness of the
the middle depths
of the open CKl'an.

Freshwater Ecosystems
Other bodies of water are made
up of fresh water. These ecosystems
include streams, rivers, ponds, lakes,
and wetlands.
Streams and ri\'ers contain nowing
water. Near the beginning of a river,
the current is usually fast and the
water is clear. Trout and other fast-
swimming fish H\'e in this lOne.
Filrther downstream, the current
slows and the river widens. Plants
are able to take root in the muddy
bottom. Fish, beavers, and waterfowl
may find homes here.
Kingfishers hunt for fish in
fr~s.h water. T
As the ri vCT nows, it picks up
sediments. Neilr the end of the river,
called the mouth, the water drops
its sediments and becomes murky.
Clltfish and carp may li ve in these
dark waters.
Ponds and lakes are made of
still wllter. Some Me small and may
disappear during dry spells. Others,
such as the Great Lakes, are huge.
1Jcep ponds and lakes have three
different zones. Algae, plants, insects,
and fi sh live near the sun-wa rm ed
surface. Farther down, the water
is cooler, but some sunlight shines
through. Here lh'e plankton, which
is a general term for many kind s of
tiny organisms that live in water.
Fish and other larger animals feed
on the plankton.
Still farther down is a zone that
is deep and cold. Bacteria and other
decomposers break down dead plants
and an imals.
What are three tvpt's
of Ir~hwate r Kosyst~ms1
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What factors
distinguish one biome from
Oiffer~nt biom~~ h~v~ anothef?
different <Iimates
and types of plantt. a VOCABULARY "What is a
Climate is influenced biome? tist si~ e~amples of
by temperature and biomes.
precipitation.
f) READING SKill..: Text
St ructure Use your outline of
land biomes include this lesson to summarize the
Ifopical rain forests. biome of your choice.
temperate forests.
grantands. deserts.
taiga, and tundra.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Analyze
"Why aren't marine alg.ae found at
depths below 200 meters? How
doe this influence li fe at these
depths?
Water <overs much
of Earth's surlac~. o INQUIRY SKILL: AnalYl e Data
Many organisms live Which land biOmes have a
in marine biomes and greater temperature range during
freshwater ecosystems. the year, those near the equator
or those in temperate regiOflS?

.,t TEST PREP

Unlike freshwater ecosystems.
marine biomes are
A. salty.
MATH Find an Averag e Annua l rainfall in
a particular rain forest is shown in the table B. dry.
below. What was the average rainfall over the C. sunny.
five·year period? D. ful l of life.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
250 em 240 em no em 260 em 250 em
~ Technology
TECHNOLOGY GatherData Set up 'iii. Visit w_.eduplacuomlscpl
10 fond our more 31.>001 bO~.
a rain gauge and record precipitation levels
for one week. During the same period, use a
thermometer to record temperatures. Explain
how your data relate to the type of clima te
found in your biome.
 Literature

Earth's ecosystems inspire writers of both fiction

and science. Compare these two selections about the
Everglades of Florida.

Some Rivers
by Frank Asch

Some rivers rush to the sea .

They push lind tumble and fall.
But the Everglades is a river
wit h no hurry in her at alL
Soaking the cypress
thai grows so tall;
nursing 11 frog,
so 'luiet and sma ll;
she flows but a mile
in the course of a day,
with plenty of time
to thin k on the way.

Bu t how can she cope

with the acres of corn
ilnd sorrowful ci ties that drain her?
With hunters and tourists a nd levees
that chain and s tain and pain her?
Does the half of her that's left
think only of the past?
Or does she think of her fu ture
and how long it will last?
Some rivers rush to the sea.
They push and tumble and fall.
Bu t the Everglades is a river
with no hurry in her at alL
 READING

River of Grass
Prologue to Everglades: Buffalo Tiger and
the River of Grass, by Peter Louri e

In Ihe early sixteenth century Ihe Spanish explorer Ponce

de Lc6n searched thc coast of Florida for Ii'll' Fountain of
Youth. He never discovered the mythical fountain, but if he
h<ld penetrated deeper in to the peninsula that thc Spaniards
called "ihe land of flowers," he might have found something
clse: the Everglades. a slow-moving swamp that is in fact a
huge, silent river.
The E\'crglades. called Pa-hay-okee. or "Grassy Water:' by
the Miccosukee (ndi,ms. is often only inches deep, yet i t runs
a hundred miles from Florida's La ke Okeechobee to the Gulf
of Mexico and Florida Bay. In places il is seven ty m iles wide.
It has been called II nver of grass because of the dense waves
of tawny sawgr<lSS arcing gently to the south, pointing in Ihc
dire<:tion of the sluggish flow of thc water.
The Miccosukee Indians have lived in
the Everglades for more than a hundred
J. RfADIHG CHECK
years. When they first arrived they found According to both
the river of grass to be a kind of paradise. passages. what major
Even today, the Grassy Water dazzles the problems threaten
eye with its abundance of birds and other the Everglades?
wildlife. Yet, unlike a hundred years ago,
there is sadness in this bright spot on the 2. WRITE ABOUT IT Why
planet. Great pressures from pollution and is the Everglades a
overdevelopment threaten to destroy the special, unique place?
river of grass. Express your ideas.

l TALK ABOUT IT Wha t

do you thin k should
be done to protect
the Everglades?
 What Is
a Food Web?
Why It Matters...
What did you have for breakfast?
like this owl, you get the energy you
need from food. food energy (omes
ultimately from the Sun. It is then
passed through an ecosystem by
living things.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Use Models When you
use models, you make and
ana lyze a structure or picture
representing a real,world
process to bener understand
how the process works.
Materials
• different·colored peI1cils
• Investigate photo card
Science and Math Toolbox
F« step 2, review Making a (hart
to Organill' Oata on page H11 .
Model Energy Flow
Procedure
o Hypothesize Look at the photo card of
living things. It includes grass, zebras, and
a lion. Form a hypothesis about how each
organism obtains its energy.

e Use Models In an ecosystem, energy

from food passes from one organism to
another. Producers get their energy from
the Sun. In your Science Notebook, make a
chart like the one shown. Which organisms
in the photo are producers? Draw the
producers in the bottom level of the chart.

e Use Numbers Producers get 100 units of

energy from the Sun. Write th is number
of units on the chart. Note that producers
use 90 percent of these units for their own
life processes.
o Use Models Wh ich consumers eat the
producers? Draw the consumers in the
next level of the chClrt. Record the amount
of energy available to them. They will use
90 percent of this energy.

e Use Models Which consumer eats other

consumers? Draw this consumer in the
top level of the chart. Record its available
energy.
II Resear<:h The model you
Conclusion used is called an energy
pyramid. Use the Intemet or
1. Use Numbers How much energy is left for library to research energy
the living things that eat the producers? pyramids. What happens to
How much is left for the last consumer? energy as it is passed from
one living thing to another?
2. InferWhy aren't there more levels in the
chart? Explain.
v af1l by Reading
Energy Flow
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA In an e(o~ys lem, energy fl ows fro m
f ood (hain p. 815 produ(crs 10 ( onsume' s t o dcwmposers.
food web p.826

READING SKILL
Classify As you read,
s.ort groups of living things
according to their ro le in a
food ...
Energy from Food
Would yOll li ke to make food from a gas in
the air and water from the ground? You could
do that- if you were a plant. Plants are Earth's
producers, as arc algae and cerlain bacteria. A
producer ma kes its own food from raw materials
and energy.
Plants and other producers use the energy of
s u nlight, changing it into chemical ene rgy. Water
and carbon dioxide combine into sugars and
oxygen. Sugars are the food for the plant. Plants
use some of these sugars 10 grow, and store the rest
in their tissues.
When you ('ill a plant, you t.l ke in energy
the phln t s tored. You (lnd (Ill other (lnimals are
consumers. A consumcr gels cnergy by c(l ting food,
not producing it.

plants a. e p. odutelS.

in most

Food Chains
To better understand feeding
relationships, scientists organize the
living things of a commu nity into
food chains. A food chain describes
how energy in an ecosystem flows
from one organism to another.
Almost all food chains begin with
the Sun. Producers, such as green
grass, capture the Sun's energy to
make food . Animals th nt eat plants,
such as a cnterpillar, are called
first-level consumers or primary
consumers. These animals eat plants
or other producers.
The birds are 5eCond-levcl
consumers. They eat other consumers.
The cat is a third·level consumer.
Notice that nil the consumers rely on
plants. Wi thou t plants, there would
not be a food chain.
Which other organisms playa role
in a food chni n? If phmts and animals
die withou t being eaten, organisms
called decomposers will break down
the remains. Decomposers inc lude
bacteria, some protists, and fungi, as
well as earthworms and other small
animals. They seTve to return an
organism's tissues back to the soil for
new organisms 10 usc again.
In e\"ery ecosystem, different
producers, consumers, and
decomposers are constantly filling
their roles in food chains. You, too,
are part of food chains. When are you
a primary consumer? Are )'OU also a
5eCond-level consumer?
~Ijm"'. Comp,ue a p.odu(e. ""d
iii (on~ume,.
Decomposers
DKompmers break
clown tlMo dKaying
1.....1M of dead
ploducers and
 Food Webs
LikE' you, ITl()St animals take part
in mol"{' than onE' food chain. For
example, do cats eat only birds? No,
cats also eat mice and fish.
A food web shows how food
chains combine in an ecosystem.
Look at lhe food web on the opposite
page. The algae, 11l'i;'"S, and smaller
plants are produ«rs. The mou5C eats
plant seeds, and it also eals insects.
The snake eats insects, 100, bu t it also
ca ts mice. The hawk hun ts both mice
and sna kcs, and SO docs the fox.
By studying food webs, scientists
can explain how ecosystems function.
They also can predict the effects
of changcs to an ecosystem. [f the
hawks all lefl the ecosyst('m shown
hel"{', how do you think the other
ammals would be affected ?
Cla u ifying Consumers Most consumers
playa similar role in every food
chain Ihey are a pari of. A rabbi t,
for example, is always a primary
consumer. [I is an herbi vore, meaning
~ plant eater. N
Other consumers are second- or
thi rd-level consumers. Examplcs
include hawks and snakes. These
animals are called carnivores. The
wo rd cllmiwrl' means Nmeal ea ter. N
Many (amll'Ores al"{' predators,
animals that hunt and kill prey.
A few anima ls, such as bears,
cat both plants and animals. They
are omnivores-the pl"{'fix ollllli-
meaning "all:' If you cat both plant
and animal products, you arc (In
omnil'ore, too.
826 • Chapter 4 • lesson 3
Cycles in Nature
Food chains and food webs
show how energy nows through an
ecosystem. Ecosystems have many
other in teractions, too,
For example, as you learned
in Chapler 2, plants take up
carbon dioxide from the air and
release oxygen. Animals do just
the opposite-lhey release carbon
dioxide and lake in oxygen. In this
way, plants and anim.11s provide one
another with the gases each needs.
Another importan t cycle is the
water cycle. All living things need
water. Wa ler leaves Earth's surface
through evaporation. It returns
through rain, sleet, and snow.
Nitrogen also cycles through
ecosystems. Nitrogen is a gas that
m;!kes up almost four-fifths of Earth's
atmos phere. All living things need
nitrogen, but in II form differen t than
nitrogen gas from the air. Fortunately,
tertilin bacteria arc able to ~ fix "
nitrogen gas into a form that plants
can usc. Animals obtain nitrogen by
eating plants.
Bug-taling Plants Marshy soils
typically have li ttle fixed nitrogen .
To get the ni trogen they need, some
pl,IOts take an interesting approach-
they Neat" animals!
When an insecllouches the tooth-
like fringes on a Venus "Ylrap, for
example, the planl closes its leal'cs
over it. These plants Irap insects not
for their energy, bu t for the fixed
nitrogen in thei r bodies.
How do (onsumt!u and
prodlKen inler;}(;1 in an lKos,": ':' :m: ' _ _ _ __
food Web
Energy is traMfefJed from
one organism to another
in a food web. The afJOWS
show the direction of
energy flow.
An energy pyramid
shows how much
energy is passed along
to titdllteding ltwl
in an tcosystem.
.-~ ~-
Energy Pyramid
What happens to the food you eat?
You use the energy stored in food to
wal k, run, and engage in many other
acth'ities. A lot of this energy lea\'es
your body in the form of heat. Any
leftO\'er energy is stored in you r body
tissues. You, like all living things, usc
some energy, lose some as heat, and
store some energy in tissues.
An energy pyramid shows how
energy flow s through an ecosystem.
Notice tha t each 1C\'el is larger than
the level above it.ln genera l. only
about 10 percent of the energy in one
level is passed on to the nex t.
Producers, such as plants, make
up the base of the energy py ramid.
Primary consumers make up the
nex t level. Second- and third-level
consumers make up the next levels.
, • Lesson 3
.. lhird·levt!
consumers (0.1%1
.. Se(ond·level
consumers (' %1
.. P<ima.y
(onsumers (10"10)
An energy py ramid explains a
great deal about the populations
of e<:o.iystems As a general
rule, producers ha\'e Ihe largest
populations because they have
the most energy a\'ailable to them.
Next in numbers are the primary
and second-level consumers_ An
ecosystem can support only a few
third-level consumers_
The higher an anim.1.l's level on
the energy pyra mid, the wider the
range of land it must cover for food.
This explains th e large hunting
ranges of animals such as eaglcs,
lions, and snakes. These animals all
ha ve adapta tions to move quickly
and to catch smaller animals.
The energy pyramid also explains
why food chains last only for three or
four links. Beyond that, little energy
remains for an animal to usc.
What is an efH'!rgy pyramid ?

Visual Summary
Producers get the ir
energy Irom th e Sun.
All other livi ng things
get their energy Irom
producers.
A lood chain show<;
the flow 01 energy
Irom one o.gan ism to
anoth er. A lood web
show<; overlapping lood
chains in an e<osys tem.
Energy is lost as
heat at each step
01 a food chain. An
energy pyramid shows
how much ene.gy is
availab le for producers
an d cOnsumers.
.,tTEST PREP
MATH Make a Graph Only 10 percent of
the energy in one level of a food chain is passed
on to the nex\. Mal:!! a graph showing energy
movemen t in a four·level food chain. Assume
100 units of energy at the lowest level.
~ Technology
HEALTH Make a food Pyramid Humans . . Visit w_.eduplace.comlscpl
need to eat differen t types of loods to stay
healthy. Research the basic food groups and
serving suggestions. Make a food pyramid that
shows what you should eat each day.
Review
o MAIN IDEA Describe how
energy flows through an
ecosystem.
a VOCABULARY Compare a food
chain with a food web. Use both
terms to explain how an imals
interad and depefld on one
another.
() READING SKILL: Classify
Give one example each of a
produ<er, hemivOfe, carnivore,
omnivore, and decomposer.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
What would happen to an
ecosystem if a drought killed half
of the plants mat lived there?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Use Models
List the th ings you ate for
breaklast today. Use the list
to <onstrlld one or more lood
chains lor each lood.
Unlike a carnivore. an hemivore
A. makes its own food.
B. eats only producers.
C. eats other animals.
D. eats both plants and animals.
10 fond 001 more abool food web!..
 Walruses blush a lot, but not
because they're embarrassedl It's just
their way of staying comfortable in their
cold Arctic biome. Walruses have a thick
layer of blubber that keeps them warm in
the ocean. Out in the Sun, all that padding
makes them hot. So when they sunbathe,
their hot blood rushes to the surface to let
off some heat. The walruses turn bright pink.
Hippopotamuses turn pink too, but
in a very different way. Hippo skin ooa:es
reddish slime. This slime is an adaptation to
the hot dimate of their African biome. The
slime keeps the hippos' skin from drying out
under the powerful tropical sun. It works
as a sunscreen too. The best part is that the
hippo never has to remember to put it onl
 READING : Compare and Contrast

Keeping cool I. II full-time job

for hippos. All day they do little
but wade. They
don't ewen
.at. Only at
sundown do
they lumbe ..
out of the 1'1"...
to graze 'n
comfort on the

Th.,. overgrown
teeth are no usa at all for
chewing, but they make
handy tools In a frozen world.

-
After. hug8 meal of clam,
on the ocean floor, walru •••
u .. thel .. Ihal"p tusk' to haul
them"I ..... onto the '~::;;--
.Iippery ice. ..
 Chapter4 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete e.;( h sentence with a term fro m th e list.
1. A(n) __ shows overlapping food chains in an ecosystem. biome Bll
2. Zebras are an example of a{n) _ of living things in an community 87
ecosystem. climate 812
3. The flow of energy from producer to first-level consumer to dese" 814
s{'(ond·level consumer can he shown using a simple __ ecosystem 86
food chain 825
4. Different populatioos 01 living things found in the \.arne area at
the same lime form a(n) _ food web 826
grasslands 814
S. A(n) __ includes living and nonliving things interacting together.
population 88
6. Ecosystems with similar cl imate and vegetation make up a(n) _ taiga 815
7. Temperature and precipitation determine the __ of an area. temperate forests 813
tropical rain forests B13
8. The __ biome has long, severe winters and short, (001 summers.
tundra BIS
9. Prairies and !>avannas afe the two main types of __ .
10. __ has a faye.- of frozen ground calii'd permafrost.

' Test Prep

Write the letter of the best answer choice.
11 . About _ percent of the energy available n . Very limited populations survive in Eanh's
at one level of an energy pyramid passes drie-st __
to the next level. A. tropical rain lore-sts
A. 10 B. grass lands
B.30 C. taigas
C. 60 D. de-sl'lt5
D.90
14. Trees that lose their leaves in cool fall
12. Tropical ra in fore-sts are __ year round. weather are common in _
A. cold and dry A. tropical rain fore-sts
B. cold and wet B. tel1l!ll'fate rain lO!'ests
C. warm and dry C. taigas
D. warm and wet D. de-sl'lt5

B32 • Chapter 4
 Inquiry Skills
15. Classify How do scientists classify a
marine biome into th ree zones? In which
zone must populations survive both above
and below the water? What happens in
this zone?
16. Analyze Data The table below shows
climate data for two cities in the United
States. What biome do you suspect each
city is a part of? Explain. You may choose
to graph the data to organize it.
Temp: Average monthly temperature ("F)
Precip: Total precipitation (inches)
CIty- CIty •
MOIIIII 'IM'IPI'I'I.dp. 'fM11PI'I". cill.
17. Apply [)(oscribe four ways that you
interacted with living and nonliving things
in ecosystems today.
18. Analyze If you wanted to show energy
ftow in an ecos~tem. would it be best to
use a food chain or a food web? hpla in
your answer.
19. Evaluate Your friend comments that
bacteria are all unhealthy. What coold
you say to improve his understa nding of
bacteria?
20. Analyze Which animal receives more
energy from a producer: a first·level
consumer or a second· level consumef7
Explai n.

". 54/0 .7 ~41 2 .7

Performante Assessment
March 62/0. 9 3412.7 Display a Biome
M~ 79/0 .1 5713.1 Ma~e a display that shows a typical scene from
a biome.lnclude at least fOOf different types
July 94/0. 8 1113.1
of living things. The display may be a deta iled
Sept. 86/0 .9 62H.5 drawing. poster, Of diorama. Write a paragraph
or short essay to accompany the display.
Nov. 6~ /O . 7 4113.8

Map the Contept

RII the terms below into the concept
map. Each oval represents a larger
group than the oval inside it
Biome
c )
Comm uni ty
Ecosystem
Organism
Populat ion
LESSON

1
living things live on
the highest mountains
and in the deepest
oceans. How do they
survive in such
different places?
Read about it in lesson 1.

Decreases in food
supply, changes in
climate, relocated
species- how do
these factors upset
the balance of an
e cosyste m?
Read about it in lesson 2.

LESSON
Swamps turn into

3 meadows, meadows
turn into forests-
how do living things
respond to changes in
ecosystems?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 What Are
Habitats and Niches?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
How (an a downfish live so dose Inquiry Skill
to the sting ing tentades of a sea
Observe When you observe,
anemone? The fish rubs against the
you use your se nses to describe
anemone, (Dat ing its scales with a
the properties of objects and
kind of slime. The anemone doesn't
events.
recognize the coated fish as food .
Living things interact with one Materials
another in all sorts of ways. These
• safety goggles
interact ions are key to understanding
• e~rthWQrms
how they survive. • goldfish
• 2 aquariums
• soil
• organic matter
• apple peels
• fish food
Worm and Fish
Habitats
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles when handling soil.
o Collaborate Work in a small group. Half
till one aquarium with soil. Spread a
thin layer of decayed leaves o r other
organic matter over the soil. Add some
earthworms and a handful of apple
peels. Moisten the soil. Wash your
hands afterwards.
o Measure Fill the second aquarium with
water at room tempe rature, almost to
the top. Add the goldfish and fish food.
You may also add small rocks and plastic
plants. Wash you r hands afterwards.
o Observe Each day for a week, observe the
earthworms and fish. How do they move?
What do they eat? How do t hey affect
t heir environment ?
o Record Data In your Science Notebook,
write your observations in a chart like t he
one shown.

Conclusion
1. Infer What body parts make the fish well
suited to their environment? How are the
earthworms suited to thei r environment? Inve$tigate More!
Research Learn aoout an
2. Predict Could the fish live in the
interesting plant or animal
earthworms' environment? Could the
that lives in the wild in your
earthworms live in the f ish's environment? state. Where does it live?
Why or why not? What role does it fill in its
ecosystem?
\.eaf~ by Reading
Habitats
Niches
...""
VOCABULARY
adapta tion
habitat MAIN IDEA Each kind of organ ism occupies a particular
niche p.B39 niche in lIS habitat.
sym biosi, p.8'2

READING SKILL Habitats

Compare and Contrast To tell people where you li ve, you probably use
As yoo read, compilfe allCl a street address. An address is a simple way to
COIll1asl relationships among : describe the loca ti on of you r home.
different organisms and their :
.
en .... rQlIfTII!I.ts,
.
:
All livi ng things h.-we an "address," a place
• they live in. This place is called a habita t. A habita t
• is the area where a n o rganism Iivcs, grows, and
•
develops. Everything that an organis m needs to
survive can be found in its habitat.
•• Ma ny diffcrcn l livi ng th ings may live in the
•• same habitat. The African savanna, fo r example, is
ho me to zebras, lion s, and m'InY o ther nnim:lls.

Savanna Habitat

The niche of a lion in

a savanna Includes

Niches
Have you seen pictur<'S or movies
of workers at an automobile factory?
Every worker has a place to be and
a job to do. If one of them fails to do
his or her job, everyone else's job is
affected.
Organisms in a habitnt have
specific fUt"\Ctions, too. A niche
describes wha t an organism docs in
its habitat. You can think of a niche
as a job at a factory or a role in a play.
E.1ch organism plnys a certnin role in
its h3bitat.
Look 3t the Silvanna habitat shown
below. The zebras 3re consumers.
They ent producers, such 3S gr3SS.
They drink water from the watering
hole. These nre parts of their niche.
Zebras are also food for lions. That
is 3nother p3rt of their niche. Zebras
nnd lions sh3re the same habitat, but
h3\"e different niches.
Niches describe more th3n just
feeding relationships. A niche
includes exactly where in the habi tat
an organism lives, how it reproduces,
how it protects itself, and how it
behaves. For eX3mp\e, birds in the
s.wanna may Ih·e in nests. They ma y
use sticks, mud, and other materi31s.
Part of th('ir niche includes r('Cycling
such materials from their habit31.
Each group of organisms in a
habitnt uses resources in different
W3)'S. Zebras, for example, eat the
grass. Lions do not ('at grnss, but th('y
lie in the grass. Birds use the grass
to build nests. Because each group
uses the same resources in different
ways, there are enough resources
for e\'eryone. However, changes in
ecosystems can upset this bal1mce, as
)'ou'l1 team in the ncxtte:'l5Ofl.
.:> (OMPUE AND (DMTUST Ho.... do
habitats and niches compare?
The niche 01
a zebra in a
savanna incl\ldes
~Ptatjons
I n":!hat if you see iI drawing of a large,
white pola r bear crossing a hot, sandy
desert? Something's wrong with this picture!
Can you explili n what il is?
The thick fur and heavy padding of a
polM bear help it Slay warm in its cold, Me tie
habitat. Desert animals, on thc other hand,
have body paris that help them stay cool.
These characteristics arc called adaptations. An
ad aptation is any characteri stic that helps an
organism survive. Se a Turtle .
Sometimes adaptations are phySicaL The The flippers of a :lea turtle are
adapted for swimming.
turtles in the pictures on this page are good
examples of similar animals wi th d ifferent
adaptations. The desert tortoise has legs that
help it mo ..." eilsily across the sand. The sea
turtle has nippers that help it move through
wa ter. E.1ch animal's body is physically
adapted to its habitat.
Plants ha ve adaptations, too. For example,
a " IctuS'S leaves are thin, pointed spines. Its
bod y, or stem, has a very thick outer layer.
These adaptat ions help the cactus conserve
Wilier in its dry habitat.
Other adaptations are beha\'ioral. This
means that the organism has certain behaviors
Desert Tortoise .
that help it survive in its habitat. A bat, for Tile feet of a desert tortoise are
example, migh t sleep through the winter. This adapted for walking In sand.
adaptat ion, called hibernation, allows the b.ltto
live in cold climates.
Cacti
Most plan ts would wilt and
die in a hot desert. Catti
survive because of
their waxy stems.
long roots. and
Natural Selection
How do organisms develop adaptations?
In the mid-ISOOs, British naturalist Chilrlcs
D.m"in proposed a theory to ~lp explain the
process. According to Darwin, some members
of a species have characteristics better suited
to the envi ronm('t1t thiln other members. These
individ uals are more likely to survive ilnd pass
on their ch:lracteristics to their offspring. • Why does a sandpiper
This process is known as natura l selection. have such a long, thin beak1
Let's examine how it works. A{(ording to the theory 01
Picture a rocky beilch. A population of birds natural selection. traits that htlp
an animal survive be-come more
searches among the rocks for food . Some of the
common in the population.
birds ha\'e long, pointed beaks and can easily
pick up pieces of food from cracks between the
rocks. Other birds han' shorter, more rounded
beaks and cannot reach food.
Which birds are moll' likely to survive on
the rocky beach? Which birdS:lre more likely to
reproduce? The birds wi th the pointed beaks are
more likely to do both. Thus, their chilTacteTistics
are passed on to thei r offspring. After scveral
generat ions, many moll' of the birds on the beach
will ha\'e pointed beaks. The dense, shaggy hair
Most scientists believe tha t natu ral selection of these yaks helps them
accounts for the amazing \'iIriety of living things survive the bitterly (old
and their adaptiltions. Scientists also usc the theory weather 01 the Himalaya
to predict now species might change in thl> fu tul"('. Mountain~ •

~ What is an
adaptation? Compare adaptations
among different Ofganisms.
 Parasitism
A hookwo,m takes blood
and nutrients from its host .
It benefits. and the host is
ha,med.
Commensalism
An elf owl ma kes its nest in
a hole in a cactus. The owl
benefit$. and the cactus is not
affected .
Mutualism
Cleaner shrimp eat parasites
a113ched to fisll. Both the
shrimp and the fish benefit
Irom this relatio-nship.

Symbiosis In commensalism, one organism

All living things depend on and
affect one another. Sometimes the
relationship is very close. Symbios is
des<:ribes a close, long-lasting
rc!ationship between two different
kinds of organisms. This word means
"living together."
Parasitism is one type of
symbiosis. One organism, called the
parasi te, benefits from living off the
\xxIy of another organism, the host.
For e xample, a hookworm benefits
from living inside the digestive tract
of a larger host, such as a dog. The
dog may become ill, but it usua lly
doesn't die. If it did, the hookworm
would die, too.
benefits and the o ther organism is
not affected. Birds called cattle egrets,
for example, follow cattle as they
move through a field. The birds cat
the insects that jump from the grass
as the ca ttle graze. The birds benefit,
while the cattle are neither harmed
nor helped.
In mutualism, both organisms
benefit. Cleaner shrimp, for example,
eat parasites off fish. The shrimp get
food and the fish stay healthy. This
relationship helps both the shrimp
and the fish.
>:'," COMPARE AND CONTRAST How d o the
t hree ty~ s of symbiosis compare ?

842 • Chapter 5 • Lesson 1


A na tmal habitat is
th~ area where an
organism lives. It
provid~ everything
the organism neetis
to survive. A niche
describes the role of an
organism in its habitat.
Adaptations are traits
that help o.ganisms
survive in their habitats.
Adaptations can be
physical Or behavio. al.
Symbiosis is a
d ose. long·lasting
relationship between
organisms. The three
main types of symbiosis
a.e parasitism,
commensalism, and
mutualism.
.,t TEST PREP
MATH Make a line Graph The table lists the
bird population on an island lor 4 years. Plot
the data on a line graph. Describe the changes
you observe.
Year '00 '01 '02 '03 '1)4
Po p. 40 92 160 152 148
~ Technology
TECHNOLOGY UseaMap Finda , . Visit www.edupI3(uomlscpl tof'rId
topographic map of your state or community.
Use the map key to describe the physical
features of habitats near you.
Review
o MAIN IDEA Describe two
different niches in a sa~anna
habitat.
a VOCABULARY Give an example
of an adaptation. Describe
how the adaptation helps the
organism.
f) READING SKILL: Compare
and Contrast Accord ing
to natural selection. how do
diffe.-ences among organisms
h{>lp develop adaptations?
O CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
How would you describe your
niche in your family? How does it
compare to an animal's niche in
nature?
" INQUIRY SKILL: Observe
Describe a type of symbiotic
relationship that you have
observed. Identify which
organisms benefit and which are
harmed. if any.
An organism's niche includes
A. whe.-e it lives.
B. how it protects itsell.
C. how it repfOduce5.
D. all of the abo~e.
out more about habftats arid niches.
 What Factors
Affect Ecosystems?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
How many wolves can live Inquiry Skill
in 11 forest? The answer depends
Hypothesize When you
on the size of the forest and the
hypothesize, you use prior
amount of food it provides for the
knowle dge or observations
wolves. Temperature can affect the
to suggest 11 cause-and-effect
populat ion, and 50 (an pollution. In
relationship that can be teUed.
any population-ol wolves, trees,
birds, or people-the size is limited Materials
by the available resources. • III~d~uling cup
• 3 plastic cups
• 32 lima bean seeds
• soil
• water
. ~ ...
• safety goggles

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 4, review Making a Chart
to Organize Data on page Hll.
Limits to Growth
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles while handling soil.
e Collaborate Work with a partner. Label the
three cups A, B, and C. Place soil into the
cups until they are nearly full. Each cup
should contain roughly the same amount
of soil.
e Use Variables Place 2 seeds in cup A, Place
10 seeds in cup B. Place 20 seeds in cup C.
o Measure Measure and pour 25 ml of
water into each cup .
• Re<:ord Data Place at! three cups in a sunny
spot. In your Science Notebook, make a
chart like the one shown for each cup.
e Observe Over the course of the next three
weeks, water the cups when the soil is
dry and measure growth. Be certain that
all the cups receive the same amount
of water and sunlight. Record the date,
height, and your observations at least
twice a week.

Conclusion
1. Observe What differences did you observe
in the growing seeds?
2. Hypothesize What factor might have caused Design an Experiment
these differences? Design an experiment to
3. Use Variables Why was it important to give determine Itow sunlight
each cup the same amount of sunlight and affects plant growth.
Remember to keep other
water?
variables constant, and 10
include a control.
v afll by Reading
Changes
VOCABULARY
Population
extindion
populatio n
predator
prey
."'
p. BSt

p. 841
p.847
Main Idea The size of .my population can vary over
time. It responds to changes in climat e and reSOllrces.

READING SKILL ABalanced Ecosystem

(;t ... se ;tnd Effect As
you read, look fOf cause·
and-eflect relat ionships in
populations and ecosystems.
( )
Different living things use the resources of
an ecosystem in different ways. They take some
resources from e<:osyslems and add others to it. A
balanced ecosystem has enough resources for all of
its living things.

( • )
Every ecosystem supports m,my populiltions. A
population is all the organisms of II given species

(
• )
thallivc together in the Slime area. Any change in
one part of an ecosystem can upset the balance.
For example, suppose a fungus kills many of the
plan ts thai rabbi ts c.,1. Such an even t could lower
the rabbit population. This would affect the hawks,
owls, and other animals that eat the rabbits.
On the other hand, if a popula tion of rabbits
be<:omes too large, they might crowd out other
species that live in the area. J3ccause ecosys tems
have limited resources, they can support only a
limited number of living things.

Predators that «,"sume

frog eggs help keep the
frog population from
growing too large.

"" 1975
""
Limits on Populations
In any ecosystem, populations
are always changing. Old animals
dk.>, and new ones take their place.
When a tree falls, plants Ih31Ihri\'c
in sunlight can begin to gmw. Other
dhll1~t:~, huwevcr, Ci11l up:sct the
b.1lancc of the ecosystem.
Consider the relationship between
pr('d ators and their prey. Predators
are animals tha i hunt and eat other
animals. Prey are animals hunted and
eaten by predators.
(n a healthy e(:osystcm, the
population densi ties of predators and
prey are balanced. Bul certain fac tors
can upsellhis balance. One ('xample
comcs from an act ual ecosys tem-Isle
Royale, an island in l..1kc Superior.
Moose first appeared on the island
around 1900. They may h,we crossed
on ice tha t formed a temporary
bridge from the mainland. The island
had plenty of plan ts for the moose to
cat, and no predators.
The pop ula tion of the mOOS<! had
sk)'rocketed by 1930. Then it fell
sharply. Why? The moose did not
In a predator-prey
relalionsl1ip, tile two
populations tend to
rise and fall together.
""
have enough food. Food is a limi ted
resource In an ecosystem. SO, Ihe
limi ted food supply on thc island
help<'d slow population grow th.
In 1950, wolves appcarW on
the island. Wolves are prWators of
moose, so the moose population
dropped while the wolves increased.
Yet after a wh ile, the wolf population
dropped because not enough moose
remained to support them. With
fewer wolves, the moose population
rose agai n. As the graph shows, the
populations of these two species
con tinuoo to rise and fall.
Lack of preda tors can make
an ecosystem unbalanced as prey
populations grow unchecked. Add ing
preda tors is one way to restore the
bala nce.
~ nUSE ANDUffCl How might a
de<reau in preda!on affect pre~ l
"7
Changing the Balance
Once changed, an ecosystem may
take hundreds of years to recover. In
some cases, it is chan ged forever.
Some faclors that cause big
changes in ecosystem s are living.
Alien species are good examples.
Alien species arc plants, animals, or
other organisms Ihat arc not native 10
a given ecosystem.
In some cases, an alien species has
no nalural predators in its new home.
II may thrive and "steal" resources
from na tive planls and animals, or
fced dire<:tly off them.
How do alien species enler new
ecosystems? O ften, they are broughl
in by accid('nl. Zebra mussels, for
example, traveled from western
Russia to North America during the
19805 in water stored on a boat. The
- organisms.
... Zebra mussels anchor themselves
to solid surfaces, including ot her
organisms such as freshwater dams.
zebra mussels were dumped into
the Great Lakes wilh the waler. By
the 19905, the mussels had spread
throughout many lakes and rivers.
The tiny zebra mussels can clog
water pipes used by power plants
and water treatment facilities. Zebra
mussels also harm native organisms.
They grow in large groups on dams,
mussels, and crayfish. This growth
can smoth('r the native species.
Another problem is th.lt z('bra
mussels filt(,T the water, ckaring
it of planklon. Plankton are tiny
producers. With fewer plankton to
cal and 10 provide oxygen, many
native species die.
It can Ix> very difficult to g('t Tid
of an alien species. However, many
states are working together to con trol
the spread of these lroublesome
,
,
The Asian long-horned
<011
beetle enteled the United
Slates in wooden shipping
crates in t he 199{)s.lt
burrows un der the bark of
trees. slowly kill ing them.
 Nonliving things can also change
the balance of an ecosystem. These
include natural events, such as
volcanic eruptions.
For example, Mount SI. Helens is
a volcano in the state of Washington.
For many years, it was like a sleeping
gian t- it caused no trouble. Hemlock
and fir thrived on the mountainside,
as did many animals.
Everything changed in May 1980,
when the volcano violently erupted.
In a mailer of minutes, hot lava
burned and destroyed trct'S over an
area of 5(X} squ<lre kilometers. Thick
deposits of ash covered ground
hundreds of kilometers away. The
area surrounding the volcano became
almost bHren.
Within" few ye~rs 01 the MOllnt St.
Helen~ eruption, flower~ bloomed again
on nearby ~Iopes.
Yellife slowly returned to the
moun tain and neighboring areas.
Some plants survived the eruption.
Wind blew in seeds for grasses and
shrubs, which sprouted a year or so
after the eruption. Then larger plants
moved in, followed by animals that
ate those plants.
In 2004. the volcano turned active
once again, although the damage was
not nearly as severe as before. If the
volcano stays quiet for many more
years, the forest will return as before.
Other na tural e"enls include
forest fires, floods, and droughts.
Each can cause long-lasting changes
in ecosystems. What do you think
animals do when ecosystems change?
i'} (AUSE AND EFFlCT Desc, ibe one way
that a nonliving facto, may change an
ecosystem.

When a new lizard moved into part of its
habitat, the green anole 01 Florida moved
to the treetops. A
Adapting to Change
What if your home suddenly lost
heat during a cold winter? What
would you and your family do?
You might mon' to a new home. Or
you might adapt to the cold house,
meaning you would find a way 10
Slill1ive there. Maybe you would
build a fire or wear warm dothes.
In nature, lil'ing things also
respond to dramatic changes in
their em'ironment. Sometimes they
relocate, meaning they move to a
new home.
The mOl'e need not be far. For
example, in recent years a lizard from
Cuba inl'aded part of the Florida
habitat of another lizard, th e green
anole. The green anole used to live
close to the ground. When it lost
resources to the Cuban 1i~rd, the
grct'Tl anole moved to the trectops.
A lil'ing thing can also adapt
to changes in its environment. For
eKamplc, many animals grow thicker
coats when the weather turns cold .
If the change is too dramatic.
howc\"er, the animal might perish,
meaning it would die. Perishing is
the consequcnce when living things
can neither adapt nor relocate to
su rvive a change.
Living things h,l\'e relocated,
adapted, and perished for as long as
they have been on E..uth. Fossils give
dues to how this happened. Fossils
are the remains or traces of once-
living things.
Fossils may not show how
individual organisms changed, but
they do sho w that different species
have Jived at different times. Look at
the fossil dinosaur shown below. No
animal alive today has a skeleton just
like this. Because dinosaurs could not
survive changes in their erwironment,
they perished.
Fossils help
scientists determine
how spe<ies have
changed. ~

• lessoo 2
 Geologic Age
Sedimentary rocks lorm in horilontal
lay!!rs. Ov!!r tim!!, the layefs may
bend, tilt, Of f!!main flat. '"
Evidence in Rocks
Change in ffosystems can occur
very rapidly and can afffft vast
areas. For many animals, perishing is
often the result. Throughout Earth 's
history, not only have countless
individual organisms perished, but so
have entire species.
When this happens, the species
becomes extinct. Extinction occurs
when all members of a species die
out. Many different events can
cause extinction, even among very
successful species.
How do scientists draw
conclusions about species that wenl
extinct long ago? They do so by
studying both fossils and the rocks in
which the fossils were found.
The illustration above, for
exam ple, shows layers of rocks from
a hillside. These layers formed on top
of one another over time. The oldest
rocks are on the bottom, the youngest
on top. Any fossils in the rocks must
have formed at the 5.1me time as the
rocks around them.
Conglomerate
Taken together, fossils and rocks
show that species and ecosystems
have changed II great deal throughout
Earth'S history. For example, fossil
shells or fi sh show Ihe land once was
underwater. Fossil ferns show a wet,
warm climate. Both kind s of fossils
have been found in mountains!
Scientists are also able to estima te
the age of a fossil, typically through a
process called radioactive dating. The
oldest fossils are billions of yea rs old.
Sometimes the absence of fossils
is key information. For example,
Earth's rocks hold a wide variety of
dino5.lur fossils, yet none in layers
younger than 65 million years old.
Scientists conclude that all the
dino5.1UrS died at once at this time.
Such an event is called a mass
exlinclion. Ea rth has experienced
several mass extinctions throughout
its history.
D UUSE AND EffECT What Can sci!!ntius
t!!arn by uudying fossils and rock~?
851
 • This map shows the utent 01 the glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere
during the most recent ice ol9t, Irom about 20,000 years ago.
Climate Change
Do you live in New York? Or
Minnesota or Michisan? If you could
tr11\'el back in time-say, 20,000
yea rs-you would not recognize
these slates. They would be CO\' ered
under a thi ck sheet of icc.
Over the last two million years,
large parts of North America and
Europe ha\'e been covered several
times by huge ice sheets, or gli'dcrs.
These periods are called ice ages,
The I"st ice age ended about 11,000
years ago.
During an ice age, much of Earth's
water is locked up in glaciers, causing
sea levels to fall. During the last ice
age, the drop in se" level exposed a
land bridge bel\\'ccn Asia and North
America. Mnny living things, humnns
included, may have crossed this
bridge to scUle in North Americn.
852 • Chapter 5 • l esson 2
Many an imals weT(' already in
North America at this time. Some
were very large, like the woolly
mammoth and the saber-toothed
cal. With their thick, furry coats,
lhey were well adapted to the cold
conditions. When the ice age ended,
however, they be<::ame ex tinct.
Some scientists belie\'e that these
animals could not adapt to the
warmer climate. Other scientists
think that both climate and humans
caused Ihe extinctions. Humans may
have overhunted the great animnls.
The exact reasons why some
animals be<::ame extinct may ne\'er
be known. But Earth's climate
does change periodically. These
changes greatly affect the living
Ihings upon it.
~ (JUst AND UHO How might climate
change affect living things in the future?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What factors can
cause the size of a population of
f(osystems have living things to change?
li mittd .esources. A
balanctd ecosystem a VOCABULARY Use the terms
hil'i tnough .esOtl.ces predator and prey in a sentence.
to suppo.t all living
things. 9 READING SKilL: Cause
and Effect Why do alien
spedes often thrive in the ir new
Both living things, such ecosystems?
as alien species, and
nonliving things, such
as volcanic eruptions,
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Does your classroom have
can upset the balance
unlimited resources? hplain.
01 an ecosystem.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Hypothesize
living things can What changl?S in living and
respond to changes r.onliving things might be
in ecosystems by brought about by the onset of
reloca ~ l ng. adap~lng. another ice age'!
or perishing.
.jJ TEST PREP
A mass extinction occurs when
A. one animal spe<ies dies out.
B. one plant species dies out.
C. many spe<ies die out at
MATH Calculate Population Density roughly the same time.
Measure the area of your classroom. Determine O. many spe<ies die out at
the number of students in the class. Then different times.
calculate the population density of students in
the classroom per square meter.
~ Technology
HISTORY Create a Time line Research '¥ Visil www.eduplacuomlscpltof'rId
major mass extinctions that have occurred 0111 more about popIJlatioos.
throughout Earth's history. Make a time line
showing when each extinction occurred and
what types of organisms were affected.
 Primary Source

DlNOSAUR
EXTINCTION
Scientists have dug up dinosau r fossi ls all over the
world. Yet the fossils always arc in rock layers older
than 65 million years. Younger layers lack them.
What killed the dinosaurs so quickly? Scientists
continue to deb.lle this question! Two throries are
outlined on the nex t page.
Whatc\'cr killed the dinos.1.urs also seems to have
killed more than half the species of the time-a mass
ex tinction. Earth's ciim<ltc changed, too. [t changed
from warm and mild to cool and more varied.
Fortunately, mammals survivoo the maSs extinction.
The success of today'5o mammals-including humans-
might stem from th is long-ago event.

The ast eroid theory of dinosaur extinction was put forth bV fathe,-
and-son scient isu : luis Alvarez (Ith) and Walter Alvarez (right). T
 SOCIAL STUDIES

Asteroid Theory Volcano Theory

All unusual amount of iridium is fOllnd in rod
layen from the time of the maSS ... tinction.
Iridium metal is rare on Ea,th', surface, but
mOre (ommon in asteroids. An asteroid strike
might have filled the air with dust and deb.is.
If sunlight was blocked, plants would have
died, and dinosaurs would have followed.
Volcanic eruption, may have filled the air
with snot and ash, blocking the Sun. The
volcano theory argues that extinction took
place more gradually. pl'rhaps ove. seve.al
million yea.s. The thof)' also explains the
i,idium deposits. because Ea, th', interior is
IIigh in iridium.

I. READING (HECK How do scientists infer

that dinosaurs went extinct quickly?
2. WRITE ABOUT IT Comp<lre the two
theories about the extinction of the
dinosaurs.
3. TAlK ABOUT IT Do you think Earth is in
danger of another mass e~ tjnctjon?
 How Can ns
Change Ecosytems?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Huge numbers of bison once
roamed the Great Plains of North
Inquiry Skill
America, Yet in the 1800s. humans Predict When you predict,
hunted them almost to extinction. you use observat ions. facts, or
Hunting and other human activities patterns to ant icipate results.
changed not only the bison, but the
«osystems of wnich they were part.
Materials
• plastic container wirh lid
Changes like this continue
• ice cubes
today. By underst anding how and • modeling d Jy
why ecosystems change, people • waler
can manage those changes wisely. • metric ruler

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 2, review Measurenwnts
011 page H16.
\twestigate

Rising Sea Level

Procedure
o Use Models Work with a partner. Use clay
to make a model slope inside a shallow
plastic container. The slope represents a
coastal area. It should be placed at one
end of the container.
e Measure Add water to a depth of 2 em
inside the container. The water represents
the ocean. It should cover only the edge
of the slope.

o Predict Add four ice cubes to the

container. The ice cubes represent
gladers. Cover the container. In your
Science Notebook, predict what will
happen to the level of the water when
the ice cubes melt.
e Record Data The next day. measure the
depth of the water in the container,
Record your measurements in a chart.

Conclusion
1. Observe What happened to the depth of
the water in the container?
2. Observe How was the model land affected
by the change in the depth of the water?
3. Predict How might a rise in sea level affect Inve,tigate More!
coastal areas?
Research I~ Earth's
aVl'fa.ge temperature
increasing? Research this
question, Ptepafe a report
thaI includes a graph or map
to display data.
v afn by Reading
Human
VOCABULARY
endangered p. BS9
on Ecosystems
spe<ies
pollution ..'"
threat ened species p.859
Mll in Id ea Human activi ties impact ecosys tems in both
positive lind negative ways.

READING SKill Human Activities

Draw Conclusions As you
read, draw conclusions
about the impa<t of humans
00 e-ccsystems.
Tropical rain forests are being
cleared for farm ing and
Jogging. Many species are lost
along willi llie forests. "
Rain forests are among the most valuable
resources on Earth. They are home to a vast vari(>ty
of plants and animals. Yet rain forests are destroyed
every day, By one account, almost 200,000 squnre
kilometers (77,000 S<Juare miles) are losl each year.
That's about 37 city blocks per minu te!
People clear rain forests for land to grow crops,
raise livestock, and build homes and businesses.
Lumber th1lt comes from the trees is valuilble, too.
Why should you be concerned about the loss
of rain for...sts? One re<lson is that pl(lnts (lnd
animals may become extinct when their habi tats
are destroyed. Scientists believe that some rain
forest plants may contain substances that could be
used as medicines. In add ition, rain forest plants
release oxygen and take in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

• Oi!velopers cut the lOp off a hillside to build these
houses in California.
Humans have a huge effect on
ecosystems by destroying habitats. In
fac t, hnbitnt loss is the mnin renson
why r<ltes of extinction are rising. Not
only rnin forests nre affected. O ther
ecosystems are impacted, too.
Wetlnnds, for exam ple, are
som('times drained and filloo in to
provide land for fnrms, busi nesses,
nnd housing d('velopments. Un til
recently, people did not understand
the importance of wetlnnds. These
ecosystems help filter harmful
chemicals from groundwater.
Th(' spongy grnsses in wetland
nreas also absorb excess \,'ater during
heav y ru ins. This ac tion helps reduce
flooding. Many anima l species hatch
in wetlands. L.lter, as ndu lts, they live
in the sea. Wetlands arc important
nurseries for these animnls.
• In the United States
alone, more than
4 billion kg (9 billion Ibs)
of fish are caught each
year. Many popular fish
are now threatened .
Excessive hunting and fishing
practices pose another threa t to many
ecosystems. In the enrly 1800s, for
exam ple, more than 60 million bison
ro.lmed the Great I' lnins. Yet by 1890,
fewer than a thousan d were left.
O verhunting was the bigges t reason.
People killed the bison for th('ir hides
or tongues.
Wh('J1 a species is close to
becoming extinct, it is called an
endangered species. When a species
is close to becoming ('ndnngered, it
is called a t hreatened species. These
cn tegories are importan t. They le t
everyone know which species nCl"'d
the most protection.
11) DRAW CONCLUSIOIoiS Is h-abitat
destrud ion a serious problem7 hplain.
r Types of Pollution
Air Pollution
F.cIO,if'S that bum fossil fuels c.n ,.. leMf
harmful substances into the ai.,
Wat er Pollution
Oil §jIiIl! c.... harm plants ind animals Ih;it
live in Of ~ar il'>f' watH.
Land Pollution
Trash Bnd garbage ale oflen ca relessly
dis(a.M.:i, polluting lilt land.
860 • Chapte, 5 • lHSOl'l 3
Pollution
Whll! ot her human atlh'ities ca n
im pact ecosystems? Burning fossil
fuels is one example. Fossil fuels
include oil, gas, and C0.11. These
fu els contain 11 lot of energy ilnd are
eaSy to use. However, burni ng them
can cause pollution. Pol1ution is the
add ition of harmful substances to the
environment.
When fossi l fuels are burned,
certlli n gases and solid particles are
relclIsed into the air. These polluta nts
ca n milke the air unhealthy to
breathe. Some combine with wa ter
droplets to form adds. They fall to
the ground as acid rain.
Fossil fuels don't have to be
burned to pose a threat to the
environment. Oil, for e~ample, is
often transported on bLg shLps called
tankers. Accidental spills ca n damage
the environment and be e~pensive
to clean. About 3OO,COJ bird s died
following a major oil spill in Alaska
in 1989.
Human activities ca n also pollute
the land. Each yea r, people In the
United States produce hundreds
of millions of ton s of solid waste,
including paper, plasti cs, and
metals. Most solid waste is buried
in S.1nitary landfills, and some is
burned. However, people sometimes
carelessly dump solid waste along
roodsides or in bodies of water.
Some farming and lawn-care
practices can also cause pollution.
Rain can wash fertili zers into rivers
and streams, where they ma y damage
the ecosys tem.

Growth of Human Population
Hundreds of yea rs ago, the effects
of human activities were rela tively
small. There were no power plants
or motor vehicles. And the hum"n
population was much smaller than it
is today. As the graph shows, today's
human population is very large, and
growing larger all the time.
In 1800, onl)' about I billion people
lived on Earth. By 1930, that number
had doubled. A mere 30 years latC!",
the popullllion had increased to 3
billion. Today, more than 6 billion
people live on the planet.
Modem humans have been
llround for thous,1nds of years. Yet
our popullltion growth remained
fairly steady untillhe 11lst 200 years.
Why has the human population
grown so fllst in such a short
time? Advllnces in medicine and
technology hllve mllde it possible for
more people to survive diseases and
accidents. These s.1me factors help
people Iive longer lives.
E~~=:;2:;;food' land, and waler.
-.,• •
•
•- ••
!
-• ,
i0 0
• '"" "" ''''
Year
E\'eryone needs food, clean water,
clean ai r, shelter, and other resources.
As you've learned, however,
ecosystems h.we limited resources. If
the human population con tinu es to
grow, not enough resources will be
a\'ailable. In fact, in many parts of the
world, food and wa ter are already
scarce or poorly managed.
Remember that human activities
can harm ecosystems. A growing
human population will take up more
space. More natural habitats will be
lost. More species wHi be threatened
wi lh extinction. Can anything be
done to help this situation? Read on
to find out how people are protecting
the environment.
~, DRAW CONClUSIONS How has the
growth in human po~la lion affected
e.:osysttms around the world?
A growing human population must compete
IOf a limited amount of resources, such as
GoodNews
All around Ihe world, people are
~~-r~~:-~~~~~~~~--l
working to reduce pollu tion and restore
damaged ecosystems. Governmen ts
arc passing laws. Industries Me laking
action. And people li ke you are making
a difference everyw here!
~ DUW (ONClUSIONS How can in divi dual
actions he lp protect the environ ment ?

In the United Sta les, wildlife refuges

cove, nearly 40 million he<lares
(15 million acres). Oevelapmen t and
I'r~;
hunting are limited in these refuges.

Cleaner Cars
The ( lean Air Act, revhed in 1990, limib
the pollu tants from new (ars. Some
manuf"durers have designed Ur'I thai
use altemilliv!' fuels.

Endangered Species Act

This le<jisla t ion protects endangered
and t hreat ened spe<:ie'S from harm by
human ad ivitie§.

5 • Lesson 3 I

,
, . \
~
.

Clean Technology
Community Actions Hew IKh!Wlogy '~ces poIlul~1s i t coal·
MallV people wa.k to dun up trash, burning power pl~nlS.

plant trees. or carpool to school and

work. Individuals Can m.. ke a big
cliffe.enn t

Protecting Wetlands
The Environmff'ltal ProlKlion
Agency (EPA) W(Orks with state and
local governments to prot«! bogs,
swamps. and otht< _1 plac:H.
Environmental Legislation
Many states have passed laws to p'otKt
o. support Io<al spttifl. In florida,
funds from license platn help p.OIKI
-,~

•
• B6'
 Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA What are some
ways that people affect
Many habitats are ecosystems?
destroyed by logging.
developmen t and 6 VOCABULARY What can
other human actions. happen to a threatened species
Overha .... esting un if its population continues to
redu(e the populations decrease?
of certain species.
o READING SKILL: Draw
Pollution affects Conclusions (an the actions
air. wa ter. and land. of one person help the
A growing human environmenl? Explain your
population means answer.
that more people are
competing for limited o CRITICAL THINKING:
resources. Synthesis A plant in a tropical
rain fo.rest be<omes extinct. Why
should this concelO you?
GovelOments have
passed laws to protl!'Ct " INQUIRY SKILL: Pre di ct
the environment. Many How will Earth's resources be
industlies use !leW
tl!'Chnology to reduce
affected if the human population
pollution, Individuals
(ootinues to grow?
can help dean up
ecosr.;tems.
.elEST PR'P
During the past 100 years. the
human population has
A. decreased.
for Home
and School B. stayed the same.
C. increased slightly.
MATH Make a Table Read the information
about human population on 861 and make a D. increased greatly.
table to show this data. About when was the
world population at 4 billion?
~ Technology
.... V;s;t www.eduplace.comlscpitofiod
WRITE Explanatory Use the library or out more about pollution.
Internet to research how i ndi~iduals can help the
environment. Make a "Help the Environment"
booklet. Share the booklet with classmates.

5 • Lesson 3
 Entomologist
Between 7,000 and 10,000 new species of i n~e'ts ilfe
discovered every yearl Entomologists study insects to learn
'-. - how they behave, function, and relat e to other organisms
in different ecosystems.
Entomology is important for many reasons. Insects
recycle nutrients. pollinate crops, and provide food for
larger animals. Other insects threat en food supplies or
spread diseases.
What It Takes!
• A degree in entomology or biology
• An interest in insects and their environments

Ship's Captain
Boats and ships are visitors to water e<osystems. Sometimes
their visits can cause great changes. Fishing boats, oil tankers,
and even passenger liners can damage ecosystems jf they are
not run properly.
A ship's captain needs to understand the ship and its cargo,
as well as the environment through which they travel. The job
comes with great responsibility.
What It Takes!
• An understanding of sea-going vessels
and ocean navigation
• leadership and management skills
 Wham! What a punch! Can it a
shrimp, but for Its slu, It's the hardest hitter on hrth.
The mantilshrimp socks a punch that approaches
the force of a bulletllt can smash through the armOr of
the toughest prey in the blink of an eye.
In an aquarium, a mantis shrimp can spell
trouble for the ecosystem. Why? It rapidly
shatters and uls all the snails and other shelled
crutures in the tank. And good luck getting rid
of this powerful puncherl
The mantis shrimp is smart.
It knows how to hide and
strike out from behind
cover. It can easily break a
person's finger-or even
the tough safety glass of
a public aquarium.
READING : Compare and Contrast

Sock it to 'em!
A human boxer is no match for the
mantis shrimp. In the blink of an eye,
the shrimp's club-shaped front leg
can reach SO mph. That's two or
three times faster than the
fastest human pI.mcher!
 Vocabulary

Com plete each se ntence wi t h a term from the list.

1. A{n) __ is the aru..vhert an organism lives. aNptation B40
2. Wheo a spedes is very dose to becoming exlina. it is called endangered speciH 859
0(0) _ utinrtion BS 1
1. Pn'dalOfS hunt and eal _ habitat B18
nidle B39
• __ is the number 01 living things of a certain species in a
pollution B60
g~area.
population B46
5. A{n) __ is an Ofganism's role itI its habitat. predator B47
6. Burning lossilfuels and dumping trash can cause _ jWeJ 847
7. A lion is an example of a(n) __ that hunts zebras. sJmbiosis B42
threatened !lpec:iH BS9
8. The "iPPM on a sea turtle are an example of a physkill _
g. __ occurs when alilhe members of a certain species die off.
10. Parasitism. commensalism. and mutualism are types of _

~ Test Prep

Write the letter of the best answer choke.

11 . Whill best describes a spe<ies thaI would 13. In lhe process 01 _ organisms that are
be classified as endangefed if illosl more best suited to their environments survive
_1 ilnd piiss on tIleir traits to their offspring.
A. extinct A. natural selection
B. Ihriving extinction
8 . ITIiISS
C. OIl.., C. niches and habitats
D. tlftal@llfd D. behavioral adaptation

12. Potentially harmful orgMisms that 14. W11ich 01 the following is NOT a wiI'f that
are not na~ 10 a given Kosystem are humans atlect ecosyslems?
called _ A. poIlllIion C. eartllquakfs
A. pr@da1OB C. parMiles B. de<\;fl ,met.1 D.~ling
B. al.., Sjlecies D. lhrealenfd

868 • Chliptt r 5
""'"
 Inquiry Skills
15. Observe look around the area in which
you live fOf examples of how humans have
changed local ecosystems. Write a short
paragraph describing these changes.
16. Predict A fire destfOyed a forl'St. Aft!!!"
a year, grasses began to grow back in
the area. Soon after tilat, rabbits moved
in to eat the grass. The rabbits had no
major predators. so their poIJulation grew.
Recently, f(lxI'S and hawks returned to the
area. Predictllow the population of the
rabb its will cilan(;e.
Map the Concept
Fill in the concept map by writing definitions IOf
each term.
S~mb ;oti(
Relat;omhip'
[ Para,it;'m -r Commen, ali,m
, I
17. Synthesizing What might be do~ to
stop the spread of harmful alien species?
List three ideas and discuss why they
could work.
18. Appfying What are some th ings you can
do to help the environment? How could
you encourage people to join you?
19. Evaluating Is it helpful to classify
organisms as endangered or threatened?
Why or why not?
20. Anafyzing Humans. other mammals.
and birds can maintain a constant
body tempe!'ature. Why is this a useful
adaptation? How does this explain the
!.pread of these animals around Earth?
Performance Assessment
Make a fossil
Use clay to make a mc:>del fossil. Select an object
such as a leaf arK! press it into the clay. Or, trace
the outline 01 an animal's footprint in the clay.
Exchange your model with another student.
What can you infer about the plant or animal
from studying the fossil?
( Mutuali , m )
Write the letter of th e beu answer choke. 4. Which factor is MOST imponant in creating
the difference in biomes?
1. A hookWOfm lives by using the nutrients
in a dog's digestive system. Whidl typI! of A. physical features
symbiosis is this1 B. temperawre
C. planllife
O. climate

5. Which is Earth·s largest land biome1

A. desert
8. grasslands
A. commensalism
C. lundra
8 . mutualism
O. laiga
C. organism
O. parasitism 6. The marine OI'ganism shown lives in the

2. Which is Ihe st(ond·level consumer in this

food cllain?

A. bird
B. caterpillar A. shore zone.
C. fox B. inlenidal zone.
O. leaf C. near·shore zone.
O. open ocean zone.
1. Which is NOT a reason thaI rain forests
should be preseMd?
A. They contain many producefS.
B. They are home 10 many habitats.
C. They are good for growing (fops.
O. They contain many different organisms.

810 - un0
7. The illustration below ~ part of a
forest Kosystem. Whidl is part of the
Kosystem but IIOt part of till' forest
community?
Answer th e following in
comple te sen tences.
9. What is a IniISS extinction? Give two
examples of what might cause a mass
extill(tion.

10. Explain what an alien species is and how

the introdllttion 01 an alien species can
affect Kosystems.

A. rod:
8. grus
C. mouse
D. bird

8. The illuSlJation below is MOST likely a

A. taiga I>iome.
B. tundra biome.
C. desert biome.
D. grusland biome.

."
 Grasslands tan be hot and dry in the summer, with temperatures
sometimes climbing over 38°C (100°F). Animals t hat live in hot
plates must find a way to keep tool. The jatkrabbit's long ears are
adapted not only for hearing, but to help cool its body.

A jackrabbit's ears are
about 20 cm long. The wind
(oots the ear's thin s~ in.
whK:h cools blood vessels
Iyirlg dO'lely beneath.
Othe< ki nds of rabbits cannot
survive high temperatu res.
They would sofie< fatal he"t
strokes at tempe<atures of
around 2S0( (77"F) or hi9he<.
Snowshoe hares live in coid,
Arctic climates. Small ears
help trap l>ody heat inside.

All orga nisms have adaptations to h ~p them survive in their natural habitats.
Adaptahons include physical features. such as ear shape and leflgth. as;ffil as behaviors..
such as leed irlg at night instead of the day. Ma ny organisms are adapted to very specific
habitats. If their habitat is de5troyed.lt1ey may not survive elsewhe<e.
Learn more about adaptations. Go to www.eduplatuom/stpifore...... mples of
othe< adaptatklos that help animals and plants surviole.

872 • Unit B
 Earth Systems
Chapter 6
Earth's Changing Surface ................................... C2
Chapter 7
Earth's Structure .............................................. C34
Chapter 8
Using Resources Wisely.................................... C70

Independent Reading

Wind, Wat~f. San Francisco Global Energy

and Ice Shakes
 Ea rth's surface is
(onstantly (hangi ng. When a
strong earthquake strikes, the surface
shakes and rolls. Other earthquakes are
ha rdly felt at all. How do scientists measure
t he strength of earthquakes? You will have
the answer to th is quest ion by t he end
of t he unit.
 LESSON
Features of Earth's

1 surface range from deep

ocean trenches to tall
mountains. What are
these features like?
Read about them in Lesson 1.

Wind, water, ice, and

gravity- how do these
agents wear down
•
Earth's surface?
Read about it in lesson 2.
-
LESSON
Shifting sand, bubbling
r
3 lava, moving crust,
and flowing ice-
how do they build
up Earth's surface?
Read about it in Lesson 3.
 What Makes Up
Earth's Surface?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
The next time you're at the shore, Inquiry Skill
take a dose look at th e sand along
the water's edge. At one time, those
Compare When you compare,
you describe how two or more
tiny grains may have been part of
th ings afe similar and how they
the rocks that made up a hilltop or
are different.
mountainside. Understanding Earth's
different features (an help you
Materials
identify, enjoy, and protect them.
• modeling day
• 1 shlillow squlIre plio
• paper
• dental floss
• plastic kni fe
Model a Map
Procedure
o Compare A topographic map has contour
lines. These lines connect points that have
the same e levat ion, which is distance
above sea level. St udy the topog raphic
map of a hill shown here.
o Use Models Add clay to the pan and make
a model of the hill. Refer to the picture
and the map.
e Measure With a pencil, mark contour lines
on the model hill. Use the topographic
map as a guide. Then use a plastic knife or
dental floss to slice the hill in layers along
the lines. Set each layer aside.
e Communicate PIClce the largest layer on
a sheet of paper and trace around the
edges. Then trace the other layers to
create a topographic map.

Conclusion
1. Compare How are the sliced layers of your
model like the contour lines in the map?
2. Use Models Look at the topographic map.
Where is the steepest slope? Where is the
flattest plain?
3. Infer How are topographic maps useful?
When might you use such a map?
Design an Experiment
Use day II) mooel anl)lha
landfl)rm. CUI and trace ilS
layers II) make a lo>p(lgraphic
map.
v afn by Reading
Earth's
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Earth's surf"ce indude s W<lter and solid
(ontour lines 9· CIO landforms. You can identify surfilce features by Iheir
,.lIst p. C1 location , shape, and elevation.
topographic map p. CIO
A Watery Planet
READING SKill
Ea rth is the only planet in our solar system wi th
Main Idea and Details As
you read. write details aboot a large amount of wa ter on its surface. Most of thai
Earth's surface features. water is found in the oceans, which are vast bodies
of sail water. All of Earth's oceans are connected,
forming one great world ocean. Most of the world
ocean is in the southern part of the planet.
The world oceiln surrounds the con tinen ts,
which are huge landmasses tha t rise above the
ocean surface. Most o f the waler on the continen ts,
called inland water, is not sal ty. Water with little
$..111 is called fresh water. L1kes and rivers are the
major surface fea tures tha t hold or c~rry fresh
water. Rivers, streams, ponds, and other smaller
fea tures also hold fresh water.
Plants, humans, and o ther animals all need
fresh water. Yet only about three percent of Earth's
water is fresh wa ter. And most of this is found
underground or locked in glaciers or ice sheets near
Earth's poles. For these reasons, fresh water is a
very important resource.

stand alton att

other solid surfitC~
futurH.

C6 • Chapter 6 • Lesson 1

Earth's Solid Surface
Earth's rocky ou ter larer is called
the crust. Different features make
up the surface of the crnst. These
f('atull'S are found on the continents
and on the ocean noor. Continental
features are often called landforms.
Mountains are thc tallest of Earth's
I1mdforms. Their steep slopes rise to
lall peaks. Mountains can be found
as single peaks or in chains, ranges,
and mountain systems. Six major
mountain ranges form thc Rocky
Mountllin system.
Hills are smaller than mountains.
Although hills do not rise as high as
mountains, their rounded crests still
st<l nd above the land around them.
Mountain valleys are long, narrow
regions of low land bctv.'ecn ranges
of mountains or hills. Canyons are
deep valleys with steep sides. Often a
river or stream runs along the bottom
of 11 valley or canyon.
Pkt- How 0:10 plateaus
(ompalf 10 moonl~ins and hill!:?
Plateaus are high landfonns with
fairly flat surfaces. Plateaus are often
found along the tops of canyons and
can extend for many miles on either
side of a canyon. Mes.1S are similar to
plateaus, but are much smaller. The
word mes<! means " table" in Spanish.
Like plateaus, plains are brood
and flat. Unlike plateaus, plains are
lower than their surroundings. The
Midwest region of the United. States
contai ns wide- ranging plains.
As the name suggests, a river
\'alley has a r1\'er flowing through
it, usually in the center of the valley.
The river mO\'e5 along a channel in
the valley floor.
A flood plain is the floor of a rh'er
valley on either side of the rh'er.
Water covers a flood plain when a
rh ",r vv.,rnv .... ~ it~ u..",]..~. 11,., nUOll
plains of some river valleys are
hundll.'ds of kilometers wide.
Name sl ~ of Earth's

Coastal Features
As you travel from the middle of a
continent toward the coast, different
landforms appea r. In North America,
the Atlan ti c Coastal Plain e~ tends
from Canada all the way to Rorida.
This coastal plai n slopes gently from
the Appalachian Mountains to the
shores of the Atlantic OcC'an.
Beaches and marshlands are found
at shorelines, where dry land meets
the oce<ln. Bellches are fla t lllndforms
along an ocean or largC' lakC'. Beach
milterial vanes in texture and shllpe.
Some beaches are rocky or pebbly,
while others are sandy.
The west coast is very different.
There is no coastal plain along the
shores of the Pacific Ocean. In many
places, the coastline is rocky. Steep
cliffs and moumalns extend to the
water 's edge.
Along both coasts, ocean waves
pound aga inst the rocky coastline
to ma ke many inte,,-'Sting features.
These features inc lude beaches, sea
caves, sea cliffs, and sea arches.
Contal plaiM are tow·
Iy\I>g ..-eM ..... t 510pe gently from
r~~:-":" __":-:::~:-:-"" the mainland towaNl
C8 • Chapter 6 • Lesson 1
Pocket beaches form along a rocky
co..,stline. These beaches are small
and cu rve landward, with sand filling
spaces, or "pockets," between rocky
cliffs. They are common in New
England and the Pacific Northwest.
Mainland beaches are qui te
different from pocket beachC'S. They
are found along straight shorelines
that are free of large rocks. Some
mainland beaches stre tch for miles.
Long, s., ndy beaches are also
found along barrier isla nds. These
islands are separated from the
mainland by a narrow, shallow body
of water. B.1Trier beaches rn.'y be
qui te large. Rorida 's Miami Beach is
a large barrier beach. So is the beach
at Atlantic City, NC'w Jersey.
S.,nd dunes are mounds or ridges
of s.'lnd that the wind often fonns
along coastlines. They often fonn in
long, irregul<lr rows set b<lck from
the \\'ater.
the $hole.
Ocean Floor Features
Starling at the water's edge,
the continental margin extends to
the deep ocean floor. This feature
consists of three parts: the continental
shelf, the continental slope, and the
continenta l rise.
The continental shelf forms the
edges of a continent. A shelf normally
slopes grlldually down from sea level
to a depth of less than 200 m (660 ft). As the graph shows. oceans cover most of
The width Clln nmge from less th;m Earth's surface.
80 km (48 mil to more than 1,000 km.
Beyond the shelf is the steeper Moun tllins and plains arc present
contincnt1l1 slope. It can fall to depths underwater, too. Seamounts are huge,
of 3 km (1.8 mil and range from 20 steep-sided moun tains rising from
km to 100 km wide. The slope forms the ocean floor.
the sides of the continents. At the Some sellmounts hllve flat tops.
bottom of the slope is the continental They are know n as guyots (G EE ohs).
risco This region stretches out about They once may have risen lIbove
1,000 km lIcross the ocean floor. the water's surface. Over time, they
The ocean floor hlls 11 variety of were worn down and co\'ered by
features, some similar to those found rising water.
on dry land. For example, Hudson Seamounts occur mainly on the
Canyon slices southeast through the deep ocean floor. This VllS! arell is
continent1l1 shelf stlIrling from 11 point known as the abyssal plain.
ncar New York City. Such canyons
', MAtN IDEA From the shore to the
are known as submarine canyons.
ocean floor, what are the three parts of
the continental margin ?
Mid-Ocean Features Mapping Surface Features
Many striking features of the A topographic map is a map
ocean floor occur in the ocean basin, that shows the shape of surface
the region beyond the con tinen ta l features and
margin. their elevations, ! MOUNT ~INI~
In the ocean bnsin, deep canyons or heights
called trenches plunge into the ocean above sea level.
floor. The Mariana Trench, near the Contour lines
Pacific island of Guam, drops nearly
I I km (6.6 mil below the ocean floor.
Mid-ocean ridges form a mountain
connect points
on the map
that ha\'e the
/' )
chain that runs more than 56,000 km s.1me elevation. By studying con tour
(33,600 mil through the world ocean. lines, you can learn the shape and
Parts of the chain have di fferent steepness of the land.
names. These names include the Mid- This topographic map shows
Atlan tic Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, Mount Rainier in Washington State.
and the Mid-Indian Rid ge. The numbers on the contour lines
Most mountains in tile mid-()C(>a n show elevation in feel. The sp<1cing of
ridges reach more than 1,500 m the lines shows how steeply the land
(4,950 ft) high. Some peaks sti ck out slopes.
of the water as islands.
A number of the ridges have ~) MIIN Inll Wha t do contou r tin es
deep, steep-sided valleys down their show abou t tandfor ms?
centers. These valleys create a ragged,
rough su rface on the ridges. The
sides of the ridges slope down to
the abyssal plain.

hrth has many types
of surface features both
On dry land and under
- 1 water.
Oceans cove r most of
Earth's su rface.
Topographic maps help
C -" picture Earth's features.
Contour lines show
elevation.
.jJ TEST PREP
MATH Calculate and Compare The
mountain chain formed by mid·ocean ridges
stretches for more than 56,000 km. How many
miles is that? (1 km = 0.6 miles)
TECHNOLOGY Mapping the Ocean
Scien tists map the ocean floor by using sonar,
a technology that uses sounds to measure
distances. Research sonar and its many uses.
~ Technology
, . . \lisit www.eduplacuomlscp ltofiod
Review
o MAIN IDEA What thr~
properties are used to identify
surface features?
a VOCABULARY How do contour
lines help you visualize a feature
of Earth's solid surface?
f) READING SKilL: Main Idea
and Details Name and des.cribe
the thr~ parts of the continental
margin.
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Analyze Earth has lots of water.
Walet covetS more than 70
percent of Earth's surface. Even
so, wa ter is a critical resource for
all living things. hplain why.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Compare
Describe how plateaus and plains
are similar and how they are
different.
The Mariana Trench is a feature
of the floor of the Pacifjc Ocean.
What land feature does its shape
most resemble?
A. river valley
B. canyon
C. mountain range
D. beach
out more about Earth·s features.
(11
 How Is Earth's
Surface Worn Down?
Why It Matters... PREPARElO INVESTIGATE
Weathering and erosion change Inquiry Skill
Earth's surface every day. Sometimes
these changes take place very Predict When you predict,
quickly, but often they are very slow. you apply facts you know,
The rock formation shown here observations you have
took thousands of years to form . made, and cause-and-effec!
Understanding how and wny Earth relationships you understand.
changes is the key to preventing or
influencing the changes.
Materials
• IIdil
• milleral kit
• 2 plastic bowls
• eyedroppt'f
• vil'M'9'lr
• hand lens
• safety goggles

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 4, review Making a Chart
to Organize Data on J)age H1 1.
Rock Erosion
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles du ri ng this activity.
o Experiment Using a nail, scratch th e calcite
over a plastic bowl. In a separate bowl
repeat the procedure with hal ite. The re
should be a small pile of dust in each
bowl.
e Predict What do you th ink will ha ppen t o
the minerals when t hey come in contact
with vi negar? Write yo ur predictions in
yOU f Science Notebook.
o Observe Using an eyedropper, add 3-6
drops of vi negar to the calcite. u sing the
hand lens, Observe the react ion. Do the
same in the bowl (Ontaining halite. The n
wash your hands.
o Record Data Draw a picture of the calcite
and halite reactions in your Science
Notebook.

Conclusion
1. Compare How do the react ions of the
calcite and the ha lite differ"?
2. Predict Based on your data, predict how
acid rain can break down or weather
rocks. How do your results support this Inve5tigate More! - -I
prediction?
Design an Experiment
3. Infer Why are most caves and caverns (an water break apart rods
formed in limestone, a kind o f rock made when it freezes into ke? Find
from calcite? out in an experiment with
dlali(, wate.; a plastic bag.
and a freezer.
v afn by Reading
Down
VOCABULARY
erosion p. C16
Earth's
sediment p. (14 MAIN IDEA OemU;:Iive forces. such as weathering and
w ea t hering p. (14 erosion, wear down Earth's surface feawres.

READ ING SKill

Sequence Use a diagram to Weathering
re<ord the sequence 01 steps Earth's crnst is mostly solid rock. The rocks are
in ~athering and efosion. broken into pieces by processes of weathering.

DOD Weathering is a destructive force, or a force that

breaks down something. There are Iwo types of
weathering: mechanical and chemica l.
Mechanical weathering is the breaking of larger
rocks into smaller pieces of rock, called sediment.
In cold climiltes, ice plays a major role in this
process. As waler freezes, it expands. When water
trickl es into the cracks of rocks, it can break the
roc~ "p"rt when it freeze,.
Moving air and Wil ler il lso enuse
mffhanical weathering. As blown sand
or rushing wil ter hits rocks, the rocks
weaken. Over time, they crac k or crumble.
Even living th ings can cause mechanical
weathering. Plnn t roots cn n grow th rough
cracks and break apart roc ks. Burrowing
animals push against rocks nnd nllow
water to move deeper into rocks and soil,
where freezing and thawing can weather
rocks.
Sometimes rocks will peel into sheets.
As soil nnd rocks nre removed from
a buried rock, pressure on the rock is
reduced. T his may nnow minerals in the
rock to expand. An outer Inyer of the roc k
will peel away. Eventually, other layers
mny nlso cruck and flnke.

Trees have tile power to move or

split rocks as they grow.
 Cave Formation
Weak acids formed in rainwater seep into
the ground. where they weather rock.
(ave~ are a re~ult of weathering. "
Over tim e. holes are produ(e(!. Eventuall y.
the holes grow in to (aves.
Although mechanical wea thering
breaks rocks, it docs not change the
type of rock. In chemical wealhering,
rocks change into other mlllerials.
Water is the main factor that
causes chemical weathering. Water
can dissolve some minerals that make
up rocks. Wa ter also dissolves certain
chemicals from the air and soil to
form a \\'eak acid. This acidic water
can easily dissolve certain minerals.
The type of minerals in rock also
affects wea thering. For example,
weak acids dissolve limestone and
marble more easily than some olher
minerals.
if,
Generally, a combination of
differen t types of weathering is at
work in a region. Most weathering
takes place at or ncar Earth's surface.
However, wa ter trickling through the
ground ca n affec t roc ks far beneath
the surface. Caves are underground
hollow arens crea ted by weathering.
Large caves are often called cnverns.
Most caverns arc made from
limestone. Weak acids seep into
the ground un til they reach a lOne
soa ked with water. As the ground
water becomes more acidic, it
dissolves minerals in the roc k.
Over time, holes are produced in
the rock. The holes grow, creating
paSs.lges, chambers, and pits, and
eventually become caves. At first, the
caves are full of water. Over time, the
water drains away.
SIQUINC! How can w ater from the
surface create a cave?
 River Valley Formation

OAshallow sueam f) The stream grows into O ln time. the river t uts
gradu ally erodes its a river. whith tanies a V·shaped valley.
t hannel. sediment away Irom
its bilnks.

Erosion
Weathering is the process tha t
brea ks down roc k into smaller pieces
called sediments. The carrying away
of sediments by moving water, wind,
or moving ice is called erosion.
A common agent of erosion is
water moving down a river. The river
begi ns as a shallow stream, often
at a high elevation. Gravity moves
the water downhill. As it flows, the
A mountain stream in California weathers
rushing wa ter erodes the ground,
rocks as it rushes over them. It carries
dissolving minerals and pic king up sediment downstream. "
sediments from the streambed. Over
time, the river channel becomes wider
and deeper.
Usuattya stream joins other
strea ms to become a river. The
increasing flo w of water and tumbling
rocks further erode the river channel.
This process may carve out a steeper
or wider valley. In some cases, rapid
CU ll ing of the valley floor in the upper
part of a river can create il canyon.
Further along its course, the river
gains mo re water. The water broadens Over time. rivers create the deep V·shaped
and deepens the river channel. valleys known as canyons.. •
( 16 • Chapter 6 • Lesson 2
 Frozen water also wears down
and shapes Earth's surface features.
ThouS.1.nds of years ago, glaciers
helped to sh~pe the rolling plains in
the northern United States. They also
carved out the Great Lakes.
In arctic regions and in high
mountains, gl<lciers con tinue to
shap<:' Earth today. Gravity moves
rivers of ice downhill toward the sea.
Although glaciers move very slowly,
their weight and size give them
great power. Mountain glaciers can
transform V-shaped river valleys into
V-shaped valleys.
Glaciers can also move enormous
amounts of soil and rock. These
sediments are carried along the
bottoms and sides of the ice. As the
ice inches forn'ard, sediments in the
icc grind "g"inst the surface below.
Glaciers often carve out hollows
in the land they erode. Wh en the
glaciers melt, these hollows fill with
water to form I~kes. Glaciers created
more than 10,000 such lakes in
Minnesota.
Melting gladers left
many takes behind . ...
Ocean waves ~nd currents also
erode Enrth's surfnce. Crnshing waves
break down rock along coastlines.
The sediments nrc d rngged back nnd
forth, slowly turning to sand.
Wind nnd waves from the
open ocean nlso batter headlands.
Hendlands arc narrow se<:tions of
lnnd that jut out into the ocenn.
Usually they arc cliffs of hard rock.
Wnves curve around the hendlnnd,
throwing up sal ty water and pebbles.
Grndually this movement erodes
crac ks in the hendlnnds, forming sen
caves. Sen caves on both sides of a
hendland mny join to form n sen nrch.
As erosion continues, the top of
the nrch may collapse. The ocean side
of the arch is left standing alone. This
single column is called a sea stack.
~"j.jI!m. Describe one way that
erosion wears down Earth's surface.
A sea arch forms when sea
caves on both sides of II
headtand join . •
Slow and Fast Changes
The ongoing process of erosion
keeps the landscape changing. In
general, such destru ctive forces act
very slowly. However, sometimes
such changes happ"n much faster.
You read that chemical weathering
creates caves in certilin types of
rock beneath Earth's surface. This
process can take thouS<lnds of years.
Ho\\'e\'er, after a cave has formed, the
rock above the ca\'e oft ... n hilS little
support. At some point, this rock may
collapse, forming a sinkhole.
Sinkholes can form very suddenly.
One lMge si nkhole fonned in il single
dily in Winter Park, Florida. The tity
sealed it and made an urb.ln lake.
When ,..,diments slide down a st eep $iope,
buildings on them ~Iide, too. This landslide
look place in soutllern California. T
Sinkhole is a very desuiplive term: Land
above weathered rock si nks Into a hole.
Tills sinkhole affected central florida . ...
Landslides also occur suddenly as
the result of erosion. In fact, they can
happen in minutes. Landslides are
lilrge movements of land that tumble
down il steep stope. Mudslides, rock
fall s, an d avalanches are eXilmples of
landslid('S.
Although gravity is the main
cause of a landslide, other destructive
forces are involved. Erosion from
rivers, rain, glaciers, or ocean water
may steepen a slope and loosen
sediments. If the sediments beocome
5O.1 ked with wate r, they may slide
more easily. Any disturbance, such as
a minor earthquilke, can create cracks
or shake rocks loose. This action can
start landslides.
Volcanoes can also ca use
hmdslid('S. Volcanic eruptions can
deposit ash and other materials on
steep slopes. Heavy rains added 10
this material can CilUS(' il land slide.
How does a landslide occur ?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA Why are
weathering and erosion
hrlh'~ ~mfit(e feature~ considered 6estructive forces?
are worn down by
destructive forcts, such a VOCABULARY 'What are
as weathering and sediments? Give an example of
e r ~ion, sediments and how they IOfm.

f) READING SKilL.: Sequence

Water, wind, and the
Describe the sequeflce 01 events
action~ of plants and
in the formation of a cave.
animals all can cause
weathering,
o CRITICAL THINKING: Infer
How could you tell if a glacier
had once moved across a region?
In erosion, wtathered
rock is moved by wind,
water, ice, or gravity,
o INQUIRY SKILL: Predict
Would the features 01a marble
statue last longer in a dry desert
region or in a warm, moist region
that has heavv Industry? EltJllain
Destructive forces your reasoning.
usually act to change
Earth's surface slowly ~TEST PREP
but can also cause Which 01 these is the strongest
rapid chang es to Earth's ageflt 01 chemical weathering?
surface,
A, plant roots
B. acidic water
C. burrowing animals
D. freezing water
MATH Solve a Problem You observe a giant
wave crash on the rocks. After 1.5 se<onds. you I-t Technology
hear the sound of the crashing wave. How far '¥ Visit www.edupl<lce.comlscpl
are you from the rocks? (Speed of sound in air to fond out more about erosoo
is 340 mlsec.) and weathering,

WRITING Narrative Plan a trip to

the Grand Canyon, Glacier National Park, or
Carlsbad Caverns, Research your chosen park.
What activi ties will you participate in? What
sights will you see?
 Primary Source

cleopatra's
Needle
How can weathering and erosion change
rock? One ancient stone obelisk- a kind of tall
statue-prollides a very interesting example.
In appreciation for help in building the Suez
Canal, the ruler of Egypt presented the United
States an obelisk that was more than 3,000 years
old. This obelisk is now called Cleopatra's Needle.
It was installed in Central Park in New York City
in 1881 .
The obelisk remains in the same spot today, but
it has changed drastically. Much of the outer surface
of the stone has worn away, blurring inscriptions
that were clear when the statue arrived.
Look at the photos of Cleopatra's Needle and
a similar obelisk that remained in Egypt. In 1881 ,
the two looked much alike. How afe they different
now ? How do you explain these differences? For
a hint. compare the graphs of temperature and
precipitation in the two locations.

~'
,~\-...,..,.'"c
?'I>...... ,::-____ l uxor.
~. ". Egypt

"\ New York City

Cleopa tra's Netdle W!lS
movtil in 18.81 110m Egypt
to New YorIc (ity~,_..,.

( (20 • Ch.aplt r 6 • l Hson 2 )

 SOCIAL STUDIES

Climate Graph for New York City

+
-u ,.. ".

-•
-,,
, ".
-i
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0

•• '"
'.!
•
••
".
•
••E ".

The graphs
• "" •
shaw average
temperature and Month
precipitation far
New York City and
Luxar, Egypt. How Climate Graph for luxor, Egypt
do the <Iimates

-•
".
"
-u+ ".
of the two pla<es
!'C,~ompaC"C'_·_, E
-•,
,
•
".
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0

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• "" , •• , ,, , ,• • , ,, ••

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0

Month

Sharing Idea.
I. READING (HECk How has Cleopatra's Net!dle
changed sinte it came to New York City?
Compare it to the obelisk that stayed in Egypt.
Egypt 2. WRITE ABOUT IT Study the climate graphs.
The Obelisk of Ramesses II Compare the climates of the two plates.
has remained in Egypt since
ancient times. 3. TALK ABOUT IT How do you explain the
~
differences between the two statues?
 How Is Earth's
Surface Built Up?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
The more people understand Inquiry Skill
about the (,luse and effect of
Infer When you infer, you
changes to Earth's suriace, the
use facts you know and
better they can manage those
observations you have made to
changes. People can
draw a conclusion.
work with nature to
take care of Earth's
Materials
surface and enjoy
its features. • soil
• ~Iuminum p~n
• pencil
• paper cup
• 001111" of water
Set Up a
Streaming Slope
Procedure
o Use Models With a partner, build a soil
slope on o ne end of an aluminum pan.
The slope (a n be steep or gentle.
If) RK1lrd Data Draw a picture of the soil
slope in you r Science Notebook.
o Predict You will drip w ater from a paper
cup onto the soil at the top of the slope.
Predict w hat you think will happen.
Re<ord your prediction.
C) Experiment With a pend l, poke a small
hole in the bottom of a paper cup. (over
the hole in the cup with you r finger. Have
your partner fill the cup with water from
a water bottle. Hold the cup 3 to 4 em
above the soil at the top of the slope.
Rem ove your f inger and let the water flow
over the soit slope.
Cit Observe What happened to the soil7 Draw
a picture and describe the changes in your
Science Notebook.

Conclusion Investigate More! -

1. Compare Look at the two pictures you
drew of the soil slope. How are they alike
and different? Do the pictures support
your prediction about what would happen
when you poured water o nto the slope?
2. Infet'" What can you infer about the way
water and gravity wear down and build
up Earth's surface?
Design an Experiment
Make another soil slope. This
time. pour wale!" from the
bottle down me slope. How
do the spI'flI and amount of
wale!" <lfleet a soil slope 1
VOCABULARY
p.C14
Earth's
MAIN IDEA Forces such as deposition an d volcanic
READING SKILL
••
•
activity build up Earth's surface features,
Cause and Effect Use a ••
chart to show the effects •
of constructive forces on ••• Deposition
Earth's surface. Have you secn wavcs gently lapping at a sandy
•• beach? Waves are pMt of th .. wason that beaches

DO •
haw sand. Ocean waves and currents drop sand on
n bench in a process called deposition.
Deposition is the dropping. or releasing, of
sediments that have been moved from one place
to another. Sand is sediment made from rocks or
shells that have been ground into fine grains.
Both erosion nnd deposition arc gradunl
processes. However, erosion is a destructive force,
meaning that it wears down the land. Deposition
is a constructive force, meaning that it builds up
the land.
 Deposition helps cre<lte ~ vMiety
of surface features. Several of these
features occur as part of river
systems.
Recall that the source of a ri\'er
is usually inland at some high
elevation. The w<lte r flows downhill,
swiftly at first, picking up sediment.
At the mouth of the river, the water
usually empties into a large body of
water, such as a lake or ocean.
As it nears the mouth, the land
gradu~lIy levels out. The leveling
causes the water to lose energy <lnd
slow down. Sediment drops ou t of
the wa ter.
When a river moves across wide, Alluvial fans and de ltas are formed when
flat regions, the river begins to wind l ivers slow suddenly and their sediments are
in smooth CUT\'es called meanders. deposited . .6.
Meanders increase in size as wa ter
erode~ the outside of each Curve and
deposi ts sediment on the inside.
Flooding of rivers on lowlands
also deposits sediment. This sediment
builds up on the flood plains.
When the flow of river water
decreases quickly, special kinds of
deposits are formed. An alluvial fan
is a fan-sh a ped land mass that forms
after 11 river rushes down a steep
slope, then slows over 11 flat plain.
A delta is a low plain that forms
where a river enters an ocean. If the
river is large, the delta will be large,
too. The might)' Mississippi River has
a vast delta that extends well out into
the Gulf of Mexico.
D CAUSE AND EFFECT Why is sediment
deposited as the slope of a river bed As a river flows across a flat plain, its course
levels out? begins to wi nd in ( urves (ailed meanders . .6.
Pushing Up Earth's Surfac.
Surface features can be pushed up
from below as well as built up from
above. Not far below Earth's surface,
temperatures are quite high. In some
places, the conditions are hot enough
to melt rock!
Melted rock below E.uth's surface
is called magma. Magm.1 o riginates
in a layer of Earth just below the
crust. Pressure below thc surface can
cause magma to push up on E.1Tth's
cru st, creating round, dome-shaped
mountains.
In some places, magma can work
its way up through thc cru st and flow
oul on to Earth's surf,w:c as lava.
As lava flows, it cools and hardens
into rock.
In some places, ('fIough la va will
build up to form a huge deposit with
gently sloping sides. Such deposits
are called shield oones. Shield cones
o flen form on the ocean floor. For
e xample, th e Hawaiiml Islands arc
actually the tops 01 several giant
shield cones. The base of Mauna Loa,
the largest 01 these cones, is about
4,500 m (15JJOO ft) belo\\' the surface
of the I'adlic Ocean. Its peak rises
over 4,100 m (14JJOO It) above the
ocean's surlace.

Compare this view of Hawaii from

the International Space Stalion
t o the illustrati on below. ~

r--' Mau~ loa

Building Islands
The Hawaiian Islands consist of
II selies of shield cones that e~tend from
the flool of the Pacific Ocean to well above
its surface. As the cruU continues 10 move 110 t SPOI
ovel the magma dome, new mountains form . ...

L~l
o one
The Himalaya5 began forming when
plate of Earth'5 cruu cruhed into
O fOr million5 of years, the plate5 have
another plate.
A different constructive force
created the Himalaya Mountains
These mountains in Central Asia are
among the highest on Earth.
The Himalayas began forming
about 65 million years ago when
huge sections of Earth's ernst moved
into each other. The pressure caused
the crust to fold.
Other features of Earth are made
from the remnins of living things. For
example, the chalk cliffs of l)(wer,
England, arc made up of shells of
tiny S(>a animals. These shells were
)0"',"
deposited on the sea floor millions
of years ago. When forces below the
ernst raised the sea floor, the chalk
deposits bccnme chalk cliffs.
Atolls are ring·shaped islands
formed from deposits of coral
skeletons called coral reefs . ..
continued to push together, folding
and uplifting to form
mountains.
Coral reefs are another type of
formation produced from the remains
of living things. In shallow Iropical
walers, liny animals cnlled corals
gather in colonies. As corals die, their
skeletons build up into a bumpy
ridge called a reef.
In some Pacific Ocean waters,
reefs are built around volcanic
islands. Sometimes an island will
sink, but the cornl continues to grow.
This creates a barrier reef S(>parale
from the island.
CAUSE AND EF FECT
How were the
Himalaya Mountains formed?
Glacial Deposits
ThouS3nds of years ago, snow fell
year-round over large areas of Asia,
Europe, and North America. Over
time, the weight of snow from the
top added pressure below. Slowly,
the snow turned to ice. Glaciers were
formed.
The ice in some of these glaciers
was almost a thous.and meters thick.
The ice's weight became so great that
it pushed and den ted the land.
ThCS(' moving masses of ice
were tremendous forces of erosion.
Huge amounts of soil and rock were
pushed ahead of the ice and ca rried
along in the glacier's bottom layers.
After thousands of years, the ice
began to melt. The glaciers reached
their presen t positions about 11,000
years ago. As the ice melted, it left
behind a changed landscape.
The rock material deposited by a
glacier is known as till. Till may be
silt, s.1nd, gravel, boulders, or sharp
rocks. Some till is picked up as a
glacier scrapes Earth's surface. The
glacier drags till along its icy base.
Eskers form from streams that flow along
the bottoms of melting glaciers. A
A glacier also deposi ts till at its
fronl, or snou t. Such deposits are
called moraines. Long Island, New
York, is the lerminal moraine left
when the last ice sheet melted. The
melting water carried s.1nd and clay
away from Ihe snout. Today, the
sou thern portion of Long Island is
sandy, while the norlhern portion
is rocky.
Streams flowing through tunnels
in melting glaciers deposit sand and
gravel in ridges, too. These winding
ridg(>S are called eskers.
I CAUSE AND EffECT How do gladers
deposit sed imen t?
In high mountains,
glaciers can carve out
bowl-shaped hollows
called cirques . ...

Deposition build~ up
sur/act featurts w(h
as sand dunu, alluvial
fan~ and rivtr dtltas.
Magma pushing up
from Earth's mantle
(an create islands and
mountains..
Mountains (an alw
form whtn tectonic
platM collide, folding
and lifting upward.
Cirque-s. moraines. and
eskers are formed by
glatial deposi ts..
.,e TEST PREP
MATH Solve a Problem A pilrticular glacier
moves about eight centimeters a year. At this
rate, how long will it take the glacier to move
one kilometer?
SOCIAL STUDIES Makea Map
Q~:~~:I.~lu~la(uom'sCP'
The state 01 Hawaii is made up of a (hain 01
islands. Resear(h Hawaii. What unusual plants
and animals live there? What are some benefits
and challenges of living on an island? Crea te a
poster to present your findings.
Review
o MAIN IDEA Compare
Earth's constru<tive 10Kes
and destructive forces.
a VOCABULARY Why is
deposition 6escribed as the
opposite of erosion? Give
examples of these processes.
O READING SKILL.: Cause and
Effect What causes the creation
of dome mountains?
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Synthesizing In Hawaii, some
beaches are covered in black
sand. What can you conclude
from this fact?
{) INQUIRY SKILL: Infer
What can the size and shape of a
sand dune tell you aboutlmw it
was formed?
When a river meets an ocean,
sediments drop out of the river
be<ause the river
A. speeds up.
B. slows OoWll.
C. becomes saltier.
D. flows uphill.
IQfind out more <!bout buikliog up
Ea~h's surface.
 What a drop! You' re looking down Into
one of the deepest canyons In the world. In fact,
this c.. nyon system Is so deep .. nd Y.wst It w.. s
n .. med the Gr.. nd C.. nyon.
How did the Grand C.. nyon form? Erosion.
The Color.. do River has been steadily we .. rlng
its w.. y Into the plat...u undern ...th it for
millions of y... rs. Wind, rain, gravity and other
forces h .. ve helped sh .. pe the canyon walls. The
result Is. n.. tural wonder. The Grand C.. nyon
winds more than 270 miles .. t an av.r.g. depth
of 4,000 f •• t. In some places, If you could throw
a rock far enough out. it would f.lI mor. than
a mil. b.for. hitting bottom.
READING : Compare and Contrast

At the
Grand Canyon's
de epett point, it
would take four
and a half Empire
State Buildings
stacked on top of
each other to
r each the rim! • -----1
.----.
------

•
-----.
--

. --
-- -
--
-~--
-
----
'"
 Vocabulary
Complete each sentence wi th a term from the list. You may
use each term more th iln once.
1. _ is a (OfIStf'1.ICtM! Iorce. contour IiIlH (1 0
(rust (7
2. A map that shows the shapes of Earth's Iaodforms is a _
deposition C2.
3. The rody outer ~ of farth is called the _ erosion Ct6
4. A topographic map has _ that COflnect places that h<we the !>aITIE' 5edionent (14
elevation. topogrllphic m.., 00
5. Weathering and __ ale destructive forces. weathering Ct.

6. Moving water. wind, and ice calry weathered rods awiTt in a

process called _
1. Sand and other tiny pieces of rod are moved by el'osion and wttled
by -
8. Tiny pie<es that form from the weathering of rocb are _
9. Watel' is a common agent ot both weathering and _
10. The process known as _ can be mechanical or chemical.

I Test Prep
Write the fetter of the best answer choice.
11 . location, shape, and elevation help define 13. Vokanic activi ty is an e~ample of _
Earth·s _
A. erosion
A. C(lIl$Il"\H:tiYt loren B. c(lIl$tructive force
8. destruclivt' forces C. ~theriog
C. surfiKe fNtures D. a.uviaI plain formation
D. sediments
14. Thanks to wind and water, the products of
12. Erosion and weathering are examples one place's weathering become materials
,1 - for another place's _
A. {omtnKtlvt forces A. voIcarKll'i
B. destructivt forces 8. glaciallitl
C. surface ieatUfes C. corill reek
D. land buildup O. deposition

(32 • (hapter 6
 Inquiry Skills

15. Make a Model Suppose you have a 17. Apply What features on the ocean floor
lump of SlJgar. watet, a spray bottle, and are similar to features on Earth's suriace?
a cake pan. DeSCIibe how you could use 18. 5ynthesize Formations called stalacti tes
those items to construct a working model and stalagmites grow in (aves where
of erosion and dej)osition.
the water evapol"ates. A mineral deposit.
16. Infer The icy sidewalk in front of your calcium carbonate. is left behind. Describe
school was treated with salt to help the ice anothet locatioo in nature where a similar
melt. In the spring. you noticed the cement process takes place.
was numbly and fall ing apart. What type
19. Apply Look at the photograph of the
of weathering did you observe? Explain.
meandeling river on page (25. Water flows
at diflerem speeds through a meander.
Map the Concept Whele do you think the water flows the
Complete the concept map using words wom the fastest? Explain your reasoning.
list below. Some words belong in lllOfe than one 20. Evaluate Two statues wete put up in
category. the center of a busy industrial city. One is
glaciers deposition pl ateau made from martJle and the Other is made
acids volca noes lava from granite. Predict what the statues may
weatherin g sediments look like 50 years from now, Explain you r
erosion co ntinental shelf reasoning.

Performance Assessment
O..... trudiv. SurfMe Constructive
Forces Features forces Draw a Map
Illustrate four of the following terms with
a drawing. You r drawing should accurately
represent the main charactetistics of these
features.
continental continental continental

"'"
barrier island """
seamount
rise
ocean
shoreline mars/lfswamp sand dune
mid-ocean
""" ~"" ridge
LESSON

1
Cool and crusty on the
outside, hot on the
inside- what is Earth's
structure like?
Read about it in Lesson 1.

LESSON
Shaking earthquakes

2 and erupting
volcanoes- what
forces of nature cause
these dramatic events
to occur?
Read about them in lesson 2.

LESSON

3
Some mountains are
tall and jagged. Others
are rounded and
covered in trees. How
do mountains form?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 Is Earth's
Structure?
Why It Matters ...
Earth has a layered structure,
wit h solid rock at the surface and
partly liq uid rock material below.
Understanding Earth's struct ure (an
hetp scientists predict when a geyser
or volcano will erupt, or how a river
will change courle over time.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Use Models When you use
models, yo u study. make, or
operate something that stands
for a real-world process or
action. Models can help you to
understand bener or show how
a process or action works.
Materials
• modeling clay, 2 (olors
• a small marble
• metric measuring tape
• aluminum foil
For step 4. review Using a
Tape Measure on page H6.
A Model World
Procedure
o Collaborate Working with a partner, roll
modeling day into two balls of different
colors. Make one the size of a golf ball
and th e other the size of a baseball.
e Use models The smaller day bClIl represents
Earth's outer core. The marble represents
its inner core. Push the marble into the
center of the smaller clay ball and reshape
the clay around it. You now have a model
of Earth's two-part core,

e Observe The larger clay ball represents

Eorth's mantle, Using the plastic knife, cut
this clay ball in half. Reshape the clay so
that this ball can be wrapped around the
two-part core. You now have a model of
Earth's core and mantle.
o Measure Use a measuring tape to find
the distance around your model at its
"equator." Cut a rectangle of foil equal
to that distance in length and one-third
of that distance in width. Wrap the foil
around the mantle and smooth it out. This
thin layer of foil represents Earth's crust.

Conclusion
1. Use Models In your Science Notebook, draw
what your model of Earth would look like
Design an Experiment
if you could slice it in half. Label the layers.
list some materials you
2. InferHow would you describe the layers could use to model Earth's
that make up Earth's structure? Write layered structure. Describe
about them in your Science Notebook. how you would aJ'fange
them.
 Earth's Structure
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Earth ha~ a layered ~t rudure . Its outer layer
COre p. ( 4\ i~ "",de up of moving plate~.

crust p. (40
lithosphere p. ( 4 \
p. {41
Hot Inside
mantle
plate tectonics p.(42 In many parts of the world, columns of steaming
hot wa ter can be found shooting up from Earth's
REAOING SKILL surface. These boiling fountai ns are known as
Tut Structure Outline
geysers. Geysers form in places where water drains
the text on this page using down a decp channel in Earth's surface. At the
an outline form. Select key bottom of the channel, hot rocks heat the water
words and phrases as topic un til steam forms, pushing boiling water up on to
head ings. the su rface. Finally, the built-up pressure forces the
remaining water to erupt in a sudden explosion.
The existence of geysers suggests that Earth is
extremely hot inside.
H Yellowston(' National Par k in Wyoming is well
known for its numerous geysers and hot spri ngs.
( ) Long before this region became a tourist attracti on,
Jim Bridger explored its wonders. Bridger was a fur
trader, scout, and moun ta in man. I-Ie told everyone
he met abou t the many geysers and amazing sights
of the region.
Visit Yellowstone today, and you ...._ ....
too can see evidence of Earth's
hot interior. But just how hot
is it inside Earth?

"Geysers spout up
70 feet, with a terrible
hissing noise. at regular
intervals. In this section
are the great springs. so
hot that meat is readily Ji m Bridger (1804- 1881)
Geyser Ga~er
cooked in them .. .."

Yellowstone National Park's hot
springs, geysers, and mud pots are
evidence 01 Earth's hot interior. •
Earth's temperature increases
about 25' ( per km in the trust,
then more gradually 1,0m the
upper mantle to its cenler. ...
Scientists cannot travel very far
below Earth's surface to measure
tempera tures directly. By studying
mines and holes drilled in the crust,
scientists know that the temperat ure
increases abou t 2 to 3°e for every
0.1 km (300 ft) below the surface.
However, the deepest drill holes
reach less than 15 km (9 mil below
the surface. So scien tists depend on
other, less d ircct evidence.
Scientists study geysers and
volcanic activi ty to learn what Earth
is like inside. They also conduct
experiments on surface rocks and
Temperature of
Earth's Interior
E 5.000
i
!
f
4,000
3.000
2.000
Earth's (enter
bf-t
• toOO
o~=::-=;-:-::;:-;-;;:;-,-;:;:;:-;
1,000 2,000 1,000 4,000 5.000 6,000
Depth (km)
minerals under conditions of high
pressure and temperature.
More information abou t Earth's
interior can be gained by observing
seismic waves. These waves are
vibrations tha t travel through the
solid Earth during earthqua kes.
Seismic waves change as they travel
deeper and as they move through
different kinds of materials at
differen t temperatu res.
~ TEXT STRUCTURE What information
does the graph on this page present?
 Earth', layers
Earth has 3 layered structure. Most
of these layers are made up of solid
or pllTtly melted rock. The innermost
hlyers ~re mostly II mixture of metals.
ElHth's layers vary in thickness.
The cr ust, Ihc uppermost layer, is
much thinner than the other layers.
The crust is nearly all solid rock.
Under thc continents, the crust is
mostl y granite and other light rocks.
/:,c, o, -. C",,
: -pler 7 • lHSOft I )
Below the oceans, the crust is mostly
made of basalt-a diuk, dense rock.
The crust is by f,lf the thinn est of
Earth's layers. Under the continen ts.
the ilvcTllge thickness of the cru st
is about 40 km (24 mil, but it may
be liS much as 70 km (42 mil in
mountainous region s. The crust is
c\'en thinner under the oce.ms. The
ocean-floor crust ha s a thickness of
about 7 km (4 mil.
 As discussed earlier, temperature Many scientists believe that the
increases as you go deeper into the presence of molten iron "nd nickel
Earth. So, the deeper that rocks are in Earth's core explains why Earth
located, the hotter they are. is surrounded by a m"gne tic field.
The layer just below Earth's crust Acco rding to one theory, convection
is the mantle. The mantle is about currents move slowly throughout the
2,900 km (1,800 m il thick and makes liquid outer core. Electric currents are
up more than two-thirds of Earth's produced as Earth rotates, setting up
m"ss. At the bound<lry where the E<lrth's magnetic field.
upper mantle meets the crust, the A hard-boiled egg is often used
m"ntle rock is solid. This solid upper to model Earth's structure. The hard,
m"ntle "nd crust combine to form" thin shell of the egg is the crust. The
rigid shell called the lithosphere. egg white is the man tle, and the yolk
Below the lithosphere, much of is the core. Others compare E<lrth to a
the rock material in the mantle is peach or similar fruit with a thin skin
partially melted. This materia l can and a pit in the cen ter.
flow very slowly, li ke pl"stic that has f) TEll STRUCTURE
been heated almost to its melting Use an outline form
to organize the information about Earth 's
point. The solid li thosphere can be layered structure.
thought of as "floating" on this thick
lower mantle.
The innermost of Earth's layers is
the core. which extends to the center
of the Earth. The core is div ided into
two regions, or layers- the outer core
and the inner core. The outer core is
about 2,200 km (1,400 mil thick, and
is the only layer that is in a liquid
state. It is made up mos tly of molten
iron and nickel, with some sulfur and
oxygen " Iso present.
The inner core, about 1,200 km
(720 mil thick, is even hotter than the
outer core. It is probably made up
of iron and nickel as well. However,
the extremely high pressure so deep
inside Earth keeps this metal from
melting.

When a peach is used as a model of Earth,

what does the peach pit represent?
(41

Moving Plates
Have you e\'ff wondered if Earth's
surface always looked as it docs
today? Alfred Wegener wondered . .
Wegener was a German meteorologIst
and geologist. In 1915, he suggested
that the continents were moving very
slowly across Earth's surface.
Known as the theory of continental
drift, Wegener's ideas were based on
evidence that included fossils and
rock formations. However, he could
not explain how the continents could
mO\'e through the solid crust of the
sea noor or what force could move
them. So, his theory was rejected by
most scientists.
In the 1950s, scien tists discovered
that molten rock from the rn.lntle
was rising to Earth's surface in the
ocean basins. As this rock cooled
and hardened, it was being added to
E..lrth's crust.
This map shows Earth's major platts. Plates interact along
their boUndari:" :.' ':...-- - -..----:;;;;;
1 • Lesson 1
This discovery led scientists to
suggest that the lithosphere is not one
solid shell of rock. In fact, they now
believe that the lithosphere is broken
up into giant slabs of rock called
plates. These plates seem to "no.lt"
on top of the mantle, much like giant
ships noating on a sea of thick
molten rock.
The idea of giant plates of rock
moving slowly across Earth's surface
is called plate tectonics. As you
might expect, the plates move very
slowly. Their a\'erage speed is about
10 cm (4 in.) a year. However, over
millions of years, plates ca n mO\'e
thOUs.lnds of kilometers.
Then' are two kinds of plates.
Oceanic plates consist almost en tirely
of dense ocean-noor material.
Con tinental plates are made up of
lighter continental rock "riding" on
top of denser rock.
Alrkan Plal~
 Pla tes interact at their edges, or
plate boundaries. The pic tures show
the interaction th.lttakes place at
each type of boundary.
At converging boundaries, two
pla tes converge, or move toward each
other. Eventually they collide. When
plates collide, one may ride up over
the other. The upper plate forces the
edge of the lower plate under the
surface. This is called subducti on.
Converging Boundaries
Subduction usually occu rs w hen
Two ptates mOve toward each other. One
a con ti nen tal pla te and an oceanic ptate may move under the other in a
plate converge. The dense rock of the process called subduction.
oceanic pla te slides under the ligh ter
roc k of the con tinental pla te.
At divergi ng boundaries, two
pla tes move away, or diverge, from
each other. Molten rock rises up in
the gap between the plates, forming
new crust. Th is usu~l1y h<lppcns in
the midd le of the ocean floor, so it is
c~ lJed sea-floor spre~ding.
In some p laces, plates simply slide
past each ot her in opposite directions.
These <Ire known as sliding Diverging Boundaries
bounda ries. Whether converging, Two pl~tes move ~way from each other.
diverging. or sli ding. Earth's plates Molten rock rises to fill the g~p, (feating
never stop moving and changing. new (fltSt.
New rock is added to Earth'S crust in
some places, while old rock is "lost"
to the mantle in other places.
The mov ing, separa ting, and
merging of the continen ts has been
happening for billions of years_You
can learn more about plate tec tonics
in the Readers' Theater feature on
pages C46----C49.
TUT STRUCTURE Describe three Sliding Boundaries
ways in which Earth 's plates interact at Two plates slide past each other, moving
their boundaries. in opposite directions.

Evidence for Moving Plates
Scientists conclude that Earth's
plates have been moving for at least
two billion years. They base this
conclusion on evidence found in
rocks at Earth's surface. These rocks
have bem eroded and deposited
since the planet first took shape.
As you learned in Chapter 6. all
rock at Earth's surface is subject to
weathering and erosion. Weathered
rock, or sediment, is deposited in
layers. In turn, the layers eventually
change into sedimen tary rocks.
Layers of sedimentary roc ks
provide clues to changes that were
taking place at the time the layers
were forming. For example, the
layers can show the mineral content
of the rocks and how the sediment
was deposi ted. The layers may also
contain fossils .
A foss il is the physical remains or
traces of a plant or animal that lived
long ago. Fossils are usually found in
layers of sedimentary rock.
7 • Lesson 1
.. A fossil of a tropical fern like
the one shown below was found
here. Since the fossil formed. the
region is believe-d to have moved
3.200 km (2,000 mil on a section
of a continental pla te.
By studying fossils in roc k layers,
scientists can get an idea of how
plates moved in Earth's past. For
example, fossils of similar species
have been discovered on opposite
sides of an ocean along the edges of
different con tinents. Scientists believe
thai the fossils come from a period
when those con tinents were joined.
Over time, the continents separated,
taking the fossils to new locations.
Some fossils seem to be very far
from where they were deposited.
Fossils of tropical plants and animals
have been found in polar regions.
Fossils of fish have been found near
the tops of mountains. Scientists
believe that the fossils were carried
to their present loca tions by the
mOvement of tectonic plates.
1)i TEiT STRUCTURE Use an outl ine form
to organize information about the evidence
support ing the idea of moving plates.
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What parts of
a hard·boiled egg are used to
hrt" has a I~yered model Earth's structure?
structure (onsisting of
the crust, man tle, outer a Earth's
VOCABULARY Wha t parts of
structure combine to form
(ore, and inner (Ore.
the lithosphere?

f) READING SKilL: Text

The nust and upper Structure Outline the text under
man tle make up the the head "Moving Plates" on
rigid lithosphere, which page (42.
is broken in to large
sections called plates. o CRITICAL THINKING:
Apply ing At a converging
boundary, why do ocean
Plates in teract in
plates usually subduct beneath
three ways at their
boundaries: they may
continental plates?
converge, diverge, Or
slide p3st one 3nother.
o INQUIRY SKILL: USe Models
Describe how you would use
small rocks. pieces of board, ami
fOSSils and other a tub of water to model Earth's
material in laye~ of lithosphere.
rock provide evidence
of Earth's moving .eTEST PREP
pla tes. The thinnest layer of Earth's
structure is me
A. crust.
B, lithosphere.
C. IIlner core.
MATH Cal culate Diameter Earth's inner D. mantle.
and outer (Ore (Ombined are about the size of
Mars. Using the measurements on p~ (41,
~ Technology
calculate the diametel of Mars in kilometers. ,.... Visit w_.edupla(e ,comls(pl to lirld
oot more ~I>oot E~nh'~ ~lru(!ure.
ART Build a Sculpture Build a movable
sculpture that models one or more plate
boundaries. Use modeling clay, fabric, or other
available materials. Write a paragraph that
explains what the model shows.
 Readers' Theater

Alfred Wegener
and Pangaea
What is Pangaea? Scientist Alfred Wegener
(1880-1930) believed that long ago the seven
continents were joined together, forming a
supercontinent he called Pangaea.

Characters
Alfred Wegener
The Seven Continents:
AI,;,,,, Antar(1:ica, Asia,
Aust.alia, Europe. North
Americ.a, SO\Ilh AlMrica

Tlll'stttiug is plauet Earlll, amI Wegml'T
is IlIkiug tl,f slllge.
Wegener (to lIudience); Good
afternoon, [am German scientist
Alfred Wegener.
£urope (aside): His name is
pronounced ~VAY-guh-ner.~
Wegener: My friends and I are here to
present my theory of continental drift,
which [ published in the year 1915.
North America (shocked): Did you
say "continental drift?" Are you
suggesting that continents move?
Wegener: Don't act so surprised!
Surely you know It",1 (\)l1til1~'l1ts mo\'",
during earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions,
North America: Yes, but-
Wegener (lro/dillg lip Ollt /"!IId at
North AIIIl'Tira): Let me tell you my
story. Then you will understand, It
all started when I was a young man
fascinated by maps, One day I noticed
that the Co..1Sts of two continents
appear to fit together, like pieces of
a jigsaw puzzle, Africa and South
America, will you demonstrate?
Africa (Ifloving toward $ol/Ih Amtrica);
If I tum a little this way, and South
America rotates that way. , ,
South America: Yes, we couid fit
together, couldn't we?
READING
Wegener: Yes! That got me th inking, I
found out that nearly identical fossils
have been discovered on both sides of
the Atlan tic Ocean, as well as iden tical
rock layers, There are similar pairs
of mountain ranges, too, such as the
Scottish Highlands in Europe and the
Appalachians in North America,
Asia: What are you driving at? Are
you s.,ying that some of the continents
were once joined together?
Wegener: Not SOIflI' of the continents-
all of the continents! That's my theory,
Antarctica: Incredible!
Wegener: Isn't it? I caU this )ained
continent Pallgaetl. That's Greek for
"all the Earth," Might the seven of you
demonstrate what Pangaea looked
like?
Wegl'lll'r 1I'IJVf!i dimliolls, TIll' co/rlium ts
1fl0Vt togl'llrtr to jomr Pangaea,
Australia (strmrblillg): This is terribly
disorienting, Am [still Down Under?
South America: Hey, somrone's
stepping on my Galapagos Islands!
Antarctica: It's getting a bit too warm
around here.
Wegener: Stop right there! Perfect! As
you can see, the continents fit together
into one supercontinent. According to
my theory, this is how E"rth looked
about 200 million years ago.
 Continental Drift
225 mill ion yea rs a9"
Africa: So anim~ls could w~nder from
me to South America, is that right?
South America: Plan t seeds could
travel easily, too.
Wegener: Right and right. But over
the years, slowly bu t surely, the
continents drifted llpart.
Wegller gestures at tile colltillmts . Tiley
drift apart, /xIck to tlleir modem-day
I'CSitia.IS.
Australia: Well, it was fun while it
lllstcd!
Europe (10 tile OIlINS): Maybe ]'11 see
you again in another 200 million years
or so.
Wegener: Perhaps, perhaps. My
theory about Pangaea explains a
grellt deal about Earth's geogrlIphy.
For example, have you noticed tha t
moun tain ranges are found mostly
near the edges of continents?
( (48 • Cha pter 7 • l esson 1 )
..
200 mill ion years ago
South America: Now that you
mention it,] hllve a rugged mountain
range running along my west coast.
North America: Thlll's funny, so dO ]1
Asia: And I have the Himalayas, that
tall mountain range just north of India.
Wegener: According to my theory,
mountains arise when continents
move in to each other. For example, the
Himalayas rose when India slammed
in to the rest of Asia.
Asia: Ouch!
North America: Well, Mr. Wegener,
you seem to have solved all the
mysteries of our plMe t. So tell us: Just
how did con tinents move around the
planet?
Wegener (slmking Ilis l/ead): Well,
you've hit upon the weakness of my
theory. [could only guess ll t how the
continents moved. Many of my critics
enjoyed poin ting this out.

100 million yU'5 890
COl/li/JiUIS go/her orolilld Wtgt'uer olld
1/a1 hilll 011 tI", bock ill cOllso/llticm.
Wegener: It's okay. After my time,
people decided that I was correct.
You see, scientists began stud ying the
ocean floor.
Asia: Wha t do oceans have to do with
anything?
Wegener: A great de.li! Scientists ha\'e
discovered gian t mountain chains,
called mid--ocean ridges, in the ocean's
depths. In these ridges, molten rocks
ri se from below Earth's surface and
become part of the ocean floor.
Europe: So what does that mean?
Wegener: [t means that the ocean
floors are mov ing. tool Oceans and
continents move in giant sla bs that
scientists cal! tectoni c plates. Jf I"d
lived long enough, 1 would have
studied tectonic plates myself.
..
P'e5en t D,ly
Australia: I"d like to than k Mr.
Wegener for proposing new ideas
that challenged old ones. That's \'ery
importan t in science!
Africa: Plus, he used evidence from
many different branches of science.
North America: A keen observer
and a logical thinker- thrlt's our Mr.
Wegener!
Wegener: Why thank you, my friend s.
[am truly-moved!
AIIIIII/gh.
Sharing Ideas
l READING OIECK What is wegeltef's
theory 01 oonunenta[ driftl
1. WRITE ABOUT IT Describe facts about
Earth's geography that wegener's theory
explains.
1 TALK ABOUrIT What lessons about
science does Wegener's story illustrate?
What Are Earthquakes
and Volcanoes?
Why It Matters ...
When a fruit pie bakes in an oven,
juices and steam seep lip through
cracks in the (fust. That is similar
to how a volcano forms. Volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes can be
violent events. By learn ing more
about the m, people may be able
to avoid some of the dangers they
represent.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Analyze Data When you analyze
data, you look for patterns in
information you (O llett. Those
patteros tan lead you to draw
conclusions, make predictions,
and state generalizations.
Materials
• world atlas
• blank world map
• red pellCil
• green pencil

.. A volcanologist is a
scientist who studies
volcanoes.
Picking a Pattern {

Procedure
o Compare Read and compare the lists of
earthquake and volcano locations below.
What similarities do you find?

Eart.h'l.uakol.
lIoo ..... 50 ..
hM 1o~"",,1a
,-
Yeae Ve>l,.~CHI. Yn,
'm

--
,~
,"....",1 , 01&0 ~

~ ,-
-.........,... ,-
1(00_.... _ _ •

_ _ .. ~od.
,- - ,- =
~-
&..,.......- ,~

~-
r_",""" ow.. ,~

G Use Models Use <In Cl1135 t o find the

locations of the earthquakes and volcanoes.
o Record Data Mark each location on the
blank world map. Draw a red triangle
for a volcano. Draw a green circle f or an
earthquake. Check your work.
Investigate More!
Reseall:h Use tile Internet
Conclusion or other reference sources
1. Science Notebook, draw
Analyze Data In your to research a rKefit maiO!'
condusions about the pattern you see. earthql)(lke or volcanic
efUption. Where did it take
2. Predict Using what you know about Earth's place? WIlat damage did it
structure, predict the relationship between cause? Report your findi~
the planet's plates and the places where
most volcanoes Clnd earthquClkes occur.
vat" b~ Reading
Earthquakes
VOCABULARY
(';lrthquake ,," and Volcanoes
epicenter
fault
fO(us
""
p. (52
MAIN IDEA Earthquakes and volcanoes change Earth's
surface. usually al plate boundaries.

magma
$eismi< waves
""
p. (56
p.tS) Atthe Faults
As you have learned. Ea rth's (rust moves very
READING SKILL ••
• slow ly. Typically, this motion can hardly be felt.
Cause and Effect Track the :
•
But at times, il can cause sudden and unexpe<:ted
general causes and effects of : changes to Earth's su rface.
faulting. : Most major surface changes occur a t or near
•••

DOD •••
••
plate boundaries. Reca ll from the last lesson
that plates may push together (converge), move
apart (diverge), or slide past each o ther at plate
boundaries.
Faults are cracks in Earth's crust along w hich
movement takes p lace. AI a fau lt, rocks often bend
and fold . Sometimes, they lock together and jam
along the fault. Over many years, stress
builds up on the rocks as the plates strain
against each other. Finally, the rocks brea k.
The plates shudder and jolt in to a new
position. This sudden movement causes
Earth's crust to shake.
The wavy lines from a
seismograph indicate the
strength of seismic waves
moving through Earth's o ust. T
 Different Kinds of Faults
As the crust shakes, it sends out
shock waves of energy known as
seismic waves. A seismograph has
sensors that dete< t and measure
vibrations of Earth's crust. The
seismograph produces a record of
seismic waves called a seismogram.
The movement of rocks along
a faul t is called faulting. During
faulting, the rocks crac k or split into
blocks. The blocks then continue Fault at Diverging Boundary
to move in relation to each other, As sect ions of the crust move apart. rocks
sometimes leading to further faul ting. are stretched until tiler snap. causin g
one block to move down along a
The drawings show the three main
sloping cra< k.
types of faults. Each is caused by a
different type of force applied in the
region where movement takes place.
At diverging bound aries. the force
stretches rock. Eventually the rock
brea ks and one block moves down
illong il ~Ioping crilck. Mid-occ,m
ridges are typicill lociltions for these
types of faults.
Other faulls occur at converging
boundaries. Here, the force squeezes fault at Converging Boundary
rock. When Ihe rock brea ks, one RlKks are comp. esse-d as they come togethe.,
block moves up along a sloping crack caUSi ng one block to mOve up along a
while the other moves down. Often sloping crad as the other mOveS down.
this occurs in regions of subduction,
where one plate plunges below the
other.
The third type of fault occurs
in regions where blocks move
horizontally past each other. These
faults are common at sliding
boundaries, such as the 5.ln Andreas
Fault in California.
Fault at Sliding Boundary
~ CAUSf AND HFfCT What Ilappe ns wilen RlK ks gri nd agai nst each othe r as they
stre ss bui ld s up a lo ng a fault? move ho.izontally past each other in
opposite dircct ions. Pressure builds up
al ong the fault until th e rocks break .

... The city of Taipei in Taiwan suffered
a devastating earthquake on
September 21 , 1m.
Earthquakes
An . arthquak. is a violent
shaking of Earth's crust. The releasc
of built-u p energy along a fault is
what makes E..1rth shake, or quake.
The energy released depends on how
much rock breaks and how far the
blocks of rock shift.
With the records produced
by seismographs, scientists can
measure an earthq uake's energy.
This measurement expresses its size,
or magni tu de, using a scale called
the Richter scale. For exam ple, an
earthquake with a magni tude of less
than 35 may not even be felt, although
it is recorded by the seismograph.
An earthq uake measuring 7.5 is a
major earthquake.
The surface effects, or intensity,
of an earthquake vary from place to
CS4 • Chapler 1 • lesson 2
place. Intensity is measured by what
can be seen and felt on the surface.
What people see and feel often
depends on how far they are from the
earthquake's focus. The fows of an
earthqu ake is th e point underground
where the faul ti ng occurs. Most focus
points are less than n km (45 mil
below E.."\rth's surface.
The point on the surface directly
above the focus is an earthquake's
epice nter. Tha t is where the intensi ty
is strongest. Why? The epicenter is
the closest point to the focus, where
seismic waves are strongest.
The shaking is caused by the
energy of the seismic waves. Long
after the initial earthquake occurs,
continued seismic wave activity can
cause mini qua kes, or aftershocks.
o Shaking is
most violen t at
o seismic
~ead O<It
Wil'lft
Irom the
the epicenter 01 10cU$, de-crusing
an ear thquake, in energy as they
directly above travel.
the focus.
 There are two general types of
seismic waves-body waves and
surface waves. Waves that travel
through Earth's interior arc called
body waves. The deeper they extend,
the faster they traveL
Body waves called P waves can
tr<welthrough Earth's interior in less
than 1m hour. They can pass through
solid and liquids. As P waves pass
into and out of the liquid outer core,
they change direction. They return
to Earth's surface, where they cause
b.lck-and-forth motions of rock.
Body waves called 5 waves travel
slightly slower than P wavcs. When
5 waves reach the surface, they cause
it to move up and down. However,
5 waves can travel only through
solids. So, S waves that pass from the
mllntle into the liquid outer core lose
their energy and do not return to the
~ CAUSE AND EFfECT Why do ~urlace
surface.
Surface waves, or L waves, travel
along E.lrth's surface. These waves
travel more slowly than body waves.
Surfnce waves do not travel too far
from the epicenter of an earthquake.
However, surface waves cause the
most damage, because they make
the ground swell and roll like ocean
waves.
The damage caused by surface
wavcs can be ex tensive. Buildings fall
down and roads heave up. Bridges
collapse. Glass breaks. Rivers change
course or flood their banks. Trees
topple and cliffs crumble. Qut at sea,
massive waves are set in motion.
These waves, often 30 m high (90 ft),
can reach spccds of 500 km/h (300
mi/h). Such waves can cause great
amounts of damage when they crash
on5hore.
waves cau~e great damage?

conne<t points
of equal inten~ity

--
5'_ IMIt
in a California T
lLJ - . , . ~ .... 101
eafthquake. ",=11
~ -,,~
I£:!I .... " ' . - ..
~ .... 011_
 After an eruption, a \'olcano
Volcanoes usually collapses into a bowl-shaped
A \'olcano is an opening in Earth's mouth called a cra ter. At the bottom
surfact' th rough which mel ted rock, of the crater lies the ct'ntral \'ent.
hot gases, rock fragments, and Many volcanoes have repeated
ash burst forth, or erupt. A violent ("ruptions. In these later ("ruptions,
eruption can release rivers of red-hot some of the volcanic mat("rial in
molten roc k, hissing jets of poisonous the channel may remain below the
gas, curling douds of thick gray ash, surface. It may also push out through
and explosions of scorched rock. side \·enls.
You can see why \'olcanoes an!
sometimes n!ferred to as mountains
of fire. In fact, the word volcallO comes
Lava flows
Volcanoes have been catted
from the ancient Roman god of fire,
mountains of fire.
Vulcan.
How do such mountains of fire
form ? Volcanoes come from Earth's
hot interior. Most volca noes start 37
to 100 miles below the surface. At
these depths, rock can become so hoi
it melts. Melted rock below Earth's
su rf.lce is Cil\led magma.
When rock melts, it releases gases.
These gases mix wi th the magma,
making it lighter than the solid rock
arou nd it. Slowly, the gas-filled
magma rises toward the surfact'.
As it rises, it mel ts rock around it,
gradually forming a large chamber.
This chamber may be only a few
kilometers below the surface.
Under pressure from the weight
of surrou nding rock, the magma is
forced to find an escape. [t melts or
forces a channel into weak or cracked
rock. Within this channel, it pushes
upward. Once near the surface, gas
and magma bu rst through a central
opening, or vent. The erupting
material builds up, forming a
volcanic mountain, or volcan o .

• lessoo 2
o HoI, 9"~·fill ~d magma ri~es, melting rO(k
along th~ way. until it form~ a <hamber
near th~ .... rfac~.
Three main types of volca nic
ma terial are ejected during an
eruption. The mllin one, mllgmll, is
called lava once it reaches the surface.
It may be fast-flowing and liquid·like
or thick and slow-flowi ng.
As it comes from a volcano,
flowing lava may be hotter than
I,HXFC (2,0Cl0°F). As it cools, lava
hMdens into forma tions such as
boulders, domes, cones, tubes, and
smooth or jagged sheets.
Roc k fragmen ts may form when
gas in sticky magm a canno t escape.
Pressure builds up untillhe gas blasts
the magma apart.
The fragmen ts erupt into dust,
ash, and large chun ks call ed bombs.
Small bombs, called cinders, may be
no larger than a baseball. The largest
bombs can be more than I m (3 ft)
wide and weigh 100 tons!
Gases are also released d uring
a volcanic erupti on. Mostl y steam,
o Prn~ure buitd~ until the g~~ and magm~
force open a (hannell~ading to the
~urfact. Volcanic material moves through
this channel and erupts through th~ v~nt.
volcanic gases often con ta in
poisonous chemicals. These gases
mix with IIsh to form a deadly blllck
smoke.
There are different classes of
volcanoes and volcan ic cones. Shield
vo lcanoes form when a lot of lava
flows smoothly from a vent and
spread s out to cover a wide area. This
ac tion creates a broad , low, dome-
shaped volcano.
Cinder cones form when mos tl y
rock fragments erupt and are deposi ted
around the ven t. This crea tes a cone-
shaped volcano with steep sides.
Composi te volcanoes are also
cone shaped. The sides of these
volcanoes are steeper than those of
a shield cone, but no t as steep as a
cinder cone.
~ CAUSE ANO EffECT What c.luses magma
to ri s~ t o the surface?

A large number of volcanoes lind earthquakes strike /llong
tile edge of the Padfic Ocean. This explains why this zone is
(ailed the Ring of Fire. •
Ring ofFir.
Many earthqu akes and \'olcanoes
occur in a zone that borders the
Pacific Ocean. For that reason, this
wne has ~n named the Ring of Fire.
The Ring of Fire outlines Earth's
subduction 7.ones, places where one
of Earth's plates is forced under
another. ll"Ic Pacific Plate converges
with several continental plates to
form the Ring of Fire.
Faulting during su bduction cauSC'S
earthquakes and can also lead to
\'olcanic acti\'ity. As the subducti ng
plate sinks into the mantle, it melts
to form magma. The magma may
later rise to the surface as a line of
volcanoes.
(58 • Chapter 7 • l esson 2
North
On the ocean noor, a deep narrow
valley called an ocean trench may
form along a subduction 7.One.
Resulting volcanoes often parallel the
trench, usually in an arc.
Faulting at diverging boundllTies
also causes earthquakes and creates
volcanoes. Diverging boundaries are
usually located nellr Ihe middle of
ocean basi ns. At these boundaries,
magma rises 10 Ihe surface between
separating plates, creating \'olcanic
mounlain ranges known as ocean
ridges. Faulting at the ridges I('llds
10 ea rthquakes.
1;) UUSE AND uno Why is the Pacific
rim a region of earthquakes and active
volcanoes?

An urthquake i~ a
vio len t ~haking of
(arth'~ < ru~t (au~ed by
faulting. which shif~
rock and sends out
seismic waves.
Volcanoes form when
gas·filled magm a rise'S
through Earth's interior.
Thi~ forces volcanic
material~ to bu..;t
through a vent.
Many volcall(les and
earthquakes occur in a
subduction lone around
the Pacific Ocean called
the Ring of fire.
~ TEST PREP
MATH Make a Graph Research three recent
earthquakes. Make a bar graph that shows the
Richter scale readings for each earthquake.
Share your graph with the class.
TECHNOLOGY Prepare a Report
How can old buildings be rein forced to withstand
earthquakes? Research this question on the
Internet or at the library. Write a report to present
your findings,
I-t
.... \/isit www.edupt.ce.comlscplto
Review
o MAIN IDEA Why do
earthquakes and volcanoes
usually occur at plate boundaries?
a VOCABULARY Define epicenter
and focus and describe their
relationship.
e READING SKill..: Cause and
Effect Describe the cause-and·
effect relatiO!lship that creates
yolcanoes in the Ring of fire.
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Analyze How would Earth be
different if i~ crust did not move
and it lacked tectonic plates?
4) tNQUtRY SKILL: Analyze Data
Research at least fi~e recen t
earthquakes or yolcanic eruptions.
Add them to the list on Page C51.
Do the additional data support
the conclusions that this lesson
presents about earthquakes and
yolcanoes?
Seismic waves that cause the
most damage are
A. P wa~es.
B. surface waves.
C. ocean waves.
O. body waves.
Technology
find oot more aboott!>e most famous
YIlIcani< erup~ons in re<orded histOl'Y.
 How Do
Mountains Form?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Have you ever wondered Inquiry Skill
why mountains often form
Observe When you observe,
along a (oastline? Or why those
you use your senses to
mountains look like wrinkled land?
accurately describe things,
Understanding how mountai ns form
making sure to distinguish
allows people to und erstand what
between fact s and opinions
Earth's surface was like in the past.
or guesses.
It also helps them predict future
changes in Earth's surface. Materials
• shoebo~ lid • ITl(list sand
• scissors • ~asurjn9 cup
• wax paper goggles
,:-::-:,--------,
Science and Math Toolbox
For step 2, review Ml!asurem~mt
on page H16.
Make a Mountain!
Procedure
Safety: Be careful when using scissors, Wear
goggles for this investigation.
€I Collaborate Work with a partner. Place a
shoebox lid upside down on a flat surface.
Then carefully cut a narrow slit along one
end of the lid where it bends up.
e Measure Line the top of the lid with wax
paper. It should be the width of the slit
and about 2.5 em (1 in) longer than the
lid.
e Use Models Place the wax paper in the lid.
Pull one end of the paper about 2.5 em
(1 in) through the slit. Spread half of the
sand CIt the end of the lid near the slit.
<) Use Models Spread the other half near
the center of t he lid, Each pile of sand
represents the crust on one of Earth's
plates. Draw the model setup in your
Science Notebook.
e Use Models Slowly pull the wax paper
through the slit to model the movement
of one of Earth's plates.

Conclusion Inve'Stigate More!

1. Observe In your Science Notebook, draw Design an Experiment
what happened to the sand as accurately Select matefials to model
as you can, what happens along a
divetging boundary.
2. Compare How does what happened to the
sand compare to what happens to rocks in
the crust when two plates collide?
vat" by Reading

VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Mountains are f ormed by various processes,

dome mountains p. (64 usually al plate boundaries. They can be classified by Ilow
fault-block p. (63 they form and by their height
mountains
fold mountains p. (62
Folding and Faulting Forces
READING SKILL Awesome! That is wh", you might think as you
ClitegorizelClanify Use look dow n from a high mountain pea k o r gaze at
II cllart to list the types of mountains along a horizon. lndct'd, moun ta ins are
mountains and the forces awe-inspiring. Not only are they Earth's highest
that bui ld them. surface features, bUllhey are some of its most
beau tiful. From the Alps in Central Europe to the
Rockies in North America, mountains ma ke up the
backdrop to many of the world's scenic spots.
G rand in scale and g reat in mass, mountai ns
may seem permanent. However, li ke E.1rth's other
surface featu res, they are continually being created
and destroyed .
Most moun ta ins form at or ncar pta te
boundaries. In fact, most of the largest mountain
ranges form where two plates collide and force
layers of roc k into folds. These are known as fold
mountains. The Andes shown below are examples.

Folding
folding often occurs at the
edge of a continen t and results
in long, narrow moun tain
ranges, such as the Andes along
South America's west coast.

-
Faulting
Fau lting can produce drama tic
cliffs when a large seelion
of rock is forced upward or
downward, as in this formation
in the Rocky Mountains.
Fold mountains of len form where
an oceanic plate collides wi th a
con tinentill plil!e. Sediment from the
oceiln floor be.:.:omes altilched to the
edge of the continen t. The sediment
and con tinental roc k crumple
together, crea ting rolling folds. As the
layers of roc k wrink le, they may also
crack. This creates faults, or fractures,
in the crus t.
Erosion softens the folds over
time. For that reason, some of
the oldest fold mountains, like
Arkans..1S'S Ouachita Mountains, have
rounded pe<lks. These mountains
formed before dinos..lurs lived!
fault-block mounta in5 may form
wherever f<lulting occurs. They may
even occur at faul ts within fold
mountains. You know tha t during
faulting, rocks break into blocks at a
fault. The blocks may move in several
ways along one or more faults to
crea te mountains.
Most f<lult-bloc k mountains
appear to form at converging or
diverging boundariL'S. Huwever,
mountain-building activity also occurs
at sliding faults. The mountains m<ly
split and slip Sideways like a stack
of magazines falling to one side.
The new range may then shift along
the sliding fault. This is what has
happened to some mountain ranges
bordering Death Valley in California.
As with fold mountains, erosion
helps shape fault-block mountains.
Many of the large isolated mountains
in the Southwest are fault-block
mountains. They are separated
by wide plains filled wi th eroded
material from those mountains.
~ (LASSIFY Which type of mountilin is
usu.. lly formed at (Onverging bound .. ries?
 Volcanic Forces
Sometimes volcanic acti vity fonns
mountains. This type of mountain
usually forms at pl~te boundaries.
Volcanic activity may happen at
converging boundaries when the
edge of one plate sinks beneath
another and melts into magma. If the
magma rises and bursts through the
crust, it generally forms a volcanic
mountain. This process may even
happen within moun ta ins formed by
o ther processes. For example, many
of the mountdins in the Andes chain
in South America are volcanoes.
At diverging boundaries, magma
rises up in the gap between the two
plates. It then cools on the surfa ce
into ri dges of new platC' 1T41tC'rial.
Recall that mid-ocean ridges form
on the ocean floor at dh"erglng
boundaries. Thes(' underwater
mountains make up the world's
longes t mountain chain.
Volcanic mountai ns can form
away from plate boundaries as
well. Magma plumes rising in the
mantle create hot spots in the crust.
As a plate moves over a hot spot,
\'olcanic material erupts through the
plate, creating a chain of volcanic
mountains. Sometimcs magma rises
towa rd the surface but d oesn't break
through the crust. It may push up
under Earth's crust, creating a dome-
shaped mound. The molten rock th en
cools and hilrdens. This is how dome
mountains are formed.
Erosion often continues to shape
domC' mountains. Irregular peaks and
valleys may result. The Black Hills
in South Dakota and the Adirondack
Mountains in New York are examples
of dome mountains.
Some mountains are formed
entirely by erosion. ThC' Catskills in
New York are an example. These
mnllnlll;n<; fnrml'<1 w h"n "!"Minn
carved out peaks and \'allcys from
a platea u.
(USSIf'f
How are dome mountains
different from other mounldinsl

Dome
Dome mountains form when YOlcanic material
bulges upward unde. the crust, ha.dening as
it cools. A number of dome moonlains 1If! to
the east of the Rocky Mountain range.
 Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA Name and describe
the four types. or classes. of
mountains.

( Mountain Formation
I a VOCABULARY How does a
dome mountain form?

9 READING SKilL: Categorizel

Fold Mount.in, Classify Which two types of
mountains are formed by volcanic
activity?

o CRITICAL THINKING:
Synlhesizing What might you
conclude if you I1<ltice sections of
warped and wrinkled rock layers
VOl",,";,; Mountain, on the side of a mountain?

o INQUIRY SKILL: Observe

If someone described a dome
Dotnf M"""taiM moun tain as "beautiful: would
that be an accurate scientific
obse!vation? Why or why not?

.tIEST PREP
Which of these is not a type of
mountain?
MATH (onvert Units One of the highest A. fault-blad
mountains in the Alps is Mont Blanc, which is B. lold
4,810 m high. How many kilometers is that?
C. dome
WRITING Write a Story The Navajo D. diverging
in the southwestern United States honor the
mountains that surround them. Tibetans honor
the Himalayan peak Kang Rimpoche. Choose a ~ Technology
culture that lives near mountains and research 'iii. Visit w_.edupla<uomlscpl
their beliefs about mountains. Write a story to lind out morf ab001 mountain
lorma~ons_
about the people and their mountains.
 SLEEPING GIANT

Talk about waking up on the

wrong side of the bed! Snow-
capped Mount St. Helens slept for iii
hundred years. Then on May 18, 1980,
the volcano blew its top in one of the
gr.atest explosions in recorded history.
The sideways blast blew down enough
trees to build 300,000 homes. Debris
from the volcano was 600 fHt dHP and
even blocked nearby rivenl
Befor. the eruption, the mountain
was 9.677 feet taU. Afterward it was 1,314
feet shorterl Recently, the volcano has
shown new signs of activity. Scientists
are monitoring it closely to determine if
another major eruption will occur.

In 1980. plumes of lIsIl reached a heigh! of 80,000 leet. ....

blocking air traffic. In three days. the ash traveled all
the way across the UnilO!'d States.

(66 •
 READING : Compare and Contrast

The View From Inside

This picture is taken from
inside the blol-'m-out top
of Mount St. Halens. Here
you can see the in"er w.ll ..
of the volcano'. cone . ...

,
,..:I'

• •

Danger Mounting This rising.

steaming lump Is called a lall8 dome.
As magma pushes up from underneath
It rises higher and higher-until the
.. ,.
nallt big eruption. When will it be? . 1'I:lI"
.. ",
>.
. .
•
. .. .-....
 Vocabulary

Com plete each se ntence wi t h a term from the list.

1. The ootermost ~ of Earth is (ailed the _ (0«: ( 4t
2. Tho __ is ~ 01 the solid upper mantle and the CMt. trust (40
dome mount.ins (64
3. Tho _ 01 iK1 earthquake is the point undergrotnl ~e
laulting OCCUl'S.. earthquake (S4
epi(~ter CS4
4. The layer 01 Earth between the (JUst and the ooter (Ofe is called
fault (51
""-
5. Shock waves of _gy released in an earthquake are called __
fault·bloc:k mountains (63
fO(us (S4
6. The re~ase of _gy along a faul t causes an _ fold mountains (62
1. Earth's innermost layer is the _ lithosphere C41
magma CS6
8. Molten rock, Of _ that lIows on the surface is called lavil.
m.... tle (4'
9. A crad in the oust along which rocks move is ca ll ed a __ seismic waVH C53
10. __ form when magma pushes up from benea th Earth's crust.

~ Test Prep

Write the letter of the best answer choke.

11 . Earth's rigid outer layers are bfoken up 13. The temperilture of Earth·s inlerior _
into _
A. increases with depth
A. divtr9ing boundaries B. dKreases with depth
B. tectonic: plates C. is the SiIITIe throughout
C. tIN! (JUSt and the lIII'KKp/Ifte D. is I\9Il'St near the eqlJalor
D. 1M inMr and OllIei' tort
14. Where does most mount.lin formation take
12. What instJUml'f1t measures the strength of place?
iK1 Earthquake?
A. at diverging boundaries
A. Tt.e1""'ne'leI' 8. at .wd«ean ridges
B. AnemomM!I' C. along ocean tr~
C. Sping xait D. at plate boundaries
D. seMlograph

(68 • Chilpter 7
 Inquiry Skills
15. Use Models What ~ind of faul t is shown 11. Apply The Himalaya Mountains lie on the
here? Describe wflat is happening. northern border of India, which is also a
plate boundary. Use plate tectonic theory
to explain why MI. Everest is increasing in
height. Wh at types of mountains are the
Himalayas?
18. 5ynthesize As Alfred Wegenef
hypothesiled, Pangaea was a
supercontinent tha t ran north to south
across the equatOf. North America was
positioned over the equator. How might
the climate of the United States have been
different from today? What was the climate
16. Analyze Data Describe the information like in Antarctica?
that the Richter scale indicates about an
earthquake. 19. Apply Why r:io tall mountains form at
mnvef!Jin!J and diV<?r!Jin!J OOundaril'S. but
not typically at sliding boundaries?
Map the Concept
20. Synthesizing During a strong
Complete the concept map using the
earthquake. is the most damage done
words listed beJow.
at the epicenter? Explain.
converging Earth
core mantle
diverging sliding Performance Assessment
Make Mountains
( 1 Create a po5ter diagramming the three different
I types of mountains. lrn:lica te the type of
plate boundary, the type of mountain, and an

L-( --JI~~ example of wflere they O{(ur.

( ' o<toni< pI~'o. 1

1
r(----'[' --'I r(_ _ ,)(r-..L..-'1
LESSON
Cars, planes, and

1 trucks- where do
people get the energy
to power vehicles?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
Every day, wind and

2 rain carry away soil.

What problems can
soil loss cause?
Read about it in lesson 2.

LESSON
Reduce, reuse,

3 recycle- how can

you conserve Earth's
valuable resources?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 How Do People
Use Resources?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
You depend on natural resources Inquiry Skill
for almost every activity of your life.
Use Models When you use
Some resources. like the petroleum
models. yo u can see what
used to make gasoline, exist in
happens in a real-world
limited supplies. When they afe used
process.
up, they are gone forever. If people
use resources wisely, everyone will Materials
have them for yean to (orne.
• 3 plastic cups
' M""
• measuril19 cup
• teaspoon
• tablespoon
• goggles
• marking pen

Saen(e and Math Toolbox

For step 3, review Measuring
Volume OIl page H7 .

. ~
Just a Spoonful
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles for this activity.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. label
one cup NNatural Resource. Fill thi s cup
N

with 100 ml of sand. Label a second cup

NResource Suppfy,H Fill it wi th 100 ml of
sand. In your Science Notebook. make a
chart like the one shown.
G Use Models One partner will be the
HreSOUfce user H a nd will use a tablespoon
to remove sand from the Natura l Resource
cup. Th e other will be the Hresource
supplier and use a teaspoon to add sand
H

to the cup. Spoon sand in and out of the

cup at the same fate f or 30 seconds.
o Measure Measure and record the amount
of sand re maining in the cup.
o Use Models Refill t he cup with 100 ml
of sand. Repeat rteps 2 and 3, but this
time, only the resource user should spoon
sand out of the cup. Do not add sand to
the cup.

Conclusion
1. Compare What is the d ifference in the InveJtigate More!

2.
amo unt of sand in the Resou rce cu p for the
two trials? Explain the difference.
Hypothesize Based on the data, what do
you think would happen in step 2 if both
students were using the same size spoons?
3. Use Models What do the results show
about natural resources?
r
Design an Experiment
Repeat the activity, this time
varyil"lQ the speeds that you
add or remove the sand.
How does changing the rate
affect the final amount 01
sand in the cup 7 RepM )'OUr
resurrs in a chari, graph. or
diagram .

.\
 Earth's
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA The Earth provides many resour(eS t hat
(onservalion p.C18 people need and use. Some resour(eS are fou nd only in
fossil fuel p,C1S limited quan tities. Ot her resources are almost un limi ted.
natural reso"rce p,C14
nonrenewable p,C1S Natural Resources
resou"e
renewable p. (76
The natural world provides everything that
n'!source people need to stay alive, and many things that
people find useful or helpfuL These resources
READING SKILL indude air, water, minerals, and soiL They arc
Prob lem an d Solution called natura l resou rces.
Use iii diagram like lhe one Humans have found many ways to ta ke
be low 10 compare po5~ble advan tage of na tural resources. We use them to
5OIution5 10 the problem of build houses, grow crops, and raise livestock. We
limited natural re5OUr(es. also use natur.ll resources as a source of fuel and
electrical energy. Na tural resources that arc used to

DO prodm;e energy arc called energy resources.

DO Nuggets
Copper sometimes is found in
pure nuggets like these. ~

Mining
Copper (Omes from
mines like the one here.
Copper usually is found
in combination with
other elements. ~

8 • lesson 1
 Nonrenewable Resources Pe troleum Formation
Some natural resources are not
easily replaced. These resources are
called nonrenewable resources. Once
a nonrenewable resource is used up,
natural processes take millions of years
to replace it.
Nonrenewable resources include
oil, natural gas, and coal, which are
examples of fossil fuels. They are called
fossil fuels because they come from the
As marine plants and animals died,
remains of ancien t plants and animals. their remains were sometimes buried
Oil, which is also called petroleum, before tIIey completely decomposed.
formed from the remains of plants and
animals that once lived in the oceans.
How did plants and animals Change
into oil? After they died, their remains
settled on the ocean floor. Over time,
sediments built up on top of the remains,
which Wer"l!- pressed under the building
weight of the sediments. This pressure,
along with heat from Earth's interior,
Changed the appearance and chemical
makeup of the remains. Further pressure
squeezed the remains into liquid. That Ove r millions of years, heat and
liquid is oil. pressure turned this organit matter
into oil.
Other nonrenewable resources
include minerals and some rocks, such
as ores of aluminum, iron, and copper.
These materials are used for building
materials and for making a wide range
of produc ts, from automobiles to jewelry.
Because nonrenewable resources
cannot be replaced, it is important to use
them w isely. If people are not careful,
these resources will not be available for
future generations.
The oil collected in fractured rocks or
fJ PROBLEM AND SOLUTION Why a re foss il in spaces between sediment particles.
fue ls e xa mp les of non re newable resources? Today. oil pumps remove the oil from
these spaces.

I
Renewable Resources
Not all natura l resources are
nonrenewable. Resources that are
easily replaced or that can be used
over and over again are called
renewable resources. Farm crops and
animals are examples. So are oxygen
and fresh wa ter.
Trees are renewable resources
because new ones can always be
grown. People use trees to ma ke
paper products and for lumber. Wood
from trees can also be burned as
fuel. Many companies operate tree
farms. For each tree that is cut down,
a young tree is planted. Thus, the
supply of trees is constantly renewed.
Tree~ are a valuable natural re~our(e.
By replacing cut-down trees. a tree farm
can provide wood over and over again. T
Renewable resources that are
used to produce energy are called
alternative energy sources. They
provide options to using fossil fuels.
Wind Windmills have been used for
hundreds of years to move water and
to grind grain. Today, wind farms
use rows of wind turbines to power
electric generators.
Like old-fashioned windmills,
the turbines have blades that turn
as the wind blows. The energy from
the moving blades is converted into
elec tricity.
Solar Energy from the Sun is called
solar energy. Solar panels can collect
sunlight and convert it to thermal
energy. This energy can be used to
hea t homes. Other devices, called
solar cells, convert the Sun's energy
into electricity. Today, solar cells
power calculntors and electronic road
signs. In the fu ture, people mny be
driv ing solar-powered cars!
Water Power plants tha t use moving
water to generate electricity are called
hydroelectric plants. At these plan ts,
water is held behind a dam and
slowly released . The falling wa ter
turns turbines, similar to the way
wind turns turbines. The energy is
converted in to electricity.
Today, people still use fossil fuels
for much of their energy needs. Yet
these fuels are becoming scarcer
and more expensive. Developing
alterna tive energy resources makes
sense for the future!
o PROBHM AND SOLUTION
I'cople .educe their u~e of
How can
fo~~il fuel~?
I J I I Wind
I In windy places. wind
w.bines tan generate
ele<tridty very efficiently.

Cars powered by solar energy

must have a large surface area
solar celis.. The solar celis
collect the Sun's energy and convert
it \0 electricity to power the car.

Hydroelectric plants use the

force of moving wate, to
turn turbines. The energy
from the spinning turbines is
converted into tle<t.icily.

C71

Conservation
The efficient use of resources is
c;llloo conservation. ConK>rving
non renew;lble resoUTC('S is very
importnnt, because they cannot be
replaced. By not wasting fossil fuels,
you can save them for the future.
Another reason to COnK>f'Ve fossil
fuels is to reduce pollution. Smoke
from burning these fuels can mix
with wilter in the ai r to form smog,
which is not health)' to breathe.
Blirning fuels ;ldds a gas called
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
This action mil)' be slowly warming
Earth 's temperature, an en'nt called
globalwanning. Scientists are
studying this potential problem.
Other waste gases from fossil fuels
mix with wa ter in the air to form acid
min, another environmental problem.
Acid rain can kill trees and fi sh, and
damage buildings and statues .
• lesson t
Mo~t cars Hill on gasoline,
a petroleum produd. As
petroleum reserftS are
used up, its (Ost is likely
to rise e~n lIiglier.
I!19S 2000
What might be the most important
natural resource to consen'e? [n
mlmy places, the answer is water.
People need clean, fresh water for
drinking, bathing, and growing
crops. Although nature renews
fresh water, the world's delThlnd for
water increases every yea r as the
population grows.
You and you r family can help
to conserve Earth's importa nt
resoufCC"S by following some simple,
common-sense practi ces. Use public
transportation, or form carpools.
Tum off electric lights and appliances
when not in use. Fix leaky faucets.
What other ideilS can you think of to
prilctice COn5erviltion?
"~oeUM AHO SOLUTION 'Nhat problem
(/In (onservation he lp to so lve7
 Review
o MAIN IDEA Why is solar energy
called a renewable resource?
Natural are
re'Sour(~s
nonr~newable if they o VOCABULARY W. ite a short
cannot be r~placed in a paragraph using the terms
person's li fetime. na/ural resource and energy
resource.
f) READING SKill..: Problem
Natural re'SOUrCeS are and Solution Which alternative
renewable if they can energy resource do you think is
be quickly and naturally most likely to replace fossil fuels
replaced. in the future?

o CRITICAL THINKING:
Evaluate Where are the be-st
Alternative energy
pla<es to build wind farms?
SOurCeS help people to
Explain your reasoning.
conserve fossil fltels, a
nonrenewable resource.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Use Models
A student constructs a model of
a natural resource using a can
with a small hole in the bottom.
With the hole plugged, the can is
filled with salld. When the plll9
is removed. the sand drains out.
MATH (reate a Graph Suppose a gasoline· What kind of resource does this
powered car can travel 40 km (15 mil on a model illustrate?
gallon of gasoline. A car that uses a combination
of gasoline and electricity can travel 96 km
~ TEST PREP
Which of the following is a
(60 mil on a gallon 01 gasoline. Make a bar
renewable resource?
graph to show how far each car can travel on
25 gallons of gas. A. oil
B. natural gas
TECHNOLOGY DrawaDiagram
Research new technology that uses an C. lumber
alternative energy resource. Draw a diagram or D. aluminum
illustration of the technology and present your
display to the class.
~ Technology
lit Visil www.eduplace.comlscpl tofiod
001 more about nalural .<'SOUrces.
 Technology

In many ways. hybrid cars look and operate much

like other modern cars. The difference is inside. Hybrids
3re powered by a combination of gasoline and electricity!
As you read about hybrid cars, compare them t o
conventional cars that run on gasoline only. What
adva ntages do you think hybrid carl provide?

Instruments
This ~,,~ showJ the volume
- -
of gas in the tJnk and the (!large 01
th. ban. 'Y. T

Gasoline Engine Electric Motor

The <!fIgi". is smaller Tilt mo lD. draws energy from tM ban trifJ
and mO •• fllt'l·efficient to .«tle,ale lilt CaJ. Yet it also Cin iKt is i
than tM <'11ginH 01 most gent.ato<, 00119 tM tntrgy of the moving
can. II pollulH IHs. 100. Q . 10 rKlla,~ llIe battftin.

C<0
C8COC.--:
o.
'-pC"-'~8C.C,CH
-W-"~'~)
 READING

When the ca. Iravel~ On level surlacl'S, When the ta. travels
uphill, the banery the ca. uses one or downhill, the mCllO.
discha.QM to add both power sources, {onverU to an electric
extra power to the de pending Gn its generator. It .ecM.ges
car's engine. speed. the battery.

Gas Tank
One popular brand of
hybrid ca. {an travel
more than 1,000 km
(630 mil On a single
tank (If gas.

Shari"qldeas
I. READING (HECK How do batteries help
a hybrid ca. use less gasoline?
2. WRITE ABOUT IT Des<ribe the
In a completely electric-powered
ca., balleries take up a lot of the
advantages of hybrid cars.
car's volume. Because a hybrid
3. TALK ABOUT IT How do hybrid cars
car needs 1M! battery power. its compare to (a.s that run on gasoline
balleries take up less spau.
only?
 How Do People
Use Soil?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Plants need mature, nutrient- Inquiry Skill
rich soil in order to grow. Plants
Observe When you observe,
in turn protect and enrich soil. By
you use what you (an see or
studying how plants and soil interact,
measure t o help you draw a
you can help protect both.
(onclusion.

Materials
• 2 plastic bowls • plastic wrap
• meflsuring cup • goggles
• moist soil

Science and Math Toolbox

For steps 2 to 4, r~jew Making
a Chart to Organize Data on
page Hi t
A Mighty Wind! Soil
Qu' lity
S . mpl~
A
S.mpl~
e

Procedure ~"
Safety: Wear goggles for this activity.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Place
250 mL (1 cup) of moist soil in each of the
two plastic bowls. Label the soil samples
A and B. In your Science Notebook, create
a chart like the one shown.

e Observe Test the soil samples to determine

their characteristics. For example, fee l
the consistency. dampness, and texture
of the soil. Blow on it to see what effect
wind might have on it. Record your
observations.
e Expertment Securely cover soil sample A
with plastic wrap. MClke sure there are
no holes or gaps in the wrap. Leave soil
sample B open. Place the two bins in a
warm, sunny window and leave them
overnight.
o Observe Remove the plastic wrap from
sample A. Repeat step 2 with both samples
and record your observations.

Conclusion
1. Compare Compare your data about the
two soil samples. What similarities and Design an Experiment
differences do you notice? How do you Will soil, sand. and gravel
explain them? d~ out at different rales?
2. Infer How do you think your observations Design an experiment to find
might explain soil conditions in nature? out. Conduct the experiment
with your teacher's approval.
3. Hypothesize Do you think that growing
plants affect the way that soil holds water?
How could you test your hypothesis?
v afn by Reading
Uses of Soil
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Soil supports the growth of (rOPS and o ther
re$idual soil p. cas pl,mls. Soil must be protected because m"ture, nutrient-
soil p,C84 rkh soil takes a long time t o form.
soil profile p,C86
subsoi l p,C86 What is Soil?
topsoil p,(86
transported soil p. cas Soil is a natural resource that is made up of
minerals and small roc ks, water, g ases, and org anic
READING SKILL matter. The minerllls and small roc ks MC we1lthercd
Draw Con(lusions Use bedrock. The orga nic mat tcr, called humus, is
a chart to rKord you r decayed plan t and nnim,,[ materiaL
conclusions about what Not all soils a re ali ke. Different geogra p hic areas
conditions produce the have differen t types of soil. For example, the soil in
best soil. a desert will be very different from soil in a forest.
The type of soi l a p lace has depend s on several
factors. These factors include climMe nnd the types
o f rocks and organic matter present in the area. The
s ize o f the particles in soil ma y describe the soil"s
texture. Stud), the types of soil shown below. How
d o you thin k the quality of soil affe<:ts the plants
that grow in it?

Sandy Soil Clay soil Rocky soil

In sandy soil. particles Clay soil is made up of Rocky soil. or gravel.
are medium-sized and very small. tightly-packed includes relatively large
very hard. " mineral particles. " fragments of rock. "

8 • Lesson 2

How Soil Is Formed
Soil forms in a process that ta kes
thousands of years. This process
begins wi th weathering. As you
learned in Chapter 6, weathering
is Ihe breaki ng down of rock into
smaller pieces of rocks and minerals.
If you were 10 dig a hole deep
enough. you would hi t bedrock.
Bedrock is unwea thered rock beneath
the soil and other loose material on
Earth's surface.
As the upper part of the bedrock
wea thers. it breaks in to smilller
pieces. These pieces e\'entually
become part of the mix ture called
soil. Soil that forms from the bedrock
beneath is called residual soil.
Sometimes, the soil in an area has
minerals that are different from those
in the bedrock below. This soil, called
transported soil, has been carried
from some other location by
wind and water.
As soil forms, plilnts begin to
grow. After plants and animals d ie,
their remains decily. Rain carries the
decayed organic milterial, or humus,
from the surfilce in to the developing
soi1. Humus adds nutrients to soil.
Plilnt roots, insects, worms, and
other organisms also help in the
de\'elopment of nu trien t-rich soil.
Roo ts grow into the soil, and insects
and worms burrow in it. They create
spaces between the soil particles.
These spaces allow air to ci rculate
and more humus to collect.
How d~s t he
;;;;;;;; affect the type of soit in an al ea ?

b . thwo.ms, ~te.i"
and fungi b.uk down
dud plant and animal
rnattl"ial. The remains
 Profile of Mature Soil
Over time, as soil develops,
defini te layers can be observed. These
layers are called soil horizons. A
ma ture soil has four horizons. Young
or imm1lture soil hilS fewer hor izons.

-
-- •
All of the soil horizons together
are called a $oil pro fil e. In a ma ture
soil profile, from the top down, the
horizons are called topsoil, subsoil,
parent material, and bedrock. The
layers are also given let ter na mes, as
shown in the diagram.
Horizon A is the t opsoil. Topsoil
con tains h umus, minerals a nd rock
fragments, as well as inse<: ts and
earthworms. This part of the soil has
the most nutrien ts and is important
for growing plants. Most plant seeds
germinate, or sproul, in topsoil.
Horizon B is the subsoil. Subsoil
usually contains very little hu m us.
However, water washes down some
nutrients and organiC ma tter from the
topsoil. Some plant roots may reach
d own in to the subsoil, and some
earthworms and o ther organisms
may be found here.
The next layer, horizon C, is made
up of chunks of partly weathered
bedrock. This rock is sometimes
called the parent material, be<:ause
the soil comes from it.
Below the parent material is the
bedrock, or horizon D. This thick
layer of rock is the founda tion for
the soil.
The i 01 water, plants, and
animals created the mature soil ~" DRAW (ONtLUStONS What can you learn
profile shown here . .. from st udyi ng a soil profile7

8 • Lesson 2
 Year 1
Year 2
..." ..." ..."
(anoia (anoia (o.n
Year 3 aa. ley <". (;",,,Ia
Vear 4 Flax Flax
Vear 5 Soybean Batley Alfalf.
Protecting Topsoil
As you have learned, topsoil is
the layer of soil thai has the most
nutrients. Plants use these nu trients
in a way that is comparable to how
),our body uses vi tamins. While the
nutrients are not food for plan ts, they
are necessary for heal thy growth.
The nu trients are passed on to
anim als tha t cat the plan ts, and to
animals tha t eat the plant-eaters.
Organic material from these plants
and animals then r('turns the
nutrients to the soil. This cycle is
important to all Jiving things.
Farmers must meet the challenge
of main taining nutrien ts in the
soil. Growing crops ta ke nu trients
out of the soil. When the crops are
harvested, the nutrients are removed
with them .
A These crops ale different from those
that were grown in the same fields a
season ago.
.. This table shows several recommended
crop rotation schedules for northeast
North Dakota.
How do farmers solve this
problem? One solution is to add
fertilizer to the soil to replace the
nu trients. This solution is nol perfect,
however, because some of the
fertilizer washes away when it rains.
Another way of returning
nu trients to the soil is through crop
rotation. C rop rotation is the planting
of different crops during different
growing seasons. Each type of plant
uses d ifferent sets of nutrients.
If the s..1me crop is grown in the
same field for many years, Ihe same
nu trients arc removed from the
soiL Wilh crop rotation, the soil is
naturally repleniShed.
D DRAW CONClUSIONS Acco.ding to the
cha.t, if corn is g.own in iii field in Yeiilr ) ,
whiilt crop should be planted in Yea. 4?

Conserving Topsoil
Fanners have found ways to
prevent soil from losing nu trients.
Howel'er, topsoil also needs to be
protected from wind, Wllter, lll'ld
other agents of erosion.
Whllt can be the result of excessive
soil erosion? People learned the hard
answ('r in the \9305. Up until th('n,
mllny farmers in the Great Plllins
practiced poor soil mllnagem('nt.
As a result, crops sometimes were
poor and the topsoil was left bMe.
Conditions WOTS('ned during a long
drought, which dried the topsoil. .
Winds simply picked up the topsoIl
;md carried it away.
The region where this happened
became known as the Dust Bowl.
Huge dust storms swept across
the area, and winds carried soil far
from the farmlands. Without topsoil,
Experts estimate that about
850 million tons of topsoil were
lost in the dust storms of 1935.
Today, In p<lrt \)@(auseofbetter
soil conservation, that land is
fertile again. Y
farmers were unable to grow crops
for many years. Without crops, a food
shorta ge set in.
Today, farmers follow much
smMter soil conservation plans. One
way farmers prel"ent wind erosion of
the topsoil is by creilting windbreilks,
or shelterbelts. A windbreak is a line
of trees planted along the edge of a
field. The trees help block the wind
and pI'Cvent or reduce soil erosion.
Water is another factor in soil
erosion. When water movcs down
the slopes of a plowed field. it picks
up soil and carri cs it away. To reduce
this type of erosion, farmers practice
contour plowing. They follow the
contours of their fields as they plow.
These winding furrows 5101\1 water
down as gral'il)' movcs it down the
slope.
Another approach to prel'enting
soil erosion is to plant cover crops.
such as dover or alfalfa. The roots
of these plilnts hold soil in place ;md
prevent it from being carried aWily.
How do planU

Soil is made up of
weathertd rl,Kk
material, gases. water,
and humus. Decaying
plants and animals add
nutrients to the soil.
Topsoil is impouant
because it provides
most of the nutrients
for growing plants.
Conservation practices
help farmers prevent
the 1055 of topsoil
through erosion.
"Du<l Bowl. " can be
prevented.
MATH Estimate Using Fractions A farmer
practices crop rotation to conserve soil nutrients.
She grows wheat one year in every five. About
wha t fraction of her total crop output is wheat?
WRITING Narrati ve Find out more about
the Oust Bowl of the 1930s. Write a shon story
describing what it must have been li~e to be a
farmer in the Great Plains du ring the 1930s.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What layers make
up a mature soil profile?
f) VOCABULARY In your own
words. define the term soil profile.
€) READING SKill: Draw
Concl usions You notice that the
steep sides of a highway road
cut are covered in tightly wwen
netting. What might be the
reason for this practice?
o CRfTlCAl THINKING: Analyze
Why do farmers need to
understand the nutrients required
by the oops that they plant?
o INQUIRY SKill: Observe You
dig up pan of your yard in hopes
01 planting a garden. You see
that the uppermost layer of soil
is thin, and you find a lot 01 rocks
near the surface. What does this
tell you about how your garden
will grow?
.,tTEST PREP
The layer of mature soil that
contains only a lew nutrients is
,",
A. bedrock.
B. parent material.
C. subsoil.
O. topsoil.
~ Technology
iii. Visit w_.eduplacuomlscpl
to lioo out more abool 'iIli1.
How Can People Use
Resources Wisely?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Why should you recycle old Inquiry Skill
bottles and cans? One reason is to
Collaborate When you
conserve Earth's resources. Recycling
co llaborate, you work with
plast ics, me tals, and othe r materials
other people to find soluti ons
means they can be used to make new
by considering the suggestions,
products.
f indings, and ideas of others.

Science and Math Toolbox

Fur ~tl'p) 2 tu 4, Il'Vil'W M<tking
a Cllart to Organize Data 00
pageHl 1.
Recycling!
Procedure
o Collaborate As a class, identify all the
materials that your family, your school.
and your community recycle.

o Record Data In your Science Notebook,

list the materials that the class identified.
Create a chart like the one shown.
o Predict Review your list and choose two
types of recyclable materials that your
......mlnum
o.~.

household uses. Predict how many of these

recyclable items your household uses in a
week. Then predict how many of the goods
will be recycled. Record your predictions.
o Observe For one week, monitor your
household's use of the selected recyclable
goods. Record how many items are recycled
and how many are thrown in the trash.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Use your data to calculate
the total amount of your chosen recyclable
goods used in your household that week.
Then, calculate the percentage of those
materials that were set aside to be recycled.
Did your household recycle more or less
than it threw in the trash? Inve'Stigate More!
Solve a Problem
2. Collaborate Work in a small group to develop From your data or othef
a plan that would encourage people in your obseNations, choose a
community to recycte more. resource that you think is
wastro in your <ommunity.
How coold this resource be
used wisely? Present your
ideas in a letter. poster.
or skit
v af1l by Reading
VOCABULARY
p. (91
READING SKILL
Problem and Solution
Use a charI to compare the
pros and (ons of one of
the conservation solutions
discussed in this lesson.
Conservation
MAtN IDEA By redudng. re u~in g. " nd r eqd ing, people
(all help en~u'e thai import,lIlt reso u«es use d 10 "",ke
everyd ay items w ill be ava ilab le in the future.
Using Resources Wisely
Thin k about some of the things you used
today-a plastic wa ter bottle, a n aluminum '<In, a
paper towel. These are very useful items, and all
come from nalural resources. Plastic is a petroleum-
based product. Aluminum comes from a mineral
ore that is mined. Paper is made from trees.
When you finished using these items, \Vhilt did
you do with them? Did )'ou throw them away in
the trash? If so, the resources used 10 ma ke these
items are lost. But it doesn't have to be that way.
Recycling means re.:overing a resource from one
item and using that resource to make another item.
Recycling s.wes energy and conserves resources.

Recycling Ra tes in t he
United States (2002-2003)

""
."
.'"'".
" Beve<age Plasli( Newspapers Gin s
". Bottle.
Req.clable Item
( onta;"",.

• How do you thi nk the !,ash that you throw

out compares to the data shown here?

<II Recycle
The triple-arrow symbol means t hat
this tan shou ld be recycled.
8 • l esson 3
The Three Rs of Conservation
There are three main ways to conserve
resources: reduce, reuse, and recycle. People
refer to these as tile Ihree Rs of conserva tion.
You h.1I'e already leamed how recycling helps
conserve resources.
Reducing simply means using less materiil!'
For example, when you use one paper towel
to wipe up a spill instead of using two, you
reduce your use of paper. If you choose not
to use a straw in your drink, you reduce the
amount of plastic you use. E\'ery time you walk
or ride a bike instead of riding in a ca r, you
reduce the amount of fossil fuels that you use.
Reusing is another way to conserve
resources. Reusing can be .15 simple as using a
glass cu p again and again instead of throwing ... Reduce
away a plastic cup after a single use. Insulation llelps reduct Iht amount
Reusing also means putting things to new of energy used in buildings. This
uses. For example, you could wash an empty fiberglass insulation helps keep
plastic pickle jar and keep it on your desk liS a a house coolin the summer and
warm in the win ter.
pencil holder. This keeps the jllr from ending
up in the gllrbilge. It also saves the material
that would have been used to make a pencil
holder that you otherwise might have bought
at a store.
In general, reducing and reusing are more
effectin.' than recycling. Both save more
resources and energy than recycling does.
But recycling resources is still much better
than wilsting them.

How does recycling

to conserve lKl tural resources?

Reuse
These containers and clOlh diapers can
be used o~r and over again. What other
reusable items can you name? ~

landfills
Have you ever wondered what
happens to the trash that you throw
away? You mily know that a truck
picks it up. but where does thc truck
lake it?
Mos t trash ends up in a l.mdfilL
A landfill is a place where trash is
deposited and then covered with
plastic or day. The plllSlic or clay
seals the trash in Ihc landfill and
keeps the wastes contained.
Landfills are carefully designed to
keep waste in and water and air out.
This design has both benefits and
drawbacks. The sealing of landfills
kccps materials in thc waste from
polluting thc environment. Harmful
chemicals arc stopped from seeping
into Ihc groundwater. Yet thc l<lck of
<liT and wai('T s lowS the ratc that the
waslcs doxomposc, or break down.
Most organic matter, such as pilpcT
or leather, will decompose fairly
quickly when exposed to air and
water. However, whCfl scaled in 11
landfill, they might take several years
to break down. Other wastes can take
hundreds of years to decompose.
Trash you throw ou t today may
remain in landfills for a \"ery long
time.
E.1ch landfill is designed to take
up a certain amount of space. Once
it is filled, it must be closed. Some
com munities ha ve no more space to
create new landfills. They must shi p
their trash to other areas for disposal.
When we reduce, reu se, and
nxyc1e items that would otherwise
be thrown out as trash, we decrease
the amount of ma terial thai is sent
to landfills. Not only are resources
conserved, but space in landfills is
also conserved.
Why mu ~ 1
;;;;fun, ..,.',,"
land fill~ take up valuable land
resour(e~ Practi(ing the three
Rs reduces th e traSh that goes
to the landfilL
0 Silver
• Oil
•• Iron
Diamonds
• C,,,..
C~ ,
• Gotd
This map sllows wh ere na tural rH OUlteS aft found. When
resources are not located near where they aft used. other
resources must be used to transport them . ...
Where the Resources Are
The map on this page shows
places around the world thnl hllve
[MgC deposits of different na tural
resources. You can see that many
resources are found only in certa in
parts of the world.
In the past, people often settled
in areas where important resQurre5
were found. The natur,,1 rcsoUTCt'S
available in an area shaped the lives
and busincss-es of communities in the
region. While this is still true to some
ex tent, modern transportalion and
technology make it much easier for
people to use and rely on rcsourres
from all over the world.
Today, people commonly transport
resourccs. A rcsource such '"'s sih'cr
may be taken from the place it is
mined and shipped to another place
to" - p~-- .... p"~ ~i l v,' ,-. th O"
vt: ' ......... "'''"''''' " ' " '" "
shipped all ove r the world to jewelers
and other manufacturers. -------..:--:..----------~~b
•
•
Oil is one resource that is used
everyv.·hcre, but found in large
~upplies in only II few plllccs. every
d ay, s hi ps carry millions of gall ons of
oil across the oceans.
These ships sometimes have
acciden ts, and their cargoes spill into
the wa ter. Oil s pills can be deadly to
fish, whales, seals, and other marine
life. Evcntually, the oil can wash up
on land and damage ecosystems
along thc shore.
Transporting resources arou nd
the world brings many bencfits.
Howc\,{'r, it can also be cos tly and
hann the environmen t. When people
conserve n'ltural resources through
th{' Ihl"C(> Rs of conservation, fewer
resources need to be shipped around
the world.
'ROIUW AND SOLUTION Wh", is one
sol ution to Ih'" problems caused by
transporting oil?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What are thre{>
pra<tict$ that help conserve
Resources can be nalural resources?
conserved and pollution
reduced by reducing. (} VOCABULARY Write a short
reu~ing. and re<yding. paragraph that explains how
recycling conserves natural
resources.
Landfills are specially
designed places to
o READING SKILL: Prob lem
an d Soluti on landfi lls are lined
dispose of wastes.
with plastic or clay. What problem
does this help to solve?

o CRITICAL THINKING: App ly

Natural reSOurUS are Cobalt is a metal used in making
transported regularly powerful magnets. The United
from regions where States imports all its cobalt from
they are found to other other countries. If large cobalt
regions where they are deposits were found in the Rocky
Mount~ins. how might thl'lt ~ffecl
"'"' the United States and other
coontries ?
for Home
and School
o INQUIRY SKILL: Collaborate
Wor.: with a partnet to list thre{>
ways of reducing the use of
MATH Make a Graph Use newspapers, natural resources at your school.
almanacs, and the Internet to find out the
average amount of trash produced by a nearby ~TEST PREP
city each year for the last five years. Ma~e a Which of the following is NOT a
line graph showing the data. Analyze the method of conserving resources?
trends you find .
A. replace
TECHNOLOGY Write a Report B. re<ycle
Research developments in the design and
C. reuse
location of landfills. Write a report explaining
what you learned. D. reduce

~ Technology
'Ill Vi!.it www.eduplace.comlscpl
\0 find out mole about how Iesources
can be used wisely.
8 • l esson 3
 Cartographer
Cartographers are map makers. They map
many types of surface features, from the
highest mountain to t he o<ean floor. Maps may
present natural features, such as elevation and
climate, or human-made ones, such as cities,
roads, and (fOps.
Cartographers rely on physical surveys, as
well as images from airplanes and satellites.
They often use computers, too.
What It Takes!
• A degree in geography, geology, or art
• Drawing and comput er skills
Farmer
Is farming the most important job in the world? Nearly
all of the wor ld's food comes from crops and livesta<:k raised
by farmers and ranchers. So do many other products, such as
cotton, leather, and wool.
Farmers must do many tasks: ope rate and care for f arm
machinery, monitor weather conditions, prevent (fOP and
animal diseases, care for the soil, and manage a business.
Wkat It Takes!
• Courses in agriculture and business
• Energy f or st renuous work outdoors
 What a waste! It took millions
of gallons of fossil fuel and many other
nonre newable resources to make
the tires in this picture. Every year
hundreds of millions of tires are
thrown away. Experts estimate
there are at least 1 billion scrap
tires in the United States!
Because tires take up to 80
years to decompose, they aren't
going away so on. Fortunately,
recycling tires has become big
business. Each year, more and
more old tires are processed to
produce fuel. Tires are also ground
up and used to create safe, sturdy
surfaces for roads, sidewalks,
and playgrounds.
READING : Compare and Contrast

Run a rope through

the billion tires in
U.S. landfills today.
You'll have a tire
necklace long
enough to circle
the earth 5 times!

Tire Doctor
Dr. Jagdlsh Dhawan,
shown her., worked
with ,.lIow chemistry
prof.ssor Richard
L-tendN to develop
• nIIW procesl that
r.cycle, scrap tlr.s Into
high-grade oil without
any.ast• .
 Vocabulary
Comple te each sente nce wi th a term from the list.
1. Sending aiuminl,llll cans to a plant to be made into other (onstnIation (SO
aiuminl,llll proWcts is an eKampie of _ fossil fuel (71
2. A(n) __ is anything found in nature that is nectssary Of natllral resource (76
useful to humans. nonrenewable resollrce (17
3. Coal is called a(n) _ bKaust it fOfmtd "om the remains of rt<yding (94
ancitnt living things. renewable resource (78
4. The I.lytrs that make up a mature soil rtpftsent the _
rtsidual soil (87
soil (86
S. Humus is most commonly found in _
soil profile (88
6. The layK of soil with little Of no OIgank matter is called _ subsoil (88
7. __ is soil that is located where it fOfmed. topsoil (88
transported soil (81
8. A(n) __ may only be used once because it cannot be
replaced.
!t. ~lllhal has been camed by Wind or water worn where II
formed is called _ .
10. A(n) __ may be used repeatedly, because it can be replaced.

I Test Prep
Write th e letter of th e best answer choice.
11 . The practice 01 using all rtsOllfcts wisely is 13. What is one example of capturing a
called _ l efl@Wabk> roergy source?

A. (OIlSl'fYaOOn A. mining for coat

B. IIIoing ",,,, ..·al* ~I'S B. mining for oil
C. IIIoing non,erllhvabit rtsOUrcl'S C. inslalling wind lUibines
O. comp:ostlng D. drinking II glass of Willer

12. Which is NOT a common part 01 soil? 14. Using china dishes instead of paper platts
A. humus
is an example of __ "''''' ~
B. watl'f A. reducing C. recycling
B. rl'llSing D. UnwM

(100· (hapter 8
 Inquiry Skills
15. Observe How could you use the
appearallCe of a creek after a rainstoJlll to
determine if soil erosion is taking place?
16. Collaborate How might people work
together to reduce the amount of trash
that is sent to a landfill? Discuss positive
steps that families. businesses. and
communities can take.
17. Evaluate How would you respond to
people who say it is not ne<essary to
COnseNe fossil fuels. because the supply
of fossil fuels will not run out during their
lifetime?
18. Apply Name three different types of
resources that people mine from Earth.
Describe uses for these resources.
19. Apply If you were inteNiewing a
company to pick up your materials for
recycling. what are three questions you
woul d ask?
20. Analyze What natural resources are
espe<ially common in your state? How do
people collect or use them? Research your
state's reSOUf{t'S at the library or 011 the
Internet.

Performance Assessment
Plowing a Field
Suppose a farmer wanted to che<k on the quality
Map the Concept of his soillrom one year to the next. Make a list
of steps he could take to gather this information.
This chart shows two categories. Classify each of
Explain how each adion would help him Oete<t
these Il(Itural resouf{es.
any changes in ~I quality.

(oal
Renewable Nonrenewabl e
oil
Resource Resouf(e
trees
solar energy
natural gas
wind energy
moving water
 Write tile letter of til e beu 4. Soil tllat forms from tile bedrock below it
answer choice. is calledl _ __

1. Rox. ~eeps her pens and pencils in an A. humus.

old tennis ban tan. Whicll conservation B. rocky soil.
strategy is this? C. residual so~.
A. recycle D. transported soil.
B. reduce
C. resource 5. Which is a nonrenewable energy SOlUte?

D. reuse

2. Which surface feature do living organisms

build up?
A• _ _' "
A. c«al reef
B. river delta
C. shield (()rle

D. terminal moraille

3. The diagram shows which type of pla te

boundary?

A. converging 6. W1licll of the following provide fYidence to

B. divefging support the theory of continental drift?
C. sliding A. atolls
D. subducting B. caves
C. deltas
D. fossils

( " 02 • Unit ( )
7. 'MJkh of the following is NOT a featur@ of Answer th@following in
tile dHp oc@anfloor? complete sentences.
A. guyot , . Hybrid cars run on gasoline some of the
B. seamount time and on ele<tric power the rest of the
C. abyssal plain time. What conservation strategy applies
to hybrid cars? hplain your answer.
D. continflllal margin

8. Which repfesents a destructiv@ force on 10. Earthquakes generate thrH kinds 01

Earth·s surlace1 waves: S waves, P waves. and l waves.
Which WiJVf! type causes the MOST
damage? Explain yooI' answer .

•
B.

c.
 On January 17, 1994, a strong earthquake struck southern
California. The epicenter was near the community of Northridge,
and the magnitude was 6.7 on the Richter scale. The map shows
how strongly the shakin9 was felt in different communities.
Richter Scale
, , , , • ,
-
- . -
--- - -,,- ---- --...... ---...... --.---
2 3

~. -
•
~"'
~
_Ott .
., .,
~

,,~
"9' _ ,,~ S~ . k l · 1

---
---
,.
,~ ,
,
•
PACIFIC OCEAN

.-
.- -
Earthquakes strike when lOCh suddenly break deep below Earth's surface. In
a ~evere earthquake, the ~hock waves can topple buildin~ and collapse bridges.
Earthqua~es are common along the edge 01 the Pacific OCean. w~e tectonic
pjates are slowly slidirl9 again$! one al">Other.
See an earthquake in action. Go to www.eduplace.comlscpl toviewa
flash'M movie alld to learn IllOff about earthqua kes.
 Atmosphere
and Solar System
Chapter 9
Weather and Climate .........................................D2
Chapter 10
Earth and Its Moon .......................................... D28
Chapter 11
Exploring Space ............................................... 052

Independent Reading

Torn.ado Chasl!~ Space Wardrobe 15 Faro

About Stars
 You look up at the
night sky an d see countl ess
numbers of twinkl ing stars. Some stars
appear large r and brighter than others. And
so me seem more twinkly than their neighbors.
What makes stars appea r to twinkle?
You'll have th e answer to this
question by the end
of the unit.
LESSON

1
Winter-or summer-
wonderland? Why is the
Arctic always cold?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
How does hi-tech

2 equipment in space help

you decide what clothes
you snould wear?
Read about it in lesson 2.
 Factors
Affect Climate?
Why It Matters ...
All organisms, including humans,
are affected by the dimate of
the part of the world they live in.
Understanding the factors that affect
climate helps people predict and
prepare for changes in weather.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Compare When you compare,
yo u describe how two or more
objects or events are the same
and how they are different.
Materials
• graph paper, 2 sheets
• m~t~r Slick
• protractor
• large lIashlight
Science and Math Toolbox
foI step S. [e'oIiew Measurements
OIl page H16.
Lighten Up!
Procedure
Safety: Do not shine the light into anyone's
eyes, including you r own.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Place a
sheet of graph paper on the floor in your
work area.
e Measure Hold the flashlight 112 meter above
the graph paper and pointed direaly at it,
When the room has been darkened, shine
the flashlight directly onto the center of the
graph paper at an angle of 90 degrees.
e Record Data While you hold the light
steady, have you r partner careful ly trace
the lighted area of the graph paper. Label
the drawing, Pick up the graph paper and
replace it with a clean piece.
e Now tilt the flashlight at an angle of
45 degrees to the graph paper. Use a
protractor to help you determine the angle.
Repeat steps 2 and 3.
e Use Numbers Count the squares inside each
shape traced in the sheets of graph paper to
find the areas of the two shapes. Record the
areas in your Science Notebook.
Investigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment
1. Compare What differences did you notice Design an experiment to
between the two lighted areas? How do the show how striking a WIVed
two areas compare? surface, such as a large
ball, affects the angle of
2. How might the difference in the lighted the Sun's rays. Predict what
areas explain why Earth's surface is not will happen. then test your
evenly heated by the Sun? prediction.
\.eat~ by Reading

VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Clima le is the no.mal pattern of Wfliither in

climate p. 07 lin are<! over many yea.s. Earth's sh,,~. the lilt 01 iu axis.
ocean (u rrents p,OlO and its geograph ic fea tu.es ailed th e climate 01 an area.
f t Nino P. 010
Uneven Heating
READING SKi ll
• In summer, would you Wl'ilr II h.llhing suit at
c.. UH ilnd Effect Copy
and complete the table 10 • the North Pole? Would you wear a down ;a.ckct in
show IhI> fil(\~ th.at affKt • Egypt? No, you would not. l1le North Pole would
climate. be 100 cold and EgypllOO hot. Why? E.1rth's shape
and the till of its axis cause the Sun's rays to strike
different parts of Enrth's surface at different ang les.
So, energy from the Sun heats the surface unevenly.
Egypt is loca ted near the equa tor, where the
••
Sun's rays strike the su rface at an angle near
90 degrees. This causes these arE'as to be warm rear
round. Near the poles, the rays strike the surface at
angles much less than 90 degrees, resul ting in much
cooler temperatures. What kinds of tempcrntures
Uneven hea ting of Earth's
might you expec t to find in areas between these
surface affects the climate
two regions?
of an area.

o Tropical climates are very
warm and often very rainy.
e Temperate climates have
warm summers and (001 to
very (old winters.
Opolar climates have (old
temperatures year round, even
during Summer months.
Major Climate Zones
Climate is the normal pattern of
weather in an Mea over many years.
Uneven heating of Earth's surface by
the Sun creates three major climate
zones: tropical, temperate, and poi M.
The major difference among
the clima te zones is their yearly
average tem perature and amount of
precipi tation. Precipi tation, as you
might already know, is any type of
wa ter- rain, snow, sleet, or hail- tha t
falls from clouds.
Tropical climates occur at the
equa tor and in Meas just north and
south of it. The temperatures in these
climates Me very warm year round .
The coldest mon th in this type of
climate is often no cooler than 15°C
(59°F). Tropical climates can receive
up to 250 cm (100 in.) of rain per year.
However. some tropical areas receive
very little rai n.
Temperate climate zones lie to the
north and south of the tropics. Some
tempera te clima tes have mild w in ters
and mild summers. Others hilve
very warm su mmers and \'ery cold
winters. [n temperille cli miltes, much
of the precipita tio n in summer is rai n.
In winter, it is snow.
plilces close to Earth's North Pole
and South Pole have polar climates.
Tempera tures in these areils Me
very cold year ro und. Most of the
precipitation falls ilS snow.
Study the figure on pilge D6. In
w hich clima te zone do you live?
~ CAUSE AMD Efun How does uneven
hea ting by the Sun affect climate on
Earth?
.7

Sea Breeze
A sea breeze flows from the
water toward the land. ...
Land and Sea Breezes
If you've ever been to the short',
you mily have noticed thai land ilnd
wilter heal up ilnd cool down at
different rates. The unequal heating
of the two different su rface types
cauS('S IOCill winds known as land
breezes and sea breezes.
Ouring the dilY, land heats faster
than Willer. As warm air riS('S O\'er
the land, cool ai r mO\'e5 in from th('
wat('r 10 take its place. This creates a
sea breeze.
At nigh t, ilir moves in the opposite
way. Land cools fast('T than water,
so lhe air over Ihe willer is warm('r.
Wann air rises over Inc wal('r, and
rool air moves from land 10 waler.
This creates a land bree7.e.

Land Breeze
A land breeze flows from lhe
land toward Ihe waler. ...

'ht mountains
force the w~rm, moist air to liu
into coole. p~rts of tht atmosph ere.
cilusirlQ t~ water vapor to condense.

T~ Sun p<ovidts t~
ene.gy 'Of liquid water to ~omt
Wilte. vapllf. iIIIlnvisible gas.

Mountain Effect
Why are some places rainier than
others? Mountains ncar oceans hold
part of the answer. These mountains
affect the water cycle-the movement
of water betv.'een Earth's atmosphere
and land.
Recall that most of Earth's water
is in oceans. When water evaporates
from oceans, it becomes water vapor
in the air. The warm, moist air rises
and moves o\'er land.
Air that meets mounl3ins is forced
higher, where temperatures are
colder. Cold air can hold less water
vapor than warm ai r. So, the water
condenses into tiny water droplets.
Mountain Effect Pretipitation
The droplets form douds th.1.t can
drop rain or snow along one side of
the mountain. This side, which faces
the wind, is called the windward side
of a moun tain. Some of the wettest
places on Earth are on the windward
sides of mountains.
When the air finally crosses to
the o ther side of the mountain, it
usu ally has very little moisture left.
Dry w inds sweep down this side
of the mountain, which is called
the leeward side. These dry areas
on the leeward slopes arc called
rain shadows. Desert climates arc
common in rain shadows.
i";' U.USEAND EfflU Deu, ibe the
diffe,enc:e in pr~ipilation on the leeward
side ar>d windward side of a mountain.
8, '
pasm over tM mountains.
almost all tM moisture has
fallen OUI of it.
 Ocean Surface Currents
• •
Oceans and Climate
As the m.1p alxwe shows. about
70 percent of Ea rth's surface is
oovcN'd by wa ter. Most of this is ocean
wa ter. Ocean waters absorb huge
amounts of energy from the Sun.
Recall that regions near the
equator absorb more energy than
those near thc poles. So, ocean waters
art' warmest nea r the equa tor and
coldest near the poles.
Air just above warm ocean water
is warmed by the wa ter below. The
warm air rises and cooler ai r moves
i ~ to take its place. This exchange of
mr near Earth 's surface crt'a tes winds.
Winds blowing across the ocean
create mo\'ing streams of water called
ocean currents.
OHI . Chapler 9 · Lesson
Ocean currents move water and
energy from place to place.
The curren ts shown on the map
above are su rface cur rents. As you
Cilll :.0,.""', ~IIIC cur"""b il"" ",,,rill
and o thers are cold. Warm cu rrents
movc warm ocean water toward
polar "-'8ions. Cold CUl'n"nts move
cold ocean wa ter toward the equa to r.
These (Ul'n"nts have a moderating
effect on world climates.
Li ke many pattcrns in na ture,
the p.1ltem of ocean currents can
change from time to time. EI Ni no is
a name gi\'cn to a periodic change
in direction of Wilrm ocean currents
across the Pacific Ocean. £1 Nino
events occur every fi\'e to seven
years, and can cause tempora ry
changes in clima te around the globe.
(tUU ANO (fF((T
How do ocean
currents aHect clima te?

Uneven he~tin9 by the
Sun (au leI lome partl
of Earth to be warmer
than othe.l.
Climate is the normal
pattern 01 ~ather
in an area over many
years.
80diel of wate.,
mountain\, and ocean
currenu can affect
climate.
MATH Find an Averag e This table shows
the amount of precipitation in Portland, Oregon,
during a five·year period. Find the average
yearly rainfall during this period.
Predpitat ion (em)
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
83.3 8S.! 74.9 71.0 88.7
WRITING Expository Research EI Nino.
Wha t do scientists think is its cause? How does
it affect fishing, ocean transportation. or other
human activities? Write a short essay to present
your findings.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What are some
factors that affect climate?
o VOCABULARY 'Nhat are ocean
currents? What sets them in
motion?
9 READING 5KllL: Cause and
Effect Offi:ribe two ways in
which bodit$ of water can affect
climate. Use these words in your
answer: land breeze sea breeze
and ocean currents.
G CRITICAL THINKING:
5ynthesize Study the
illustrations on pages D6 alld
010. What kim:! of climate do
you think Miami. Florida. has?
Explain.
4) INQUIRY SKILL: Cause and
Effect What faders help to
account for the differences
among tropical. temperate. and
polar climates?
.,tTEST PREP
Ocean currents affect climate
because they
A. are always cold.
B. are always warm.
C move water and energy from
one place to another.
O. cause winds to move air from
one place to another.
~ Technology
, . Vilil w_.edupla(uomls(pIIOlind
oot more ~I>oot di""'te.
Dl1
 Biography

Luke Howard (1772-1864)

• • •
Luke Howard ('nmed his living;ls n busincssmlln.
He ran 11 com pan y in England that made and sold
medicines. Yel today he is remembered for his
favorite hobby, which was studying clouds.
Among Howard's influences was Carolus
Linnlleus, the scien tist who developed the
dassifkalion s<:herne for living things. Howard
deddcd that clouds could be clnssified as well. In
a speech he delivered in 1802, Howard described
four classes of clouds. The classes are listed in the
table. Howard chose L.1tin names because L.1lin was
known to all scientists of Ihe time.
Howard preSi'ntl>d his essay nnt at n UniVf'Tsit}'
or other formal institution, but 10 a discussion group
that met at a priv,,!c home. Nevertheless, his ess.1y
was published, and his names for clouds became
very popular.

Cumulus (Heap) Stratus (Layer) Nimbus (Rain) Cirrus (Curl)

Heaps Illal pile over Widely e ~le ndt{l Cloud syslem llIal Fibers Illal spread in
a Ilat base II orizonlal slleel produ(es rain any and aU dire(liom

012· Chapler 9 · Lesson 1

 SOCIAL STUDIES

June Bacon-Bercey (1934-)

." . ,
As a young woman, June Bacon -Bercey was not sure if she would
live out her dream of be<:oming a me teorologist. "I was discouraged,
and other women were, too," sht> said. One of the problems was
paying for the education she needed.
Yet 13.1con-Bercey p<:>rscvcred, raising
funds however she could. And over
time, she was rewarded for her efforts.
For many years, she worked as a
professional meteorologist and reporter
for a television station in Bufflllo, New
York. In 1979, she was hired as Chief
Administrator of television activi ties for
the National Ocea nic and Atmospheric
Agency (NOAA). As her career
progressed, she became recognized as
an international expert on the weather.
Yet success for herself WilS not 8acon-8ercey and other
enough. In 1977, Bacon-Bereey won scientists at NOAA work
thousands of dollars on a television q uiz to forecast the weather,
study oceans and
show. She used the money to establish
coastlines, and proted
a schol~rship for women who want to
the environment.
become meteorologists.
"If ]women] feel they've got some
money behind them, it might be better,"
she Solid.
1. READING (HECK How did Luke Howard
class ify douds?

2. WRITE ABOUT IT Compare the stories of

Luke Howard and June 8acon·8erce')'.

3. TALK ABOUT IT In what ways ale

Howard and Bacon-Bercey good role
models to follow?
 How Are Weather
Forecasts e?
Why It Matters ...
Who d~pends on the weather
forecast? Farmers need to know the
weather before plowing fields or
harvesting trOps. Airplane pilots need
to plan the ben roules.. And many
businesses, Irom outdoor restaurants
to baseball teams. make plans based
on the weather.
Sometimes everyone depends on
the forecast. When a sellere storm
approaches. the correct forecast can
salle people's lives.
PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
Inquiry Skill
Collaborate When you
collaborate, you work with
others to (onduct ellperiments.
eJtchange informalion, and
draw conclusions..
Materials
• 2 loolill unilln"leo.i I.>dIlWlI~
• scissors
• small baby food jar
• 2 thick ,ubbtr ball<k
• toothpick
• transparen t tape
• large wide-mouth jar
 The Pressure's On!
Procedure
Safety: Be careful when using scissors.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Cut the
top off of two balloons. Then, cut one of
the balloons 113 of the way down.
o Stretch the smaller balloon over the mouth
of the smaller jar until it is tight. Secure it
with a rubber bclnd. Tape a toothpick on
the balloon over the center of the mouth
of the jar. leaving the toothpick hanging
over the lip of the jar.
o Carefully place the small jar inside the
larger jar. Stretch the larger balloon tightly
over the mouth of the large jar. Secure It
with a rubber band.
G Experiment While one partner holds the
large jar, the other partner should push
down on the balloon to increase the air
pressure inside the large jar.
" Observe In your Science Notebook, record
what happens to the toothpick when the
balloon is stretched downward.
" Experiment Repeat step 4. this time pulling
up on the balloon. Record what happens
to the toothpick. Investigate More! -
Conclusion Design an Experiment
How coold yoo modify this
1. Infer How does pulling up on the balloon experiment to deteCI actual
affect the air pressure inside the jar? ma~ina~k
l ilir pressure? Compaf~

- 2. Hypothesize What does your model show

about how changes in air pressure can be
observed?
-.
your observiltions with
air pressures ~sted in the

<
v afn by Reading
Earth's
VOCABULARY Main Idea Earth 's "tmosphe,e is a mixture of gases
air mass p. D18 th"l surrounds the planet. Changes in this bl'lnkel of air
atmosphere p,016 cause changes in weather. Weather Can be foreCilst using
different tools.
front p, 019
mesosphere p,OH
stratosphere p.OI7 Composition of Earth's Atmosphere
thermosphere p. 0\7
Earth's atmosphere is a mixture of gases that
troposphere p.0\7
surrounds the planet. This ocean of air is made
READING SKILL
mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Other gases are
present in very small amounts. As you can see
Draw Conclusions Se lect
from the grilph below, argon makes up about 0.93
one of the air masses
des<ribed in the lesson. percent of dry air. Carbon dioxide makes up about
Draw a conclusion about 0.03 percent of dry air. Neon and helium each make
the kind of weather it might up a tiny percentage of our atmosphere.
produce. The amount of anyone gas in the atmosphere
can vary. [n dry air, for exam ple, there is li ttle or no

DO water vapor. In the moist air o\'er an ocean, water

vapor can make up four percent of the air.
Carbon dioxide is another gas that is present
in the atmosphere in varying amounts. You might
already knoll' that the amount of this gas in the
atmosphere increases when fossil fuels are burned.

Composition of Air

Nitrogen

""

Air is mostly nitrogen and

oxygen. Other gases are
present in small amounts.

Lesson 2
 Structure of the Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere can be divided into four
main layers. The layer closest to Earth, where
almost ~1l weather occurs, is the troposphere.
Although it is the thinnest layer, the troposphere
contains about 75 percent of the gases that make
up the atmosphere.
Temper~ture and air pressure decrease with
distance from Earth's surface. Air pressure, which
is an importan t element of weather, is caused by
the weight of the gases in the atmosphere. Air
pressure affec ts the wa ter cycle which, in turn,
affects the we~ther.
The stratosphere lies above the troposphere.
Air in thi s layer is much colder and drier than
air in the troposphere. The stratosphere contains
most of our planet's ozone, a form of oxygen.
Ozone absorbs certain types of radiation from the
Sun that can harm living things.
The mesos phere lies "OO\'e the str"losphere.
The top of the mesosphere is the coldest part of
Earth's atmosphere.
The very thin air of the thermosphere is the
first part of the atmosphere struc k by sunlight.
Temperatures in the thermosphere can reach
1,700°C.
D DRAW (ON(lUSIONS Why does moU weather OCCur in
t he troposphere?

Troposphere
f'lrth'~ atmo~phereis a
form four main layers.
mi~ture of gases that -- ~
 Air Mass Formation
cP
, polar
Air Masses
In the troposph('re, wh('re almost
a][ weath('r occurs, large volumes
of air cillled ai r masses are always
mov ing. An air mass is a body of air
that has about the S<1me temperature
and moisture throughout.
The temperature and moisture
properties of an air mass depend on
where it de\·('lops. Polar ai r masses
form at middle to high latitudes ilnd
are generally cold. Tropical air masses
form at low lati tudes and tend to be
warm. Continental air masses form
over land and are generally dry.
Mari time ilir masses form over water
and are moist.
The map above shows the types
of air masses that affect most of
North America . Not ice that pai rs
of letters are used to id('T1tify the
differen t air masses. Taken together,
each pai r identi fies the moisture and
temperature properties of the air
mass.
018 • Chapter 9 • l esson 2 )
... Different air
masses bring
air of different
temperatures and
water content to
North America.
K"
.....
tropical
cont inental
tropica l
Lower-case lett('rs m and c are
used to represent maritime (moist)
and COlililll'll/al (dry). Upper-case, or
capital, lett('rs P and T arc used for
po/ar (cold ) and tropical (warm).
Find the mP and mT air masses
on th e map. These moist air masses
are responsible for fog and drizzle
in coastal regions. They also bring
moisture to the center of the country.
Now loca te and cP and cT air
masses. These air masses, which form
over land. con tain little mois tu re.
When such air masses move into
an area, th ey generally bring fair
weather.
Noll' look at the map to fi nd the
type of air !TI.1SS responsible for much
of the weat her in your area. What
are its properties? Is it humid or
d ry? Warm or cold? Does this agree
with the type of weather your area
experiences?
 Fronts Warm Front
When two air masses meet, a
front forms. A weather front is the
boundary between two air masses
with different properties. The
approach of a front is usually marked
by a change in the weather. Such
changes occur be<:aus.c cold air is
,-
denser than warm air.
A warm fron t forms when a warm
air mass moves into an area of
colder ai r. The warm air slides
up and over the colder air,
A warm front forms when
forming a gently sloping
warm air moves into
front. A warm front generally an area. light rains are
brings a large area of douds assodated with warm
and precipitation. On a fron!$.
weather map, a warm front
is shown by a red line with red
half circles along one side.
A cold front forms when cold Cold Front
air pushes its way into a warmer
air mass. The dense cold air forces
warmer air to rapidly rise high into
the atmosphere. Clouds, heavy rain,
and thunderstorms are produced
along cold fronts. On a weather map,
a cold front is shown by a blue line
with blue triangles.
Sometimes when two air masses
meet, neither mass moves
forward. This type of front is
called a stationary front. On
a weather map, a stationary A mid front forms when
front is shown by a line (old air mOveS into an
with both red half circles area. Heavy raiM often
and blue triangles. form along a (old fronl.

~ DIlAW (OHUUSIOHS How do air

masses a ffect weather1

D19

Observing Weather
Weather is th e overall condition of
the iltmosphere at a given time and
place. Meteorologists are scientists
who study wea ther. They make
observations and collect datil. Every
few hours they record thei r findings
on il weather map like the one
below. By stud ying a series of maps,
meteorologists are able to forecast
future wea ther conditions.
Like all maps, wea ther maps use
symbols. A key is provided to help
understand the map. Study the map
and look for the symbols for fronts
as described on page 019. Identify
and locate the wann fronts and cold
fronts. Symbols are also used to
indicate certilin conditions, such as
cloud cove r, type of precipitation,
and the QCCurn>f1ce of thunderslonns.
Data from many sources are combined on maps
that can be used to forecast lhe weat~h~H~'i':"~I~:~:~;;;~~~~;;;:~~~\
• Chapter 9 • tesson 2
Notice thai colors are used to
represen t air temperatures. In the
United States, temperatu re is usuall y
reported in degrees Fah renheit.
Weather maps illso identify areas
of high ilnd low air pressure. In a
high-pressure system, indiciltcd by an
H• air sinks to the surface and moves
away from the center. High-pressure
systems usua lly have cleilr wea ther.
In a low-pressure system, shown
by an L, ai r at the center of the
system rises. Air around the sySlem
moves in lowards the center to take
the place of the rising air. Cloudy and
rainy weather is usually present in a
low-pressure system.
Most weilther systems move from
west to east across the Uni ted Slates.
Look ill the map below. What kind of
weilther might you expect in Texils in
a few days?
fI T-S1OmII
d Rain
*o ....
Sunny
D _
 Radar
A useful tool for observing and
forecasting weather is rad ar. A
0 3:32 ....M. wealher radar transmitter sends out
HUffi(ane radio signals. When these signals
Charley first hit rain, snow, or other forms of
struck Florida precipitation, the signals bounce back
in th early
to the transm itter and are record ed .
morning_
These radar signals can be used to
create an image of a s torm. You may
have seen radar images, which look
like fu zzy patches. used in weather
reports on television.
Study the three images to the left.

o 11:53 ....1Il.
HUffi(ane
They are some of the early radar
images of Hurricane Charley, which
struck Florida in 2004. Note the
Charley
continued to
diffe ren t colors in the images. The
move up the colors indicate the strength of the rain
wl'''I',n " " 0< 1. brought by the hurricane. Where is
the rainfall light? Where in the storm
system is the rainfall the heaviest?
Radar can also be used to
determine how large a s torm is,
how fast it is moving, and where
it is headed. With this information,
€) 1:S1 '.M. forecasters can warn people when
Heavy rain. severe storms are approaching. In the
fell over much case of IMge, destructive storms, such
of Florida as as hurricanes, early warnings can
the storm save lives and property.
moved acrOSS Look again at the radar images
the state.
on this page. In what direction did
Charley move as it passed over
Hurricane Charley 2004 Florid a?
~ DRAW (ONCLIISIONS What are
two types of weather data that (an
be observed with radar1

'21
 Other Weather Instruments
Weather satellites are anot her important
tool used in observing and forecasti ng weather.
S.,tellites orbit high above EMth and use
ins truments to gather data from the upper
atmosphere.
Information from these instru ments can be
used to determine temperatures and wind sp«<ls
on Earth. Using satellites, weather foreca sters
ca n monitor the motion of douds and track
hurricanes and other large storms.
In add ition to ma ps, radar, and satellites,
other tools are used to measure weather
conditions. As you probably already know.
thermometers measure temperature. Look at Weather vanes are used
the other instruments described below. Which to indicate the dir«tion Irom
one seems the most interesting to you? wIlich wind is blowing. ...

'NIIy lire weilther sa tellit es lin

importa nt toot for wea the r lore-cas ters?

Thermometers Anemometers Barometers Rain gauges

I re used to measure musure wind me.sure iir lire used to coiled
temperature. They speed. SOme pressure. In the lII>d meHUre tile
may report degrees also Indicate the United Stitn. air amount of rain,
fahrenheit ,"F). dlr« tion 01 the prHsure i1 usually snow, sleet. Or hail.
degrees CelSius ("C). wind . ... repor ted in inches II the precipitation
Of bo th. ... of mercury. ... illOlid. it is
melted belore it is
musu,ed . ...
022 • Chapter g • l esson 2

The atmosphere is a
blanket of air that
sUffounds Earth.
large bodies of air.
called air masses. form
in tile layer 01 the
atmosphere closest to
Ea rth. These air masses
meet to form fronts.
along which ~ather
cllanges occur.
Oifje,ent kinds 01
instruments can
be used to make
observations about
the weather.
.e
MATH MakeaTable Research an extreme
weather event that has occurred in your area.
Make a table to compare temperatures, wind
speeds. and p.edpitation during the storm with
the normal values fOr that time of year.
TECHNOLOGY Beaforecaster Use
the Internet to prepare today's weather t-t
fo recast. Include sa tellite images that show the '.
weather in your area, and .elate them to the
forecast. Present your forecast to the class.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What are the
four main layers of Earth's
atmosphere?
a VOCABULARY What is an air
mass and what determines its
properties?
f) READING SKill..: Draw
Conclusions Suppose your area
is eXpe!"ieflCing thunderstorms.
What kinds of changes in the
atmosphere led to the formation
of the storms?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
How might radar images help
to reduce damage hom an
approaching storm?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Collaborate
How might sharing data gathered
in different regions allow
scientists to better prediCl the
weather?
TEST PREP
Weather fronts form when
A. air masm meet.
B. air masses form .
C. cold air rises.
D. warm air sinh.
Technology
Visi1 w_.edupla<e.<oml«pl to firld
001 more about wealh~.
 It can rumble like an avalanche.
It can roar IIka a freight train. It can scream
like a jet engine. Few things can withstand
its fury. It's the mightiest wind on earth-
the tornadol
Tornadoes are concentrated, twisting
columns of air. They hang from the bottom
of spedal, rotating thunderstorms called
supereells. Tornadoes contain the fastest
winds on earth. The most powerful reach
over 300 miles per hourl
In April of 1974, the United States had
the biggest tornado outbreak In its history.
A total of 148 tornadoes hit 13 states.
Called the Super Outbreak. this storm
system produced 30 devastating F4 and six
Incredible FS tornadoes.
READING : Compare and Contrast

Wedge The most powerful lorlladoes

often have a wedge shape. The largest
wedges an span a mile or two aCfOSS-

Rope Many tornadoes end their lives in

what is called the rope stage. Although thin
and strung out, the winds of a roped-out
lo ...... do (an still do great damage.

Fujita Scale
 Vocabulary
Complete each sentence with a term from the list. Some terms
may be used more than once. air maSI 018
I . __ is the range of no«nal weathe.- conditions in an area Oye.- along atmosphere 016
pefiod of tim!. climate D6
1. A large body 01 air that has similar pfOperties 01 t!mperature and EI Nii\o 010
moisture is a(n) _ . front 019
3. A(n) _ fOfms when two air ma$WS with diffefent properties meet. mesosphe re 017
ocean currents 010
4. MOIIements of large volumes of ocean wate.- 31! called _
stratosphere 017
5. Earth'$ __ is a mixture of ~ that Sllnounds the planet thermosphere 017
6. The layer of Earth·s atmosphere where most weather takes place is the troposphere 017

7. The coklest layer of the atrnospllere is the _

8. lh! hottest laye.- 01 the atmO$phefe i$ the _
9. A laye.- 01 ozone in the _ _ prote<ts Earth's sur/ace Irom dangerous
radiation.
10. During an event called _ warm ocean currents change direction in
the Pacific Ikean.

, Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choice.
11 . Near the poles. energy from the Sun _ n. __ are the two most abundant gases in
Earth's atrnospllere.
A. doesn'l striu Earth
B. slrim Earth at a wrp angle A. o~ olod helium
C. strim ElM dirKtIy S, O~ and hydrogen
O. is vtry conctntrated C. Nitrogen and oxygen
D. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide
12. A land breeze is II local wind that blows
14. A(n) __ forms when warm air mOIIes into
an area of cooler air.
A. only OYer ~nd
B. only OYer waler A. warm fronl
C. from Land towllld wall'( B. cold front
D. from wall'( IOWaId Land C. polar air ma5S
O. maritilfle" ma5S
026 • Chapter 9 '"\
 Inquiry Skills
15. Compare Use maps and information
from this mapte.- to compare the climate
of Florida with the climate of Ohio. What
effect do bodies of water have on the
climates of these \wo states?
16. Predict Suppose you liV«! in Tampa.
Florida. and were planning a picnic. The
morning weather report includes the radar
image below. OeI;ide whethe.- or not the
wea ther will affl?Ct your plans.
Map the Concept
The chart shows three pairs of teons. Complete the
mart to compare and contrast the terms.
lropital
dimate
Polar
dimate
".d' e
bf ....
17. Inferring look at the photo on page 04.
What kind of climate does this area have?
Describe the average temperature and
amount of precipitation.
18. Applying Where would you expect to
find hot dry climates in the United States?
Explain your answer.
19. Drawing Condusions The amounts of
a specific gas in the atmosphere can change
from time 10 time. W'rti do you think this is so?
20. Evaluating Would you expe<t weather
forecasts made weeks in advaoce to be
more or less accurate than short·tam
forecasts? Explain.
Performance Assessment
Study today's weather map from the newspaper
or the Inte.-ne\. Predict tomorrow's weathe.-
for a specific area on the map. Compare vour
prediction to the actual weatha that place
experiences.
",
br .......
Warm
front
Cold
Iront
LESSON
Day or night?This

1 picture was taken

near midnight. Why
is the Sun shining?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LUSON
The Moon is Earth's

2 only natural satellite.

Why does it appear to
change shape?
Read about it in lesson 2.
 What Causes
Earth's Seasons?
•
Why It Matters ... •• PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
••
Winter, sprin g, summer, fall-th. Inquiry Skill
seasons repeat year aher year. Yet
Use Models You ca n change
seasons are very di fferent in different
a model, observe the resLllts,
places. hI October, when it is fall in
and then sLlggest how the real
the United States, it is springti me in
t hing would work if the change
Australia. Understanding how Earth
• was made.
moves through space is the key to •
understanding seasons. •
• Materials
•
• • fine-towel! bl~lk "'(I, ke'
• • small plastic foam ball
•
: • pencil
• • large ye llow ball or
•• inflated round balloon

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 3, review Measurements
on page H16.
Reasons for
Seasons
Procedure
o Use Models Draw a line Clround the middle
of the foam ball, as shown in the diagram.
The foam ball represents Earth, and the
line represents the equator.
G Use Models Carefully push a pencil
completely through the foam ball at a
right angle to the equator. The pencil
represents Earth's imaginary Clxis.

o Collaborate The yellow ball or balloon

represents the Sun, Working with a
partner, hold the Sun and Earth about
1 meter (3 feet) apart. Hold Earth so the
North Pole tilts slightly toward the Sun.
G Use Variables Move Earth in a circle
around the Sun, making sure that the
North Pole always points in the same
direction,

" Communicate Repeat step 4, this time

stopping at each quarter trip around the
Sun. At each position, discuss how the
Sun's rays hit Earth. Have your partner
record the positions and observations.

Conclusion
1. Compare When did Earth's northern half
receive the most sunlight? When did the
southern half receive the most sunlight?
2. Analyze Data How does Earth's tilt affect
the seasons where you live?
Design an Experiment
What if Ear1h·s a~is were
not tilted? Or what if its tilt
increased? Use models to
predid how E<lrth would be
affected.
v af1l by Reading
Earth's Seasons
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Earth 's .aliltion and its revolution cause d"y
al.llumn,,1 equinox p. 034 and nighl <IS well as seasons.
ilKis p. 032
revolution p. D33
Earth', Tilted Axi,
summer solstice p.O]4
vernal equinox p. 0]4 Although you can', feel it, Earth is moving
winter solstke p.034
at close to 1.600 km (1,000 mi) per hou r. Thai is
because Ea rth is spinning, or rotating, around an
READING SKILL imaginary line called an axis. Pi<:;lure Earth's axis
(/Il1se and Effect Complete as a line that goes from the North Pole through
the charI to show some 01 the cen ter of Earth to the South Pole. In relation
the effe<ts of Earth's fotation to Earth's orbit around the Sun, the axis is nol
and revolution. vertica l, or s traight up and down. It is titled at an
angle of 23to.
It ta kes 23 hours and 56 minutes-one day- 'o<
Earth to ma ke one fu ll rotation on its axis. As Ear th
rotates, different parts face the Sun. It is daytime on
the side of Earth facing the Sun. [t is nighttime on
the side facing away from the Sun.

Earth's tilted aKis is why Eart h has seasons. T

 As Earth spins on ils axis, it also
mo\'cs around the Sun. One fullirip
around the Sun is called a revolution.
Earlh takcs 365 t days, or one year, to
com plete one revolution. The path of
E.1rth's revolution is called its orbit.
The orbit is a kind of oval shape
called an ellipse.
Because of Earlh's tilted axis,
different pariS of Earth lilt toward
or away from the Sun during its
Irip around the sun. This tilt causes
seasons.
In the photograph on page D32,
E.1rth's northern half is tilted toward
the Sun. In this position, it is summer
in the Norlhern Hemisphere and
winler in the Southern Hemisphere.
In the pholo below, six months
have passed. Earth is at the opposite
cn~t uf ttl; urbit. Now EMth's :;outhcrn
h<lJf tilts toward the Sun, so the
S('asons are reversed.
Why does a tililoward Ihe Sun
bring warmer weather? 1nere <Ire two
reasons. First, when a hemisphere
tilts toward the Sun, the Sun
appeMS to rise higher in the sky. The
higher the Sun's position, the more
concentrated its rays are as they
strike E.1rth. Second, daylight lasts
longer. More hours of daylight means
more heating time.
Together, concentrated sunlight
and longer days bring warm
weather in summer. UkewiS(', the
combination of less concentrated
sunlight and shorter days bring cold
weather in winter.
Regions ncar the equator do not
h.we noticeable seasons. They receive
about the same amounts of sunlight
all year long.
<! Why do the No.them
and Southern hemispheres have opposite
uason$1
Solstices and Equinoxes
On June 21 or 22, the North
Pole of Earth's axis til ts toward the
Sun. This event marks the summer
solstice and the beginning of summer
in the Northern Hemisphere. On
this longest day of the year, the
hemisphere receives more sunlight
than on any other day of the year.
Six months later, on De<;ember 21,
or 22, the North Pole poin ts dire<tly
away from the Sun. This event
marks the winter solstice and the
beginning of winter in the Northern
Hemisphere. On this shortest day,
the hemisphere receives less sunlight
than on any other day of the year.
Twice a year, neither hemisphere is
tilted toward the Sun. Such events are
called equinoxes. Periods of dayligh t
and dark ness are each 12 hours long
every place on Earth.
One of those events occurs on
March 20 or 21. This marks the
vernal equinox, which is the first
day of spring in the Northern
Hemispherc. The second of these
even ts occurs six months later, on
September 22 or 23. This even t marks
the autumnal equinox, which is
the first d ay of fall in the Northern
Hemispherc.
~ UtlSEJ.NDUFHT How do the
lengths of day and night compare during
a solstice? During an equinoK?
 .,., 1--
••,•
~
E
- .~
~ ·10' (
·20' (
·10' (
.... Apfil
'"
Month
The angle at which the Sun's ' ')'$ strike an area affe<ts the ~",sona' temperatures..
Seasons
In everyday life, seasons lire
periodS of a particular kind of
weather. Earth scientists, however,
define seasons by the position of
Earth in its orbi t. By this definition,
al! places on EMth hlwe four seasons:
spring, summer, fall , and win ter.
Yet the effects of these seasons are
extreme in some places, while they
hard ly exist in others.
NeM the equator, the Sun's rays
arrive at almost right angles. This
causes the Sun's energy to be more
concentrated. Near the poles, the rays
arrive at much sharpe!" angles. This
causes the same amount of sunligh t
to be spR'ad out. This difference
affects a\'era ge tempera tures. Look at
the graph aoo\'e.
Places close 10 the p<>]cs, s uch as
McMurdo in Antarctica, have cold
weather all year long. Compare its
temperatures to those of Panama
City, which is ncar the equa tor.
Other places have wide variations
in temperature throughout the
yea r. Compare the tcmper1ltures of
Chicago, Illinois, and S,mtiago, Chile,
These ci ties are both about halfwily
between thc equator lind a pole, but
are on opposite hemispheres. How do
their yearly temperatures compare?
A place's position on Earth is the
most import,mt factor ilffccting its
temperature and seasonal changes.
As you have read in other chapte rs,
olher faclors ilffe<:t climate as welL
Why do places
near lhe equalor Ilave Il iglltr yeaN ound
temptratures Illan ptacH near me polts?
 Height of Sun ~bo ~~ HOrIZon r

padlin " •

East
paoth in winter
...,
Earth's Hori. on

S(ientists can predict the exact positions of the Sun in the sky,
Why does the Sun rise higher in summer than in winter?
Ideas About the Sun
Hundreds of years ago, people
believed many false ideas about
Earth and Sun. As they looked up at
the sky, they thought that Earth was
the center of the universe. The Sun
and other objects appeared to revoh'e
around it.
In the 1600s, Italian astronomer
Galilee published a book about the
universe called Dialogue. The book
presented evidence that the Sun la y
in the center, while Earth and other
planets revolved around it.
Galileo was arrested for promoting
this idea! Today, he is recognized for
his courage and for being COITI'CI.
Ha\'ing built on the work of Galilee
and others, scientists now can predict
the positions of Earth, the Sun, and
other objects in space.
Another false idea is that seasons
come from Earth's chan gi ng distance
from the Sun. In fact, Earth's elliptical
orbit brings it slightly closer to
the Sun in December than in June,
However, the effects of the changing
distance are \'ery minor.
,\ S you have read, seasons
result from Earth's tilted axis and
revolution around the Sun. The tilt
causes the Sun to rise higher in the
sky and makes the days last longer
during the summer.
The illustration shows how the
Sun appears to tra\'el across the
sky in the Northern Hemisphere.
Its higher path in the summer
provides more daylight and warmer
temperatures.
~ ('liSE 'NO lFFEtT Describe some
falSI! ideas people held about Earth.

036 ' Chapler 10 ' Lesson 1


Eafth rotates on iu alis
<IS it revolYH around
the Sun. It tak H OM
day to ro tate and OM
yur 10 rnoive. fifth
revolYfl in an elliptiul
path uolled.n orbit.
Earth's nls is slightly
tilted. This UOUSft
parts of ElII'ttI to
point tow.,11 or lWIay
'rom the Sun during
its orbit. The rt'Slllt is
'our SUSOllS; spring.
su mmer, lall, and
winter.
The (onuntration and
amount 01 sunlight
• region rt<eivt'S
determines the
(~r,'l(teristics 01 its
seas.ons. .eTEST PREP
MATH Make a tine Graph Research local
temperatures owr the last four ween. Cakulate
the average high temperature and the ilVerage
low temperature lor ea<:h week, Then create a
line graph similar to the one on page 035,
TECHNOLOGY Wri te a Report
Hundreds of years ago. asllOl'oOlflelS studied the
skies with astrolabes, sextants, and other tools.
Research tools such as tllese and how they , ~ Technology
were used, Write a reporlto show your findings. • Viiit www.edupI.Ke.rom/lcpl to rond
Review
o MAIN IDEA What calJSes day
and night? What talJSes seasons?
o VOCABULARY Compare a
solstice with an equinox. What
seasons do these I'Vt'fIts man:?
o READING SKILl: Cause and
Effect Chicago, tllinois.lies
midway between the North
Pole and the equator. Why does
Chicago have a wide range 01
yearty temperatllles?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Explain why ~ummer in the
Northern Hl.'IIlisphere occurs
when winter occurs in the
Southern Hemisphere.
o INQUIRY SKill: Use Models
How would you create a three·
dimensional model to explain
Earth's cycle 01 seasons?
During an equinox. the number
of hours 01 daylight is
A. greater Ih<In the number of
hours 01 dan:roess.
B. les~ than the oomber of hours
of daOOlt$$.
C. the same as the oomber of
hour~ 01darkness.
O. sometimes less than and
sometimes greater than the
flUmber of txx.~ 01 darkness.
CIOJt ~about EMIl's motion.
Primary Source

As the summef solstice ilpp<Ga(h",

t~ Sun sen later and later ill night.
When could this photograph ha,,*
befn t;>ken ?
 SOCIAL STUDIES

1 READING (HE(k Wha t is the Arctic Circle?

2. WRITE ABOUT IT Why does Alaska have such
extreme lengths of day and night?

3. TAU( ABOUT IT How do you think Alaskans cope

with long summer days and long winter nights?
Why Does the Moon
Have Phases?
•
Why It Matters ... • PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Do you look at t ile Moon? : Inquiry Skill
Would yo u like to visit it, as some
Compare When you compa re
astronauts have done? The Moon has ••
objects or events, note both
fascinated observe rs for tho usands • similarities and differences.
of years. Many civilizations built
•
calendars around the Moon's phases. • Materials
How do you think laday's calendar • • small loam ball
reflects the Moon? •
• • fi ashlight

Sdence and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Using a Tape
Measure or Ruler on page H6.
It's Just a Phase!
Procedure
Safety: Do not shine the flashlight directly at
someone's eyes.
o Collaborate Dim the lights in the room.
Hold the small ball slightly above your
head, as shown in the photo. Have your
partner hold a flashlight about a meter (3
feet) away. Shine the flashlight on the ball.
G Use Models Your head represents Earth,
the ball is the Moon, and the flashlight is
the Sun. Observe how the Moon appears
to you in this position.
e Observe As you hold the Moon steady,
slowly rotate in a circle. Your partner
should not move the flashlight. Observe
how the Moon appears to change.
o Communicate In your Science Notebook,
draw how the Moon appeared in at least
four different positions. Organize your
drawings to best show the process they
model.
" Experiment Switch roles with your partner
and repeat the procedure.

Conclusion
1. Compare Describe what the Moon looked Design an Experiment
like at each of the four positions. How does Earth appear
when viewed from the
2. Analyze Data Using your data, explain why Moon? Does Earth appear
you think the Moon appears to change to change shape, or does
shape from night to night, it alwa~ look the same?
Design an experiment to
find out.
\.eat~ by Reading
Earth's
VOCABULARY
lunar e<lipSe ....."" MAIN IDEA The Moon reV(llvu a.ound Earth, and
together they revolve around the Sun , The same side of

",.
Moon phases the Moon always laces Earth, but the Sun lights di fferent
parts of it at diffe, enl limes.
solar eclipse

REAOING SKIll The Moon

S~q"eftce Ike a graphic
organizE'! such as the ont
shown 10 lJar;k the sequence
01 the phases of the moon.
Earth has one n....'tural salE'liite, an object that
rcvoh'cs around ilthrough space. This sMellile
is the Moon. The Moon is a sphere th at is about
one-fourth thc size of Ea rth. The Moon's surface is

DOD rocky and includes large and small craters, or holes,

From Earth, large craters appear as da rk areas on
the Moon.
The Moon's mass is about 80 limes lighter than
the mass of Earth. Because of its smaller 1Th1SS,
the Moon's surface gravity is about one-sixth of
Earth's gravitational pull. lis weak gravi ty prcvents
the Moon from hal'ing much of an ntmospherc.
However, its pull of grn"i t)' is strong enough to
affect tides on EMth.
Viewing the Moon
If you've ever gazed at the Moon, Radius:
you know that it appears to be 1,731 km
the biggest and brigh test object in
the night sky. The Moon appears Oistancc from Earth:
so la rge be<:ause it is very close to 384,400 km to
E.1rth. However, the Moon is actually 405, 500 km
smaller than other objects in the
sky. For instance, the planet Venus Pcriod of Rotation:
appears as a dot in the sky, only a HI Earth days
little larger than a star. Yet it is about
the same size as Earth! Because the
Surface:
Moon is closer, it appears bigger.
na tcB, ridges, and
Although the Moon can look plains covered with
very brigh t, it does not produce a fine dust
any ligh t. Instead, sunlight reflects
off the Moon's su rface. This is why Surface gravity:
you can see the Moon from Earth. about ~ Earth's
U ke Earth, the Moon rota tes on an graYi tational pull
imaginary axis. Also li ke Earth, the
Moon revolves. While Earth revolves
around th(' Sun, the Moon revolves Temperature:
range ' .om - 2n' (
around Earth.
to 123' (
The Moon takes 27 ~ days to
com plete one revolution around Period of
E.1rth. Some time in the dis tan t Revolution:
past, the gravitational pull of E.1rth Hi days
affccted the Moon's period of
rotation. Now the Moon's rotation
ta kes the same amoun t of time as its Atmosphere:
revolution around Earth. So, the same very, very thin layer of
side of the Moon always faces Earth. mostly hydrogen and
helium
~1'Hlm!(. Why t~n you ~cc the Moon
from Earth1

Most of the rocks on the surface of the

Moon formed about 4.6 billion years
ago when lava tooled and hardened . ...

D43
Phases of the Moon
The Sun always lights one half of the Moon. As the Moon
orbits Earth, different amounts of the lighted half are visible
from Earth. The shapes created by the changing amounts of
the visible lighted areas are called Moon phases. A comple te
cycle of Moon phases takes about one month.
The first phase in the cycle is the new Moon. Find the
n('w Moon in the photos to the right. During this phase, the
Moon is bt>tween Earth and the Sun. Because its lighted side
is facing away from Earth, the Moon ilppears dilrk when
viewed from Earth.
As the Moon continues in its orbit, more of the ligh ted
area becomes visible. During this time, the Moon is described
as waxing, or growing. The waxing crescent phase appears
after th(' new Moon phase. L..'1tcr, when half of the Moon's
ligh ted area is visible, the Moon is in its fi rst quarter phase.
The portion of the lighted area continues to grow until
the full Moon phase is reached. During this phase, the entire
ligh ted side of the Moon is visible from Earth. At this poin t,
ll,,, Eilrll, i" loct"' ..""" the Moo" ""oJ the Sun.
After the full Moon phase, the area of the ligh ted side that
is visible from Earth bt>gins to get smillier. The Moon is said to
bt> waning. Phases during this half of the Moon's revolution
include wilning gibbous, Iilst quarter, and waning crescent.
The visible lighted area continues to decrease in size as the
Moon finishes its revolu tion ilround E..'1rth. It takes about
29 days for a compkte cycle of th(' philses of the Moon - from
one new Moon to the next.
Look agilin at the circle of photographs. Remember that
these appa rent changes in shape depend on the Moon's
position in space relative to E..'1rth ilnd the Sun.
Now look at the drawings in the inner circle. They show
what the Moon looks like to an observer above the system
in spilce. All of the drilwings arc illike because the side of
the Moon facing the sun is always ligh ted. [t is only the area
visible from Earth thil t seems to change shilpe.

Why does the Moon go through pha ses?

 Types of Eclipses
Eclipses ouur when Earth, the Sun, and the Moon
form a straight line in space . ..
Eclipses
An eclipse occurs when one object
pilSses into the shildow of il nother
object. When Eilrth, the Sun, and the
Moon form il strilightline, two kind s
of eclipses can occur.
A solar eclipse occurs when the
Moon passes between the Sun and
Earth. The Moon casts a shadow on
Earth's surfilce. The darker ilrea of
the shadow is called the Umbril. The
li ghter area is the penumbra. The pa rt
of Ea rth's surface within the umbra
experiences a total solar eclipse, as
shown in the photograph il t the top
right. The part of Earth's surface in
the penumbra experiences a partial
solar eclipse.
046 • Chapter 10 • l esson 2
A lunar edipse takes place when
Earth passes dire<t1y between the
Sun and the Moon, as show n in
the bottom illustration. When this
happens, the Moon moves into
Earth's shadow.
During a total lunar eclipse, the
entire Moon passes in to the umbra
of Earth's shildow. The Moon is still
visible, but has a reddish appearance,
as shown in the photograph at the
bottom right above. During a partial
lunilr eclipse, only pil rt of the Moon
passes into the umbra. The rest is in
the penumbra .
") S(QU~M(( Compare the positions of
Earth, the Sun, and the Moon during a
solar eclipse and during a tunar eclipse.
 Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA Why is the same
side of the Moon always visible
The Moon is E,trth's from Earth?
only natura l s.atellitt,
a VOCABULARY hplain what is
meant by Moon phases.

9 READING SKilL: Sequence

List the se-quenct of the phases
Tht s.ame s ide of the of the Moon starting with waxing
Moon is al ways seen gibbous and ending with the first
Irom Earth. The Moon quarter.
appea rs to change
sha pe as it revolves
around Ea rth.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
How would you determine whal
the phase of the Moon will be 10
da~ from today?
During a solar ecli pse,
the Moon passes
directly be tween Earth
o INQUIRY SKILL: Compare
and th e Sun. During Compare a solar eclipse with a
a lunar eclipse, Earth lunar eclipse.
passes directly betWH n
the Moon and th e Sun. .,tTEST PREP
Whal happens during a lotal
solar eclipse?
A, The Moon blocks oot all of
the Sun.
S. The Sun blocks out all of the
M~ .
MATH Applya Formula The radius (r)
C. The Moon blocks 001part of
of Earth's Moon is 1,737 km and the diameter
the Sun.
(d) is two times the radius (d = 2r). Use the
equation C '" ..dto determine the Moon's D. The Sun blocks oul part of the
circumference (C). M~

WRITING Narratiye How has the Moon

influenced you? Do you notice its phases?
Would you like to visit the Moon? Discuss the
Moon in a story or poem.
~ Technology
. . Vi~l w_.eduplace.comlscpllo firK!
001 more about Earth's Moon.
 Everything about the Moon
is extreme. Because the Moon hal
no atmosphere to even out the Sun's
radiant ene rgy, temperatures vary from
blistering hot to frigid cold. The surface Is
pockmarke d by micrometeorites, which
bombard like tiny bullets from space.
Dangerous radiation fries everything.
It's about as unfriendly a place for
life al you could imagine.
Nevertheless, over the course of
thr_ years in the 20th century,
life was there-human life. The Apollo
missions to the Moon were among
the greatest scientific achievements
In history. Six separate times astronauts
landed on the Moon, where they walked,
hopped, and even drove around, gathering
samples and doing experiments. Talk about
extreme sciencel
 READING : Compare and Contrast

The only thing

~tandjng bet ..... een the
astronauts and death was
their remarkable space suilS.
The suits supplied air, kept
them (001, ilnd protected
them from radiation and
micrometeorites.

'"
 Vocabulary
Complete ea( h senten(e wi th a term from the list. You may
use each term more than once.
autumnal equino. D34
1. A(n) _ is an imaginary line about wI1ictI a bOOt rotates. Dis 032
2. During lilt _ the North Pole is at its greatest tih awa'j from lunar eclipse D46
the Sun. Moon ph.Hes D44
3. During a(n) _ Earth passes directtv bttween the Mooo and the SI..rt. revoMion 0))
solar edipse D46
4. AppafMt changes in the shapes of the Moon throughout the month
summer solstice 034
are called _
vemal equino. 034
5. _ _ occurs, spring begins in the Northern Hemisphel"e.
winter solstice 0)4
6. The North Pole is tilted directly toward the Sun during the __
1. 'NIlM the Moon passes dirKtly between the Sun and Eilrth, iI(n)
_ _ occurs.
8. The first day 011.111 in the Northem Hemi5phere marks the _ .
9. During a total _ the Sun IS In the umbra 01 the Moon's shadow.
10. The palh 01 Earth's _ is elliptical.

I Test Prep
Write the letter of th e best answer choice.
11 . During a solstice, _ fl . Day and night are the same lerJgth during
A. one 01 £arth·s ~ is tiklld tow.wd tilt S!.w'1
B. neither poll' is tikfd towa«ltllt Sun
C. ~ng begins in tht Northern Htmisphere
O. Iail begins in tht Northern H~
12. Places oeilr the equatOf tend 10 bt warm
year·round because _
A. 01 §OIar « Iipses
B. 01 ...... « Iipses
C. tht s..·s rays SINe this P¥t 01 Earth dirI'CtIy
D. the Sun's rays are slantfd om this pall 01
,.",
A. wintl!f solstice
B. a tOLlI solar I'dipse
C. vernal equinox
O. iI tOLlI b\ilI «!ipse
14. The same side 01 the Moon is illw~
visible Irom Eilrth be<iluse _
A. the Moon is wane. than the Sun
8. the Moon is Earth's only satellite
C. thl' Moon's rotation taUs a §hortl!f ilITIOUnl
01 UI\1E' than iI$ rl!YOlution
D. thl' Moon's rotation taUs the s.amt' amount

050 •
~~~:f
(h~ pter
10
____________~.~'~imo~M~~~'~~"~':"~______~
 Inquiry Skills
15. Cause and Effect How does Eanh's
tilt on its axis cause sea50flS to change in
different pans 01 the W<lrld?
16. Sequence Identify the Moon phase
shown below and explain how it will
change over the next two weeks. Ill(lude
drawings in your answer.
17. Analyze Explain why the Nonhern
and Southern Hemispheres have opposite
seasoll5 at the same time.
18. Synthesize Exp la in why the shonet day
of the ~ar in the Northern Hemisphere is
()(I December 21 or 22. Where is this the
longest day?
19. haluate look agilin at the iIIustrati011
and photos on p<>QeS 045 and 046. What
type 01 eclipse occurs when the Moon is
in its full Moon phase? In its new Moon
phase? Expla in.
20. Hypothesize Why 00 you thin k lew
people have witnessed a total solar eclipse
while many people have observed lunar
eclipses?

Map the Concept
The chan shows three pairS of scieflCe terms.
Complete the chan to explain how they differ.
Performance Assessment
Observe the Moon
Observe and draw the Moon on five or six
«l(l:;e(utive nights. Identify the phases you
observe and predi<t what the Moon will look
like over the next two weeks.

Solstice Equinox "'.

Moon
full
Moon
Solar
edipse
Lunar
e<lipse
LESSON

1
Is a "shooting star"
really a star?
Read about it in lesson 1.

Is this a six-wheeled
skateboard or a tool
to explore other
planets?
Read about it in lesson 2.

LUSON

3
What forms from a
nebula, like the Crab
Nebula shown here?
Read about it in lesson 3.

D53
 What Orbits
the Sun?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVEST1GATE
Earth is only one small part of the Inquiry Skill
solar system. The Sun, eight other
Research When you rl'sear(h,
planets, and thousands of smaller
you use library reference
bodies belong to this system, too.
Yet only Earth is able to support materials, sl'arch the Inlernet,
life, at least as far as scientists can and talk to I'xperts to learn
science information.
tell. Understanding Earth's position
in the solar system is one key to
understanding why it supports life.
Materials
• I,"ye in~~ l~rd
• metric rule.-
• 2 gummed rein forced rings
• 2 bfass faslffiers
• string (30 em long)

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Measurements
on page H16.
A Very Long Trip!
Procedure
o Measure Use a ruler to find the midpoint
of the short side of a large index card.
Draw a straight line across the center of
the card.
e Measure Mark two points, each 2 em in
from the edge of the card. Then measure
2 em in from one of the points and draw a
small circle. l abel the circle NSun.N
e Use Models Attach reinforced rings over
the two marked points on the card.
Carefully push the brass fasteners through
the rings and the «Ird. Spread the prongs
of each fastener.
e Tie the ends of the string t o form a ci rcle
with a circumference of about 25 em. Loop
the string around the brass fasteners.
e Collaborate Have a partner hold the edges
of the card while you insert the tip of a
pencil inside the string loop. Keeping the
string tight. draw an ellipse by moving the
pencil around the inside of the string. The
ellipse models the orbit of a comet.

Conclusion
1. Observe How does the orbit of a comet
compare with the orbits of the planets?
2. Predict What do you think happens to
a comet when it reaches the point in its
orbit closest to the Sun?
Research find out more
about comets by researching
at the library or on the
Intemet. Use your findings
to make a poster.
\.eat~ by Readi.g
The Solar System
VOCABULARY
asteroid
comet
. ""
p,OS9
MAIN IDEA The Sun and the bodies that revolve around
il m~ke up the so la. syste m. The sol,,, system Is a small
part of a much larger system calied th e Milky Way ga laxy.
meteor
meteorite ",'" The Sun and Its Neighbors
meteoroid ,,,,,,
."",

In your neighborhood, you r neighbors are the

planet
sol ... system "".
,,,, people who lin! nea r you. Earth's neighborhood is
the solar system. The solar system is the Sun and
READING SKILL all bodies that travel, o r revol\'c, around it. Earth
Text Structure Use a is onc of ninc planets, large bodies th at revolve
diagram like the one below around the Sun. The planets do not make their own
10 record details about the light, bu t shine by reflecting the Sun's light.
partS 01 the solar system. The Sun is by {;IT the largest and most massive
part of the solar system. Its gr.H'ity holds the other
parts in thcir positions. Many planets, including

o Earth, have one or more moons. Smaller members

of the solar system include asteroids, comets, and
meteoroids.
 En'n with its thousands of parts,
the solar system is a very small part
of a much larger system called the
Milky \,/.\y galaxy. You'lIleam more
about galaxies in Lesson 3.
Scientists believe that the solar
system is about 4.6 billion years old.
It formed from a hot, spinning cloud
of gases and dust. Over time, gravity
pulled the gas and dust toward
the center of the cloud. causing the
cloud to collapse. As it continued
to spin, the cloud flattened and its
temperature rose. Eventually, great
heat and pn:-ssure built up ncar the
«'nter of the cloud. Nuclear reactions
produced a star now cdlled the Sun.
Away from the center of the
spinning cloud, temperatures were
cooler. Matter in this cooler part of
th~ cloud ~g" n to come together to
form the planets and their moons.
Planets closest to the Sun formed
from heavy, rocky material. Farther
from the Sun, planets were able
to hold onto lighter gases and
form much larger planets. Moons
eventually formed around all but two
of the planets.
Along with the planets and their
moons, other small bodies formed
in the solar system. These include
asteroids, comets, and meteoroids.
The paths, or orbits, of all of the
bodies that tra\'el around the Sun
are shaped like slightly flattened
circles called ellipses. The strong
gravitational force of the Sun holds
all the objects in the soldr system in
their orbits.
@ ml'i!llihll What does the
illus tration show about the ptan@ts in the
solar system1
 10 ;s OM of thfo
moo"" of Jupi ter.
M;tny wolcan06
dot its suriace.
Moons are nat ural sa tellites
that ol bit a planet.
Moons
[n Chapter 10, you leamed about
Ea rth's moon- the s.1tellite that is
o ften called the Moon. Did you know
tha t ~stronomers have discovered
about 140 other moons in the solar
system? All these moons ~re held
in their orbits by the gravitational
attraction of their planets.
Unl ike Earth's Moon, some moons
ha ve atmospheres surrounding
them. Others show evidence that
water or ice may lie deep beneath
their surfaces. One moon has acti ve
volcanoes, and an other has geysers!
.. Asteroids are small, rocky bodies
tlla! orbit the Sun, many in a belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
S"o,nn's moon The vaUf)'S of
EMel.d1tS has Aflel. I moon
an icy suriace of of Uranus, may
smoo th plains. have formed
(fa ters. and loog during violent
(racks and ridge-s. moonq\lake$.
Asteroids
An .. steroid is a relath'ely Sm..1n,
rocky object tha t orbits Ihe Sun.
Scientists estimate tha i millions of
these ch unks of rock and metal exist
in the solar system. Most of them
orb it in a band called the asteroid
belt, located between the orbits of
Mars and Jupi ter.
Asteroids range in size from
hundreds of kilometers in diameter
to only a few meters across. Many
asteroids have very peculiar shapes.
Some even look like baked potiltoeS!
One theory about the ori gin of
the asteroid s is that Jupiter 's strong
pull of gravity prC\'ented them from
coming together to form a planet.
Anotner, less likely idea is tha t the
asteroids are remnants of sc\'eral
planets that collided and broke apart .
Comets
A comet is a small, orbiting
body made of dust, ice, and frozen
gases. The solid center of a cornel
is its nucleus. Like all objects in the
solar system, comets orbit the Sun.
However, most comets travel in very
long, elliptical paths similar to the
one shown on this page.
When a cornet approaches the Sun,
frozen solids in its nucleus vaporize.
Gases and dust are released,
producing a glowi ng ~ion called
a coma. Energy from the Sun causes
the coma to grow. Charged particles
streaming from the Sun push
particles out of the coma, producing a
glowing tail that ca n T('ach millions of
kilometers into space,
The orbits of some comets extend
to just beyond the planet Neptune.
These comets make one complete
trip around the Sun in fewer than 200
years. They arc called short-period
comets. The best known comet,
Halley's comet, is iI short-period
cornel thilt orbits the sun about once
e\'ery 76 years,lt will next be visible
from E.lrth in the year 2061.
The orbits of other comets extend
much farther from the Sun. Some
scientists belie\'e that most of these
comets ilre found beyond 1'1uto. As
many as a trillion comets mily exist in
this region. These comets can take up
to 30 million years to orbil the Sun!
They arc called long-period cornets.
Hale-Bapp, a long-period comet
identified in 1995, takes nea rly 2,500
years to orbit the Sun.
'Nhat causes the - t ail"
of a comet to form ?
Named for its discoverer, Yu]i Hya~utah,
this come t was one of the brightut to
appro.och the Sun in the 20th c.n tury. •

Meteors
Have you ever seen a "shooting
star" sweep across the night sky? It
produces bright, short-lived streak of
lighl. But such streaks are not moving
stars al all. They are meteors.
A meteor is a streak of light caused
by a chunk of malter that enters
Earth's atmosphere and is heated by
friclion with the ai r. These chu nks of
matter are called meteoroids. For a
few moments, the meteoroids burn
as they fall, appearing as streaks of
light against Ihe night sky. A ~,
meteoroids are the size of asteroids.
But most OIl"\' much smaller. Many are
smaller than a grain of sand.
Sometimes Jll(lre meteors are
visible in the sky than usual. These
Meteor >howe'$ c..:(W when Earth
passes through particles that were
shed from the tails of comets. ..
•
events are called meteor showers.
During the meteor shower shown
in the photo below, an average of 50
meteors per hour could be SC('n.
Meteor showers can last from
a few hours to a few days. Most
showers occur when Earth passes
through clouds of dust left orbiting
the Sun by a passing comet.
Sometimes, the falling rocks slay
intact during their trip through
Earth's atmosphere. When these
Objects strike the ground, they are
called meteorites. Most meteorites
are believed to come from the
asteroid belt.
When large meteorites strike
Earth's surface, they form bowl-
shaped depressions called impact
craters. The impact crater shown
below is the Barringer Crater in
Ari7.ona. It formed sometime between
20,000 and 50,000 years ago.
How is a meteorite
different f rom a me teor?
The Barringer impact crater Is over 1 km
wide and almost 200 m deep. T"._ _ _ _ _ _. .

Tht solllr Iyslem
consisls of I~ Sun,
nln ~ plan~ls, I~ir
moons. ,00 lIIlIny Ol~r
srnaJI~r bodif'S th'l
revolve ~round the Sun.
All bU I two planets in
Ihe solar system h~ve
lit iust one moon.
Moons. comels, lind
aSleroids are ~mong
tilt small,," bodif'S in
Ihe solar sys tem ,
Mel~roids lire bits of
maner thai bur" up
when t~ enter £.nh',
a tlllOsp'Wf.
~TEST PREP
MATH Calculate Circumference The
aVerage radius of Eartll's orbit around tile Sun
is approximately ISO rnill iOfi km (93 million
mi). Using tile formula ( - l"O"t calculate tile
circumference (C) of Earth's orbit. Suppose
Eartll's orbit to be circular for this calculation.
ART Mak@a PostH learn more about OIle
of tile moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptuf'le, or
Uranus. Make a (olor drawing of till' moon, ~ Technology
labeling its interesting features. Include a ... VISit www.fl!uplKe.comlscpllOfind
paragrapll describing the moon and what
makes it uniQlIf.
Review
o MAIN tOEA What different
types of bodies make up the solar
system?
o VOCABULARY Write a sentence
using the words asteroid and
camet.
o READING SKilL.: Text
Structure Make a brief outlif'le
tllat shows how tllese terms afe
related: plilfII'ts. moons. asteroids,
thf! Sun.
o CRITICALTHINKING: Apply
Earth and its Moon formed at
about the same time and from
the same PI"O(1'SSI'S. Why do you
think Earth's surface has fewtr
-,
crattrs than the surface of the
" INQUIRY SKILLS: Research
How coold you find oot lllOfe
about (ollecting meteorites?
Small ' ocky objects that orbit the
Sun belWf'en Mars and Jupittr
a.e called
A. meteofS..
B. meteorites.
C. comets.
D. asteroids.
OUI more about the solar $)'Stem.
 What Are the
Planets ?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
By studying other planets and Inquiry Skill
their moons, scientists have learned
Use Models Some models
a lot about Earth and its Moon.
are scale models. All parts of
Studying the solar system also
a scale model are larger or
provides dues about t ile stars and
smaller than Ihe Sill" of the
galaxies that lie beyond it.
actual object being modeled,
but afe in ellact proporti ons.

Materials
• marker
• metric tape measure
• piece of string (40 m)
• 10 wooden stak~ (lO em long)
• masking tape
. 10 cardboard rectangles
• modeling day

S!ience and Math Toolbox

For step 1, review Using a Tape
Measure or Rul er on page H6.
Scaling the
Solar System
Procedure
41 Measure Work wit h t hree other students,
Obtain the scale d istance values from your
teacher and write them in your Science
Notebook. Using the marker and the
measuring tape, mCirk off along the string
the positions of the Sun and planets.
o Use Models label one of the rectangles
as the Sun. Tape t he sign to a stake.
Gently push the stake into the ground, if
out doors. If you are indoors, make a small
clay ball and push the stake into the day.
e Collaborate Work with the members
in your team t o label th e rest of the
rectangles with t he planet names and tape
each to a stake.
G Use Numbers Have one team member hold
the end of the string that represents the
Sun while another student stretches the
string so that it is taut. The other students
in your team should place the planet •
stakes in thei r correct positions along the
stretched string.
Investigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment
1. Analyze Data Which grou p of planets-the Find the d i amete~ of the
inner planets or the outer planets-is doser plar.ets on pages D6s-066.
together? Use these diametefs to make
a -;cale-size model of the Sun
2. Use Numbers Study t he distances between <md each of the nir'H! plar.ets.
the first four planets from the Sun. Is there Use a -;cale of I em to
a pattern? If so, what is the pattern7 Then 1.000 kin.
describe distances among the outer planets.
vat" by Reading
The Planets
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA There are nine planets in our solar system.
jnner planets
outer planets
",. The four planets doses! to the Sun are <;ailed the inner
planets. Tl>e remaining five ilre called the outer planets.

READING SKILL
""
Compare and Contrast
U$t' a diagram like the one
below to compa.e and
contrast the inner and outer
plafll'ts.
The Inner Planets
The first four planets from the Sun aTe Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars. These planets are called
the inner planets because they Me closer to the Sun
than the othe r planets in the solar system. The inner
pin nets have ceTtilin characteristics in common.
They are roc ky and much smaller than most of the
other planets. Yet, if you could travel to the inner
planets, you would find them very different from
E.1.rth and from each other.
Mercury is the smallest of the inner pIn nets
and the one dosest to the Sun. Mercury's surface
temperature vnries widely between its day and its
night. During the planet'S slow rota tion, the side
facing the Sun becomes extremely hot, while the
side fac ing away becomes extremely cold.

Mercury
Mercury's surface has
many craters, Some
of these may contain
frozen water. T

Venus ..

• Venus lias a few

craters on its surface.
A thick, poisonous
atmosphele sUllounds
i planet.
 The surface of Venus, the sc<ond
planet from the Sun, is hidden
below a thick layer of clouds made
up mostly of sulfuric acid! The
atmosphere itself is 96 percent
carbon dioxide, creating tremendous
pressure and a strong greenhouse
effect.
Temperatures at the surface are
hot enough to mel t lead. The pressure Mars ...
Mars is home to the largest volcano
exerted by the atmosphere is bone-
in the solar system.
cruShing-about the same as tha t
found one km beneath the ocean's
The surface of Mars shows sign
surface on E.lrth.
of wate r erosion, indicating that it
You are familiar with conditions
may once have been more like Earth.
on Earth, the third planet from the
While much of its surface is flat and
Sun. It is the only planet known to
rocky, Ma rs ha s deep canyons and
have liquid wa ter. Earth's atmosphere
the highest volcanic mountain known
and oceans help keep its surface
in our solar system. Ol ympus Mons
tempera ture within a range that
stand s 24 km, or almost 8O,(X)() ft
supports tife.
above the Martian surface.
Mars, the red planet, is smaller
than Earth, bu t has about the same r) COMPAlLf AND CONTRAST
Wh"t "re ~ome
amou nt of land area. Compared ~imil"ritie~ among the inner planets?
to other planets, Mars has been
extensively observed and explored.
The Mars Expedition rovers, named
Spirit and Opportunity, have
recently visited the surface and sen t
informa tion back to Earth.

Me.cury 4.880 57.9

Venus 12.100 108.2

Earth 12,756 149.6

Earth ...
Earth's temperatufe and its atmosphere
M," 6.800 221.9 make it the only planet in the solar
system known to support life.
The Outer Planets
TIle outer planets are Jupiter,
s.,tum, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Except for Pluto, these phmets are
larger than the inner planets and
their volume consists mostl y of gases.
Jupiter, the fifth planet from the
Sun, is one of the brightest ob;ects in
the night sky. jupiter takes only about
10 hours to rotate once on its axis.
Winds reaching speeds of 670 km/hr
(400 mph) fonn clearly visible bands.
1 ___06-
jupiter is famous for its Great
Red Spot. This gigantic storm
system has been visible from Earth
for more than 300 years.
may h.we been prod uced by metror
collisions with Jupiter's moons.
The planet best known for its rings
is Saturn, the sixth planet from the
Sun. S.,turn's band of rings is 250,000
km wide, but only I km thi ck. The
rings consist mostly of ice particles.
S.,tum is the least dense of any
planet. If you could put s.,tum in
water, it would float! Yet it is as
massive as 95 Earths.
~ .... Dl.Iomelw
pn.)

In addition to its many moons,

jupiter also has rings. The rings no
are made up of small p.1fticles that
S-.h"n 120.000
Jupiter . U"nus 50.800 2,870
Jupiter is a giant-it is the biggest,
most massive ptanet in the solar
system. It has more than 60 moons!
Nept_ 48.600
'."
Pluto
'.'" S...

Saturn ...
Thousands of particles make
up Ihe rings that surround Sllurn.
 Uranus, the seventh planet from
the Sun, was once called "Herschel"
after the astronomer w ho discovered
it. Like other planets, the axis of
Uranus is til ted. Yet its axis is ti lted
so much it is nearly parallel to the
plane of its orbit. Compared to other
planets, Uranus is '·lying" on its side.
Like Jupiter and 5.1turn, Uranus
consists mostly of gases with a core
of rock and icc. Uranus has at least 27
moons and a system of 11 rings.
Neptune, the eighth planet in the
solar system, is similar in color and
composition to Uranus. Scientists
predicted its existence based on
observations of the motion of Uranus,
but it was not discovered until 1846.
Like all gas giants, Neptune is
a windy planet, but its winds are
the fastest yet oO.5CTvcd in the solIH
system. They reach velocities of 2,700
km/hr (1,500 mph)!
Uranus ..
High concentrations of methane
give Uranus a greenish color.
Pluto II>
Pluto has ice caps at
its poles and large dark
spots near its equator.
Neptune has at least 11 moons and
a system of rings. One of Neptune's
rings appears braided, and scientists
are trying to understand this unusual
observa tion. Neptune's largest moon
is Triton.
Pluto is usually the farthest planet
from the Sun. However, its orbit
sometimes brings it closer to the Sun
than Nep tune. Unlike the other outer
planets, Pluto is small, icy, and rocky.
Not surprisingly, it is very cold. Pluto
has one moon, called Charon.
What do most
of the outer planets have in common?
Neptune ,.
Neptune and its largest moon,
Trilon, are gelling closer to each
otller. The two probably will collide
within the next 100 million years.
 '4 The European Space Agenq
lauO(hed the Man EKP'ess
space probe in June of 2003.
Exploring Space
Many early observations of the
solar system were made with simple
optical telescopes. With these tools,
1m observer looked through lenses
that made objects appear larger and
brighter. Such telescopes could be
used only to observe nearby objects
In space.
Optical telescopes are still used to
explore the solar sys tem and beyond.
Today, though, many are equipped
with cameras and computers
that produce images and collect
and process data. Other types of
telescopes gather invisible radiation,
such as radio or :o;-ray waves, to form
images.
Telescopes are affected by Earth's
atmosphere. Clouds and gllses in the
lIir may prevent users from seeing
objects dearly in space. Thus, many
telescopes are set up on mountain
pellks. Others are launched into space
and orbit ElIrth!
The space shuttle is 11 vehicle that
lakes equipment and people into
space. While the shuttle orbits Ea rth,
experiments can be carried out. After
a certain time, a shuttle returns to
Earth. A space station stays in space
for long periods of time. It has areas
in which astronauts lind scientists
live, sleep and conduct experiments.
A space probe is a spacecraft that
carries special instruments into sp.xc.
Some probes are launched into Earth's
upper atmosphere. Other probes go
much farther. The Mars rovers Spirit
and OpporlUnlty have explored
Mars, moving across its surface and
analyzing s.1mples of rocks and dirt.
How doel 1M
space shuttle differ from II spa<e p,olle1
'4 The Mars roven have
taken many photographs
and analyzed Martlan rocks.
 Review
o MAIN IDEA How are the
planets of the solar system
Mercury. Venus. Earth. grouped?
and Mars. ma ke up the
inner planets. The inner a VOCABULARY Contrast SjlilCe
planets are small and stations and Sjlace probes.
rocky and have few Or
no moons. 9 READING SKilL: Compare
and Contrast (ompare and
contrast the characteristics
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus.
Neptune, and Pluto, are
of Earth with tllase of its two
the outer planets. With nearest neighbors.
the e ~ ception of Pluto.
the outer planets are
o CRITICAL THINKING:
large and gaseous. and Hypothesize Why do you think
have many moons. the outer plaflets have so many
moons?
Space probes can be
used to explore regions
o INQUIRY SKILLS: Use Models
Why are models useful to study
of 'pa<~ that ar~ too the solar system?
dangerous Or difficult
for humans to e~plore .jJTEST PREP
dirKtly.
The inner and oute( planets are
separated by
A. the asteroid belt.
B. Jupiter's great storm.
C. Earth and its Moon.
MATH Estimate Circumference Earth's O. Saturn and its rings.
circumference is about 41,660 km. The
circumference of Uranus is about 188,400 km.
About what fraction of Uranus's circumference ~ Technology
is Earth's? 'iii Visit www.eduplacuomlscpl
to find out more about planets.
TECHNOLOGY Create a Photo Essay
Find out about a spacecraft that is currently
being used to explore space. Write several
paragraphs on the (faft and its mission.
Illustrate yOUr essay with images from
magazines or the Internet.
 Literature
lisa Westberg Peters studilKl science
her book of poems about Earth.
about meteors to the work of a

Earth Charged in
Meteors Fier'y
by Lisa Westberg Pete~

The earth was ch.arged Wednesday

in connection with the fiery dea th
of 11 larg(' meteor.

" It WilS a combination of g ravity

and thic k air," police said.
"That nw tNlr didn' t hnvp a ch a ne!'."

The meteor fell out of orbit

early Tuesday and was vaporized
as it plunged toward the earth.

" It was a fi reball!"

said Jose r..larlinez of Sacramento.
Nit lit up my who le backyard."

hearing will be held next w"k.

 READING

Meteors
Excerpt from Comers, Meteors, and Asteroids,
by Seymour Simon

Metcors flash in the sky every night. They happen every

day. too, but we usually can't see them in the Sun's glare.
Metcor flashes arc also called falling or shooting stars.
But metoors Me not stars. Stars arc suns far beyond our Solar
System. Meteors begin as meteoroids, bits of rock or metal that
orbit around the Sun. We can't sec them in space because they
are too small and too dark.
But sometimes meteoroids plunge inlo Earth's atmosphere
at speeds faster than a bullet. The friction produced by
rubbing against air partides makes them glow red-hot, and
they Me then ((lllcd meteors. We sec the bright flash for only a
few seconds.
Meteors come much closer to the EMth than comets. Some
are brighter than the brightest star and are called fireballs.
Several times each year you can see more than a dozen
meteors in an hour in the same part of the night sky. This is
c.lllcd a meteor shower. It occurs when Earth passes through
an old comet orbit and collides wi th some of the particles
remaining from the comet's nucleus. Each year, Earth passes
through the old comet pa th Sh· Id
at about the s.1me date. The arlng eas
Leonids, for example, are I. READING CHECK Why do meteors burn as
meteors from rocks left behind they enter Earth's atmosphere?
in the orbit of Comet Temple-
Tuttle. When the Leonids appear 2. WRITE ASOUT IT Why do meteor
in mid-November, they seem to
showers appear at certain times every
year?
come from the direction of the
cons tellation (a group of stars) 1 TAlK ABOUT IT Is it reasonable to
named Leo. suggest that Earth causes the death of
meteors. as the poem suggests?
 What Are
Stars Like?
Why It Matters ...
Earth revolves around a star
called the Sun. Without this star,
Earth would be a {old, lifeless body.
Reactions in the Sun's {Ofe give off
energy needed by almost all the
living thin gs on Earth.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Use Numbers Vou can use
numbers and your math skills
to understand objects, even Is,
and ideas in science.
Materials
• 7 long. black chenille stems
• 7 round bellds Illll! lit snugly
onto the chenille stems
• piece of black poster
board (about 8.5 in. x 11 in.)
• gel pen (silver, gold, or white)
• scissors
• metric rule.-
Science and Math Toolbox
For step I, J~iew Usin g an
Equation or Formula on page H1Q.
Star Search! Star A,wal
Oi.tan,. (l,y)
fromhrtlo
Procedure .0"
o Use Numbers Refer to the table on page
075. Using a scale of 1 em equals 10 light-
years, compute the scale distances in em to
each of the stars in the Big Dipper, a star
group that is part of a constellation. In
your Science Notebook, record your values
in a table like the one shown.
e Analyze Data Look at the photo on page
075. Use it to mark positions for the stars
of the Big Dipper on the black poster
board. Connect the dots with the gel pen.
Carefully use scissors to poke holes into
the poster board at each star location.
e Use Numbers Cut each of the chenille
stems to the correct scale length from your
table. Insert each chenille stem into its
correct place in the model constellation.
Place a bead at the end of each chenille
stem.
o Observe Observe your model f rom
different posit ions.

Conclusion
1. Use Models How did this scale model aid in
your understanding of distances to stars in
a constellation? What questions about stars
does it help answer?
II Design
2. Hypothesize How might the star group you
modeled look from a different part of the
galaxy? Use your model to make a sketch
that answers this question.
an Experiment On
a clear night sit facing nonh
and observe the sky. Sketch
the brightest stars and
organize them into groups.
The next day, exchange
sketches with a classmate.
That night try to identify
your classmate·s
 Stars
VOCA8ULARY MAIN IDEA A ) t.r is a large sphere of glowing ga)u.
gal.~y

light.year
".
,,,
St ars chang~ as th~y go through their life r;yt les. Th~ Sun
I) a ml!dium ·s i.t~d sta r that is about halfway throogh its
life r;yele.
magnitude
protostar
'U.
""
,,,
P. Dl~ Earth's Star: the Sun
Han' you e\'er wondered what a StilT is? Why
READI NG SKILL 0

0
do st<lTS twinkle, and how f<lT are they from Earth?
Main Idea and Details 0

Use the 9'aphic Ofganilfr

0
0 A Itar is a large sphere of glowing gases.
to <tdd details that suppoit Nuclear reactions in the star 's core produce energy
0

the main KIN 01 p.lgeS 0

th..,t eventu<llly reaches the star 's atmosphere and
074 to 07S. 0 radiates into space. The twinkle of starlight is caused
0
by movement of particles in Earth's atmosphere.
Recall from Lesson 2 that everything in the solar
system orbits a star called the Sun. The Sun is a
yellow star made mostly of hydrogen and helium.
Its volume is more than one million times the
volume ot Earth! The surface temperature 01 the
Sun is about S,5OO"C (9,932"F).
In many ways, the Sun is a typical star. Ye t many
stars are holter and larger than the Sun, while
others are smaller and cooler. Some are even larger
and cO()/(T!
 ,, ,
,
,
1 .,
2
• •
,

•
, .
1St'" ;"
St. r Nilme
th, ';g D;pp"
OiSUllKe
from Earth
I' ..
,4
7
•
•
o
9
Alka,d

Mizar -II 108 Ly

S9Ly
I ,
5

..
,
• ··

€) Ahoth I 62Ly
I
l:l Megru 65ly
I • •
~
o
Phecda

Merak
75 Ly

6Hy
I .. The ~tars thai form the Big Dipper
are many light-years from Earth. The Big
o Dubh e IH y Dipper i~ a ~tar group that i~ par! of a
constellation called Ursa Major,

The Sun is about 150 million km constellations. Look at the table on

(93 million mil from Eart h. While this
distance may seem very large, it is
actually small compared 10 disl.lnces
between other objects in space.
Be.:ause d istances beyond the
solar system are so large, as tronomers
often use a special un it to measure
them. A light·year. which is
abbrevia ted Ly, is the dis tance that
light travels in one ycar-.'lboUi 9.5
trillion km! For reference, the Sun
is about 0 .00001 Ly from Earth. The
next closest s tar is Proxima Ce ntauri.
It is abou t 4.3 Ly from Earth.
For cen turies, people have
arranged stars in to patterns ca lled
this page. How far from Earth are the
s tars that form the Big Di pper?
Most of the billions of st.lrs in
the universe are very, very far from
Earth. You are able to see some of
these s tars beca use they are so brigh t.
The brigh tness of a star is called its
magnitude. In general. bigger stars
have grea ter magnitudes tha n smaller
sta rs . Also, stars that are closer to
E.lrth appear brighter than those
farther a way. Very hot stars appear
brighte r than cooler stars unless the
cooler star is very large.
What is a lig ht-year?

AStar is Born
Although stars are not alive,
scientists think of them as having a
life cycle. A star 's path throu gh its
life cycle depends on its mass. E\'ery
star begins its life as a rotating cloud
of dust and gases called a nebula.
Over time, gravity causes the matter
in a nebula to collapse in toward the
center.
As the cloud rotates faster
and fa ster, it forms a protos tar. A
pmtostar is the first stage in the
formation of a star, Temperatures in
the protostar increase until they are
high enough for nuclear reactions
to take place. When these reactions
occur, the protostar begins to glow.
It is now a st.lT.
After nuclear reactions ha\'e
stabili zed the newly formed star, it
becomes a main sequence star. This
kind of star will continue 10 release
energy for millions or even billions
of years. The time a slar remains on
the TTh1in sequence depends on its
origin.al mass.
The hottest, brightest main
sequence stars are blue or white in
color. The surface temperatures of
these stars are between about 10,000
and 4Q,(KlO"C! Medium-size main
sequence stars, like the Sun, are
generally ~'ellow or orange. Their
surface temperatures range from
about5~ toabout8~. The
coolest, dimmest TTh1in sequence sta rs
are red. Their surface temperatu res
are only 3,000"C to 4,000''1:.
The Sun is a medium-sized stM
that is about midway through its life
cycle. Scientists estimate that it will
continue burning for another 4 to 5
billion yea rs.
 When a star has reached the end
of the main sequence stage, its core
is no longer stable and begins to
shrink. At the same time, the outer
part of the star expands. This phase
in a star 's life cycle is called the I\"'d
giant phase. As you can sec from the
diagram, a red giant can follow one
of two paths, depending on ils mass.
For a medium-sile star in the I\"'d
giant phase, the outer pari of lhe
Slar continues 10 release energy. The
core continues to heat up until 1M>
hydrogen supply in the core is used
up. Once the star runs ou t of ~fuel " it
collapses and becomes a white dwarf.
Gradually, a white dwarf cools and
)f"}
becomes a black dWllrf.
For a very massive sta r in its I\"'d
gianl phase, the tempemture in the
core rllpidly incr~II~S 1I,s grllvity
pulls mat ter in toward the center.
These changes cause the st.1T to explode.
This explosion is called a supernova.
Some supernovas leave behind colorful
remn.lnts clllled nebul~.
Sometimes after a supernova, II
red giant becomes a rapidly spinning
star thai is very dense. Such a slar is
called a neutron star. If the rem nant
of the red giant is very large, it
collapses in on itself to form a
black hole. A black hole has such a
powerful gra vitational pull thllt it is
able to pull in any energy or matter
that comes too near il. Not even light
can esca pe.
MAIN IDEA What characteristic
determines which path a star wi ll follow
a long t hoe main sequence!
The spiral swirls that Ure tcl1 out from the Milky Way's
(enlral bulge are called the disk.
Galaxies
A galaxy is ao eoormous system
o f gases, dust, and stars, all held
together by gravity. Small galaxies
consist o f hundreds of thousands of
slars. Large galaxies contain billions
of sta rs. Scientists keep n.'vising the
estimated number of galaxies as they
gather more d ata. Recently, scientists
who work wi th the Hubble Space
Telescope estimated that the universe
is home to abou t 125 billion galaxies.
Mos t galaxies have two maio
parts: a bulge aod a halo. The bulge is
a region of old sta rs, gases, and dust.
The outer part of a bulge often fades
into a galaxy's halo. The halo, like the
bulge, contains old stars, bu t also has
a lot of dar k matter. Dark matter is
mntter that can't be observed directly,
but it makes up much of the mass of
th e uni verse .
• tenon 3
The Milky Way
You probably already know that
the solar system is pari of to the
Milky Way galaxy. However, did you
know that the Sun is only one of the
more than 200 billion slars in this
galaxy? If you could view the Milky
Way galaxy from abo\'e, it would
look like the drawing on this page.
Most of the stars, g_lS, and dus t in
the Milky Way are fouod in a region
called the d isk. This nat tened region
of young sta rs and dus t is about
100,000 Ly across ilnd lies just beyond
the bulge. The solar system is located
in the disk about 28.000 Ly from the
center of the galaxy.
Outside the centril l bulge is the
galaxy's halo. The Milky Way's hillo
mily be more than 130,000 Ly ilCross.
Types of Galaxies
Look again at the drawing of
the Milky Wayan the fadng page.
Now look at the photos on this page
tlmt show the three major types of
galaxies. You will note tha t the Milk)'
Way is a spiral galaxy. All spiral
galaxies have three main pa rts-a
bulge, a disk, and a halo.
In some spiral galaxies, like the
Milky Wa)" arms ex tend directly from Spiral Galaxy
the bulge. Another example of this A spi ••1 galaxy has arms thit ~~tend outwa.d
f.om its (tnt.al bulge.
type of spiral galaxy is shown at the
top of this page. [n oth" r spirals. the
arms ex tend from a bar-shaped mass
of matter that runs through the bulge.
Elliptical galaxies arc the second
major type of galaxy. The)' arc shaped
like a f1attcncd ball, and they ha ve no
arms. Elliptical galaxies arc brighter
toward the cent ral bulge.
Irregular gala xies are collections
of stars. gases, and dust thM have
no real shape or structure. Irregular
galaxies ha\'<' large regions of Elliptical Galaxy
h)"drogen gas and young not staTS. ",. ellipti(aI galaxy is shaped like.
An irregular gala:o;), is shown in the ftittffttd ball or s.phef~.
bottom photograph on this page.
To learn about distan t galaxies,
scientists are observing and studying
them with the Hubble Tc1~ope
and other telescopes in space. The
galaxies are too rar away to explore
wi th spacecraft.
~IIf*,i'!f' O@scribe 1M th~ major
types of galaxifos.

Irregular Galaxy
An i"egulal galaxy hi'! no rf'al shape 01
s tructure.

5tars are enarmaliS
spheres al glawing
gases. The apparent
brightness af a star
depends Of! its size,
its temperature, its
real brightness. and its
distance fram Earth.
A star g06 through a
li le ~de tllal includes
several slag es. Th e
initial mass of the star
determine'S which of
two different paths it
follows.
A galaxy is an
enarmous (olle(lion of
Slals. gases. and dust.
Mast gala ~ ie'S (an be
classified a((arding la
shape.
MATH Make a Model Use the measurements
given in this lesson to make a scale model 01 the
Milky Way galaxy, Indicate the position of the
solar system in your mode l.
WRITING Creative With a lew
classmates, write a script and perform a three·
minute skit on the life cycle of a stal. Be creative,
but scientifically acwrate, in your production.
• Lesson 1
Review
o MAIN IDEA What isa star?
E) VOCABULARY What three
factors determ ine the magnitude
of a star?
() READING SKILL: Main Ideasl
Details Provide details from this
lesson that support the fallOWing
main idea: Stars change as they
go through their life cycles.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Which path will Earth's Sun
probably fo llow after it reaches
the red giant phase? hpla in.
o INQUIRY SKILL Use Numbers
Suppose the surface temperature
of a main sequence star is about
20.(l()(.JO(. What color is this star
ar.d how does it compare with
Earth's Sun?
~TEST PREP
Poss ible stages in the life cycle of
a very massive star, in order, are
A. red giant, blue hale,
white dwarf.
B. neutron star, bla<:k hale.
bla<:k dwarf.
C. red giant, supernova,
bla<:k hole.
D. supernova, white dwarf,
neutron star.
~ Technology
.. V~it www.eduplace.comls<p/
10 ~nd OUI more about Sial'! .
Careers •
/ I
, ,

Astronaut (
Astronauts work for NASA, the
government agency that expl ores space.
They pilot spacecraft, conduct scientific
experiments, <anduc! needed repairs, and
perform other tasks in space. Much of
the ir work is done under conditions
o f very small gravity, whkh NASA calls
microgravity.
What It Ta kes!
• A degree in enginl'ering or othe r
scientific f ield
• Rigorous t raini ng in simuillted spaceflight
• The ability to work in endosed spaces
• Excellent physi cal condition

Computer Systems
Technician
A computer syste ms te<hnieian
takes ca re of computer hard wa re and
software. This work includes installing
and maintaining networks of comput ers,
trouble-shooting problems, and upda ting
equipment.

What It Takes !
• Tra inin g at a t echnical inst itute or on the job
• The ilbility t o th ink logicilily ilnd to solve problems
• Learning new developments and products
(
READING : Compare and Contrast
= Chapte,11 Review and Test Prep
Voca bulary
Comple te ea( h sente nce wi th a term from the list.
1. A st<tr's brighmess is called its _ <r51~oid$ oss
2. A(n) _ is a huge system of stars. dust. and gases in spiKl!.. comet 059
galaxy 078
3. The first stage in th@ Ionnalion of a star is a(rl) _
inner planets D64
4. Saturn is one oIlhe live _ light-yur DIS
5. Pluto is usual~!he OUtermosl _ of !he solar system. magnitude 075
6. A(n} _ has a frOlen nucleus and can dtYtIop a gIwOOg tail. meteors 060
meteoritell 060
1. The Sun. nine planets, and IhOlIsaods 01 other bodies make ~
meteoroids D60
""-
S. _ are often called "shooting stars.·
CHller planets D66
planet DS6
9. The Sun is a giant sphere of glowing gases called a{n) _ proton",. 076
10. __ are small rocky bodies found in a beh belWeeO M1IfS and JlIPitef. solar system DS6
star 074

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choke.
11 . The gravit.1tional pull of __ holds objem 13. Whkh of these is NOT a small, rocky
in the solar system in their orbits. planet?
A. tilt Sun A. Earth
B. the OIlIer planets 8. Mercury
C. Jupiter C. Uranus
D. tIN! Milky Way D. f'IoIo

12. All obj«ts in !he soiai' system travel 14. Mercury and Venus _
iKoulld the Sun in _
A. art inntf planets
A. about 24 hours B. are oute< planets
B. about t yoN' C. 9iv1! off Ihtif own light
C. PI~plk.lI O!bits D. aft gas.eaus giants
D. drcul.lr 0Ibits

OU . (ha",•••~,~.~.=:,- __________________________________________________J
 Inquiry Skills
15. Use Models Would a physical model be
a good choice to model the life cycle of a
star? hplain your answer.
16. Use Numbers What units would you
use to express distances within the solar
system? Explain your choice.
Map the Concept
Complete the chart to compare and contrast
meteors. meteoroids. meteorites. comets. and
asteroids..
Similarities
17. Analyze What is anothef way you might
divide the planets into two groups other
than inner planets and ooter planets?
18. Sequence Describe the life cycle 01 a
very massive star from the red giant phase
Oflward.
19. Apply Use what you have learned in this
chapter to write a paragraph about Earth's
location in the universe.
20. Synthesize What are some advantages
of conducting experiments from a space
station rather than a space shuttle?
Performance Assessment
Make a Scale Model
Choose one planet in the solar system. Use
references and informatiOfl given in this chapter
to make a scale drawing of the planet in relation
to Earth. Include a key to the scale.
Differences
 Write the fetter of th e beu answer. 4. In the diagoram of Earth shown below.
what season is it at point A7
1. Which is NOT foulld within the solar
system?
A. astefoid
B. comet
C. nebula
D. satellite

. ,---
2. Almost all weather occurs in

A. mesosphere.
A.summer
B. spring
B. stratosphere, C. wintl!l'
C. rhermosphere. D. fall
D. troposphere.
5. Which BEST describes the innl!l' planets?
3. During which phase of the Moon shown
A. They are very cold.
below is Earth located between the Sun
and the Moon? B. They are gas giants.
C. They tIaw OOzMS of ITIOOIIS.
D. They are small and ro{ky.

6. A continental polar air mass is _ __

A.
•• A. dry and cold.
B. dry and warm.
C. wet and cold.
c. D. D. wet and warm.

( D" . UnitD )
7. AccOfding to the di~.vn, whkt. stq ill Answer the following in
ttJe life cyde of a star likely !las the highest compl ete sentences.
density?
9. hplain why Earth is cold near me poles
and warm near the equatOf.

10. Which of the ooter planets is most like the

loor inner planets? Explain your answer.

-I :'1, 1
A. black hole
B. black dwarf
C. neullon star
D. white dwarf

8. Which BEST describes Earth's motions?

A. Earth rmlvl'S on its axis and rotatl'S
around the Sun.
8. Earth rotatl'S on its axis and revolves
aroood the Sun.
C. Earth rolatl'S around the Sun and
revolves around the Moon.
D. Earth levolves aroood the Moon and
rotatl'S aroood the Sun.
 Because stars are many light-years away from Earth. it takes a
long t ime for their light to reach Earth. What happens to that light
when it finally passes th roug h Earth's atmosphere 7 The answer
explains why sta rs a ppear to twinkl e, o r scintilla te .

Starlight bends as it pa$ses through Eanh'~ atmosphere. Since the atmosphere i~

constantly moving and changing. sta~ight can bend many times! Stars d!Mf to the
horizon twinkle rl\Ofe becavse the starl ight passir.g through the horizon to reach
your line 01 sight tra~s through more 01 the atmosphere than starlight pa$sing
from directly above. The more atmosphere the starlight paS>e5 through, the more it
is bent and the more the star appears to twinkle.

See a star twinkling. Go to www.eduplace.com/scpl toviewa fklsh rw movie

and to learn rl\Ofe about stars,

088 • Unit 0
 Kinds of Matter
Chapter 12
The Structure of Matter ..................................... E2
Chapter 13
Characteristics of Matter ................................. E38
Chapter 14
Changes of State ............................................. E70

Independent Reading

Mari'! (uri'! Marv4!lous II's in the Ai r

Metals
 The stars in the
night sky, the sand that you dig
your t oes into, even the ai r that you
breathe--all come from only about 100
elements. What is the most common element
in t he universe? In th is unit, you'll learn
the answer to this quest ion and many
ot hers about matter and t he
elements.
LESSON

1
Every thing you've ever
touched- a pencil, a rock,
a button, even the a ir
you breathe-is made
of atoms. What are these
basic building blocks of
matter?
Find out in Lesson 1.

LlSSOH
Some art made of metals

2 has lasted thousands of

years. What are metals,
and why are they different
from other substances?
Find out in Lesson 2.

LESSON
The exhaust produced

3 by the space shuttle is

almost entirely water
vapor. How can burning
fuel produce water?
Find out in Lesson 3.
 What Are
Elements?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Why does (opper make good Inquiry Skill
electrical wire and pipes for plu mbing?
Predid When you predict,
Why is helium used to fill balloons,
you state what you think will
instead of oxygen or hydrogen? To
happen, based on observations
answer these questions, you need to
and experiences.
know about the elements.
Materials
• rod: s.alt
• mort~r and pestle
• hand lens
• 9099 les
Science and Math Toolbox
For step 3, review Measurements
on page H16.
Smash It!
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles as you perlorm the
procedure.
o Observe Use the hand lens to look
at a chunk of fock salt. Record your
observation.
G Collaborate Place a chunk of rock salt into
the mortar. With a partner, use the pestle
to crush the rock salt into smaller pieces.
Make the pieces about the size shown in
the photograph at right.
o Observe Use the hand lens to look at the
crushed rock salt. Record what the salt
looks like.
D Record Data Now grind the rock salt into
even smaller pieces. Look at the pieces
with the hand lens. Rewrd what they look
like .
. , Ask Questions Grind the salt into fine
powder. Look at the powder with your
hand lens and record what you see. Do
you think the powder is as small as a
pestle could grind the rock salt?

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Compare your observations
of the different-size pieces of rock salt.
Compare and contrast how it looked at
each size.
2. Predict What do you think the salt would
look like under a microscope if you could
grind it into even finer pieces?
Investigate More!
Design an Experiment
Try this experiment with
other 5!.Ibstances, such as
sugar cubes. cereal. Of tab le
salt. Compare ttle different
particles that result.
v afn by Reading
Elements
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA All malter is "",de up of e lemenh. The
atom p. E6 smallest pie<e of an element is (,IIII'd ,In
atom.
electron p. E1
element p. E6
p. El0
Elements and Atoms
molecule
neutron p. E8 All matter is made up of elements. An element
nucleus p, E1 is a substance tha t cannot be broken apart inlo
proton p. E8 other subs tances. You can thin k of elements as the
building blocks of mat ter.
READING SKI LL Some substances Me made from a single
Compare and Contrast element. Diamond, for exa m ple, is made from only
Use a chart to help)'<lu the clement CMbon. Most subs tances are made from
compare and (ootras! the two or more elements. Table s.,lt is made of two
pi'openies of different forms clcmenls-sodium and chlorine.
of (aroon. Wh1lt would you get if you could grind a
diamond into the smallest carbon pie<:es possible?
You would get carbon atoms. An atom is the
smallest particle of an element that stilI has the
properties of that element.
Atoms are so tiny that they can be seen only
with special microscopes. If you lined up 100
million atoms end-to-end, they might measure as
long as 1 centimeter!
Ancient Greek philosophers were the first to
suggest that all matter is made up of very tiny
particles. In about 430 B.C., the Greek philosopher
Dcmocritus named these particles alamo;;, which
means "indivisible." He believed that atoms were
solid and could not be changed or destroyed .

.. Oemo(ritu~ argued that matter

was made of atoms. He also
believed that things such as t aste,
feelings. and colors had atoms.
 Models o!the Atom Atom Models
Not all of Democri tus' ideas
about atoms were correct. Over
lime, scientists have ques tioned and Dalton (1803)
revised the model of the atom they Atoms are solid
spheles of different
use. Look at the diagrams at right. sizes and masses.
In 1803, English chemist John
Dalton sugges ted the fi rst atomic
theory of matter based on scientific
observations. Dal ton's model showed
atoms as so lid s pheres of different Thomson (1897)
sizes and milSses. A ball of positive
In 1897, another English scientist, cllarge has negatively
J.J. Thomson, d iscovered that atoms cllarged elections
con tain negatively charged pilrtiC!es located throughout it.
called electrons. Thomson proposed
that the electrons were distributed
even ly through the atom. His model
is sometimes called the plum- Rutherford (1911)
pudding modeL after a dessert it The ~ ..... II, dense nudeus It
resembles. is SUffounded by mostly
empty space. ElectIOns It
In 1911, New Zealand physicist
Ernest Rutherford showed that atoms
mOve through that a
space.
have a small centra l core, called the
nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus is
mostly empty space. He argued that
electrons moved somewhere in that
space. In 1913, Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1913)
Bohr suggested that electrons tra ve l ElectIOns travel in
~pecifjcorbits afOund
in specific orbits around the nucleus.
the nucleus.
In 1926, Austrian scientis t Erwin
Schrooinger developed the electron
cloud model. In this model, the
"clouds," or orbitals, represent the
probability of finding an eleclron in a Schrodinger (1926)
certain location. II is the most widely Election douds 01
accepted modd of the atom tod ay. olbitals show tile
probability ollinding
D COMPARE AND CONTRAST How a re a t om~ an electron in a
and element~ re lated? partiwlar la<ation.

"
 Organization of Atoms important fossil fuel that forms
underground from dead plan ts.
Electrons move r~pidly ~round the
Graphite is another form of
nucleus. They have a negative charge
carbon. The "Iead" in most pencils
and extremely small mass. Most of an
is actua lly graphite mixed with clay.
atom's mass is in the nucleus, which
Graphite is gray or blac k and has a
is made of protons and neutrons. A slippery fecI. [t leaves a black mnrk
proton is a particle with a positive when it is rubbed.
electrical charge. A neutron is a
particle with no charge.
Any atom of a given element has
the s.1me number of protons in its
nucleus. However, the number of
neutrons may vary. For example, a
carbon atom always has 6 protons in
its nucleus. And while most have 6
neutrons, some have 7 or 8 neutrons.
A carbon atom also has 6 electrons.
Atoms have an equal number of
protons and electrons. The positive
and negative charges b..1lance each
other so the atom is neutral.
Carbon atoms can group together
in different ways, as shown below.
Coal is a hard, blac k substance th~t Carbon Atom All carbon atoms have
6 protons and 6 electrons. Groups of carbon
is mostly carbon. Coal is a very
atoms (an be arranged in several different
ways. Each form has different properties.

~
.

-
.- -, .-. , .........
..,:..~.'1t
~--
111""" "
::,
,
,

......: :
,.
.:4
'

:: ' . ,
"
:,

, , , ,-
-; ,,
-
, , , " --
• , ,
- • ,,\'
.j
•
•

, , " • ~'

Coal Graphite
Anthracite coal contains 90 to The atoms in graphite are arranged
98 percent pure carbon. A in sheets that separate easily. A

E8. Chapter 12· Lesson 1

 Diamond is another form of pure
carbon. Diamonds are formed at
high temper<lture and pressure deep
in Earth's crust. They are beautiful,
valuable, and made of the hardest
na tural substance found on Earth.
Diamonds tha t are not "perfect"
enough for jewelry are put in tools
used for cutting and grinding.
As you can see, carbon is found
in nature in a variety of fonns wi th
different properties. How can one
clement have so many di fferent
properties? The answer lies in the
different ways in which carbon atoms
can be arranged.
In the diagrams below, notice that
the arrangemen ts of the atoms arc all
different. In graphite, the atoms are
arranged in rings of six atoms each.
These rings form sheets that can slide
past each other. That's why graphite
feels slippery.
Diamond
Oiamond is tile lIardest natural
substance found on Eartll. &
The carbon atoms in diamond
are packed very tightly togetller,
with each atom bonded to four
other atoms. The arrangement gives
diamond its ha rdness.
Another form of carbon has a very
unusual shape and an even more
unusual name. Buckminsterfullerene
is made up of 60 carbon atoms.
They form a sphere in which carbon
atoms arc joined in hexagons and
pentagons.
This form of carbon was
discovered in 1985. [t was nnmed
after architect Bu(kminster Fuller,
who built domes that used hexagons
and pentagons to give them grea t
strength.
~ COMPlR~ AND CONTRAST Why do tile
diffe rent forms of ca rbon lIave different
properties?
Buckyball
A bu(kyball or buckminsterfullerene is
made up of 60 carbon atoms. arranged in
a pattern tllat looks like a soccer ball. &
"
 Elements Alone and Joined
As you have seen, carlxm atoms
can join together in several different
Helium ways. In fact, most atoms join with
Tile lIelium in
other atoms to form molecules. A
these balloons is
less dense than
molecule is two or more atoms joined
air, so they fl oat. together by certain forces of attraction
called chemical bonds. In a molecule,
the atoms in some ways act as a
single unit.
Some molecules consist of atoms
of a single element. For example,
the oxygen you breathe is made of
molecules of two oxygen atoms.
Other molc<ules arc made up of
atoms of a combination of elements.
Aluminum A molecule of water, for example,
Aluminum is a metallk element that is con tains two hydrogen atoms and
strong bu t liglltweigllt. one oxygen atom. Other molc<u les
are larger. Some molecules in
your body are made of thousand s,
millions, or even billions of atoms!
Scientists have identified more
than 100 different elements. Yet only
about half of them arc common on
Earth, and only about 90 are found
in na ture. The others have been
Copper produced by scien tists in laboratories.
Copper can be stletched into wires. It atso An element's properties stem from
conducts electricity well. the atoms that make it up. Examples
of properties are color, hardness, and
density. Look at the photos on this
page. What are some of the properties
of the clements shown?

Silver D (OMPUI AND (orHU5T How do atom s.

Si lvel is a slliny molecule s. and etement s dillel ?
metal tllat is
soft enough
to be formed
into jewelry.

12 o lesson 1
v ••on Wrap. Up
Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA What are the tiny
particles that make up an alom?
Atoms lie the building
o VOCABULARY Write a sef1teoce
bloc:ks 01 matter. Tiley
1ft made up of smiller
p¥1icles_lectfOM,
protons. and neutrons.
o
.....,
usirlg the terms atom and

READING SKILl: Compare

ilnd Contrast Explain how
An rlHMnt is I 101m
of matter made up of
diamond <MId graphite are similar
only OM kind 01 atom.
and how they are differef1t.
Different elements haWl
differen t p<o~rliH thaI
o CRITI CALTHIN KING; Apply
(<til be mfiSu,~,
Suppose you wanllO build a kile
fOf a kile-flying cootE'S t You ~
Motl atoms (In combine to lind building mat~als. Explain
with olher atoms to what properliE'S you would want
form molrcules. the materials to have.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Predict
A uranium atom has 92 protons
in its nucleus. Use what you know
about atoms to prffiict how many
electrons a neutral uranium
atom has.
MATH Mab a Model The atoms ill .,eTEST PREP
diamond are arranged so that each atom bonds
The atoms in a diamond
to lour other atoms. Together, these four atoms
form iI tetrahedron. Reseillro this shape. What A. have no electrons.
unique qualities does this structure have? Build B. are all carbon atoms.
a model tetrahe(lion to shalf with the class.
C. ale (arbon and oxygen atoms.
WRITING Expository Rewa/eh D. ilfe like tiny. solid balls..
Bl.ICbninster Fuller's geodesic dome. Write
iI report that compares Fuller's design with
the molecular shape of Buckminsterfullerene. ~ Technology
Include diagrams in your report. til ViIit www~upYce_<om/s<p/ lo fird
0lIl rnr.n aboul .t~

'"
 What Is the
Periodic Table?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Neon signs contain helium, neon, Inquiry Skill
argon, and other elemental gases
that are made to glow. These gases Classify When you classi fy,
are among Ihe more than 100 known you sort things into groups
elements. Scientist have grouped all according to their propert ies.
the elements inlo a table based on
their properties.
Materials
. ,."",
• hand lens
• cOppcf wire
• samples of aluminum, carbon.
and sulfur

Science and Math Toolbox

For ,review Making a Chart
HIt .
Compare Elements
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles for this investigation.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Gather
the materials listed. In your Science
Notebook, make a chart like the one
shown.
e Obse~e Look at the samples of copper,
aluminum, carbon, and sulfur. Test each
sample to find some of its properties.
You may observe it closely, feel it, and
rub it lightly on a piece of paper. Try to
find properties that two or more of the
samples have in common.
t) Record Data As you examine each
element, record the properties you
observe in your chart. For example, is the
element hard or soft? Stiff or bendable?
Dull or shiny?
o Classify How would you classify the
elements into two groups? Below your
chart, list and describe the two groups.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Compare your observations
of the elements. How are copper and
aluminum similar? How are carbon and
sulfur similar?

2. Infer Based on your observations, what Design an Experiment

How would you (ompare
do you think might be some properties of
the ability of each element
metals and some properties of nonmetals?
to conduct electricity? Make
a plan. Choose a graph,
diagram, or chart to display
yoor results.
 The Periodic Table
VOCABULARY MAtN tOEA Sdentists have identified more than
chemical symbol p. Elti 100 elements. The elements are organized in the
metal p. E17
periodic table.
noble gas p. no
nonmetal p. E17 Organizing the Elements
periodic table p. El S
The idea that all matter is made up of elements
semimetat p. E17
goes back at least as far as ancient Greece. Around
READING SKILL
450 S.c., the Greek philosopher Empedocles (ehm
PEH D uh kleez) sugges ted that all matter is made
Categorize Use a chart to
(ategorize elements into
up of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
metals and nonmeta ls By the Middle Ages, people began to realize that
there must be more than justthosc four clements.
In the 1600s, English chemist Robert Boyle argued
that earth, air, fire, and water could not be real
elements. La ter, in the late 1700s, French chemist
Antoine-Lauren t Lavoisier made one of the first
modern lists of chemical clements.
By the 1800s, scientists had begun to identify
many new elements. Scientists were also learning
that some elements had similar properties. They
began 10 organize clements into families, or groups,
with similar properties. However, Ihere was no
standardized way of classifying elements.

Scholars long ago used these symbols for what they believed were
the four elements-air, earth, fire, and water.

12 o lesson 2

Mendeleyev's rable
In 1869, Russian chem ist Dmitri
Mendeleyev developed a way to
;,rr;,ngc ~nd classjfy thc c lcm('nts
Fi rs t he listed the clements in order
of increasing mass. By studying the
list, he noticed that the properties
of the elements in his list showed a
repea ling pattem.
Next he rearranged the list so
thai elements with simila r properties
wou ld appear in the s.1me columns
of his table. When arranging the
clemen ts this way, he had to 1('3\'('
some blank spaces in his tllble.
Mendclc),cv predicted that,
sometime in the future, scientists
would discover lhe clements that
fit in the b la nk spaces. He thought
these elements would have properties
similar to those clements above
lmd below them in the table. These
predictions were correct, and
scientists SolW the value of the t.lble.
" Dmitri Mern:leleyev left
blank spaces in his table for
elements tha t he predicted
were ye t to be discovered,
The photo shows one of his
revised tables,
Today, scientists use a table
of the elements \'ery similar to
Mendeleyev's t~bl e Uke his '"ble,
the modern periodic table is a table
in wh ich the clements arc arranged
by thei r properties, The period ic table
is s tandardized, This means that
scientists all O\'er the world use the
sa me ()fie.
Why is the t~ble called periodic?
Recall that Mcndeleyev discovered
that the properties of elements ha ve a
repeating pallern , The word IIt'riooic
means "rcpeati ng."
#\llhough Me ndeleyev Jl.'(ognized
the pa ttern among the elements, he
could not expl~in why the p.1ttem
should ex is t. Scientis ts now can
explain how elements in the S.1 me
column of the table form chem ical
bonds in similar ways.
~I!miii' How is the ~riodk table
different 110m an aiphabtti(./li lin 01
elementsl
The Periodic Table
In the modern periodic table,
elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, which is
the number of protons in their nuclei.
One example of the periodic table
is shown below. The box for each
elemen t lists the Momic number,
chemical symbol, and name. The
chemital symbol is an abbreviation of
the element's name, sometimes from
latin or Greek.
Each column in the periodic table
is called a group. Elements within
a group have similar properties.
For example, look at the group that
contains copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and
gold (Au). These three elements are
all soft, shiny metals.
The horizontal rows in the table
are called periods. Notice that the
periods have an increasing number
of elements. Do you see the two rows
that seem to have been pulled out of
the table? This is done to keep the
table from being too wide.

Periodic Table
, Melallic Prope<ties State at 20·(
H '" ,
,
Atomic numbel" Metal ~ SOlid
C Ele""",t ,ymbol
5emimelal Br liquid
Be ~W" [ lemel1t nO_
...=J Nonmetal [EJ Ga,

• •
"
La
-Ce

"
Th
"
p, Nd "
Pm "
Sm

12 - lesson 2
Classification of Elements
Elements can be classified in
different ways. Below the colors of
the boxes show whether elements are
metnls, nonmetnls, or semimetals.
Metals nre usually shiny, can
be bent or stretched, and conduct
electricity. Most elemcnts are metals.
Many non metals are gases. Solid
nonmetals are usually dull in color,
do not conduct clectricity, do not
bend or stretch very much, and break
easily, Semimetals are like metals
in some ways and like nonmetals in
other ways.
Can you find the pattern of
metals, nonmetals, and semimetals in
the tnble?
Also note that the chemical
symbols are different colors.
The color tells you whether the
clement is a solid, liquid, or gas at
room temperature. Most elements
are solids.
In the periodic tablc below,
clements with black symbols are
solids. Only two clements, mercury
(Hg) and bromine (Br), are liquids at
room temperature. Their symbols are
blue. Elements with red symbolS
are gases.
~ CLASSIFY What is the difference
betwee n groups and periods in the
peri odic table?
,

• e• • ,
F•
- He

-.. - - -
B N 0
-.. ...- "
Ne

.. - -.-
AI "
5; "
P 5" CI "
A,
~-
, •
"
N;
-
.......
.
"
eu In
.
~

-. . - .-- "
Ge
VI"""I, ..
As "
Se "
B,
.. ..
K,
.~-

- -
Pd
,
"
Ag Cd
.
~

-.. .. .
In Sn
••
"
Sb "
Te
-. -
I Xe

-.. -
"
pt

Os
, '"
Uuu
Au Hg
-~ - - -
TO "
Pb Po
- -
At "
Rn

.. . . . . .
.-.
"
Eu
~
Gd
".

•
-
-. --. -.
Tb Oy Ho
-. ..-
E,

'
Tm "
Vb
.~-

- -
Am em Bk
~-
--
ef
~-
Es
-Fm

'lempor<>ry n......
'"
Md
,,,,""'-
'"
No

E11

Potassium .6.
BanallilS (ontain potassium,
whit/ltlle cells of youl body
nHd to function ploperly.
Magnesium T
Maynnl um i~ one of
the me tals t ha t makes
Metal,
In the periodic table on pages
El7 and E18, find the red line that
runs through the semimetals. All
the metals fall to the left of this line.
Metals include familinr clements,
such as iron, gold, nnd aluminum.
Rnrw metals include technetium and
frandum.
When you think about something
milde of metal, you probably think of
a shiny, silver- or gold-rolored object.
One of the properties that most
mctnls have is luster, the ability to
reflect light.
Can you think of some other
properties of metnls? For example,
how are metals shaped? Metal
workers can hammer metals into thin
sheets and bend a metal by using
force or by heating it. The ability to
bend is 11 property of most metals.
Think of how electricity comes
into your home. Most likely it travels
th rough copper electrical wires.
Electrical wires make use of two
properties of metals. These properties
are the ability to be stTCtched or
pulled into thin wires and the abili ty
to conduct electricity.
Look around you and you'll sec
many things made of metals. Your
drink can is probably made Oul of Ihe
metals aluminum and manganese.
Your desk might contain steel, which
is made from iron. The coins in your
pocket are made from copper and
nickel. You may be wearing a silver
necklace.
 Semimetals
[n the periodic table, semi metals
are located between the me tals
and the nonmetals. These elements
have properties of both metals and
nonmetals.
One semimetal is silicon. About
28 percent of Earth's crust is
silicon, making it Earth's second
most common elem!.'n t. 5.1nd is a
compound of silicon and oxygen.
Silicon is found in most rocks, in
water, and even in your body.
Like all semimetals, silicon is
a semiconductor. That means that
under some circumstances silicon
conducts electricity and at other
times it does not.
Calcium "- Adding other elemen ts to silicon
The calcium in can change its conductivity. Because
Cilkium in of these properties, silicon is used to
mi lk helps keep
element lo.m make !.'lcctric circuits found
your bones sliong
and healthy, in computer chips.

Metals are also found in foods f mW! •• Whid.

two properties of
and in your body. For example, your
metals a.e uselul
bones and te('th contain calcium. Your in milking wi.es 10'
blood con tains iron. In fac t, a healthy eled. i< circuits ?
body depends on small amounts of
many different metals.
Metals found in living things are silicon in
usually combined with other elements element fo.m
in chemical compounds. The calcium
in your body, for example, does not
took like the chips of pure calcium
shown in the photograph above.
Instead, it forms compounds wi th
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and other
elements.
Silicon ~
Computer chips are
made from silicon.
 Nonmetals and
Noble Gases
Recall that solid nonmetals are
dull in color and do not conduct
electrici ty. They are usually brittle,
which means they brellk easily. One
example of a nonmetal is sulfur.
Sulfur is a very important element
in the chemical industry. It is used
as an ingredient in chemicals such
as sulfuric acid, a very strong add
that is found in car batteries. Another
nonmetal is phosphorus, which is
uscd to mllke the striking surfaces of
s.1fety matches.
Many nonmetals are gases.
Nitrogen makes up about 78 percent
of the air ),OU breathe. It is also
importllnt in making fertilizers.
Oxygen is the most abundan t element
on Earth. About 21 percent of the air
you breathe and 47 percent of the
Earth's crust is oxygen. Oxygen reacts
with man)' metals. Have you ever
seen an old, rusty car? Rust is iron
oxidc-a combination of iron and
ox),gen.
Compounds of nuorine are added
to d rinking water to help prevent
tooth decay. Chlorine is also often
added to drinking water in small
amounts to kill bacteria or any
other organisms that may be in the
watl'r. Chlorinating water can ht>lp
prevent certain diseases that have
troubled people for centuries.
Phosphorus
White phosphol U'S
catches file in ;til;tnd
must be stored in water.
Phosphol us Is used to phosphorus in
element form
make flares. "
The last column, or group, of the
periodic table is made of nonmetals
onl)'. These are the noble g<l5es.
the elements that hardly e\'er
combine with other elements to fonn
molccules.
The noble gllS helium is used to
fill blllloons and airships because it
is ligh ter than air. Helium and other
noble gases are also used in welding.
Noble gases will glow if an
electric current is passed through
them. For this reason, they are used
to make wha t are called neon lights,
even though neon is not the only gas
that is used. Different mixtures of the
gases glow in di fferent colors.

Neon
Neon and other noble gases are used
to make cotorfut signs. "

no • Chapter 12 • lesson 2 ) _ _ _ _ _"";;;;;;


Dmitri Mendeleyev
u tilted Ihe fir'll periodic
table. He left blank
spaces for elements that
he believed would later
be discovered.
The pe,;odic table
(ontains bask
6
C
inform ation f or tilth
elemen t: its name,
Carbon chemical symbol, and
atomic number.
-• The elements in the
periodic table can be
• classified iI'l met als,
semi metals, and
non metals.
MATH Prepare a Kit You have ~n hired
to build a modeling ~it. The kit should conta in
enough model protons. electrons. and neutrons
to model one atom each from the first 10
elements. How many of each particle must you
provide?
HEALTH Write a Report Research the
element fluorine to find out why it is often
added to drinking water and toothpaste. Write
a report about what you learn. Do you think
adding fluoride to water is a wise pra<tice?
Review
o MAIN IDEA What are elements?
6 VOCABULARY Wha t
information about each element
is contained in its box in the
periodic table?
9 READING SKill: Compare
and Const rast How are metal~
and semimetals alike? How are
they diHerent?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Ana lYl e
Suppose you are givefl a sample
of an element. You are asked to
identify tile element a~ a metal
or a nonmetal. What are some
properties you would look for?
Explain.
o IN QUIRY SKILL: Infer
A scientist has an unknown gas
in a container. By experimenting.
she has found that the gas will
rIOt combine with any other
element. This gas is most likely
which type of element? Explain .
.,t TEST PREP
The properties of 5emimetals are
A. more like metals.
B. more like rIOnmetals.
C. somewhat like metals and
somewhat like nonmetals.
O. somewhat like noble gases.
~ Technology
'ill
Visi1 www.edupla(uomls(pll0fiod
out more about the ~emeots.
'"
 Biography

Peop Ie and the

Periodic Table
What kinds of scientists work with elements of
the periodic table? Read these stories to find out!

, Ka~el Juanita Harper. D.D.S

H 15 calcium important for urong
""'-
, teeth? Or. Hall'l Harper would tell

u
"- -- •
•• you that it is. She trnti patients
in Washington. D.c. and she
advocates lor olal health.

-"
Na "
Mg
OJ; , __
In 1991. she became the first
woman president of tM National
Dental Association.

-
"
"
K

Rb
,-
"What e ~ ciles me about
dentistry is being able to change
a smile and sllape a personality:
§<lid 0 ., Harper about her work.

w ...::::;;:"
Otto Hahn and ••
M,
lise Mellner ~-
In the 19lOs. chemists Hahn
and Me;lne. showed how an

,
atom's nucleus (ould split
apart. Me;lne. named this
process nuclear fission. Years
after hef death. a new element
was named in hel hanOI.
--
"
"
Sm

Pu
I, ~-

12 • lesson 2
 SOCIAL STUDIES

Mario Molina
Chlorine ~nd
fluorine are parts of (hemi(~ls (ailed
(hiorofluoro<:~rbons (eFCs). CFCs were on(e used in
refrigerato~ spray calls, and other devi(es.
Yet eFes are nO longer used, thanks in part to
Or. Mario Molina. He showed how eFes Can damage
the ozone layer ill the upper atmosphere. This layer
protects Earth's surface from harmful radiation. Or.
Molina's work led to an international ban on (Fes..
"I am heartened and humbled that I was able
to do something that ... had a profound impact on
,
the global environmen t: said Or. Molina.

,
,- H.

~ -.-
•
C N
•
0 "
N.
"'-" 0,.
"
5;
- -~
p

"
As
- "
S CI

"
B,
••
"
A<
.~

•
K,
,~~

- • "I "
x.
'-

Katharina lodders
- -
Sharing
•
"
At An

Or. Katharina Lodder1 has arranged l. READING (HECK What contribution

the elements in a new way. Her
periodic table is organized to
show how abundant. Or common,
an element is in the univer1e. She
expects the table will help scientists
study how planets form.
did Dr. Molina make to the global
environment?
2. WRITE ABOUT IT Choose an element
from the table. How does it affect you?
3. TALK ABOUT IT What kinds of scientists
work with the elements?
 What Are
Compounds?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Elements combine into countless Inquiry Skill
numbers of different chemical
Infer When you infer, you
substances. Most of these substances,
like the water ill this snow sculpture, use logical reasoning to draw
afe compounds. Your body is made of conclusions from observations
chemical compounds. and you depend and data.
on compounds for goods of all kinds.
Materials
• goggles
• w"ter
• plastic cup
• plastic spoon
• baking soda
• 2 piKes of insolated wire with
the ends stripped
·""
• g·vo/t battery

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 4, J!."Vitw Making a ( hart
to Organize Data on page HI t .
Splitting Water
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles. Use a low-voltage
battery only. Never place wi res from an
electrical outlet into water.
o Collaborate Work with a part ner. Fill the
cup at least halfway with water. Stir in a
spoonful of baking soda.
G Experiment Tape one end of each piece of
wi re to the battery terminals. Make sure
the bare metal ends touch the terminals.
o Experiment Place the other ends of the
two wires in the water. Tape the wi res to
the sides of the cup, so that they do not
touch each other.
o Obse....e Observe the ends of the two wires
in the water. Record your observations
in your Science Notebook. Note any
differences you see at the end of each
wire.

" Predict Predict what would happen if you

rem oved one of the wires from the water.
Record you r prediction, then t est it.

Conclusion
Inve'Stigate More!
1. Hypothesize Water is made up of the
Design an Experiment
elements hydrogen and oxygen, which
Run the investigation
are gases at room temperature. What do
without baking soda. Then
you think the electric current does to the
tl)' dissolving salt or sugar
water? How do you know?
in place 01 the baking
2. Infer Each molecule of water has two soda. Compare your results.
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Hypothesize what the role 01
How does this explain any differences that the baking soda was.
you observed?

VOCABULARY
chemical formula p. E19
chemical reaction p. E18
compOund p. El6
READING SKill
Compare and Contrast
Use a Venn diagram to
compare and cootrast
the properties of two
compounds in this lesson.
Compounds
MAIN IDEA Two or more elemenl~ can combine to form
a compOund . Compounds have different properties from
the elements that m"ke '''em up.
Combining Elements
At one time, water w as thought to be an
clement. Recall thai an clement «mno! be broken
down in to other substances. How did scientists
discover that wa ler is not an clemen t? They broke
i t down into other substances by passing an electric
current through it.
Water is a compound. A compound is a pure
substance made up of two or more elements that
are chemically combined. Water is made up of the
elements hydrogen Md oxygen.
A compound has its own chemical properties.
In many compounds, atoms combine to form
molecules. E.lch molecule of a compound acts
identically to every other molecule of that
compound. They all have the same chemical
properties.
All wa ter molecules arc made up of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Every
molecule of water has the properties of water.
When a molecule of water is broken apart, the
resulting particles no longer have those properties.
They have the properties of hydrogen and oxygen.
Many Compounds
Countless compounds are found
in nature. Many more have been
created in the laboratory.
There are many two-clemen t
compounds other than water. Each
time you exhale, your brea th con tains
the compound ca rbon dioxide.
Molecules of carbon dioxide arc
made up of one carbon atom and two
oxygen atoms.
Other compounds are Name
made of more than two
elements. Look at the unusual Fo.mula
limestone formations in the Ratio 01 , (aldum· A Water evaporates.
photo of the cave. Limestone Atoms 1 (arbon;
leaving calcium
rock is mostly a compound 3 Oxygen
carbonate behind. This
called calcium carbonate. produces stalagmite and
This compound is not made of stalactite formations.
molecules. Instead, the atoms
are arranged in a rigid pattern
called a crystal.
Another familiar compound is
rust. Many items, like the old truck
in the photo above, are made of steel.
Steel contains the clement iron. When
iron is left outdoors, it will rust.
Rust is a compound of iron
and oxygen called iron oxide. Iron
oxide forms when iron reacts with
oxygen in the air. Water speeds up
the reaction. Tha t's why iron
rusts more quickly when it is
'---T
Name
wet. Salt also makes iron rust
formula
more quickly.
Ratio of 2 I.on : 3 Oxygen A Some of the iron in
D (OfltPARI AND (OMTRAST Atoms this truck has rusted.
What happens when atoms of Rust is a compound
two or more elements combine called iron o~ide.
<hemkally? Rust forms when iron
combines with oxygen
g"
m
 Making and Br.aking
Compounds
To form a compound, the alo ms of
the elemen ts involved must ta ke PM!
in a chemical reac tion. A chemical
reaction is a process in which one or
more subs tances are changed into one
or more different substances.
Look a t the photos below. The left
one shows 11 spoonful of sugar. Table
s ugar is a compound called sucrose.
It is mildc up of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. One molecule of sucrose
con tains 45 a toms!
If you heat the sugar over a
name, the s ugar will change. First,
it will melt- a physical ch,mgc.
Even though it looks different, it is
still SUg<lT. The mo lecules have not
changed .
If you continue hea ting, a chemica l
reaction will take place. Wa ter vapor
will be released in to the air, leav ing
a black substance behi nd. This
substance is carbon.
Sugar
o Sucrose (( ,," ,,0 ,,1 is a sugar, a
compound of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
E28 • Chapt er 12 • Lesson 3
In this chemical reaction, o ne
substanC€-.1 compound- is broken
down in to si m pler substances. Many
reactions are of this type.
In another type of chemical
reaction, simple substances can
combine to form a more com plex
substance. One exam ple of this type
of reaction takes p lace in the main
engines of the space shuttle.
Liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen are stored in the shu tt le's
ex ternal tank. In the engi nes,
hyd rogen and oxygen combine to
form water. Energy is released in the
process. The exhaust from the main
engines is steam- tiny drop lets
of water.
In each of these chemical
reactions, energy is an important
factor. Energy is required to brea k
apart water or sugar. Energy is
released w hen elements combine to
form these compounds.
' ,a
",0 ",0
e When heate.l, the sucrose molecules
bruk down, luving the element carbon
and re leasing water molecules.
 Sulfur (5) ~nd iron The resulting (om pound
filings (~) (an be mixed and iron and ~ (hemi(al is iron sulfide (Fe5).
without rea(\ing. r~;K t ion o((urs.

Compounds and Formulas to describe a compound. Chemical

formulas use chemical symbols and
Look at the photos above. When
numbers to show the makeup of a
you mix black iron filings and ye)[ow
compound.
sulfur, Ihey don't react. They are still
For example, the chemical symbol
iron and sulfur. You can use a magnet
for iron is Fe. The chemical symbol
to separate Ihe iron from the sulfur.
for sulfur is S. The chemical formula
However, if you heat Ihe iron-and-
for iron sulfide, FeS, tells you Ihat
sulfur mixture, a chemical reaction
iron sul fi de has one iron atom for
takes place. In this reaction, Ihe iron
every sulfur atom.
and sulfur atoms combine to form the
Often the elemen ts in a compound
compound iron sulfide. do not form a one-to-one ratio. In
Iron sulfide looks different from
such cases, the ratio is indicated by
the iron and Ihe sulfur from which
small numbers to the lower right
it is made. II also has differenl
of Ihe symbolS. Such a number is
properties. For example, no part called a subscript. For example, the
of the compound is allracted to a
chemical formula for water is ~O.
magnet. The iron in iron sulfid e has
In any sample of water, there arc
lost its magnetic properly.
two hydrogen atoms for everyon e
Scienti sts use chemical formulas
oxygen atom.
to identify chemical compounds. A
chemital formula is a shorlhand way ~ COMPARE AND CONTRAST Wh~t does a
subs(lipt in a ( hemkalformula represent7

'"
 Sodium Chloride
Sodium (Na) and chlQfine (el)
are the elements Illal make up

.....,
,
Ille compound sodium chloride
(NaCI), or table salt.

1- with oxygen. In water, it violently

reacts to form sodium hydroxide and
, hydrogen gas.
The clement chlorine is a grt'Cflish,
poisonous gas. It is used to kill
bacteria and other harmful organisms
in drinking w~ter and swimming
pools. Chlorine has a strong smell. If
Everyday Compounds you'vc been swimmi ng in a pool or
used bleach, you know what chlorine
Compounds, like elements, are
smells like.
pore substances. Only a chemical
When sodium and chlorine meet,
reaction will break down a compound
a chcmical reaction between them
into its component elements.
produces So11t, or sodium chlortde.
The pictures on these pages
5.11t Is a very stable compound,
show several compounds you
meaning it does not chemica lly
probably encounter every day. These
change very quickly or easily.
compounds, like all compounds,
On the next page, you will
ha\'c their own distinctive chemical
read about three other common
properties.
compounds. All are very different
For c)(ample, common table salt
from the individual elements that
is used in cooking and baking to add
make them up.
flavor to food. S.,l t is a compound
called sodium chloride, or NileL As
you know, sodium chloride forms
hard, whitish crys tals. The properties
o..ml=al fcc .....
of sodium chloride are vcry different
from those of sodium and chlorine_
In its element form, sodium is a urbOIl.;lIf
very soft, shiny meta l. 1\ is so soft i,OI1 o~lde (rust)
it can be cut with 11 butter knife.
Sodium easily reacts wit h many These are the chemicat formulas for some
substances (lnd must be stored in oil. of the compounds you've already read
When exposed to air, it rcOlcts quickly about in this leSion.

no • (~plef 12 • lHSOfl 3
Ca rbon DioJ ide Carbon dioxide (CO:),
is a gas made up of carbon and
oxygen. E\'ery lime you e~hale, your
lungs release carbon dioxide. II is
also produced when almost anything
containing ca rbon is burned.
Carbonated drinks get their
fizz from CO:- When placed under
pressure, small amounts of carbon
dioxide will d issoln! in water. Carbon dioiOde
Release the pressure, and the CO: gas gives soda its
fin /lAd Ulrt taste.
will bubble out. This is why soda
slowly goes ~ nat" if you lean! its
container open.

Glass 5.1nd and glass are made moslly

of silicon dioxide (SiO:), a vcry
rommon compound. Si~: is only
one of the compounds in glass. 11 is
mixed with others and heated. Then
the glass Is shaped as It cools.
Glass is an example of an
amorphous solid, mean ing a solid
wilhou t form. Unlike th e particles of Gla .... is made of
other solids, the parti cles of silicon silicon dioxide
dio"ide are arranged in a loose, (SiO,) and other
com pounds.
random pattern.

Polymers Some rompounds are

made up of large molecules, called
polymers. A polymer is a chain-like
molecule made up of repeated units.
Many polymers are important to life.
For e"ample, man y fats, proteins,
carbohydratC$, and even DNA are
polymers. Plastics are polymers thai
are made from fossil fuels. The nonslidt
coaling of Ihii

,
I (OM'UE AND (ONTUST Identify thrH frying pan
common compOUnds and the ir uses. is made of
a potymH.

-
Water: Earth's Most
Abundant Compound
Wa ter is everywhere on Earth.
About thrce-fourths of EilTt h's
surfnce is cove red wi th wa ter, and
all orgilnisms depend on water to
live. Many organisms, such as fish
and most single-celled organisms,
can lh'c only in wa ter o r in moist
en\'ironmenls. You need water, too.
Your body is about 65 percent waler,
and staying healthy requires wa ter.
Not only is wn ter nb und anl, il
is also a un ique compound . For
exam ple, water is one of the few
compounds tha t is a liquid al room
temperature.
Another interesting d'k1racteristic
of water is its ability to dissolve
subs tances. In filct, wil ter d issoln's
more substances thil n ilny other liquid.
One reason for the unique
properties of wa ter is its shape.
Wa ter molecules have il bent shilpe,
as show n in the diag ra m, Because
of this shapt.', th{' oxygen end of
the molcc ul e hils il slight negiltive
charge and th e hydrogen {'nd has a
slight posi ti ve chilrge. This uneven
dis tribu tion of chilrge gives wilter its
ilbility to dissolve many compounds.
The charges also causc water
molecules to attrac t one another. The
sligh t positive charge of the hyd rogen
end of a mo lecule attrac ts the slight
negilti ve charge of the oxygen end of
a second molecule. This is why wilter
is il liquid O\'er a wide range
of temperatures.
tE,W !1! lim nil!! m. Name two
unlqut pro~rt ies of wat t r.

••

Water Molecule
Wall'r moIKules a.e The bent shape allows
farther apart in ite theO~fndto
crystals than in liquid h;we a Jlight negative
wale.". That's why ice is ch;)rge, EiKh hydrogen
less dense than liquid atom has a sligh l
watf! and will floa l in it. posit ive charge .

... The snow and ice stay frozen because

the temperature is below 0' ( (l2" F), the
freezing point of water.
 Review
o MAIN IDEA Why are elements
known as the building blocks of
Atom~ of different matter?
elements (ombine in
a chemical rnction to a VOCABULARY In your own
<reate a compound , words, define chemical formula.

9 READING SKilL: Compare

A chemic~1 formula
tell~ which elements
and how many atoms
of each ma ke up a o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Water (K,O) mole.::ule.
The properties of a
compound are usually
different from the
properties of the
clemen!> that ma~e
e INQUIRY SKILL: Infer
it up.
and Contrast How are elements
and compounds alike? How are
they different?
Research some compounds other
Ihan Ihe ones menlioned in this
lesson. Pick one example and
explain how you know it is a
compound.
Ty added wate!" to a mixture of
TWO other substances. A short
time later, he observed that one
substance had lurned green and
anothe!" had lumed ()fange. What
might Ty infer?

MATH Calculate Total Atoms The chem ical .,eTEST PREP

formula for baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate, Elements and compounds
is NaHCO j . Caku(ate the total number of each A. are pure substances.
type of alom in 4 molecules of this compound.
B. are made up of atoms.
TECHNOLOGY Write a Report C. have specific properties.
Scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) allow
D. are all of Ihe above.
S(ientists to see three-dimensional images of
mole<ules, Research the development and uses
of STMs, Write a report that includes a diagram ~ Technology
showing how an STM wo rks. i5. Vi~1 w_.edupl.ce ,(omiscpilo fifld
001 more about oornpoundI..

Ell
Space or
What makes better armor, cloth or metal?
It depends! If you are trying to protect yourself from
a sword, Iron might be a better choice. The molecular
structure of iron makes iron armor strong and difficult
to penetrate. Unfortunately, iron is also heavy and
infle)(ible.
Once humans ventured into space, a different
kind of armor was needed. It had to be extremely
light and flexible and yet protect astronauts from
space debris moving faster than a bullet.
Space engineers found the material they
were looking for in an amazing
compound called Kevlar- .
Invented by the chemist
Stephanie Kwolek, Kevlar-
can be wOllen into a flexible
doth that is five times stronger
than steel! Kevlar- fiber is the
perfect material for a modern
suit of armor-one you wear in
outer space!

...............
Heavy and Stiff
Medieval suits of armor
c:ould weIgh a8 muc:h as
100 pounds and were
very awkward to wear.
 READING : Compare and Contrast

• •• ••••
•
•
•
Flexible and Strong
Because Kevla .. ~ Is
incredibly strong for
its weight, It is often
used in space suits. It
protects astronauts
from speeding
micrometeoroids and
punctures that would
C8U lO O the s uit to lose
preslluI'e and OXyg8n.
= Chapter 12 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete each sentence wi t h II term from the list.
1. The smallest partid~ 01 an element that still has die properties of atom E6
thaI elemtnt is a(n) _ chemical formula (29
2. The atomic particle Iha! has an extJ~ small mass compared 10 mRlitai reaction E28
the o~ is the _ dlemital symbol E16

3. Tho __ is the cenua! part 01 an atom. compound El6

electron E7
4. A particle wilfl a positivt charge is called a(A) _
element (6
5. When two Of rTlOft atoms ale joined I~ a(n) __ is Ionned. metal EI7
6. An abbreviation of an elemenl's name is its _ molealle EtO
noble gas E20
7. One of a group of elemtnts that seldom combine with oml'(
elements is a(n) _ nonmeu,1 El1
neutron E8
8. When two or ITIOft elements ale chemically combined to form a new
nucleus E1
substance. a(n) __ is fOflTled.
periodic table E15
!t. When SUbstances are changed mto different substances. a(n) __ proton f8
has taken place. semimetal E17
10. An atomic particle with no charge is called a(n) _

I Test Prep
Wri te the letter of the best answer choice.
11. ~~icTable _ 1). ~ properties of a cornpourKi are __
those of tf'M' substa.ns that make them up.
A. lislS all known c~ndl.
B. illusuates how ~uIn ilfr fonned. A. t~ the Solme olS
C. lists all known rlrlllPl.1S. B. the reverse of
D. organizes cMmicallCJnnUtM. C. diffenont from
D. more intense than
12. Atoms 01two differefll elemelits have
diHefef1t numbers 01 _ 14. In !he Periodic Table. C. H, arKi 0 afe
examples of ~
C. moIecults
D. protons A. atomic nurnbef's C. chemical ~ymbok
B. atomic: particles D. chemical rNdions
E36 · Chapter 12
 Inquiry Skills
15. Predict If an element were , 17. Apply Silicates are minerals that are
discO'let'ed that would fit at the ", composed mostly of the elements silicon
bottom of the first column of the
Peri odic Table. what would its
atomic number be? How many
-- U

"
No
and oxygen. Some silicates occur in sheet-
like form and can be scratched with a
fingemail. Others are blocky and so hard
protons would be in its nucleus?
WOukl it be a metal or a non·
metal? Refet' to the periodic
table on El 6-E17.
--.
• "

"
tha t they (an scratch glass. How (ould you
exp lain the differences in these minerals?
18. Analyze Two elements in the periodic

-
table exist as liquids at room temperature.
"
<, Wha t are these elements? If they did occur

-", " as solids, would their placement in the

Periodic Table be different?
19. Analyze Groundwater can be<ome
polluted with heavy metals, such as
lead and mercury. and with many toxic
16. Classify Examine the list below. Classify compounds. 00 you think the water
each item as representing either an mole<ules are polluted permanently?
element or a compound. If no\, how might the water become
NaCI Au CaCO, C Ni cleaner? Expl ain.
Co Ca{Mg)CO, SiO, HCO, 20. Evaluate Read the following statement:
Water that is pumped from the ground
is pure H,O. Given what you've learned
Map the Concept about water and its properties. why is this
fill in the flow chan with the following words.. statement probably inaccurate?
Begin with the smaller structures and work
toward the larger. One word is used twice. Performance Assessment
atom electron mofecule Draw an Atom
neutron proton Oxygen has atomic number S.A typical oxygen
atom has S neutrons. Oraw a model of this
[ I atom. Show where the protons, ~ectrons, and
neutrons are found. Refer to the atomic model
l- I. 00 page ES.
I
r
[ I"
E38
 Why does holding
a beach ball help
you float in water?
Find out in Lesson 1.

LESSON
What happens

2 to wood when it
burns? Where does
the matter go?
Read about it in Lesson 2.

LESSON
How can you

3 separate sea shells

and sand? Put down
the tweezers! There's
a much easier way.
In lesson 1, you'll fin d
out how.
 How Can Materials
Be Identified?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Different materials each have Inquiry Skill
thei r own unique physical and
Use Numbers When you use
chemical properties. Different
numbers. you use numerical
paints, for example, have different
data, mathematica l ski lls. and
colors. The properties of a material
language to describe and
determine ways it can be used.
(ompare objects and eve nts.
Discovering new properties of a
material can lead to new uses and Materials
advances in technology.
• tW<J 250·",L ~(lk~r~
• vegetable oil
• waler
• balancE'
• ca rdboilrd
• 2 books
• masking tape
• plastic wrap
• 2 droppers
• timer, Of stopwatch

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 4, review Measuring
Elapsed Time on page H14.
Oil and Water
Procedure
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Using the
balance, find the mass of an empty 2S0-mL
beaker. Then add lOa mL of vegetable oil
to the beaker. Find the mass of the beaker
and oil. Subtract to find the mass of the oil.
Record the results in your Science Notebook.
e Use Numbers Repeat step 1 with the other
beaker and 100 mL of water. Compare the
masses of the two liquids. Then subtract to
find the difference.

e Collaborate Cover the cardboard with plastic

wrap. Le':ln the piece of cardboard against
a stack of books to make a ramp. Tape the
ramp to the books. Place strips of tape near
the top and bottom of the ramp. They are
Ustart" and "finish" lines.
o Observe One partner will start the timer
while the other adds five drops of oil to the
starting line. Time how long it takes for the
oil to travel down the ramp. Record your
observations. Repeat with water on the
right side of the ramp.
e Observe Pour the water into the oil and stir
the mixture. Observe the mixture for about
a minute. Record your observations.
Design an Experiment
Conclusion Vis(Osity is a measure of
how much a flu id resists
1. Use Numbers Calculate the density (D) of oil flowing. Does a liquid's
by dividing its mass by its volume (D = MfVJ. density affe<;t its vis<osity?
Then calculate the density of wate r. Design an experiment to test
yoor anSWef.
2. Apply What happens when two liquids of
different densit ies are mixed together?
v atn by Reading
Properties
VOCABULARY MAtN IDEA Physical and ( hemica l properties are
boiling point p. E4S ( har.. deri~tiu u~ed t o desuibe, identify, and dassify
chemical property p. E43 matter.
conductivity p. E46
density p. E44 Using Your Senses
melting point p. E4S
Every object or m~j(~r i a l you can thin k of is
physical property p. E43
some form of mat ter. And every sample o f matter
solubility p. E46
has properties that can be used to describe it. You
READING SKILL
ca n use your senses to observe certain properties.
For example, you might describe Ml ice cube as
Main Idea and Details
As ~ou read, Wlite down cold, colorless, odorless, and cube-shaped. A puff
deta ils that dl'SeJibe of smoke from it wood fire might be gray and
diffefent physical pioperties shapeless, wit h a dist inct odor.
of matter. Properties can also be used 10 help identify pure
substnnces-eJemcnts and (ompounds-and to tell
one kind of matter from another. The chart on the
next page compares some proper ties of water and
glass.
You study, com pare, and <lpply the properties of
-lL--_....IJ matter all the time! When you want to write a let ter,
you choose a pie<:e of paper. Paper's properties arc
ideal for w riting. When you want to play baseball,
you choose a ba t made of wood or meta l, not paper.
Wha t other choices of matter do you make?

Water Bottle Shoes

The plastic is dark, Tough, sturdy, spikes dig into the
lightweight, and ground . The shoe is softer inside,
fle~ible . Unlike glass, where the foot fits. T
it won't break when
you drop it . ..

13 • Lesson 1

Some Properties of Mate rials
PI UjUrty
( olor col(Hle1s and de ar
State li quid at rOOm temperature
Melling point 0' (
( ondu(\ivity conducts elKtricity
Re;tdivity with dissolve1 in ,odi um
sodium hydroxide hydrox ide to fo rm ions
Two kinds of properties can be
used to describe and classify matler-
physical properti es and chemical
properties. Think about a sheet of
paper and a sheet of aluminum foil.
Both are thin, flat, and flexible, which
are physical properties. Also note tha t
paper will burn nnd nluminum will
not. These are chemical properties.
A physical p.operty can ~
mensured or detected by the senses.
Some physical properties include
state, size, color, and odor. Mnny
physical properties, such ns length,
volume, nnd mass, can be measured.
In fact, mat ter is often defined as
nnything that has mnss nnd \'olume.
A chemical property is the ability
or tendency of a materia l to change
r,
its chemical makeup. Materials are
Basketball
Air insid1! the
basketball keeps it
round and bouncy.
Compare its size
and shape to the
baseball. ~
.-
co lorless and d ear
solid at rOOm temperature
grutel' than 1,000' (
does not condu(\ electricity
. ems with sodium hydroxide,
wfl ich etches the glass
made of smaller particles- Moms and
molecules. When the arrangement of
atoms or molecules chnnges, a new
material is formed. The new material
has a different identi ty and di fferen t
properties from the originnl material.
You can di&COver a material's
chemical properties by observing how
it changes under different condi tions.
For example, when a piece of paper
is held in a flame, the paper will
bum. Burning is a chemical change in
which mn lter combines wi th oxygen.
Burning paper produces new matter
thai is very differen t from the pnper
and the oxygen.
".,N10f. ( ompare the properties of
two examples of matte •.
Glove and Baseball
A glove is shaped like the han d t hat
fits inside it. It is id1!al for catching
the hard, laug h baseball . T
E4l
 Mass, Volume, and Density
Mass is a measure of the amount
of matter in an object or a material.
It can be measured in grams (g)
or kilograms (kg). A large object
contains mo re matter than a smaller
object made of the s.lme material. So.
the larger sample has a grea ter mass.
Volume is the amount of s pace
a sample of mat ter takes up. The
vol ume of a solid can be measured
in cubic cenlimeters (cmJ). Liquid
volumes are measured in liters (L) or
milliliters (mL). One cubic centimeter
is eq ual to one milliliter.
You can find the vo lume of a
rectangular solid by multiplying ils
length, width, and height. To find the
volume of an odd-shaped solid, sin k
it in wa ter in a gradua ted cylinder.
The objec t's volume equ!lls the
increase in the water level.
The density of a ma terial is its
mass per unit volume. To find the
densily of a sample, measure its mass
and its volume, then di vide. For
exampl e, a 10-mL s.lmple with a mass
of 13 g has a density of 1.3 grams per
milliliter (g/mL).
All samples of a pure subs tan ce
kept under the same conditions
have the same density. A drop of
pure water and a tub-load of pure
water both have density of I g/mL.
This is the densily of pure waler in
the li quid state. Liquids with other
densities are not pure wa ter.
Remember that density is not the
s.lme as mass. For example, lead
is much denser than aluminum.
If a block of lead and a block of
aluminum each have" m!l55 of 10 g,
what can you conclude about them?

Volume Mass Density

To lind the volume 01 a solid
tha t does not float in wate ••
measu.e the volume of
water tha t it displaces..
The ma<iS 01 an object can be
measu.ed with a balance o.
with a scale.
A bottle lilted with plastic
loam witt Iloat. be<ause
loam is less dense than
water. A bottle lilted with
sand wilt sin k, be<:ause sand
is denser than water.

E44 • Chapt er 13 • lesson 1

 "
Melting Point _ _J
The melting point
01 walel is o·c.
Melting and Boiling Points
Another physical property is stale
of matter. The three familiar states arc
solid, liquid , and gas.
Solids are rigid . They have a
defini te shape and volume. Liquids
can flow. They take on thc shape of
their container, but keep Ihe same
volume. Gases have no definite
shape or volume. They can expand
or (onl racllo fill any container. They
typically are much less dense than
solids and li q uids.
When enough energy is added
to 11 solid, it melts to form 11 liquid.
The temperature al which a solid
substance changes to a liquid is called
its melting point. When enough
energy is removed from 11 liquid, it
freezes to form 11 solid . The free-zing
point and the melting point fo r a
given substilllce are the same.
i Point
The boiling poi nt
of wate. is 100· ( .
Like densi ty, the melting point is
the same for all samples of any given
substance. So, th is property can be
used to identify different substances.
For example, the melting poin t of
water is O°C (3Z'F). The melting point
of gold is about 1,()6()°C (I.94O"F).
When enough energy is added to
a liquid, it changes into a gas. The
temperature at which this happens is
called the boiling point.
Boiling point can also be used to
identify a substance. For exam ple,
both water and rubbing alcohol are
colorless liq uids. The boiling point
of water is 100°C (212"F), while the
boiling point of rubbing alcohol is
108°C (226~F).
~t:t liiI i lit When witt a substance
change state?
E45
 Solubility and Conductivity
Stir sugar in water, and you can observe
the sugar dissolve in the wil l er, Ih<l\ is, mix
even ly with it. The mix ture that results is
called a solution. You wi!llearn more about
solu tions later in this chapter.
The measure of how much of one
substance can dissolve in another is called
solubility. Solubi li ty is another physical
property of mat tcr. Some substances, like
salt and sugar, are very soluble in water.
O ther substances, like oil and sand, are
not. And while salt is soluble in wa ter, it
is not soluble in alcohol. You could use
A Oil and sand will not dissolve
this property to tell the difference between in water, so they form ~parate
samples of salt and sugar. layers when mixed with water.
Anot her physical property of mat ter is
cond uctivity. The co ndu ctivity of a material
is its ability to carry ('nergy. Electrical
conductivity refers to carrying electricity.
Thermal conductivi ty refers to carrying heat.
Most metals are good conductors of
both electricity and heat. For example,
copper is used both in cookware and in
electrical wires.
Materials that have a low conduc tivity,
such as rubber and plastic, are used to
insulate conduc tors. In an electric cord,
insulation around a metal wire prevents
both electricity and heat from escaping.
You should never use a current-carrying " Powdered drink mi. will
electrical cord that has frayed insulation. dissolve in water, so the two form
You might get an electrical shock, or heat a co lored solut ion when mixed.
from the cord could start a fire!
i;; MAIN lOlA Describe the solubility of sugar
in water.

... Me tal wires have a higher

electrical conductivity than
plastic insulation.
13 • lesson 1

Visual Summary
A I'hyskall'roperty is a
chilrlKteristi( that can
be measured or de tected
bvthe senses.
To find the volume of an
T,
- object wi th an irregular
shape. sink it in water.
.....
Melting point is the
temperature a t which a
solid changes to a liquid.
Boiling point is the
temperature a t which a
liquid cha nges 10 a gas.
MATH Calculate Volume A gold nugget has
a mass of 380 g. The density of gold is 19 gfcml.
Calculate the volume of the nugget by using the
fOlmula: Density - MassNolume
ART MakeaColor Wheel Many paints get
their colo r from simple materials. For example,
zinc and titanium are used as pigments in
white paints. Research the pigments used in
acrylic 01 oil paints. Make a color wheel . Indicate
which material is traditional ly used to produce
each of the colors on the wheel.
Review
o MAIN IDEA How are physical
and chemical properties of matter
useful?
a VOCABULARY How is the
density of a substance related to
its mass and its volume?
e READING SKill..: Main
Idea and Details What can
you conclude about two liquid
samples that have different
boiling points?
o CRITI CAL THINKING: Apply
Don't swim outdoors during a
thunde~torm! A lightning strike
could send an electric charge
th rough the water to your body.
Which physical property of water
explains this sa fety tip?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Use Numbers
What is the volume. in milliliters,
of a re<tangular solid that has a
length of 3 cm. a width of 2 cm.
and a height of 2 cm?
.,e TEST PREP
Which of the following is not a
physical property of matter?
A. cooductivity
B. density
C. reactivity
D. solubility
/-t Technology
, . Visit www.eduplace.tomlscpl
to find out mor~ about using propO'Jlies
to identi/v ~tan(es.
E47
 Technology
Will it flo at?
80th pieces 01 aluminum foil have Ihe
same mass. Bullhl' piec!' shaped into iI
boat is filled with ai •• which is much less
denst than water. 50, the boat floatsl
Cabin like ~ spil(e capsule. the
sub's cabin is suiI'd from tile
outside. O"Y!jefl tan be supplied
by p.enu.~ t.... ks Of by urtaln
dll'mi(aI 'e;octionl- Carbon dio.ide Is
.l!1t'Iowd by devic:n called scrubbers.
 SOCIAL STUDIES

Propulsion Dtnsity
moye~ the submarine
up and down, bu t
an ordinary motor
moves it forward. A
submarine steers by
using a rudder. much
like the rudders on

Ballast tanks Most submarines have

Idlge tdoh thdt huld eithe, wd le. or di •.
Pumping water out lightens the tank. and
the ship rises. letting wa ter in makes the
tanks huvier. and the ship sinks.

1. READING CHECK How does a

How do fish rise and sink?
Most fish change their density
by using an organ called a swim
bladder. When the fish wanls 10
move up or down, its swim bladder
ei ther fills with gas or releases it.
submarine rise and sink in the
water?
2. WRITE ABOUT IT How does
a swim bladder compare to
ballast tanks?
1 TALK ABOUT IT What challenges
face the crew of a submarine
during a long journey?
 How Does
Matter Change?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
When you shape wood with a Inquiry Skill
plane or a saw, yo u are changing its
physical properties. If you burned Compare When you (ompare,
you determine how two or
the wood, that would be a chemical
change. You use physical and more organisms. objects, or
chemical changes every day to make events are similar and how
ma tter more useful.
they are different.

Materials
• !lV9Y1e:.
• two jars
• skim milk
• vinegar

Scienu' and Math Toolbox

For step 2, review Measorirlg
Volume on page H7.
 and Vinegar
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles dur ing this investigation.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. In your
Science Notebook, create a chart like the
one shown. Ma ke the chart large enough
for you to include w r itten observations.

G Observe Pour 100 ml of milk into one jar

and 100 ml of vinegar into th e other jar.
Study the properties of each liquid. Record
your observations.
o Observe Tightly cover the jar of milk,
shake it vigorously, and set it on your
work surface. Observe how the milk
returns along the sides to the bottom of
the jar. Record your observations.

<) Record Data Repeat step 3 with the jar of

vinegar.

o Experiment Uncover the jars and carefully

pour a small amount of vinegar int o the
milk. Observe the interaction of the two
liqUids. Record your observations.
e Experiment Pour the rest of the vinegar
into the milk. Stir the mi xture and allow it
to settle. Record your observations.
Investigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment Try
the experimeot with different
1. Compare Compare and contrast the substances, such as lemon
properties of milk and vinegar. juice, baking soda, water, and
salt. Compare the result with
2. Hypothesize What happened whe n the those obtained when vineg<lr
milk and vinegar were mi xed? Form a is mixed with milk.
hypothesis that answers this question.
v afn by Reading
Physical and
VOCABULARY
chemical change p. (53
Chemical Changes
chemical reaction p. E53 MAIN IDEA A chemical change involves a change in
physical change p. ES1 the identity of the matter, whereas a physical change
does not,
READING SKill
Classify Use a chart to
show characteristics 01 Physical Changes
ph)'$ical and chemica l If you have evcr sawed a board or sharpened
changes. a pencil, you have observed a physical change in
malter. The sawdust on the noor and Ihe shavings
in the shnrpcner look different from the board
and the pencil. But the chemical makeup of these

- materials hasn't changed at all.

A physica l change is a change in the size,
shape, or Siale of matter with no new matier being
formed. In the case of the board and the pencil,
only the size of the samples has r-n chrmged.
The chemical properties of the sawdust and Ih e
shavings are the s..1me as the chemical properties of
the ohje<:ls from which they came.

The student! are changing the skirpe of wood in

different wa)'$. Each change is a physkal change.
13 • Lesson 2
(hemical (hanges
A chemical change is a change in
ma tter that results in new substnnccs
being formed. What causes a
chemical change? In any sample of
matter, forces called chemical bonds
hold Ihe atoms or molecules together.
Chemical changes involve breaking
these bonds and forming new bonds.
This creates new substances with
new chemical properties.
A chemical reaction is a spe<:ific
example of one or more chcmicill " Burning wood is an Hample of a
changes. All chemical changes occur chemical change.
<IS a result of chemical reactions.
Burning wood is one example of
a chemical change. Wood contains the copper to change color, first to
cellulose, which is made up of brown, then to black, and later to the
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When greenish color it is today.
wood bums, the Moms of caroon Oth.. r ch.. mical ch~nges giw off
and hydrogen in the wood combine energy in the form of heat or light.
with molecules of oxygen in the air. Whenever you ignite wood in a
A chemical change for ms carbon campfire, natural gas on the stove, or
dioxide gas, wa ter, and ashes. the wick of a candle, you are setting
Chemical changes take place all in motion a chemical change that
around you every d<ly. How can gives off energy.
you recognize them? A change in
color sometimes indicates a chemical
~ CLASSIFY Crumpling a sheet of paper
change. For example, the outer shell involves what kind 01 chang e?
of the Statue of Liberty is made of
copper, which is a bright, shiny
metal. As it was exposed to the
weather, chemical changes caused

When you twist a glow stick,

you start a chemical change
that produces a glowing light. ~
 Classifying Changes
When matter changes its
appea rance, does thai mean it has
undergone a chemical change? Not
necessarily. For example, 11 block of
ice looks n~ry different from 11 puddle
of liquid water. But a change of s late
is 11 physical change.
Each molecule that makes up ice
is made up of two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. When ice
melts to form water, the iltoms in the
molecules do flO! Change. Instead,
they break aparl from one another
and begin to move Illor(' freely.
Wht'T'l liquid water e"aporiltcs
the water molecules speed up and
Natural salt Is harvested from seawater
through evaporolltion, which S41~raIU the
parts of the solution. ..
move farther apart. Th('ir motion has
changed, but the particles are still the
same as before.
Dissoh'ing is another example
of a physical Change. When sugar
dissolves in wa ter, sugar molecules
mo\'e ap.lrt and spread to all parts of
the solu tion. The molecules that make
up sugar and wa ter are the same
before and after the sugar dissolves.
Only their motion and arrangement
Change, !lOt their identity.
Wh4!11 1M wa lt r fvaporale-s, 1M saIl
,tmains. hapo' ation and dissolving
"'f physical changes.
==~

..
c
,
Other examples of physical
changes include cutting, tearing,
and changes of position. Think of a
raindrop forming in a cloud, falling
to Earth, mixing in a river or lake,
then evnporating in to the air. All of
these changes are physical changes.
The subs tance is ,,[ways w:lter.
Rffail that a chemical Change
creates new substances with new
chemic;!! properties. Such Changes
can take place slowly or quickly,
loudly or quietly, or at very hot or
cold temperatures.
An example of a slow chemical
Change is the rusting of iron. This
happens when iron is exposed 10
mois t (liT. The iron combines with
oxygen from the air to form iron
oxide, or rust. Rust is quite different
from either iron or oxygen.
Other chemical reactions lake
place more quickly. For example,
when you heat muffin batter, it
undergoes chemical reactions th at
Change it into muffins. The identities
and properties of the substances are
different \x>fore and after the ba kin g.
Chemica l
Change
When you bake
muffin balter,
you are causing
a ( liemical
change in the
ingredients.
Do you think you can change
the speed that chemical (hanges
take place? The answer is yes! For
example, adding sal t to iron will
speed up rusting. This is why iron
objects nea r the ocean often rust more
quic kly than those on land.
Raising the temperature;s another
way to speed up many chemical
reactions, or even to change their
products. Other reactions speed up in
the presence of a catalyst. A ca talyst
is not changed during a reacti on. It
only increases the rate of the reaction.
Did you know that living things
use chemical cha nges? Plants grow
by using the energy of sunligh t to
produce food from carbon dioxide
and water. By repeating this reaction
over and over again, a small acorn
can grow in to a tall oa k tree!
You use chemical reactions to
digest food. The reKti on between
broken-down food and oxygen
releases the energy your body uses.
D CLASSIFY How is a chemical change
different from a physical ch-ange?
ES5
Original Materials
Wood is mostly cellulos~.
When heat ed, it will react
wi th oxyge n in the air.
Chemical Change
Cellulose and oxygen combine to
form two gases: carbon dio~ide
and wa ter vapor. The flames are
hot glowing gases.
New Materials
MOlt of the wood has been
changed into gases. Some
carbon remaim in ashes.

Conservation of Matter You can use a scale to prove

Regardless of the kind of change
ta king place in a sample of ma tter,
the amount of matter stays the s.1me.
When matter changes, mass is always
conserved, meaning that it is nei ther
created nor destroyed .
In a chemical change, this means
tha t the mass of the materials before a
chemical cha nge is e<Jualto the mass
afterwards. This is true even if you
cannot see the materials that form,
such as when a gas is prod uced .
Ma tter is also conserved in all
physical ch<1l1ges. When you place
wa ter in the freezer, it undergoes a
physical change. The water freezes
and becomes icc.
As you may know, the volume of
water increases when it freezes. But
tha t does not mean tha t ma tter was
created. Instead, the arrangement of
the wa ter molecules takes up more
space in ice than in wa ter.
that mass is conserved w hen
ma tter changes. For example, fruit
changes chemically w hen it either
ripens or dc.:ays. TIssues change,
new materials form, and gases are
released. By covering the frui t and
placing it on a scale, you can observe
that the mass slays the same even as
the fruit changes. Try it!
Sometimes the conservation of
mass is hard to sec. For example,
when a log burns in the firepl ace,
only a few ashes remain. The p ictures
and captions at the top of the page
describe what ha ppens when wood
bums.
What if you could measure the
mass of the logs and the oxygen? You
would discover tha t their combined
masses equal the tota l m ass of the
ashes and gases produced.
i;} CLASSIFY What kind of change
d oes not involve the production of
new subs tances?

13 • Lesson 2

A physical (h ang~ doe:s
not involve a (hange
in the identity of the
mailer undergoing
(hange.
A (hemical (hange
involves a (hange
in the identity and
properties of the matter
undergoing (hange.
Matter is neither
(leated nor destroyed
during chemical and
physical changes.
MATH Make a Line Graph When yeast is
added to a solution of sugar and water. some
of the sugar is changed to ethanol. This process
is called fermentation. Create a line graph tha t
shows the following production rate of ethanol
, , , • , •
....
.-.
,
To ..... Ilw)
t unit 2unilS J unilS J units 2 units t unit
Review
o MAIN IDEA What happens to
substances during a chemical
change?
a VOCABULARY "What is a
physical change? Give an
example 01 a physical change.
o READING SKill..: Co mpare
and Contrast How do the
particles that make up matter
compare during physical and
chemical changes?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Infer
When an electric current is
passed through a sample 01
water. bubbles of gas form. Some
of this gas will burn when lit.
What can you infer about the
type of change taking place?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Compa re
Ice and liquid water are w~ry
different, ~t they are made of
the same molecules. Compare
their physical and chemical
properties.
.e mT PREP
When vinegar is added to baking
soda, bubbles of carbon dioxide
gas form. This is a __
A. change of state.
B. change of mass.

TECHNOLOGY Makea Display e. chemical dlange.

Research the process used to desal inate, or D. physical change.
remove salt from, water. Rnd or draw pictures
for each step in the process. Ma ke a visual
display or il lustrated fiow chart that explains f-t Technology
the process.
'ill Visit www.edupta(uomlscpl to fiod
out more about dIanges in malter.

'"
 What Are Solutions
and Mixtures?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Mixtures are everywhere! Most Inquiry Skill
rocks and the waters of Earth's
Predid When you predict, you
oceans are mixtures. So are many
use observations, patterns,
foods. Knowing what ingredients
data, or cause-and-effect
to use in a mixture, from paint to
relationships to anticipate
trail mix, (an make the difference
results.
between success and failure.
Materials
• \jQ\jgle:.
• !WO 2S0-ml beakers
• water
• teaspoon
• sand
• sal t

Sdence and Math Toolbox

For step L review Measuring
Volume OIl page H7.
Sand, Salt, Solutions
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles as you perform this
procedure.
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Pour
250 mL of water into each beaker.
S Observe Add two teaspoons of sand to
one beaker and two teaspoons of salt to
the other beaker, Observe what happens
to the sand and to the salt. Record your
observations in your Science Notebook.
o Experiment Use the spoon to stir the
mixture of sand and water for about 15
seconds. Stop stirring and observe the
mixture. Record your observations. Allow
the mixture to sit quietly for severol
minutes. Again, observe the mixture and
record your observations.
C) Predict Predict what will happen to t he
mixture of salt and water if it is stirred.
Record your prediction. Then repeat step 3
with the mixture of salt and water.
4) Compare Record any similarities and
differences in the two mixtures after
stirring and after sitting still.
Inve'Stigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment
1. Infer Which material formed a solution Select a numlJer of different
when mixed with water? How did you materials to mix with water.
reach this conclusion? Compare your resu lts with
those you obtained with
2. Predict What would happen if you used sand and ~It.
sugar instead of sand?
v afn by Reading
and
VOCABULARY
mixture p. E60
Solutions
solute p. E62 MAIN IDEA Some mj~lUres are uniform, meaning they
solutio n p E62 are evenly miud. Other mi~tures have different amounts
solvent p. E62 of materials in different places. Mixt ures that are evenly
mixed at the molecula r level are called solutions.
READIN G SKILL
Compare .. nd Contrast
Use the infOfmation in
Types of Mixtures
this lesson to compa re A fresh vegetable salad can be a perfect pa ri of a
and contrast mixture'! and hea lthy and tasty meal. EflCh type of vegetable adds
solutions. to the fl avor of the salad. Yet by eating different
parts of the salad. you could tas te each vegetable
individually. That's because a salad is a mixture. A
mixture is a physical combination of two or mol"('
substances. The substa nces in a mixture are not
chemically combined as they are in a compound .
So. a mixtul"(' is not a pure substa nce.
Mixtures ma y be classified as heterogeneous or
homogeneous. In a heterogeneous mixture, like a
s.1Iad, the materials that ma ke up the mixture are
distributed unevenly. Ind ividual pie<es a re presen t
A salad is a mixture. You (an in some PMts and not others. A homogeneous
see that the different parts mixture is uniform throughout. A sample ta ken
that make up the mi xture have from one part of this ki nd of mi xtul"(' will be
different properties. T
ide ntical to a sample ta ken from any other part.

lettuce

= MIXTURE
 To separate a milcture, take advantage
of the physkal properties of the
different parts. What properties of
matter are being used to separate
mixtures in these two examples?

sand and cork s

pebbl~s marbles

Separating a Mixture Mixture or Compound?

In ~ mixture, each substance
Keeps its original properties. If you
separated all of the parts of a s<,lad,
the tomatoes would still be tomatoes
and the lettuce would still be lettuce.
Mixtures can be separated
according to different properties.
Think abou t a mixture of corks and
marbles. You could spend hours
picking out the cork pieces. However,
because cork flCk1ts in water, you can
separ,lte the mixture by pUlling it in
water and skimming off the flCkl ting
corks.
Now think ~bou t a mixture of
sand and seashells. [t would take a
long time to pick out the shells. Both
parts of the mixture sink in water,
so adding water does not separate
them. But note the different sizes of
the pieces. You could use a sieve or a
D {OMPARE AND (ONTUST
strainer to separate them.
Mixtures can have variable
composition. This means that two
similar mhtures may be made up of
the same materials, bu t in different
amounts. Two S<llads might both be
made of lettuce, carrots, olives, and
tomatoes. Although they have the
same ingredien ts, one m~y have more
carrots and less tomato than the other.
Compounds, however, always
have the same composition. Every
molecule of water has one oxygen
atom and two hydrogen atoms
that are chemically combined. The
compound·s chemical formu la
describes its composition. Because
a mixture does not have a definite
composition, it cannot be represen ted
by a chemical formula.
Compare
mixtures and compound s.

E61
 Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous
mixture, meaning two or more
substances that are evenly
distributed. The materials that make
up a solution mix together at the
atomic or molffular level.
You make a solution when
you make pink lemonade from a
powdered m ix. The particles that mix
in the water arc molc..:ules of sugar,
dye, and navoring.
In any solu tion, the substan ce
being dissolved is called the solute.
The subs tance that dissolves the
solute is called the solvent. In a
solution of water and sugar, water is
the solvent and sugar is the solute.
Even though you can' t sec the
different parts of a suga r-water
solution, it is still a mixture. The
properties of the substances that
make up the mixture are the same
as they were before they were mixed
together. The sugar still tastes sweet.
The water is still a liquid and still
allows light to pass through.
Many solutions, such as lemonade
and saltwater, have a liquid solvent
and a solid solute. However, solutions
can have other combinations. Soda
water is a solution made of carbon
dioxide gas dissolved in water. Air is
a solution of several different gases.
Brass is a solution of two solids-zinc
and copper.
Particles in a solution spread
evenly throughout the solution
because they mix at the atomic or
E62 • Chapt er 13 • Lesson 3
When iodine
"y~tal~ ~re
added to a kohol,
th e (ryo; tal~ begin
to dissolve. In o 0
a ~hort time,
o
the solution i~ a
uni form purple.
°0
molffular level. Think about the
solu tion of iodine and alcohol shown
above. Each molffule of iodine has
two atoms of the element iodine
and is represented by the chemical
formula I,. Each molffule of alcohol
has atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen and is represented by the
chemi cal formula C)H.O.
When the two substances are
m ixed, the iodine disso lves in the
alcohol. The particles of iodine
spread throughout the mixture. If
you could highly magnify a section
of Ihe solution, you would see that
molc..:ules of the two substances have
become evenly mixed.
 Sugar from Sugar Cane
Separating a Solution
To scp<1rate a solution, you musl make
use of the different properties of lhe mixed
materials, You usually ca nnot use the si<l:e of
the particles to sepa rate them, because only
very special fillers are fine enough to tr.,p a
molecule.
There are other properties you can
usc, however. For example, some liquids
evaporate at fairly low temperatures.
You often can allow a liquid solvent to
f ill!. the cane is
evaporate, leaving the solute behind, pr~pa.ed for juicing.
This h.,ppcns when a sample of saltwater
is lefl in the air o\"er a couple of days. The
water slowly e\'aporates, leaving behind
crystals of s.111.
A simple way to separate most solutions
is to use the different boiling points or
melting points of the substances. Sugar is
coll('(led in this way, Growers cut down the
sugar can e stems .,nd cmsh them. Then the
sugar cane juice is collected and hellied. The
water boils off at lOO"C (212"F), while solid
sugar remains behind.
(OMPiU AHD(ONTUST O~sc.ibe how you Suga. cane juice
coutd $fIpa'olt~ a miJrtu.~ of sugar and wat~." contains a solution 01
sugar and wate •.
:;----'

Sugar comes f.om the juice of sugar Colne like

Iholt being harvested in the photo below. T

Water is .emoved from

the jui(e .nd solid
is .t(~.ed.

Alloys
Mixtures of Iwo or more metals
are called alloys. Alloys m~y also
be m ixtures of a meta l and another
solid. Alloys often have combinations
of the propertics of the materials that
form them.
Bronze, for example, is an alloy
of copper and tin, and combines the
best properties of both. Bronze is
a durable alloy and it is malleable,
meani ng it is easy to hammer into
thin sheets. The sheets ( iln then be
formed in to differen t shnpes. Be<:ause
of its useful properties, bronze has
been used for centuries in lools,
weapons, and sculptures.
Tilt! · skin " of a typical airplane
i~ an alloy of aluminum ,
titanium, and other metals. "
The amou nts of each material
in an alloy can affect its properties.
Steel is an alloy of iron, carbon, and
sometimes olher solids. Softer steels,
made with less carbon, arc used to
milkc nails and chains. Hnrdcr steels,
madc with more CMOOn, are used to
make tools and support beams.
There are many kinds of alloys
with different uses. Brass is an alloy
of copper and zinc, and is used to
make many musical instromenls.
Sterling silver, an alloy of silver and
copper, is used to make jewelry.
(OMPARl ANOCONTUST How do
the properties of alloys ( ompare to the
propert ies of tM materials used to
fOfm them?
Copper
+ Zinc
'" Brass
.... Brass
Many musical instruments
are made of alloys.
 Review
o MAIN IDEA How are solutions
different from othet mi xtures?
In many mixtures, the
differen t materials are E) VOCABULARY How do so lutes
not uni formly mixed. dillet Irom solvents? Include a
specific solution in your answer.

9 READING SKilL: Draw

Mi~tures in which the
particles are evenly
mixed at the atomic
or molecular level are
called solutions. o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
You can use the
physical properties
of different parts 01
a mixture to separate
the m.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Pred ict
Alloys are solutions 01
two or more metals or
of a metat and another
solid.
Concl usions A mixture is made
up 01 evenly spaced atoms 01
cop!Jef am:! silver. Is the mi xture a
solution? hplain your answer.
Mia makes a delicious soup broth.
She wants to separate the solid
ingredients from the broth. What
method could she use?
A student has Jars containing
diffetent amounts of water. She
adds salt to each jar until no
more 5(11t will dissolve. She makes
the chart below. Predict how
much salt will dissolve in tOO mL
of water.
Wale< 25 rnI. so mL 7S mL 100 rnI.
SaIl 9g 18 g 2J g J

.A lEST PREP
Which 01 the following is a type
MATH Make a Pie (hart Suppose a so lution of alloy?
is made up 01 10 parts water, 3 parts salt, and A. salt wat€f
2 parts sugar. Create a pie chart that shows the B. gold
percentages of each ma teri(ll in the solution.
C. iodine
WRITING Expository Research the D. bronze
Bronze Age. Find out how the development 01
this important alloy changed the people who
first created it. Write a report describing wh(lt ~ Technology
you learned. 'i5
Visit w_.edup!i<:uomlscpl to 'irld
001 mor. aboor ~ll1i oos.
E6S
 Crystals the size of trees? MOlt
mlMral (rylhllla,. Smlll! ...ough to hold In
your Ignd. The.. mammoth gyplum (ryshlls
found In (avu in the Nal(a Mountalnl of
Me.i(o (an rea(h 50 fee.. They ara the
largelt known (rystals on Earth.
How did the.. giant (ryltall form?
Geologiltl think molten ro(k below
the Nal~ Mounhllnl pulhed luper.hot.
minaral·fliled water into the mounhlinl'
Ilmeitone. Thll hot water aded al a
powerful solvent that dissolved the
IIrnestOM and (r..ted a huge ~vem.
The (avern later filled with a hot.
mlneral' n(h solution (ontalnlng a kind
of salt ~lIed gypsum, or caldum lulfate.
The heat. prUlure, and very high
(on(entratlon of minerals In the lolutlon
wereld ..1for enormoul gypsum nyshlls
to form. Eventually. the mlnerallolution
drained away, ... ving behind the giant
(ryltall we see today.

E66 · Ch1tpter 13
READING : Compare and Contrast

Miniature Crys tal Cave

The small crystals in this
hand·sized geode were formed
in much the same way as the
colossal Nelca cave crystals.
A $mall rock cavity filled
with mineral·rich water and
crystals formed inside.
 Chapter 13 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete each sentence with a term from the list.
1. The __ 01 a material is its ability to carry an electric charge. boiling point E4S
2. The ability or tendency of a material to change its chemical make up chemical change E53
isa ~ chemical property E43
conductivity E46
3. The mat(>fiallhal is being dissolved in a solution is the _
density E44
4. A _ does not change me ideo\ity of the material undergoing the melting point E4S
(hange.
physiul dlange ES2
s. A __ is a homogenous mixture. physiul property E43
6. The __ 01 a subs~ll(e is the temperature at which the liquid form solubility E46
of the substance changes to a gas. solute £62
7. The __ of a substance is the mass per unit yolume. solution E62
solvent E62
8. A change thaI results in one or more new substan(~ being formed
in __
9. A solute dlswlves In a _
10. __ is the ability of a malerial to go into solution.

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choice.
11. A characteristic of a m(lterial that «In be 13. Which of the following involves a change
obserwd with the senses is _ _ in the identity of the matter undergoing
A. i\'i com.,os~i()fl change?
B. a reaction time A. melting C. Iree~ing
C. a physical property B. boil ing O. burning
D. irs dens ity
14. Which of the following is a mi~ture in
12. The of a material is the temperature which the particles are evenly mi xed at the
at which it changes from a solid to a liquid. molecular level?
A. solubi lity A. ice cream
B. melting point B. sand and iron filings
C. boiling point C. brass
D. critiul tempe<ature O. carbon

E68 • Chapter 13
 Inquiry Skills

15. Classify A mi~ture 01 iodine and alcohol 11. Analyze lava lamps (ontain two differMt
sits in an open beaker. Over time. purple liquids. As one of the liquids is heated at
iod ine crystals form on the beaker's sides. the base of the lamp. its density changes
~id they form from physical or chemical and it rises to the top. At the top. the liquid
changes? Explain. cools. its dMSity changes again. and it
starts to sin k. Des<ribe the density changes.
16. Infer You r teacher placed two different
materials in each of three beakers. The 18. 5ynthesis How could you learn whether
materials are bal:ing soda. vinegar. and Of not a ma terial conducted electricity?
water. Use the observations to complete DeS(ribe a procedure you could follow.
the chart.
19. Apply Saturated fats are generally solid
PIorskal or at room temperature. Unsaturated fats are
a.ak.r Mal..,;,,, OIIs.Nallon. Chomiaol generally liquid (oil) at room temperature.
C..... go1 In genaal, which I: ind of fat has a higher
• evaporalion IN ...
....h.powd..
melting point? Explain your answer.
20. 5ynthesis Milk is a mixture made up of
bubbl •• of go •
• form in liquid tiny droplets of fat suspended in a liquid.
, evaporalion It....
.... ply boak.r
The differMt parts of the mixtu re (an be
viewed under a microscope. Your friend
states that milk is a solution. Do you
Map the Concept agree? Explain.
The concept map below sham how changes and Performance Assessment
properties of maner can be classified. Use the
terms below to complete the COl"ICept map. Separating a Mixture
boiling point melting point YOllare given a mixture of sugar. sand, and
chemi cal change physical change sawdust. Design a method for separating out
chemical property physical property each part of the mixture.
conductivity solubility
density

PrGperties
-
~(. ","'" l.-
....-t(: ===:::
'------'
 ("I
\.. .J

'70
LESSON

1
In even the largest
icebergs, about 10
percent of the mass
is above water. Why
are ice and liquid
water so different?
Read about it in lesson 1.

Why do ice pops

melt when you take
them out of the
freezer?
Read about it in lesson 2.
 What Are Three
States of Matter?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
Steel is a un iform mi~ture of Inquiry Skill
solids. mostly iron and carbon. These
Experiment Scient ists may
solids have been healed unti l they
perform experiments to tHI
melt. Under the right conditions,
the properties of different
most matter can be made to change
stales of matter,
from one slate. or form, 10 another.
Materials
• plastic bonle
• wate!"
• gradua ted cylinder
• marbles
• balance
• plastic cups

Science and Math Toolbol

for steps 3 and 4. review
Measuring Volume 00 page H7.
Vanishing Volume
Procedure
o Measure To find the volume of a bottle,
fill it with water. Then pour the water into
a graduated cyli nder, Record the volume
in your Science Notebook .
o Compare fill the same bottle with marbles.
Compare th e way marbles fill the bottle to
the way the water filled it.
o Infer What other material is in the jar
besides the marbles? (Hint: The same
material is all around you.)
o Experiment Design a procedure to find
the total volume of the open space
surrounding the marbles in the bottle.
Choose from the following materials:
graduated cylinder, balance, water, and
plastic cups. With your teacher's approval,
carry out your experiment.

Conclusion
1. Use Numbers What was the total volume
of the marbles in the bottle? Use the results
of your experiment to calculate the answer.
2. Hypothesize What property allows gases
and liquids to fill the spaces between solid Inve'Stigate More!
objects? Design an Experiment
3. Predict How would this investigation be How much open space is in
different if cubes were used to fill the a plastic bottle filled with
bottle instead of marbles? beads? Or with coarse
gravel, 01 sand? Adapt
yOl.lr procedure to find and
compare the answers.
v afn b~ Reading
States of
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Matter can exist in t hree fami liar st .. tes:
p. (78 solids. li quids. ilnd gases. These sIdl es are det ermined by
9"
liquid p. En the moti on a nd a rrangeme nt of pa rt icles.
solid p. E16
state 01 matter p.E74 Solids, Liquids, and Gases
READING SKILL • Picture yourself as the ca ptain of il large fishing
••
• boat. Your crew has just finished a fishing voyage
Text Structure As you ••
read, use the text headings • along the co.1St of Alaska. As you look at the icy
•• coastline, you realize you arc ready to head home
to make an outline of the •
• to warmer temperatures. Suddenly, you heM a loud
le'io;.on. ••
• crac king and then a huge splash. You watch as a
•• large section of ice from a giant glacier breaks off
••
• and falls into the sea.
••
• This scene describes two states of ma tter
••
• interacting on a very large scale! A state of matter
••
• is the physical form that matter takes. Three
fa miliar states of ma tter are solids, liquids, and
gases.
Ice is an example of matter in the solid state. Icc
is the solid form of water. The ocean water is in the
liquid state. The air above the water is a mi xture of
invisible gases. One of these gases is water vapor.
Water vapor is water in the gas sta te.
States of Matter
Water tan Hisl as a solid,
liquid, or gas. In each
state, t he particles of
matter are arranged in
predictable ways. ~
•

tn solid$, particles are

"~Id together very
d mely. They vibrate in
pla(e.

Particles and States of Matter
You have learned that all matter
is made up of atoms and molecules.
These particles are always in motion.
The state of any sample of ma tter
depends on the movement and
sp.1cing of its particles. In solids,
particles vibrate back and forth, but
do not move about.
For most substances, particles are
most closely p.1cked in the solid state.
Water is an exception to this rule.
Water molecules are slightly farther
apart in solid ice thnn they are in
liquid water. However, the molecules
in ice still do not move about freely.
In liquids, Ihe parlicles are also
quite close together, but they hil ve a
little space in which to move around.
Unlike pilrticles in solids, particles
in liquids can slip p.1sl one another.
Because of this, the arrangement of
puticles in liquids is disorderly and
always changing.
In gases, the particles are spread
very filr apart compnred to liquids
and solids. Their arrangement is
completely random, and they fil l the
space of their containers. They are
constantly bouncing off one another
and the sides of their containers.
Some subst..,nces, like water, can
commonly be found in any of the
thra' states. Others, like iron and
helium, are found in only one state in
nalure. The properties of a substil nce's
r,
particlCS determincs its statc.
TEXT STaUUURl Compare the
arrangement 0' particte1 in a solid, a
liquid, Dnd a gas.

Gases
The parti(le'5 in gases
are spre~ very
flor apart. They ~rt
cCHlslanlly moving
and IxHIncing 011 CHle
Liquids
anolller. Water lorms
In lilt liquid Slalt. an inyisible gas (ailed
waltr parli(les can slip
IUit each other and
move aboul.
Solids
A solid is a form of matter thai
has a definite shape and volume.
The way that par ticles in solids are
arranged and the way that they
vibrate in place give solids certain
properties. One properly is that
solids keep their shapes. If you move
II solid, or place it into a container, its
shape will slay Ihe s.1mc.
Wood is 11 solid. A block of wood
will keep its shape wherever you puI
;'- on a countcrtop, in a rectangular
cardboard box, or in a circular ca ke
tin. T his property is usually described
as having definite shape, meaning the
shape of a solid doesn' t change.
The closeness of thc particles
in a solid and small forces of attraction
between them keep the pMtic1es from
moving from place to place. Since the
particles s tay in position, the shape of
11 solid doesn' t Change.
14 • Lesson 1
Another properly of solids is that
they have definite volume. That is,
they ta ke up the S<lme amoun t of space
wherever they are. The volume of a
solid object stays the same unless you
remove a part of the object.
For example, consider a wood
block that has a volume of 30 em' .
Wherever you move it, the volume
will s till be 30 em). You can even
compress the block, which me<lns
to squeeze it. The volume will not
change much, if a t all.
Many solids might appear to
change shape and volume. For
eX<lmple, you can squeeze a fO<lm ball
into a smaller volume, and a pillow
den ts easily when you rest your head
on it. In both cases, however, solid
matter is surrounded by ~pockets·'
of air. The air ch<lnges its sh<lpe and
volume, not the solid parts .
... You can squee~e a foam
football because of the air
inside it. The solid parts
inside the foam keep t he
same size and shape. So do
other solids. such as wood,
ice, and metal.
 Vo lume
, but willt~ke the
Liquids
What shape is orange juice? You
can 't answer that question be<:ause
orange juice is a liquid. A liquid is
a form of matter that has a definite
volum(>. but no d(>finite shllfX" A
liquid will change shape to match
the s hape of its container.
Think 1lbout what happens when
you use a straw to drink apple juice
from 11 re<tangulM cont1liner. The
juice has one shape in the container
and h1ls a different shape when it's in
the straw.
Contrast liquid water with ice,
which is 1l solid. When you place 1ln
ice cube in a gl ass, it keeps its cube
sh1lpe-that is, until it melts into a
liquid. Then it ta kes on the sha pe of
its container.
Liquids have no definite shupe
be<:ause their particles are not rigid ly
held in place. The pMticles of a liquid
are able to flow past one another to
take on the shape of its container.
Any substan ce whose particles can
flow freely is called a fluid.
A liquid pour~ d into
different cont~iners
will keep its volume,
sha~ of tach
container.
Like solids, liquids have a definite
volume. To prove this, pour 11 liquid
sample into different containers. Each
time, the liquid will take the shape
of th(> contain(>r. but its volum(> will
never change.
Also, like solids, liquids Me not
very compressible. Because the
particles are close together, liquids
do not easily com press into smaller
volumes.
This property mukes liquids very
useful. For e xamp le, a hydraulic
device uses an enclos.cd liquid to
transmit a force. If you push on one
end of the liquid in a sealed tube,
the push will be transmitted by the
liquid to the other end of the tube.
The br1lke system of a CM uses this
property to transmit the force from
the dri ver 's foot on the pedal to the
brake pad on the wheel of the car.
!)i TEIT STRUCTURE What w ill change the
shape of a liquid?
m
 Compressi bility
Gases C/III be comp.esSf"d inlO sm;tller
and smalle r volumes btc~e their
~rti(lt s art so widely spactd.
Somewtlat
Comp.essed
The spacing and ~ of parlic)es
determines slate of mailer.
f.) TElT STRUCTURE
El8 • Chapte r 1• • Lesson 1
Gases
A gas is a fonn of matter that has
no definite shape or volume. The
p..1rticles that ma ke up gases can
move about freely. Particles of a gas
are constantly moving about and
bounci ng off one another.
When a sample of gas is placed
in a closed container, the particles
spread ou t to fill the con tainer and
take its shape. Because the partkles
are free to move about and flow, all
gases are fluids.
Unlike solids and liquid s, gases
arc very com pressi ble. Their pa rticles
are so far apart that they can easily be
pressed closer together into a smaller
volume. For example, helium gas is
often compressed and kept in metal
tanks. The helium inside the lank has
the shape and volume of the lank.
If )'OU were to usc the helium in
a small tank to fill a large number
of balloons for a part)', that small
volume of helium would take on the
different shapes and lotal \'olume of
all the balloons.
Gases have much lower densities
than liquids and solids. A balloon
filled with helium will f1o..1t in air.
This is because the helium-filled
balloon is less dense than the ai r.
Objects with lower densities floa t
in fluids that have higher densi lies.
For example, ice is less dense than
liquid water. So, an ice cube will f100t
in a glass of water.
How do II solid. II
liquid. and a gas fill a cont aine r?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What two lacto~
determ ine the state 01 matter of
The motion and an object or sample?
affangement of
particles in each state a VOCABULARY Wha t are
of matter give the states th ree familia r states of maner?
their unique properties. Describe them in terms 01 their
shapes and volumes.

The particles in solids f) READING SKILL.: Text

are arranged very close
together. They vibrate
in place but do not mo~
around.
The particles in liquids
are close together. They
slip past one another
and move about. o CRITICAL THINKING:
Structure Look back at the
structure of the lesson. The states
of matter are discussed in the
order 01 particular properties that
change as you move through the
lesson. Why do you think that
solids are discussed fi~t?
Evaluate Why must a gas be
kept in a closed container?

The particles in
o INQUIRY SKILL: Experiment
For most substances. particles are
gases are spread spaced farther apart in the liquid
very far apar t. They Slate than in the solid state.
are constan tly
moving freely. Design a demonstration to show
that this is IlOt true for water.

.e mT PREP
Solids and liquids are similar
because both
A. are lIuids.
MATH WOR With Dedmals The density of
water is 1.000 gfcm) at 4°( and 0.998 gfcm) at B. are compressible.
20"C. As water warms from 4°( to 20°(, how C. have no defin ite shape.
much does its density decrease?
D. have definite volume.
TECHNOLOGY Write a Report
Research different ways that hydraulic devices
~ Technology
are used in everyday life. Wha t machines rely , . Visit www.eduplace.comlscpl tofirld
on hydraulics? 001 more about s\at<'S of matte<.
 Technology

•
ass•
What is glass? In the past, scientists had trouble
classifying glass. Glass acts like a solid. Yet its atoms arc
arrnnged quite randomly, like the particles of 11 liquid.
Scientists once argued thai glass was a slow-moving
liquid. Their evidence was ZQO-year-old window pnncs
that were thicker on the ooltom than on top. The scientists
thought thai the glass had slowly flowed downward. As
they researched the windows, however, they discovered
the true explanation. The windows had been built with
thick bottoms to hold them in their frames.
Today, scientists classify glass as an amorphous solid,
meaning a solid without form. Read on to learn how glass
is made from sand. Do you agree that "without form"
describes glass best?

From Sand to Glass

Sand Glass Tougher Glass

Asand grain is a crystal of
silicon dioxide (SiO,). Atoms
of silicon (Si) and oxygen
(0) are arranged tightly in a
matri~.
When sand is heated, some
of its bonds break apart.
They reform when the
sand cools. However. if the
cooling is fast enough. the
bonds reform in a random
aflangement. This mahs
glassl
By mi.ing sodium carbonate
with the sand, sodium ions
INa ') become part of the
glass that results. Sodium
makes glass tOtlgher and
last longer. You use glass like
this in windows. bottle-s. and
other products.

C[80 • Chapter 14 • lesson 1 )

SOCIAL STUDIES

l. READING (HE(K
Describe how sand
turns into glass.

2. min ABOUT IT
What properties of
matter describe glass?
3. TAlK ABOUT IT
Compare glass to
other materials.
 How Does Matter
Change State?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTlGATE
The teakettle is on the stove, As Inquiry Skill
liquid water in the kettle heats up,
Observe You can find out
changes of state begin to take place.
more about a substarn:e by using
Soon steam comes out of the spout.
your senses to make careful
Water in the gas stale is invisible.
observations of its properties.
But when it hilS the cool air, it
changes to a "cloud" of tiny Materials
droplets of water you can see. The
• dear plastic cup
water has chan ged from a liquid to • walm wale.'
a gas and back to a liquid-just like • paper towel
that! Changes of state are pa rt of • food coloring
everyday life. • ice cube
• plastic wrap

'"
Making Rain
Procedure
o Observe FiU a clear plastic cup one-half
full of warm water from the tap. Place the
cup on a paper towel. Add 2 drops of food
coloring. Observe the properties of the
water. Record your observations in your
Science Notebook.
G Observe Get an ice cube from the freezer.
Record your observations of the ice cube's
properties.
o Predict Cover the plastic cup tightly with
plastic wrap. Place the ice cube on top of
the plastic wrap. Predict what will happen.
Then watch what happens and record your
observations.

Conclusion
1. Hypothesize What substance collected
underneath the plastic wrap? Where do
you think the substance came from? Draw
a diagram to e~plain your idea.
2. Infer What kind of change took place
on top of the plastic wrap? What kind
of change took place beneath the plastic
wrap?
3. Experiment Design an experiment to test
your hypothesis. How could you prove Inve5tigate More!
where the substance (ame from? Design an Experiment
Use what you ~now about
ice and liquid water to
design an experiment to
show that mass is conserved
when ice melts.
 Changes of State
VOCABULARY MAtN tOEA Matter <an <ha~ h om one state to
(onde nsation another when ener9Y is added or removed. Changes of
deposition n ate are always physica l changes.
evapora tion p. (115
melting p. £&1 Melting and Freezing
subl i.... tion p. (116
thermal expansion p. (.7
In many places, spring brings wanner
temperatures. Snow and ice begin changing
vaporization p. (115
state from solids to liquids. A change of state is a
READI NG SKIL L physical change. The substance in volved keeps its
• identity, and matter is always conserved.
cause ind Effect Uwa
chart to show how adding
• When energy is added to a solid, its temperature
• will rise to a cert.lin point. The solid starts melting,
Of removing enefgy aHem •
state. or changing from a solid to a liquid, at its melting
point.

DO The process is reversed when energy is removed

from a liquid. The tempe rature drops to the freezing
point. The tempera ture stays the s.lme while the

DO liqUid freezes.
For any substance, the melting point and the
freezing point are the same. Both the melting point
and the freezing poi nt of water are QOC (32°F).

A change of st~te takff pla<e

whHl snow.woe! ice btgin
melting in the sp.ing.
Vaporizing and Condensing
Watch a drop of waler on a hot
fry ing pan. It sizzles, pops, and
d is.'ppC>ars. The change of st(l te
is caused by a r(lpid increaSC' in
temperature.
Adding energy to a substance
makes its particles speed up, rilising
the tempera ture. At some point,
the particles have so much energy
tha t they brea k the forces that keep
them in the liquid sta te. The wa ter
va porizes. Vaporization is the change
of stlllc from a liquid to a g(ls.
Rapid vaporiZ(l tion is called
boiling. The boiling point of a
substance is the tem perat ure at which
rapid vaporization occurs. Boiling
points can be sligh tly different from
place to place becauSC' of ai r pressure.
The boiling point (or water at sea
lel'el is 100°C (212°F).
Slow or gradua l vaporb:a lion is
called evaporation. Evaporation
takes place at the surface of a liquid.
The higher the temperature of the
surroundings, the faster evaporation
takes place.
Energy and
States of Matter
liquid
,, ,
SoUd G ••
Changes in energy can cause
changes in state.
When eoergy is removed from a
gas, it w ill undergo condenution. a
change of ilale from a Sai to a liquid .
You can observe condensation on a
hot day when you ma ke (I pitcher of
ice-cold IcmoM de. The pitcher will
begin to Uswea t,U (IS w(lter droplets
fonn on the outside of the glass. The
droplets rome from water vapor in
the (lir condensing on the cold glass.
You can (1 150 observe condensation
on a freezing cold day. The air you
br('athc o ut con tains wil ter vapor,
w hich condenses when it loses
energy to the cold ai r.
CAUS( aND IlfEO How cIoes
temperature affed the motion 01 particles
that make up a subs t,, ~e7

The cold bottle removes energy from

water vapor in tile air thallouclles it.
The Woller vapor condenses into liquid
droplets on the outside of the bottle.
 <III Deposition
When energy is removed from water
vapor in the air, fro~t <an be depo~ited
on a freezing cold window.

Instead, it sublimates into carbon

Skipping a Step
Different kinds of matter
will change s t~tes at differen t
temperatures and at different rates.
Each change depend s on the particles
that make up matter and the forces
among the particles.
Sometimes, matter can skip the
liquid state! When condi tions are
righ t, ~dding energy to a solid will
change it directly to a gas. The
process of changing from a solid
to a gas is called subl imation.
Sublimation explains why
dry ice is "dry." Dry icc is
solid carbon dioxide. It
doesn't melt into a liquid.
dioxid e gas. People use dry ice
instead of ordinary ice when they
want to ket'p something cold, but
not wet.
The opposite of sublimation is
deposition. De position is the ch~nge
of sta te from gas to solid. When
energy is removed from a gas, its
particles slow down. Under certain
conditions, the gas can change
directly into a solid.
Frost is a common example of
deposition. Frost forms on grass,
cars, and window panes when the
temperature of these surfaces is below
QOC, the freezing point of water.
When water vapor in the air touches
these surfaces, it changes directly
from a gas to tiny crystals of ice.

Sublimation ~
In sublima tion, a solid changes
directly to a gas withou t passing
through the liquid state.

14 • Le~~on 2

Expansion and Contraction
For most substances, a s.1mple of
solid matter will expand, or increase
in size, when it is heated. The
increase in size of a substance due
to a change in temperature is called
thermal expansion.
Remember that the particles of
solids are constantly vibrating in
place. When the temperatu re of a
solid rises, its particles vibrate more
rapidly and move farther apart. As a
result, the entire sample expands. It's
like the difference between small and
large jumps: when you jump higher,
you take up more space.
When a solid s.1mple is cooled,
the opposite happens. The particles
vibrate more slowly. The s.1mple
con tracts. or decreases in size. When
a solid undergoes thermal contraction
due to cooling, it takes up less space.
'<II Engineers add expansion joints
bridges to ease the strain of expansion
and contraction.
The molecules of
water in ite take up
more space than in
a liquid. So, water
expands wilen it
freezes.
Thermal expansion and
contraction can strain bridges.
Enginccrs make bridges safer by
adding expansion joints. These are
spaces between metal parts that allow
the bridge to change length without
weakening or breaking.
Not all substances get smaller
when they get colder. Water expands
when it freezes because the molecules
in ice crystals are spread farther apart
than the molecules in liquid water.
Expansion of water explains why
ice floats. Because a given mass of ice
has a greater volume than an equal
mass of liquid water, the solid icc is
less dense than the liquid wa ter.
Although heating or cooling may
change the volume of matter, the
mass will stay the s.1me. One gram
of any substancc-solid, liqUid,
or gas-remains one gram at any
temper.lture.
~ CAUSE AND EFFECT Why does wate,
expand wilen it free~es ?
to
E81
 Review
o MAIN IDEA Name th ree
changes of state that can ta~e
Adding ellergy 10 place when energy is removed
a liquid results in from a substance.
evaporation. Removing
ene.gy from a liquid
results in freezing_
o VOCABULARY Describe the
processes of vaporizatioo and
coodensation. How are the
Removing energy flom processes .elated?
a gas can .esult in
condensation.
o READING SKILL: Cause
and Effect When will a liquid
evaporate, and when will it bo il?
Compare the two changes.

Adding energy to a o CRITICAL THINKING: App ly

solid results in melting
or. in some cases,
sublimation.
A scientist removes en€'fgy from
a sample of gas. The matter tha t
results has defi nite shape and
definite volume. What change of
st~te took pl ~ce?

Solids expand when

they are heated and
o INQUIRY SKILL: Observe
A solid has undergone a physical
contract when they
change. What observations can
are mole<!.
you make to determine which
change of state took place?

for Home
.e TEST PREP
What change of state produces
and School fog?

MATH Use an Equation The boiling point of A. freezing

water is l00"C. Use the following equation to B. con<iensa tion
convert this tempera ture to degrees Fahrenheit: C. sublimation
°F=(~ x O()+32.
D. deposi tion
WRITING Writea Poem Take the
perspective of a solid, liquid, o. gas substance
that is undergoing a state change. Write a poem ~ Technology
• v~~ www.eduplace.comls<p/tQford
describing that change. 0111 mote about th<Jnges 01 state_

14 • lesson 2
 Forensic Chemist
Hundreds of crimes every year are solved
with the help of forensic chemists. These
scientists carefully eKamine crime scenes and
conduct laboratory tests on evidence.
Forensic chemists might analyze DNA,
identify chemicals, or examine such evidence
as bro ken glass, carpet fibers, and strands of
hair. They often have to report their findings to
lawyers and judges.
What It Takes!
• A degree in chemistry. biology, or genetin
• Good analytical and laboratory skills

Pyrotechnician
Did you ever wonder who makes the fireworks you see
on the Fourth of July? That person is called a pyrotechnician.
Pyrott'chnicians, litera lly ff<ra f ters of fire." work with flammable
and explosive materials. These artish creat e spectacular and safe
visual displays and sound effects.
What It Take5!
• An understanding of basic chemistry
• Artistic creativity
• Following safety rules
READING : Compare and Contrast

After one swift

dip in the liquid
nitrogen, the rose is
frozen solid. It's so
brittle. it shatters
like glassl
 Vocabulary
Complete each sentence wi th a term f rom the list.
1. A baseball wili lemain a spher~ no matter wher~ you move it (ond~sation E85
be<ause a _ has a definit~ 511 • • deposition E86
2. When entr!l1 is added to a solid, the solid may change directly to a evaporation E8S
gas in a process called _ ,as £7S
3. The same sample 01 o.o;ygen will fill a small con~iner 01 a Ian;", liquid m
cOIltainer betause a __ has no definit~ voIumt. melting E84
• . A __ has a defll1it~ voIumt but no definite 5hape. solid E16
nate of maner E14
S. A liquid changing to a gas is an ~X¥I'Ipie of _
sublimation E86
6. flnst fOlms 00 a winDow pan~ by the p!ocess of _ thermal expansion f81
1. The change of a solid to a liquid is called _ vaporization E85

8. A solid in(feases in siz~ dufing _

9. A(n) __ is the physical form that matter ~kes.
10. Whefl efI01J9h efIergy is removed from a gas it can undergo __
and change to a liquid.

' Test Prep

Write th e lette r o f th e best answer choice.
11 . The stale of a sample 01 matter depends 13. Which of tile following does IIOt involve a
00 the movement and _ 01 particles. change in state?

•.-
A. temperatur.

C. size
A. sublimation
B. condensation
C. thermal expamion
D. spacng D.fretzing
12. Solid, liquid. and gas art three _ 14. The adding or removing 01 __ ""
cause matter 10 change from one s~le
A. prtIpfrtiH of matter.
to another.
S. Stoltts of matter.
C. particles of matter.
D.laws of matter. ........
A. particles

c. ..."
D. lTIO'Oemelit
E92 • Chapter 14
 Inquiry Skills Critical Thinking
15. Experiment Karl's factory produces 11. Analyze Powders, such as powd!!fed
metal rods. He wants to determine how sugar. coosist of many tiny solid panicles.
much therma l contraction occurs in the You can pour powdered sugar into a
rods. Describe an e~periment he could container. and it will take the shape of the
conduct to find this out. container. just like a liquid would. Why isn't
powdered sugar classified as a liquid?
16. Observe Annabel placed a container
of ice on a hot plate for 30 minutes. She 18. Evaluate Jari says that the melting point
made a chan of her observations. but some and freezing point of a substance can be
of the data was era~. Fill in the cha n. different temperatures. Is this statement
accura te? Why or why not?
Time St~t •• Typ •• ol
(minute.) of Matter Change
19. Apply Describe three different kinds of
miltt!!f-----Qne of each state-that cou ld be
010 I (11<1"91' in u~ to fi ll a mattress. Which would you
t~ature
prefer for your mattress? Explain.
2 to 17
MeWr19 20. 5ynthesi$ Mothballs contain iI solid
substance called naphlhalene. When energy
IS to 24 Uquid onff
is added to naphthalene. it becomes a
vapor wi thout changing to the liquid state.
2S to3S Lictuid <IIId ~ What would likely happen to several
mothballs that W!!fe left outside on a hot
summer day? Explain your answer.
Map the Concept
Performance Assessment
Copy the concept map shown here. label the
arrows with the correa tenns from the list. Melting Time
cond ensa ti on melting How long do ice cubes take to melt? How does
sublimation their temperature change while they melt?
vaporization Design and run an experiment to fi nd out. Use
ice cubes. a thermomet!!f. and a stopwatdl. Plot
time and temperature in a line graph.
 UNIT E Review and Test Prep

Write the letter of th e beu answe r. 4. Which pair 01 properties BEST d6cribes
a solid]
1. Which is NOT an element]
A. compressible, fluid
A. aluminum B. definite shape, fluid
B. carbon
C. definite volume, compfeioole
C. oKYgefl
O. definite~, definilt 'o'OIl/me
D. water
5. A solid can change directly 10 a gas
2. Look at this section 01 the Periodic Table. through tile Pfocess of ___
A. conden!.iltiOl1
• • • B. deposition
N;
~" .u.
C, Z.
'u C. wblimatioo
D. tvaporation
•
Pd
"
Ag
•
Cd
.~ 111.& ,,1.0 6. Which pl'operty of sand ma~es it settle to
tile bonom 01 the liquid In the Jar?
"
PI
Its.-
•
A,
,~.
-..
•
Hg

Which element is copper (Cu) MOST likNy

to resemble?
A. ITIefcury (Hg)
B. nickel (Ni)
C. silver (Ag)
D. zill( (Zn)
A. density
1. Two elemenb (()mbine cllemically to fOffll 8. mass
a I"II!W material. This mattrial is called a(n) C. ~ubjlity
O. volume
A. atom
8. compound
C. condudor
D. mixture

E94· Unit E
7. Which shoW5 a physical change taking
place?
Answer the following in
complete sentences.
9. Sodium is a wft. ~lvery metal that bums
vigorousty when exposed to air. Chlorine
is a pale green. poisonous gas. Do these
propMies tell you anything about the
propMies of the compound sodium
chloride. which is made up of sodium am:!
chlorine? Explain your answer.

10. Abucket of sand alw contains a few

wlls. wrne strands of seaweed. am:! a
small crab. Is this mixture MtefOgeneoos
B. or~? Explain your answet".

c.

D.

8. Which Pfopel"ty determines how much

of a substance can diswlve in another
substance?
A. conctKtMty
B. dMsity
C. mass
D. wlubility
 What do your body. a rocket and a sta r have in
110<11""
common? All contai n hyd rogen: the simplest and
most co mm on element in the Universe. Althoug h
simple in structu re. hydrogen is an imponant
buil di ng block for all sorts of matter. Read about
the different uamples below.
•
Nu, lo ...

Hydrogen Atom

Fuels The ~ace Stars Inside a 5\.,1f- Water Every mole(Ule Acids Fruit juice
shuttle uses liqu id hydroge<1 nudei luse to 01 wate< is made 01 tastes Iangy because
hydrogen as a fuel . In form ttle next sim~est two hydrogen atOf1lS of <Kids. Most aci<!s
the future hydrogen etement heli um . The joined to an o>.ygen release hydrogen ions
~ cells may be used process releases huge atom. l~e could not when they dissol~e in
as luellor cars. amoo nts 01 energy. exist without water! wate<.

In its e~t form. hydrogen exists as a molecule 01 two atoms. Howeve< most
01 Earth's hydrogen is bourod into compounds with othl'f elements. especially carboi1.
oxygen, and n ~rogen _ A countless number 01 hydrogen compounds form and break
apart evety time you cook. a meal. ride in a car. or move a musc~.
Learn about hydrogen fuel cells. Go to www.eduplace.com/scp/ tosee
exa mp les 01 hydrogen as a lueL
Visit www.eduplace.comlscpJ
to check out Click, Ask, and
Odyssey magazine articles
and activities.
 Forms of Energy
Chapter 15
Forces, Motion, and Work ......•........................... F2
Chapter 16
Energy and Waves ............................................ F40
Chapter 17
Temperature and Heat ..................................... F74
Chapter 18
Electrical Energy ..... "....... "" ....... "" ..... "" ...... Fl00

_ _ Independent Reading _ _

What Does an Niagara Falls Tile Wright

Electrician Do? Brothers
 lightning re leases
energy in t he forms of light,
heat, sound, and electricity. Someti mes,
lightning lets you see things that otherwise
would be hidden. What new invent ion also
lets you see outdoors in t he dark ? You
will discover more about energy and
technology in this unit.
LESSON

1
After the pitcher lets go of
the ball, why does the ball
continue moving toward
home plate?
Read about it in Lesson 1.

LESSON
Ramps and levers were

2 used to build the Great

Pyramids. How do ramps
and levers work?
Read about them in lesson 2.

LESSON

3
Magnetism is a force that
attracts certain metals.
What causes magnetism?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 Can Change
an Object's Motion?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Almost everything is moving Inquiry Skill
in the world around yo u, If you
Measure When you measure
understand the physical laws of
somet hing. you (ompare
motion, then you tan understand
many processes in nature and physical characteristics, such as
length, volume, and mass, to a
technology.
standard unit.

Materials
• lOy trulk ur l~'
• shoebox without lOp
• scissors
• large rubber band
• 2 rule~
• packing tape
• stopwatch
• meterstick or metric measuring tape
• small masses

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 3, revitw Using a TapE!
Measure or Rul er on page H6.
Monster Trucks
Procedure
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Cut
away one short end of the shoebox. Use
packing tape to tape th e rulers to the long
sides of the box and to attach the rubbe r
band across the open end. In your Science
Notebook, make a chart like the one shown.
G Experimem Make a starting line on the floor.
Place and hold the box so that the open
end is at the line. Pull the truck against the
ru bber band, all the way t o the back of the
box. As your partner starts the stopwatch,
let go of the truck. Record in your chart the
time that the truck is in motion.
e Measure Use the meterstick or measuring
tape to measure the distance that the truck
traveled. Record the distance.
o Experiment Repeat steps 2 and 3 two more
times. Record the results of each trial.
" Use Numbers For each trial, find the truck's
average speed by dividing the d istance
t raveled by the t ime elapsed,

o Use Variables Tape a block of wood or other

mass to the top of th e t ruck . 00 th ree more
t rials. Repeat again, using a greater mass.
Conclusion
1. Analyze Data How far did the truck go in
the first three trials? How did changi ng the
mass affect the distance t raveled or the
t ruck's speed?
2. Hypothesize What do you think would
happen if you added a second rubber band?
Investigate More!
Design an Experiment
How could you use the same
equipment to ma);:e the truc);:
travel farther? Write your
ideas. then test them. What
fa(to~ affect the truck's
motion?
 Change in
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA A f or<e applied to an objed tan change
atteleration p. f9 the object's motion.
force p. F7
friction p. f12
gravity p. f12
Motion
inertia p. F7 When something moves, it is in motion. Motion
motion p. F6 is a change in an object's position. A motionless
newton p. Fl1 Object is at rest, or stntionary.
speed p. f8 Motion is described relntive to n frame of
velocity p. F8 reference. In other words, to describe an object ns
moving or stationary, you have to compa re it to
READING SKILL another object.
Main Idea and Det ai ls Consider people stnnding on the street walching
COOose one paragraph of a bus drive past. Their frame of reference includes
the lesson. Write the ma in other objects, such as trees and houses. Relntive to
idea and details in a cllan. these objects, Ihe people on Ihe street are stationary
nnd the people on the bus are moving.
To Ihe bus passengers, their frame of reference
is the bus and everything inside it. Relative to the
bus, the people on the bus are not moving, unless
they get up and wal k around.

On the Bus
Passengers on a
bus are stationary
in their frame of
.efefence,

On th e Ground
Observers on the street see a bus
moving in thei r fram e of reference.
15 o lesson 1
Newton'sFirst Law
In any discussion of motion, the
name of English scientist Si r Isaac
Newton usually comes up. He was
one of history's greatest scientists
and mathematicians. In 1687, he
presented his laws of motion.
Newton's laws show the relationship
between forces and motion. A fo rce is
a push or a pull that acts on an object.
New ton's first law of motion
explains wha t happens to objects
that are at rest or are moving. The
law states that an objcct at rest will
remnin at rest un less a force acts on
it. For example, this page is at rest.
It will remain at rest un til it is acted
upon by an external force, such as
The soccer ball will remain at rest until the
your hand.
l orce of the kicker's foot overcomes the
Newton's first law also states that .(K(O:o t."lI's i..."li<o <o",J ..,1. it ill mOlion.
an object in motion will continue to
move at a constan t speed in the same
dire<:tion if no forces act on it. Newton's first law also applies to
This tendency of an objcct at a game of baseball. A baseball begins
rcstto remain at rest or an Object in ill rest in the pitcher's hand. The
motion to remain in motion is called pi tcher then applies a force to the
ine rti a. So, Newton's first law is also ball, hurling il toward home plate.
called the principle of inertia. The ball's inerlia keeps il moving
You can sec examples of Newton's forward, although the ball changes
first law in a game of soccer. A soccer direction slightly because of friction
ball lying on the field will remain at against air and the force of gravity.
rest until a player kicks it. The force At home plate, two things may
of the kick overcomes the inertia of happen. The ball may land in the milt
the ball, setting the ball in motion. of the (illcher, who applies a force 10
The ball will continue to move stop it. Or Ihe batler may strike the
at a constan t speed until another ball with il bat. If the batter's force is
force acts on it. A ball rolling across strong enough, the ball could travel
the grass will slow down because of
friction. A ball kicked into the air will
fall back to the ground because of the
force of gravity.
r,
long enough for a home mn.
MAIN IDEA What is ine rtia ?

F1
Speed, Velocity, and For example, if a car travels 160
km (100 mil in 2 hours, its average
Acceleration speed is
Newton's first law means that, S =I60km
without the action of a force, an 2h
objoect will move at a constant s= 80km/ h
' "",- the same speed all the time- There are many other units of
in a constant direction. The speed of speed, but they all have the same
an object is a mcasure of the dis tance form: units of distance per units
it moves in a gil'en amount of time. of time. Scientists often use mcters
To calculate average speed, dil'idl' per S('Cond (m/s). Note that speed
the di stance tr.weled by the time it is a rale. [t is the rate of change in
took the object to travel that di stance. distance over time.
You can uS(' a formula to rela te speed Velocity is a measure of both an
(s), distanCe (d), and time (t); object' s speed a/ld its direction.
S =..4.
t
A jumping ke skater changes both his acceleration and velocity, as
this stop-action photograph shows. Ha skater moves a distance of
4 meters during 2 seconds, what is his average speed? T
To understand the difference between
speed and veloci ty, think of the
following example. Suppose you are
jogging north at a speed of 8 kmlh
(5 mph) while your fri end is jogging
cast at a speed of S km/h. You and
your friend have the S.1me speed but
your velocities are differen t. This is
because your directions of travel are
different.
A force can change the speed
of an object, its direction, or both.
tn each case, a force ca uses the
object's velocity to change. Change
in an object's velocity is known as
acceleration. Since ve loci ty describes
both speed and direction, accelerati on
can be a change in speed, a change in
direction, or both.
BtUI' Whale
Acceleration is expressed as a
ch,mgc in velocity over" (;crtilin
period of time. For example, suppose
the veloci ty of a car changes from
13 mls to 23 mls in 5 seconds. The
change in the car's veloci ty is
23 mls - 13 mls '" 10 m/s. It takes
5 s to make this change, so the
acceleration is 10 m/s.;. 5 s '" 2 mls
per second.
People usually think of
acce leration as speeding up. That is
why a car's gas pedal is also c.,lIed
an accelcrntor. Wh en an object
slows down, it is commonly called
decelern tion. In science, however,
accelerating can mean speedi ng up,
slowing down, or changing direction.
[n fact, any change in motion is
acceleration.

~llrmli If' What is the differe nce

between speed and velocity ?
F9
Balanced and
Unbalanced Forces
New lon's first law applies 10
situations in which no forces are
acting upon an Object. Whal happens
when forces do acl upon an object?
Suppose you are having a tug-of-
war with your dog. You are pulling
on one end of the rope and your
dog is pulling on the olher C'l\d in
the opposite direction. If each of you
pulls with equal force, the rope will
not move. The two forces are equal
in strength, but opposite in direction.
The forces are balanced.
Now suppose a friend helps you
pull you r end of the rope. Together,
you pull with a greater force than the
Balanced forces
The child and the dog apply equal
fOlce in tht tug·of·war. Their fore" are
b.ilanc~, so nfltheor _ acceleratH,
Of changes the motion of tile ro~
dog does. The forces are unbalanced.
WhC'l\ forces are bal,lOced, lhey
cancel each olher out, and Ihere
is no movement. In this case, the
dog's force is not great enough to
bnlance the force of two people. The
difference between the two forces,
called Ihe lIel force, is acting on the
rope. The rope will accelerat ... in the
direction of the net force, toward you
and your friend.
An objecl will acceJer.lt..., or
change its motion, only when an
unbalanced force acls on it. This is
Newton's second law of mOlion.
Unbalanced Forces
A S-ttond child adds moo-e fOfce to the tug·
of,war. Now tile forces are ... b.il/ln(~.
so the childrfll ale able to accelerate the
Newton's Second law
New ton's second law of motion
describes the relationship between
force, mass, and acceleration. The law
can be stated as a formula,
F = 11111,
where F is the applied net force, III
is the mass of the object, and a is the
amount of acceleration.
Look at the photos at right. In the
top photo, a fifth-grader pushes the
wagon, causing it to accelerate. In
the second photo, an adul t pushes on
the same wagon. Because the adult
pushes the same mass with a greater
force, the acceleration is grea ter. The
greatcr the net force applied to nn
object, the greater the acceleration of
the object.
Now compare the top and bottom
pictures. The fifth-grader pushes the
wagon with the same force in both
cases. But because the adu lt's mass
is much grea ter than the mass of the
child, the acceleration of the wagon
is smaller. For the 5.1me applied force,
an object wi th a greater mnss will
have a smaller acceleration than an
object with a smallcr mass.
Force is measured in a unit called
the newton, in honor of Sir Isaac
Newton. One newton (N) is the force
required to accelerate a mass of I kg
at 1 m/s per second. If you measure
any two of the qu antities force, mass,
and acceleration, you can use the
formuln F = ma to calculate the third.
~ 1d.tMtDU What is Nl!wton 's Sl!cond
taw? Because of the adutt's grnter mass, the
acceteration ;s small.

'"

Gravity and Friction
Gravity is a force th at ca uses
objects with mass to be llttrllcted, or
pulled, toward one another. Gravity
is a noncontact force, meaning it acts
on an object wi thou t touching it.
New ton's Law of Universal
Gravi tation descri bes the ll tt racti\'e
force betw~ two masses. The force
increases with the masses of the two
objects. However, the farther llpart
the two objects are, the wea ker the
force. Earth's mass is much greater
than the mass of any object on its
surface. That's why you experience
gravi ty as a downward force.
The forte of gravity a"eleroltes the
skater as she moves down the hill.'"
Friction is a force th.... t resists
motion of one surface across another
sur face. Friction is a contact force,
which means that two objects or
surfaces ha\·e to touch one another.
Friction is usually grea ter between
rough surfaces tha n smooth ones.
In the photo, the skater slows
down by using friction between the
brake and the concrete. Even without
the brake, she still will slow down
eventually. Fric tion between her skate
wheels and the ground wi ll slow her
mo\'ement until she stops.
Air resistance will also hel p slow
down the skater. Air resistance. or
drag, is a type of friction that opposes
motion through ai r. Skydivers use a
parachute to increase air resis tance
and slow dow n their Tate of falling.
As you have seen, gravity and
friction affect motion on Earth. In
outer space, however, no air slows
dow n a moving object. And far away
from stars and planets there is little
gra\'ily. Objects mo\·ing Ihrough
space continue in a straigh t line at
constant velocity.
~ MA'NIOU Describe some 10r(H thai
affect motion on Earth.
<III To slow down.
the skater IIses the
friction between Ihe
sidewalk and the
b,ah on her skate.
 Review
o MAIN IDEA How can an
object's speed or direction be
Newton'~ fi '~tlaw changed?
states that an object at
,~st 0' in motion will a VOCABULARY "What is the
,emain at ,e<;t or in difference betwee!l velocity and
motion unless a fo,ce acceleration? Give an example of
acts on il. each. Be sure to use the correct
units.
Newton's second law () READING SKILL: Main Idea
states that an object
wi ll accele,ate if the
and Details What are three
fo,ce<; acting on it a,e ways an object may accelerate?
unbalanced.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Analyze
Explain why the shoulder strap 01
The fo'ces of 9'avity a car seat belt is important.
and f'iction also affect
the motion of objects. o INQUIRY SKILL: Measure
In the United States. speed is
typICally measured in miles per
hour (mph). To convert mph to
kmlh, multiply by 1.6. Calculate
in kmlh the speed of a train
traveling 75 mph .

.eTEST PREP
MATH (alculate Speed If a greyhound The bfakes on a bicycle slow it
runs 11 km in 10 minutes. what is its average down due to the force of
speed in kilometers per hour? Do you think a A. acceleration.
greyllOund could maintain this speed for an B. air resistance.
hour? Explain.
C. gravity.
WRITING Expository Research major D. friction.
events in the life of Sir Isaac Newton. Write a
report about SO~ of his famous discoveries.
Indude photos or drawings of his experiments ~ Technology
or inventions. Where would you rank him . . . Vi~t w_.edupl.<e .<omiscpi to HrId
among the grea test scientists? out more about Ior<:e arid motion.

F13
 Are Simple
hines Used?
Why It Matters ...
You perform hundreds of tasks
every day, and sim ple machines make
them easier. Imagine how hard it
would be to steer a bicycle without
handlebars. or to cut meat without
a knife. Ellen your arms and legs are
examples of simple machines.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Compare When you compare,
you describe how two or more
things or events afe similar and
how they are different.
~ Materials
• 50-9 mass with hook
• sp<ing xele
• stack of books
• tape measure
• 2 large pie<es of cardboard
• scissors
Science and Math Toolbox
For step 2. review Measurements
on page H16.
Ramping It Up Foru{N)

Procedure
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Make a
stack of books. In your Science Notebook,
make a ( hart like the one shown.

G Experiment Hook the mass to the spring

scale. Lift the m,JSS straight up to the
height of the stack of books. Read the
spring scale and record the force needed
to lift the mass.
e Record Data Use a tape measure to
carefully measure the distance the mass
was lifted. Record the distance.
o Experiment Lean the cardboard against the
stack; of books to create a ramp. AUgn the
top edge of the cardboard with the top
of the books. While holding the ramp in
place, use the spring scale to drag the mass
to the top of the ramp. Move the mass
smoothly and at a constant speed. Record
the force and the length of the ramp.
Safet,. Be careful using scissors.
e Use Variables Cut the cardboard in half to
shorten it. Repeat st ep 4 using the shorter
ramp.
Investigate More! --II
Conclusion Design lin Experiment
1. Compare How did using the ramp affect Try the expelimeflt using tile
the amount of force needed to lift the same length of cardboard
mass? but a differenHi~ed stack of
boob. How does the height
2. Infer How did changing t he length of the of the stad affect the force
ramp affect the force needed to raise the needed 10 move the mass
mass to the top of the stack of books? the same distance?
"earn by Reading
pie
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Simple m", hines allow you to do tile Silmc
work p. f16 work more e.. si ly.
simple machines p. Fl1

READING SKILL
Problem and Solution
A<., ~ou read, k\l:'nlify the
problem or difficulty each
machine helps solve. Use the
problem·aoo·solution chart
to help y<!u.
Doing Work
What do you think of when you think of work?
Perhaps you think of mowing the 1(I\\'n, ",,,shing
dishes, or walking the dog. From the last lesson,
you know that force is a push or pull on an obje<t.
In science, work is done when a force moves ,10
Objfft over a distance.
Wha t happens if you ilpply a force to some thing,

DO but it does not move? According to Newton's laws

of motion, another equal force must be opposing
your force. Look at the first photo below. If the
person does not move the car, then no work has
been done. Even though the person has exerted a
force, he has done no work.
Now look at the second photo. If two people
apply enough force to the car to move it some
distance they will ha\'e done work.

One perwn is not ~bl e to ~pply

tn(HIgh fQl(t to move tht tar.
'w. ~pplyenough for(e
GU Qvtr a distan(t.
He is unable to do work . " do wort.

15 · Lesson 2
 Simple Machines
Machines are 10015 Ihat make
doing the same work easier. Simple
machines have few or no mov ing
parts. They make work easier by
changing the amoun t of force applied,
the d irection of the force, or both.
For exam ple, one machi ne migh t
allow you to use less force to move
an object a given d istance. Another
machi ne migh t allow you to use the
weigh t of )'our bod)' to pull an object
rather than push it. Some machines
give the user both advantages.
The force used to do work using a
The force of gravity is doIng wOI'k on this machine is called the effort force. The
skydiver, (.lusing him to faU . llle work force it overcomes is called the load,
done equals fOl'ce timl'5 distance. ... or n!'Sista nce force. There are six types
of si mple machines, as shown below.
The greater the dista nce th rough
") PROBLEM A... DSOLUTIO'" Wha t problems
which a force is applied. the more
work is done. For example, thi nk do macllines so lve7
abou t picki ng up a book from the
floor. To lift the book, you apply a
force equal to its weight. If ),ou raise
Simple Machines
the book over your head, you do
more work than if )'ou just lift illo levtr
you r waist.
You ca n use a formula to calcula te
the work done.
W = Fd
Work (W) equals the amount of
force (F) times the dis tance (d ) tha t
the object is moved.
Work is measured in units of force
times units of distance. The standa rd
unit is called a newton-meter (N·m). Screw
If you appl)' a force of 10 N to li ft
a book a distance of 1 m, )'01.1 ha ve
done 10 N·m of work. Anot her name
for a newton-meier is the p ule (I).

Levers
Levers are rigid bars that pivot
around a point. Levers can change
the direction of a force, change the
ratio between the force and the
distance an obje(t moves, or both.
To understand a \ever, consider
two different forces: the effort and the
load. The effort fo rce is the force that
is applied to the lever. The load is the
force th(l t works again st the effo rt.
Also look at the le\"er's ph'ot poin t,
called the fulcrum. Different kinds of
levers place th e fulcrum in different
posi tions. There (Ire three classes of
levers.
First-Class levers Take (I look at the
diagram below. This 1('1.·er shows the
fulcrum between the effort (lnd the
load. This type of lever is called a
first-class \ever. A small downw(lrc!
force exerted by the brick on the far
('nd of the lever can o\·ercome the
weigh t of the concrete block, which is
the 10(ld. The bloc k will be balanced,
or will rise.
The ~ Io«e How a lever Works
works 'g3inSl the
eilo.t loru.
"I.
15 . lt$son 2
Note thM the fulcrum is placed
closer to the load than to the effort.
With this pl(lcement, the effo rt end
of the le\'er is pushed a long dist'l1lce
to raise the load just a sho rt distance.
The (ldvant(lge is th(lt much less force
is used to push the h:!\'er down. A
first -class lever always changes the
direction of the force. Pushing down
on the effort end raises the load.
Look at the photo of the pliers on
the next p(lge. A pliers is made of
two first-class levers joined together
at the fulcrum. Squeele the h(lndles
of the pliers, and the pliers sqUCCles
the walnut at the ot her end. Because
of the placemen t of the ful crum, the
fOra! on the walnut is much greater
than the force you exert on the
handles.
Other eX(lmplcs of first -class
levers indude seesaws, crowbars,
and fingerMil dippers. In (Ill cases,
the fulcrum is between the effort
and load.
A small effort lorte
tiln move II huvy
tOitd whefl the
futullm is <toser to
F"t(rum the lOi1d.
Second·(lass Levers In il second-clilss lever, the
Io.ld is plilced between the fulcrum ilnd the
effort force. A second-clilss lever increilscs the
force but doesn't chilnge its diTl;'(:tion.
Tl\e nutcracker show n here is made of two
second-class levers. Squeoeze its handles, and
the nut will be squeezed even harder. But
unlike the forces on il pliers, the diTl;'(:tion of
the effort force on a nutcracker is the same as
the direction of the resista nce force.
Other examples of second-class le\·ers are
wheelbarrows and bottle openers. As with ... First·cIass Lever: Pliers
the nu tcracker, these tools allow a small effort
force to overcome a large load.
Thitd·Oass Levers In it third -class lever, the
effort is ilpplied between the fulcrum and
the lo.1d. This is the only type of lever that
illwilys red uces the effort force instead of
increasing it.
In the photograph, each chopstick acts as
a third -class leve r. Notice th at il force applied
over il tiny distance at the fulcrum-w here
you hold the chopsticks-moves th e food il t
... Second-class
the other end over a longer distance.
A fi shing rod is ano ther eXilmple of a
third-class lever. The fu lcrum is 111 the end of
the rod that you hold steild y. The resistance
........""'.
force is the weight of the fish at the other end.
By pulling up on the middle of the fish ing
rod, you can lift the fish out of the water.
A sho\'el and a stapler are other familia r
examples of third -class le\'ers. A p..lir of
tweezers consists of two third-class levers,
joined at the fulcrum.
, '.08lU,ANO SOLUTION l ist uamples of ... Third-dass Lever: CI'Iopstic:ks
p!"oblems a lever (ould solve.
Each 01 these tools is made of
two levers joined togetilef at
their fulcrums..

'"
 Wheel and Axle
... A car's stee ring wheel is an example of
a wheel and axle, The axle is a cylinder
attached to the cen ter of the wheel.
Wheel and Axles and Pulleys
No one knows exactly who
invented the first wheel and axle, but
humans started using this machine
sometime around 3300 S.c. The wheel
and axle is a simple machine that
Changes Ihe amounl of force applied
to an object. Wheel and axles are used
for many thi ngs, including 10 steer
a truck, to open a valve on a water
pipe, and to seal a submarine hatch.
Examine the diagram above. The
axle is attached to the wheel at the
center. When the wheel is turned, the
axle also turns. likewise, if the axle is
lurned, the wheel turns as well.
A wheel and axle can be used two
ways. When Ihe effort force is applied
to the wheel, the force is increased.
When the effort force is applied to
Ihe axle, the dis tance over which the
force acts is increased.
flO· Chapler 15 · Lesso n 2
look at the diagram of the car
steering wheel. When a driver turns
the wheel, the rim of the steering
wheel travels a greater distance
than the rim of the steering column.
Because the sleering column- th'
axle-travels a shorter distance, the
force applied to the axle is increased.
Many other familia r items, such
as doorknobs and faucets, work the
same way. The wider Ihe wheel, the
less effort force required to turn it.
However, you need to turn the wider
wheel a greater dist,lnce to do the
s,1me amount of work.
Have you eve r watched gears in
action? A gear is a wheel wi th teeth
around its rim. The teeth interlock
with teeth of other gears, allowing a
system of gears to transmit motion.
Machines that use gears mclude cars,
bicycles, and window cranks.
A pulley is a wheel wilh a groove
along its edge. A single fixed pulley
consists of a pulley al tached to a
high point, such as a tree branch or a
cciling, with a rope fed through the
wheel's groove. You attach one end
of the rope to an object and then pull
down the other end to lift the objec t.
This is called a fixed pulley because
the pulley remains in place.
The fixed pulley changes the
direction but not the size of the force
needed 10 move an object. Pulling
the rope a distance of 1 m lifls the
object 1 m, so the same force must be
exerted. The advan tage is that you
can pull down instead of lifting up.
Pulling down is often much easier!
 Single Fixed Pulley
A find pulley changes tM
directiOfl of the fOfce needed
to move an objKt. but not tM
amount of force needed.
Pulley System
In this s)'$tfm of fOtlr P\llIeys.
pulling through 4 mete~ of
rope will lift tM load 1 meter
high.

If you w~n t to reduce the ~mouni of force

needed 10 lift a load, try using ~ movable
pu!ley. The pulley nlt~ches 10 Ihe load, which in
effect doubles the pulling force upon Ihe lo.,d.
TIle drawbllck is Ihllt you need to puiliwice as
much rope 10 lifl the lo.ld.
You can also combine two or more pullers
togelher, creating a pu!ley system as shown in
the illustration aOCwe. The more pulleys in the
system, the less force you need to lift a lo.1d
and the more rope you need 10 pull th rough.
'IOIUM AND SOLIITION When would you use a
ptJlley syst em instfOJd of a single find pulley?

A fixed pulley atla( hed 10 the top

of the pole helps raise the flags.
Pulling down on one side of the
rope raises the othff side
with the flags attached . ..

Inclined Planes
Another simple machi ne that
changes the riltio of fOKe to distance
is an indined plane, or ramp. An
indined plane decreases the amoun t
of foKe required to raise an object.
In exchange, it increases the distance
that the object must be moved to
reach a given height.
In one picture below, two people
are lifting a heavy box in to a truck.
In the o ther pictu re, one person uses
an indined plane to do a si milar task.
The box must be moved twice the
distance, but only half the effort force
is nceded. If the inc lined plane were
longer, even less effort force would be
needed.
The amoun t of work do ne on the
box is the s.1 me whether it is lifted
straight up or slid along the Indlned
plan e. Look again at the example
below. To lift the box straight up from
the ground, the two people must
apply a force cqualto the weigh t of
the box. The amount of work done to
lift the 500-N box 11 distance of 2.0 m
is W. 500 N x 2.0 m = 1,000 N·m.
Pushing the 5OO-N box up the
ind ined plane requires only half the
force, or 250 N. The inclined plane
is 4.0 m long. The work done is
W '" 250 N X 4.0 m .. 1,000 N·m.
The example llS5umes that the
indined plane is frictionless. In the
real world, the friction force between
the box and the inclined plane
would need to be overcome. Using a
wheeled CMt helps to reduce friction.
f.) nOBLE" ANO SOLUTIO!! What is the
advantage of using an ind ined plane to
move a heavy object?
<II Ind ined Plane
FOlCe applied by two people Is required
to lift the object straight into the tludl'..
Using the ramp. the fOl(e applied by one
person Is enough to move the object to
the same height.
 A screw is an inclined plan('
wrapp('d around a cylinder or oon('.
The plane makes up th(' threads
of a screw. A screw changes both
the direction of force and the ratio
of force to distance. When force is
applied to turn the screw, the threads
cause the screw to mo\·e.
Look at the ca r jack shown below.
It takes many turns of the screw to
move th(' car up or down only a
little. A small effort force is greatly
mUltiplied, allowing a person to

Wedge
The bloJde of a log·splitting maul is a
if,
slowly lift a car.
RUOING (KEn
mig ht use a wedge.
list three ways you

~. WIlen it is swung. the W('ight of

the head drives the wedge into the wood,
splitting the wood into two piecH. '"
Screw
Wedges and Screws Turning the screw
pulls the diagonal
A wedge is a simple machine tha t
pieces closer together,
consists of two inclined planes back which raises the jack
to back. Uke an inclined plane, a and lifts the car. T
wedge changes the direction of the
force , An effort force is applied to the --'
th ick end of the wedge. As the wedge
moves under or through an object.
the sides of the wedge exert forces on
the object that are at right angles to
the direction of the applied force.
Because of its shape, a wedge
must move a greater distance
through an ob;ect to push it apart a
much smaller distanet'. The sideways
force exerted by the wedg(' is greater
than the applied forc('. Many tools,
such as chisels, knives, and ('ven
doorstops, are wedges.

A pai. 01 scissol'S combines two simple
machines: wedges and level'S.
A biqde combi~ many simple machines.
in<llldinglevel'S and wheels and axles.
A piano uses seve.al diffe.ent
types of leve.s to make music.
F24· Chapter 15· Lesson 2
Compound Machines
Many of the devices that you use
every day arc made of two or more
simple machines. Tools that are made
of a combination of sim ple machines
arc called compound machines. A
pair of scissors is one example. The
scissors consists of a pair of levers
with the fulcrum in the middle. The
cutting blades of the scissors arc
wedges.
Another example of a compound
machine is a bicycle. It uses pedals,
which are levers, to apply force to the
sprocket. The sprocket is a wheel and
axle that uses gears to move the chain.
As the chain moves, iltransfers
force to a smaller sproc ket attached
to the axle of the rear wheel. So,
the force appli ed to the pedal is
converted through a combination of
simple machines to make the back
wheel turn.
A piano uses a variety of different
types of levers to make the hammers
stri ke the strings. The keys arc first-
class levers. Pushing down on a key
causes the other end of the key to
lift, pushing on a wooden post. The
post pushes up into the end of the
hammer, which is another first-class
levcr. Thc hilmmer strikes the string.
~} PROBLEM AND SOLUTION What 'IIe
compo•.md mach ines?

Scientists define wo.k
as a fOfce moving an
object over a di"tance,
W = Fd. Ene.gy Can
be expended wi thout
accompli"hing any worll .
Si mple machines make
work easier to do. Some
increase the effort/orce
by applying it over a
sho.te. distance. Others
de(fease the effo.t
force by applying it
over a lon ger distance.
Compound machines
comb ine two o. mOre
si mp le machines. Many
usefu l devices are
compound machines.
MATH Use a Formula A box is pulled up
a frictionless ramp using a force of J()() N, The
length of the ramp is >I m, What is the amount
of work done?
TECHNOLOGY Make a Poster
Ma~e a poster of the different tools used on a
construction site. Categorize the tools or parts of
tools as wheels and axles, pulleys. levers, ramps,
wedges, or screws.
Review
o MAIN IDEA How do mach ines
make the same work easief?
o VOCABULARY h plain how
it is possible to exert force but
accomplish no work.
9 READING SKilL: Proble m
a nd Sol ution Explain how three
different simple machines other
than indined planes might be
used to lilt a heavy box.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Analyze
A home owner is designing a
ramp to (OOnect the driveway
to tile front door. A perwo in a
wheelchair will use tile ramp.
What facts must be known to
design a useful ramp?
4) INQUIRY SKILL: Co mpare
Compare the advantages of a
single fixed pu lley to a pu lley
system.
"'" TEST PREP
An example of a wedge is a(n}
A. wIleelbarrow.
B. oar.
e. axe blade.
D. baseball bat.
~ Technology
. . Viiil w_.edupla(u omlscpl to liM
out more about iimple rn.:>dlines.
F25
 History of Science

Transportation
Transportation is any method of
moving from place to place. Read
on to discover how transportat ion has
changed over the past 200 years.

Typical Speeds

•
~
'"
'00
;: 300

-
E >00

I '00
, Stagecoach Train Jet Airplane
1840s: Clipper Ships
Clipper ships traveled laster and
carried mOre cargo than all other
ships of their day. Unfortunately.
1830 1870 1990
many were wIl!'Cked due to pOOl
navigation and inaccurate maps.

11901: Horse and Buggy

farmers used the I!orse and
buggy to tarry goods to and
from town. Horse-powered
coaches carried pa~eng e rs
be~en lowns ;lnd dlies.

( F26. Chapter 15 · Lesson 2 )

 SOCIAL STUDIES

Astronaut

19205: Automobiles
In 1913, Henf}' f ord
b.egan mass-producing
CarS On an assembly
line. Within a decade,
people everywhere were 195Os: Airplanes
driving Model 1'1. They Jet-powered airplanes
cost only $290 each! entered pa~enger
.entice in the "SO..
Tiley quickly became 20005: Space Shuttle
people's Ii"'! choice for To travel fast and far
long-distance t.avel. today. step aboard the
space shuttlel It (an
o.bit Earth about OnCe
every 90 minutes.

18705: Railroads
Inventions such as
Sharinqldea.
the steam-powered I. READING CHECK Compare the
locomotive and different modes of transportation.
vacuum bra~es made
trains lilSI, safe. and 2. WRITE A80UT IT When would each
popular. mode of transportation be your
choice for a trip?

3. TAlK ABOUT IT How does

transportation affect people's Ij~es?

F27
 What Forces Come
from agnets?
•
Why It Matters... _
•
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Did you know that you use Inquiry Skill
a magnet every time you ring a
Infer When you infer, you use
doorbell? From refrigerator magnets
data and observations to draw
to doorbells to bullet trains, magnets
conclusions.
are an important part of loday's fast-
paced, technology-filled world.
Materials
.. bar magnet .. iron 'ilings
• plastic tray .. horseshoe magnet
.. w,, ~ P'lpcr .. disc magnet
.. !J09gles
Exploring Magnets
Procedure
Safety: Wear goggles for this activity.
o Experiment Place the bar magnet in the
t ray. Cover t he magnet wi t h a sheet of
waK paper. Sprinkle iron fil ings onto the
paper and observe what happens.
G Record Data In your Science Notebook,
sketch the pattern of the filings around
the magnet. Include a written description
of how the filings are arranged .
e Use Variables Pick up the wax paper
with the fil ings. Be careful not to spill
any. Replace the bar magnet with the
horseshoe magnet. Put the wax paper,
with the f ilings, on t op of the horseshoe
magnet.
o Compare Sketch the pattern of the fi lings
and include a w ritten descript ion. Note
any differences between the two patterns.
4) Use Variables Repeat steps 3 and 4,
replacing the horseshoe magnet with
the disc magnet. Draw and record your
observations.

Conclusion Investigate More!

1. Compare How were th e iron filing patterns
different fo r each magnet? How were t hey
similar?
2. Infer What can you infer from the patterns
about how each type of magnet attracts
filings?
Research Research how a
battery. an iron nail, and a
wire can be used to make a
simple ele<:tromagnet. With
your teadler's appi"oval,
build the electromagnet. Use
iron filir.gs to i~ligate the
magnetic field it (Teate\.
VOCABULARY
electromagnet p. F31
READING SKILL
Draw Concl usion$ A5 you
read th is lesson. consider
why some materials make
900d magnets while others
do not. Organize you r
condusions in a graphic
OIgan izeJ like th is one.
Nonmagnetic
The atoms of paper and other
nonmagnetic materials also
have tiny magne tic fields.
However, they ali point in
different diredions. They cantel
each otller out and do not
create a strong
magnetic
field.
15 · Lesson 3
MAIN IDEA Magnetism comes from a special alignment
of an atom's electrons as fo und in iron and many other
me tals. Electric currents also create magnetic field s.
Magnets and Magnetic Fields
Prehistoric people discol'ered magnetism when
they found magnetic rocks, called lodcstones.
Lodestoncs, which are moslly iron, are able to
attract or repel certain metals. They must hal'e
seemed very unusuill to ilncient peoples.
Today, scientists know that magnelism is a
force creil ted by the motion of electrons in il loms.
Moving elec trons produce magnetiC fields, or
areilS in which a milgnetic force can be observed.
When electrons are illigned in the same dil'C1:tion,
the fields around them combine to creale a strong
milgne\. Metills such ilS iron, nickel, and cobillt ilre
some malerials thai can acl as magnets.
~::::l
Magnetic
The atoms of a magnet have tiny
magnetic fi elds that are aligned in
th e same direct ion. They (ombine
to create a strong magnetic field.
----
--
-
 Be<ause the a toms in a magnet are
aligned in the same direction, they
form two regions called poles. The
poles are named north and south.
All magnets have a north pole
and a sou th pole. Even if you break a
magnet in half, each half would still
have a north pole and a south pole.
Whlll happens if you bring the
north pole of one magnet near the
north pole of another magnet? Like Poles Repel
Without touching, the two magnets The iron fil ings show th e a11faction and
will s trongly repel, or push away repul sion of the magnets· magne tic fields.
from, each other. This repulsion With the two north poles face to lace. the
occurs because the a toms of the first repel each other.
magnet are aligned in the opposite
diredion from the atoms in the
second magnet. The 5.1me is true if
you put two south poles together.
However, if you bring the north
pole of one magnet ne.. r the south
pole of another magnet, the magnets
will s trongly a ttract each other. In
this case, the atoms of both magnets
will be aligned in the same direction.
They create one big magnetic field.
Each pole of a magnet is attracted Opposite Poles Attract
With opposite poles facing one anothe r,
to a magnetic pole of Earth. If you
the magnets allract each other.
hang a magnet on a string, the north
pole of the magnet will point to
Earth's North Pole and the south iron in the same direction as the
pole will point to Earth's South Pole. atoms in the magnet.
To make a compass nC('dle easy to On the other hand, if you bring a
unde rst.llld, the north pole of the magnet near an object that contains
nC('dle is labeled "N." This is a way no magnetic material, nothing
of saying '·North is this way." will happen. The atoms in the
When you pu t a magnet close to nonmagnetic material will not be
an iron object withou t the magnet affected.
touching it, you will see or fC('1 a
::) DRAW (DNCLUSIONS Wha t are some
magnetic attrac tion. The magnet
temporarily aligns the atoms in the ma gnetic maleria ls7

Fl1

Making Magnets
There are several ways to change
the alignment of atoms in mag~eti~
materia.ls. As you have S('t'n, bnngtng
a permanent magnet close to a .
magnetic material will temporanly
change the alignmen t of its atoms.
When you take the magnet away..
howeve r, the atoms of the magnetic
material lose their alignment.
For example, if you rub a magnet
aloog an iron nail, the nail's atoms
will begin to align. Continue rubbing
for a few minutes, and the nail's
atoms will stay aligned for a short
time after you take the magnet away.
The nail itself will bc<;ome a magnet
for a little while. A magnet that is
created this way is called a temporary
magnet.
The alignment of atoms In
magnets can also be changed . If you
strike or heat a magnet, some of the
magnet's atoms will move out of
alignment. For example, if you drop
a magnet on the noor. it will become
weaker.
An eIKtr;( (lIrrent passing
through a wire coiled around
an iron nail turM the nail
into an electromagnet . •
Fl2 • Chapur 1S • lesson 3
Another way to change the
alignmcnt of atoms in a magnetic
material is by using an electric
current. Electrons moving through a
wire create a magnetic field around
the wire. When m.'lgnetic materials
are placed within these fields, some
of their atoms will align. The greater
thc clectric current that runs through
the wire, the stronger the magnetic
field will be.
A magnet created by using
an electric current is called an
electromagnet. You can construct
a simple electromagnet by using a
nashlight b.1ttery, a coil of insulated
wirc, and an iron core, such as a nail.
First, coil the wire around the nail,
as shown in the picture below. Make
sure that the coils are all wrapped in
the S<'lme direction.
Next, carefully tape one bare end
of th e wire to the positi\'e terminal on
the battery and thc other bare end to
the negative terminal. The nail will
act as a m.'lgnet as long as an electric
current passes through the coiL
N
,
,
,,
 How a Doorbell Works

Switch
- -- -, .. ,

(doorbe ll
button)
When a doorbell button is pressed, a
coil of wire is magnetized, attracting
t he rGd and causing it to hit the bell.

You can increase the strength of

an ele< tromagne t by wrapping more
coils around the core, and by using a
stronger battery. Be careful, however!
In addition to creating magnetic
fields, an ele<tric current mnning
through a wire can generate heat. Too
much el""tric current could mllke the
wire or the nail too hot to touch. Only
use flashlight batteries that provide
1.5 volts.
You can conduct different
experiments to create ele<tromagnets.
For example, you can try magnetic
ma terials other than a nail, such as
a paper clip, a pair of scissors, or a
pie<e of silverware. Che<k the item
with a magnet first to sec if would Ele< tromagncts can create very
make a good ele<tromagnet. If the powerful magnetic fields. These
item is strongly att racted to the devices have many different uses,
magnet, then it will probably make a from picking up and moving cars at
good ele<tromagnet. a junkyard to sending bulletlrains
Another experiment you can Iry is speeding across the countryside.
to change the number of turns on the Ele<:tromagnets are also used in
wire coil. Testthrce different numbers electric motors found in many
of turns and re<ord how many paper household appliances.
clips you can pick up in each case.
;)i DRAW(ONCLIISIONS What causes the
atoms in an e ledromagnet to align ?
m

.. Aurora Boreali~ i~ latin and mean~
"dawn of the north."
Auroras
If you are far enough north and go
outside on a dark nigh t, you might
sec ribbons and curtains of green or
red light chase across the sky. This
is the aurora borealis (aw RAW R uh
bawr ee AL ihs) or northern lights.
What causes the aurora? Recall
that Earth is like a giant magnet.
Like a bar magnet, Earth has a north
magnetic pole and a south magnetic
pole. The magnetic lines of force are
closest together at the magnetic poles
and Earth's magnetic field surrounds
the planet.
Fast electrons from space are
guided by Earth's magnetic field
into Earth'S upper atmosphere.
There, at altitudes of 100 km (60 mil
or higher, the fast electrons rol1ide
with atoms and molecules of oxygen
and ni trogen that make up Earth's
atmosphere. In the collisions, the
15 · Lesso n 3
The arrows represent solar wind.
These fast-moving electrons distort
Earth's magnetic field and can cause
auroras in the skies above both
electrons give up their energy to the
atoms and molecules, which emi t
light you see as an aurora.
The color of the aurora depends
on the type of gas molecules that are
hit by the electrons. This is just like
in a neon sign, where the color of the
light depends on the type of gas the
sign is filled with.
Where do the fast electrons rome
from? They rome from the Sun! The
Sun continuously sends out a stream
of charged particles in all directions,
called the solar wind.
Auroras are also produced near
Earth's South Pole. As you migh t
have guessed, these auroras are
called southern lights.
r.s DRAW (ONClUSIDNS Why do auroras
occur in Earth 's polar reg ions ?

Visual Summary
Atoms h~v~ sm ~lI
magnetic fields. In
magnets. these fields
all pOint in the !.ame
direction, one large.,
stronger magnetic field.
(leCtfOnS moving
through a wire create
a magne tic field
a.ound the wire. When
a magne tic material
is placed within this
field, its atoms a r~
temporarily aligned,
creating a st.ong
magnetic field .
Techoologies that
use magnets and
eleCtfomagnets include
doorbells. bullet trains.
and eleCtfic motors.
. t TEST PREP
Magnetism is a force created by
A. gravity.
MATH Angle Measures The face of a
compass represents 360°. What is the angle
measure betw*n Nand 57 Betw*n Nand E?
Do these angles depend on the diameter of the
compass?
~ Technology
TECHNOLOGY Create a Poster '.
Research a device that uses magnets. such as
a television, computer storage disk, or mag·lev
train. Prepare a poster to show how the device
is used and how it works.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What gives magnel5
their magnetic properties?
E) VOCABULARY What is an
ele<lromagnet? Describe its
properties ami how it worts.
9 READING SKilL:
Draw Conclusions
Suppose that two ell'/:tromagnelS
attract each othef, then suddenly
repel each other. What condusion
could explain this observation?
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
While on a hike, you notice thaI
the nee~He of your compass
suddenly poinls 10 a new
dire<tion. Aside from moving the
compass, wha t might cause such
a change?
0 1NQUIRY SKILL: Infer
Suppose you have a magnet thaI
is losing some of ils strength.
What might have happened to it?
B. the motion of electrons in
atoms.
C. the size of nuclei in atoms.
D. very large molecules.
\/isit www.eduplacuomlscp /tofirld
out more about magnetism.
Fl5
 : Compare and Contrast

Alte rna ting Alterna ting

m a gne t magne t
pairs ~ ~ pa irs
,,
~

,,
Opposing Ma gnets

Electroma gne tic Propulsi on The Maglev

is based on the simple principle that opposite
polf! of magnets ,mact and like poles reptl.
First opposing mag neb under the Maglev cause
illo float. Then powerful eleclromagnets in the
guideway push and puilihe Maglev along by
r'pidly altemating their magnetic polarity.
= Chapter 15 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete each sentence wi th a term from the list.
1. Anything that caustS ill object to change vflodty is a _ ;Keeler.lOtion f9
2. __ is the late al which an object changes spetd. eledromagnet F32
force F7
3. _ happens when an obj«1 manges its position.
friction fll
<A _ is a tool that changes the amount at torn applied, the gravity Fl2
dilection of that fol'(l~, Of bom. inert~ f7
5. 1Iw meawre of an object's ~ and direction is _ motion f6

6. A __ is a unit 01 forct-
1. __ is a ralio of distance OIIef time.
S. __ is a force that attracts all mattet' to olhef maner.
_f8
newton fIt
§imple machine fl1

velocity F8
9. 'MIen two objects rub together, tilei'll! is _ WlIork F16

10. __ is perfonne<l whefl a tOl'ee moves an object through a distance.

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choke.
11 . An electromagnet is powered by _ 13. A liard brake on a biqde is an eJl<lmple 01
a(n) _
A. the Sun
8 ..... electric CUfTtllt A. pulley
C. iron filings 8. inclined plane
D.atOlllS C."'"
D. ~and axle
12. Air resistance is a form of _
14. The first law of motion deals with _
A. gravity
B.~ A. inertia
C. Iriction B. acceleration
D. wIoc:ity C. gravity
D. !fiction

F18· Chllpler IS
 Inquiry Skills

15, Infer What are some effects 01 Earth's
magnetic field?
16, Communitate How wou ld you dewibe
the diff!!fence between Newton's first and
se<ond laws of motion?
17. Applying What migh t happen if an
astrooaut floating in space mo~ed the
north poles of two magnets together, then
let go of the magnets?
18. Synthesizing How would you use a
pulley to decrease the amount of force
required to lilt an object? Indude a
diagram in your answer.
19. Evaluating Is it accurate to say that if an
obje<t changes its dire<tion of motioo, then
its speed changes? Explain.
20. Analyzing How are inclined planes and
screws related? Describe ways they are

"'"
Performance Assessment
Make a Poster
Choose a simple machine, and make a poster
about it. Show how the simple machine makes
work easief to do, and present some examples
Map the Concept of real· life uses of the machine.
Write the teons from the list below where they
belong in the COOCe,lt map,
screw I' .....
wedge
.....
( ~
lever
I'
pulley
simple machine I'
wheeland axle >-..
inclined plane
( )
LESSON
What kind of energy

1 comes from a swinging

wrecking ball?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON

2
How does striking
cymbals together
create energy that
travels to your ear?
Read about it in lesson 2.

How does light striking

glass produce such
colorful light?
Read about it in Lesson 3.
What Are Kinetic and
Potential Energy?
Why It Matters...
Drop a ball in water. Waves will
ripple away from the place where
it strikes, forming wider CInd wider
circles. Why does this happen? Some
of the energy of the falling ball is
transferred to the water mak ing
waves. The waves lose energy as they
spread apart.
Changes in energy take place all
the lime. If you understand them, you
can put them to good use.
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Predict When you predi ct,
you use observat ions. patterns,
data, or causl'·and·effe<1
relationships to anticipate
results..
Materials
.""
• 1.5 m of clear plastic tubing
• marble
Science and Math Toolbox
Fat step I , fMew Making a Chart
to Organile Data on page H11.
 Rollerball
Procedure
e Collaborate Work with a partner to create
a roller coaster for the marble. Tape one
end of the tubing to the edge of your
desk. Thi s will be the start of the track. In
your Science Notebook, create a chart like
the one shown.

•
e Experiment Tape the other end of the
tubing to the seat of a chair that is lower
than the desk. Let the tubing drape
between the desk and the chair so that it
just touches the fl oor.

e Observe Drop the marble into the top of

the tubing. Observe how the marble travels.
Use a chart to record your observations of
the marble's changes in speed.
C) Use Variables Tape the tubing that was
on the chair to another desk of the
same height as the first desk. Drop the
marble through the tube. Record your
observations of the marble's movement.
e Predict Hold the end of the tube higher
than the desk. Predict how far the marble
will run through the tubing. Test your
prediction.

Conclusion Design an Experiment

Will twists and turns in
1. Infer How did the height at the end of the tubing change the
the track affect the speed of the marble height a marble can travel?
through the tubing? Experiment with diHerent
2. Hypothesize Was your prediction in step 5 arrangements. Choose a
graph or chaft to report data
correct? Propose an explanation of
the results. from the experiment.
vat" by Reading
Energy
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Kinetic energy .md polential energy (""
f!lIe'gy p. f44 e .. ch be tr,msformed in to the other. In a ll (il se~ energy is
kinetic energy p. F46 nei ther uealed nor destroyed.
potential energy p. f46
Forms of Energy
READING SKill
Energy is a familiar part of your everyday
Classify What Mf! some
f!l<ilmples of potential energy
life. A burning lump of (oal, a f<llling rock, and
and what are some typeS of a spinning fan all have energy. What do these
kinetic energy? examples have in common? Each describes an
object that is changing. Each is (In example of
energy's effect on matter.
Just wha t is energy? Energy is the ability 10 do
wor k. Energy and work are measured by the same
unit, the joule.
Energy comes in many different forms. When
coal is burned, for example, chemical energy
stored in the coal is converted to light that you
can see and heat that you can feel. The motor of
a fan changes electrical energy into energy of the
spinning blades. A falling rock has energy bei:ause
it is moving.
Even objects at rest hnvc energy.
Remember thnt matter is mnde up of
particles thnt are constantly in motion.
Thermal energy is the motion of these
particles, which you can feel as heat.
When energy is changed from one form
to nnother, some of it is almost always
changed into thermnl energy.

<II Electrical energy powers t he

tomputen. Radio waves, a form
of electromagnetic energy, allow
controllers to talk to the astronauts.
 Visible light is one type o f electromagnetic
('n('rgy. So aT<' microw(w('s, radio wav('s, and Energy at the Launch
x-rays.
When the elec tromagnetic energy in sunlight
reach<'S Ea rth, some of it is absorbed and
changed into thennal energy. Plants also use
the energy in sunlight to produc(' food, which
they s tore as chemical energy.
Mattcr contains chemical energy, which
can be released during a chemical reaction.
Chemical energy in coal is released when the
coal burns. Chemical energy in a battery is used
to power devices such as flashligh ts.
Electricity is the movement of charged
particles. People use electricity to power
toas ters, s treetlights, televisions, compu ICTS,
,.,
and many other things. In each, electrical
energy is changed into thermal energy,
electromagnetic energy, or mechanical energy.
The energy that an object has because of
it5 motion or its posi tion i5 (1IlIed me<:hani(lI!
energy. For example, an acorn hanging from ••
a tree has mechanical energy because of its
posi tion above the ground. When it falls, it has
• •
mechanical energy because it is in motion.
A vibrating object has mcrhanical energy
that may be changed to sound energy.
Wind is the mechanical encrgy of moving
air. The moving pa rts of a machine
have mechanical energy, too. '\•
•
r.;> (USS!FY A large rock on the edge
01 a eliff has what lorm of energy!

Chemical energy in the rocket

fuel is Changed to the mechanical
energy of the moving rocke t,
as well as thermal energy and

,•
.:::- "5
Potential Energy and
Kinetic Energy
Recall th~t energy is the abili ty to
do work, Energy ca n be transferred
from one object to another, and it can
change form. How do these ideas
relate to one another?
Work invoh'es applying a folU'
to matter over a d istance. Any time
that work is dont>, energy is either
transferred from one object to another
or cha nged from one form to anotht>r.
Think of a bowling ball rolling
down a lane. Work was done to set
the ball in motion. Work is done on
the pin when mechanical energy from
the ball is transferred to the pin.
When chemicals react in a battery.
electrons move throu gh 11 wire or
other conductor. Chem ical energy is
transformed to electrical energy when
work is done on the electrons.
From these examples. you can
see tha t motion and matter are an
important part of understanding
energy, In fact, energy can be
described by the way it rel1ltes to
the motion of ma tter.
Any object thil t is in motion has
kin etic energy. Kinetic energy is the
t>nergy of a moving object. A mo\'ing
bowling ball has kinetic energy. So
do the moving electrons in an electric
current.
Potential energy is energy that is
stored in iln object. Chemical bonds
in a bowler's muscles store potential
energy that the bowler uses to swing
the ball. The chemicals in a b"ttery
store potential energy that is used to
CTe"te "n electric current.
The archer in the pictu re used
pnp,"&y tn pun thp hnw~trine ~ntl
bend the bow. While she holds the
bowstring and takes "im, that energy
is stored in the bent bow. Bcciluse of
its position, the arrow h"s po tential
meet",lnical energy.
.. A pulled bow hu potential
energy. When the bow is
released, the energy is
changed to the kinetl( enelgy
of a moving bow and arrow.
 As soon as she releases the
Potential Energy
bowstring, the bow will return to its
original shape. The potenti al energy
stored in the bow will be transformed
into kinetic energy of the moving Chemical battery
bowstring. Some of that kine tic
Elastic compressed spring
energy will be transferred to the
arrow and send it flying forward . Mechanical ro<:k on a ledge
The Mcher was able to store
energy in the bow by changing
the bow's shape. Potential energy Kinetic Energy
can also be stored in an objec t by
changing the object's height.
If you lift a box from the floor and
set it on a table, you are applying a Sound vibrali,,!! obje<:1
force to raise the box against the force
"l"be<mal hoi <0<0'
of gravity. So, you do wor k on the
box. As it rests on the table, the box M~ chani<.1 I.tting ro<k
has poten tial energy due to its height.
Electrical e lectrons in an
Push the box off the table, and tha t ele<:lrical currenl
potent;,,1 energy would be converted
to kinetic energy as the box falls.
Energy is either po tential or
kinetic. The charts provide exam ples.
"i} CLASSIFY Give two e xamples of
e nergy changing 'r<:lm potenlial energy 1<:1 Some of the kinetic energy of the moving
kinetic energy. boat is transferred to the water, making
waves. '"
 Calculating Mechanical Energy
When an object that has potential
mechanical energy starts moving,
some of its poten tial energy is
transformed into kinetic mechanical
energy. As the object's kinetic energy
increases, its potential energy
decreases. Another way of s.1ying this
is that the mechanical energy (ME)
of an object equals the sum of its
potential energy (PE) and its kinetic
energy (KE).
ME - PE + KE
Look at the falling apple. As
the apple is held by its stem, all of
its mechanical energy is stored as
potential energy, due to its height
above the ground. The apple is not in
motion, so it has no kinetic energy.
As the apple is released and starts
to fall, it loses potential energy and
gains kinetic energy. The farther
the apple falls, the greater its kinetic
energy and the less its potential
energy. The total mechanical energy
remains the same.
The instant before the apple hits
the floor, all of its mechanical energy
will have been converted to kinetic
energy. It will have no more potential
energy relative to the ground.

How d oe~ the me(hanica t

energy of an obje( t ( hange a~ il fait s?

-<II In this time· lapse photograph,

the energy of the falling apple is
changed from potential to kinetic.

Energy ha~ many
different forms. It <an
be changed from one
form to another, but not
<ruted Or de~troyed.
Potential energy i~
energy stored in an
object. Kinetic energy is
the energy of motion .
Mechani<al energy of a
falling object is the sum
01 its potential energy
and kinetic energy.
MATH Make a Graph Calculate the
potential energy, in joules. of a 5·kg ball at
different heights above the ground. Use the
formula PE = mgh, where m is the mass in
kilograms, 9 is 9.8 mfsl, and h is the height in
meters. Make a line graph to show the results.
WRITING hpository Research new
technolog ies for convertin g solar energy directly
into electrical energy. Write a report about the
new technologies.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What is the
difference between potential
energy and kinetic energy?
a VOCABULARY Explain how
potential energy and kinetic
energy relate to mechanical
energy.
O READING SKILL: Classify
Describe the changes in energy
when an apple falls.
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Eval uate When are an object's
potential energy and kinetic
energy equal? Give an example.
o INQUIRY SKILL: Predict How
do you think an object's speed
affects Its kinetIC energy? Do you
think mass affects kinetic energy?
How might you tl'St your answers?
. t TEST PREP
When does a falling object have
the greatest mechanical energy?
A. Just before it starts to fall.
B. Just before it hits the ground.
C. Half way through the fall.
D. The mechanical energy is the
same throughout the fall.
~ Technology
, . Vlloit www.edupliKe.comlsqll to ~m
more about kinetio: arid IxUenti.l! energy.
'49
 I

How Are
Sounds Made?
Why It Matters... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
lions roar, winds whistle, and Inquiry Skill
peals of thunder roll and bellow.
YOll use so unds to communicate, to Hypothesize When you
entertain, and to know when your hypothesize, you use
dasses begin or end. observations or prior
If you playa musical instrument, knowledge to suggest a
then you know at least one way to possible answer to a question.
make sounds and change them. Jusl
how do sounds change?
Materials
• lUlling flllh with Ihtee
different pi!(hes
• bowl
• water
• block of wood
• sheet of metal
• nJbbef efilS@r

Science and Math Toolbox

fof step 5, review Making a Chart
10 Organize Data on page H1t .
\,,~esti9ale

Getting in Tune
Procedure
o Classify Strike each tuning fork against
the palm of your hand, then place it close
to your ear to listen. Classify the sounds
f rom each tuning fork as low, middle, and
high. Record your observations in your
Science Notebook.
e Compare Fill the bowl with water. Again,
strike each tuning fork. Each time, dip
the forked end slowly in the water after
striking it. Observe and compare the sizes
of the ripples produced.
o Hypothesize Form <I hypothesis about
whether sounds change when they travel
through different materials, such as wood,
metal, and rubber.
• Experiment Strike a tuning fork and hold
the end of its handle against the block
of wood . listen, then record what you
hear. Repeat with the metal sheet and the
rubber eraser.
" Communicate Make a chart to organize
the information that you recorded. Use
th e chart to compare your observations
with those of another student.
InveJtigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment
Irwestigate the effect
1. Analyze Data What do the ripples in the of changing tension Of
water show about the tuning forks? thickness 01 a vibrating
2. Compare Did evidence support your object. wd1 as a slling
hypothesis from step 31 Compare your Of a rubbef band. Plan
hypothesis to the results of the experiment. an experiment. With your
teacher's permission, carry it
out. Re<Ofd your results.
v afn by Reading
Sound Production
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Sound is produced by vibratio ns Ihilt
me<:haniul wave p. fSl t ..m sfe. energy through air or another medium .
pitch p. f'16
vibration
volume
p. f~
p. fS1
Mechanical Waves
A mechanical wave forms when it disturbance
READtNG SKtLL ca uses energy to be transferred through matter,
Draw Conctusions Can such as air or water. Mechanical WilVes always need
sound be created in a mailer 10 move through. Mechanical waves cannot
va<uum? travel through empty space, That's why you cannot
hear sounds on the Moon.
( )

( • )
Mechanical waves can move in different w<lys .
The rope pictured below is mov ing in it transverse

(
• )
In a transver$e wave,
particles move perpendicular
to tile direction of the wave,
Here, t ile rope moves up and
down wllile the wave t ravels
110m left to l ight. T
wave. This means that the medium moves
perpendicular to the direc tion of the W(lve. The
rope, which is the medium, moves up and down.
The willie moves from left to right.
Pa rt of the rope moves up as the energy moves
through it. As that part of the rope drops back
down, it transfers the energy to the next part of
the rope, which in turn moves up. In this way, the
energy is tnmsferred through the rope from left to
right as the rope moves up and down.
Transverse Wave

Wavtlength

16 · Le»o n 2
 longitudinal Wave
Water waves Me transverse
mechanical ",ave" . If you drop a rock
into wa ter, ripples will spread out
through the water in all directions.
These ripples are crea ted by energy
passing through the water. Particles
of water move up and down, forming
the ripples. The energy is transferred
outward from the rock, creating new
ripples as it moves.
Scientists describe w~ves by
their amplitude and wavelength.
Amplitude is the height of the crests
or troughs from the rest poSition of a
transverse wave. Wavelength is the
distance between two neighooring
crests or tTOughs.
Scientists also describe a wave's
frequency, which is the number
of waves that pass a poin t per
second. Frequency and wavelength
are related. Waves with shorter
... In a longitudinal wave. particles move
parallel to the direction in which the
wave travels. They form compressions and
rarefactions, transferring energy away
from the SOUfce.
wavelengths have higher frequenCies.
Wllve" with longer wllvelength5 ha,'e
lower frequencies.
Longitudinal waves are also
mechanical waves. In a longitudinal
wave, particles in the medium
move back and forth parallel to the
direction the wave travels.
In the picture aoove, one of the
students quickly pushed the spring
forwMd and then snnpped it b~c k.
Coils along the spring come together
and spread apart as energy is
transferred through them. The coils
move back and forth only.
The part of a longitudinal wave
where the particles come together is
called a compression. The part where
they spread out is called a rarefaction.
D DRAW CONCLUSIONS What is a
mechanital wave?
F53
 Other types of materials, such as
Sound Waves metals, vibrate more eaSily. Consider
Sound waves are longitudinal a metal tuning fork. When struck, its
mechanical wa\'es th at move through \'ibrations are easy to see. It makes a
air or another medium. These waves sound that lasts much longer than
are produced by vibra tions. A the sound made by the pendl hitting
vibratio n is a rapid back·and·forth the desk.
mO\'ement of an ob)ecl. Look at the sous.1phone. It
When an object vibr"tes, it produces sound when ai r travels
transfers energy to its surroundings. through il. When the player's lips
The energy of those \'ibrations travels vibrate, the air inside the sous.1phone
through the surrounding medium as vibriltes, too. As the vibrating air
longitudin<ll WOlves. moves through the instrument, the
Most of the sounds that you metill itself \'ibrates and magnifies
hear arc transferred through ai r. If a the sound.
pencil is tapped against a desk, both
the pencil and the desk vibrate. The
vibrations are too tiny to see, but they
arc there.
The vibra tions compress and
spre<ld apart the air molecules
around them. AS the first molecules
are pushed <lway, they bump into
molecules next to them. These
molecules then bump into other •
nearby molecules, while the first
molecules return to where they were.
This p<lttem continues, spreading
out from the desk and the pencil like
ripples in a pond. Howe\'er, the desk
and pencil do not vibr<lte for very
long. That's why the sound that they
create doesn't last very long.

Sousaphone
A sousaphone is much like iI
tuba. Its (oiled skape makH
it easier to tafry. ~
 Waves travel at different speeds
through different materials. This is
true of all types of mechanical waves,
including sound waves.
For example. sound waves
generally move faster through solids
and liquids than through gases.
The temperature of the medium,
especially gases, also affects the
speed. The chart shows the speeds
of sound through some different
materials.
How can the different speeds
of sound be put to use? Railroad
workers have been known to put
their ears to the track to listen for
oncoming trains. Woodpcckers listen
10 trees to hear the bugs inside them.
Long ago, Native Americans on the
plains put their ears to the ground to
listen for buffalo hoofbeats.
r.s DRAW (ONClUSIONS Through whi ch
state of matler-solids, liq uids, Or gases-
do sounds trave l the fastest]

Speed of Sound in
Different Materials

.... t ...i.1 Spud Imls)

Dry a i, (25°C) ".

~.""~ wa ... '.>00
.. Wood (oak) 1.350
..
Go ld 3. 240

5te-e1 5.200

Sound waves
Sound waves nuse compressions
and rarefactions of the air. Your
eardrums vibrate in response.
Your brain interprets those
vibrations as sound. '"

Osdlloscope
An oscilioscol'e can I'icture a sound
wave. Although sound waves are
longitudinal. the oscilloscope produces
a picture of a transverse wave. '"
F55
Pitch
Sound wan's ha ve different
properties depending on the
vibrations of the object that produced
them. Pitch is how high or low you
perceive the sound to be.
The pilch of a sound depends on
low·fr~nq. loud sound
the sound Wil\'C'S frequency. The
higher the frequency of a wave, the
high(>f the pitch of the sound. You
can change the pitch of a sound by
ch:mging the frequency al which the
object making th e sound vibr,ltcs.
Whi stles make high -pitched
sound s because th ey vi brate at a high
frequ ency. Tubas and sousaphones low·frtquency. soft sound
mllke low-pitched sounds because
the)' vibrate at a low frequency.
A piano has many s tri ngs that
vary in thickness and length. When
you strike a piano key. the pitch of
the SOllnd produced depend s on the
properties of the string that vibratcs.
Long. thick s trings produce low-
pitched sounds. Short, th in st rings High·frequency. loud sound
produce high-pitched sounds.

High·fr~nq. soft ~ound

Sound Waves ...

Digital recording software produces
graphs like these. They represent
sound waves as transverse waves. The
amplitude shows volume. The frequency
or wavelength shows pitch.
Volume
Another property of sound is
volume. Volu me is how loud or Sound Decibel.
soft a sound is. 11 is a measure of
the intensity, or strength, of the Softest sound you can hur
vibr~tions that produce a sound.
Intensity is determined by the
ampli tude of the sound waves.
Like the strings of a piano, the No,",n;tl speaking 60
strings on a guitar produce sounds
of d ifferent pi lch. The fifth string on Mum through hudphor ~1 100
a guitar is tuned to a pitch called low
A. When you pluck this string, it will Thunder 120
always vibrate at a frequency of 440
times per second. So, it will always Jtl plane {f.om 30m) ,.0
produce a sound with the s,1me pitch.
The \·olume, or loudness, of
• Sdenli$t!i measure the loudness
the sound produced by this string
01 sound in unih ulled decibels.
depends on how much force you Continuous !iound above 85 decibels
use to pluck it. Pluck it lightl)' and ~an damage lIea. iny.
it will vibrate back and forth across
a short distance. Air particles will
be displaced a smaller distance from
their rest positions, producing a soft Wi thout protective ear mufflers. a Jet
sound with low-A pitch. engine, at 140 de<ibels. {an cause
What happens if you use a permanent hearing damage within a lew
stronger force to pluck the minutes of exposure. T
string? The string will vibrate
back and forth across a greater
d ista nce. Ai r particles will be
-
displaced a greater distance
from their rest positions,
producing a louder sound. The
sound will, howevCT, ha\'e the
s,1me pitch.

What ts

vo tu me 7

This concert hall is designed to allow
both the audience and the musicians
on stage to hear the music clearly. ..
Acoustics
Like other Iype-s of waves. SOllnd
waves behave in different ways
when traveling from one materi al
into another. When a sound wave
strikes a surface. it may reflect off
ii, travel through it. or be absorbed
by it. Acous tics is the study of how
materia ls affect sound waves.
When a sound wave in air hits
a concrete wall. most of the sound
wave will be reflected, or bounced
off the su rface. Sound waves behave
this way when Ihey strike mosl hard,
smooth surfaces. Th is is why you
hear an echo when you yell into
a canyon.
When a sound wave hits
somelhing soft or porous, most of it
will be absorbed. Cotton and other
fabrics are examples of materials thai
absorb sounds wel1.
16 · Lesso n 2
This is one of the world's
quietest rooms! The pyramid
shapes help to prevent echoes
and keep outside sounds from
entering the room. T
Some materials rcne<;1 or absorb
sound differently, depending on the
fre<juency of the sound. Archi tects
take this in to accoun t when they
design concert halls and audi toriums.
The go..11 is to project a balance of
sound frequencies to the iludience.
For example. if the wall behind
an orchestril reflected mostly high-
pitched fre<juencies. the music would
sound thin and squeaky. If it reflected
mostly low-pitched fre<juencies, the
music would sound muffled. As for
the back iIIld side walls, they usually
are designed to absorb sound. If they
were reflective, the music wou ld not
sound very clear.
1} DRAW (ONUUStDNS Why does your
vOit!! sound diff!!r!!nt in the living room
than in the shower?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What are sound
waves ar.d how do they travel?

require a medium E) VOCABULARY What are

to mOve through. vibrations? Gwe an example of
They may travel a~ an object that vibrates and the
tranwene wave<; Or effect 01 the vibrations.
longitudinal waves.
f) READING SKilL: Draw
Conclusions Why is it important
!'itch is a mnsure of to wear ear protection if you are
the frequency of sound woli::ing with a loud device such
waves. Amplitude is as a jacl::hammer?
a measure of their
volume. o CRITICAL THINKING:
Synthesize How could you
Sound waves behave
change the area around your
dilferently when they home stereo w that you could
encounter differen t hear the music more dearly?
mate rials. Some
materials rellect sound. o INQUIRY SKILL:
while othen absorb Hypothesize How might sound
sound. reflect off a hard, curve-<! surface?
Propose a hypothesis.
.,e TEST PREP
Waves observe-<! in a moving lOpe
are examples of
MATH Make a Graph Choose th r~ different A. longitudin<ll waves.
musical instruments. Find the frequencies of the B. transverse waves.
lowest and highest pitches that the instruments C. compresSion W<lves.
can play. Create a graph to show the range of
pitch for the instruments. D. electromagnetic waves.

TECHNOLOGY Make a Poster

Research how a stereo speaker detects electrical ,., Technology
, . Visit w_.eduplace .comlscpl to liM
currents and turns them into sound waves. oot more aboot SOIJoo.
Make a poster to show the different pans 01the
speaker and how they produce wund waves.

' 59
 History of Science

Sound travels through air at about

The 340 meters per second, which is about
760 miles per hour. Could an airplane fly
this fasHln the years shortly after World
? War II, pilots and engineers tried 10 find out.

• Several experimental planes shook

In ''''7 (huck Yeager and the X-I
5howed that the sound ~rrier
real barrie. at lilt.
violently as they approached the speed of
sound. Some crashed. Pilots began to speak
of a sound barrier, a natural speed limit that
might not be breakable.
One pilot did not believe in this barrier.
In 1947, U.S. Air Force pilot (huck Yeager was
setting speed records in a ro cket-powered
airplane ca lled the X-1. During one October
morning that year, Yeager accelerated the
x-, to greater speeds than ever before.
Suddenly a loud boom and the airplane's
dials indicated the same event: Yeager had
was not a ~ broken~ the sound barrier. He was flying
faster than the speed of sound! And he
experienced hardly any bumps or jolts at all.

Below the Speed of Sound At the Speed of Sound

,,," The sOtind

airplane waves travel
moves faster. as fast as tM
sound waves airplane itsel f
bun(h dose. and run in to
together in ea(h other in
front of it. f.ont of the
airplane.
Sound Wave •

Shockwave -~
 SOCIAL STUDIES

r-------- - Afast-moving airplan~ creates Oil

l wave of ai, prE'ssure around il. When
it passes the speed of sound, Ihe
pressure is so great that waler vapor
condenses into Oil temporary doud.

Today The FIA·18 Hornet is one of

Ihe fastHt airplallH in thE' sky. I, can fly
as fast as Mach 1.8, meaning 1,8 limes
the speed of
sound. Today, it
is common lor
military jets to fty
faster than the
speed of sound.

Sh.!ringld.a.
Beyond the Speed of Sound l RfAPIN6 CHECK Why did
some pilolS think Ilia!
airpiarleS could nol fly faster
The sound ....<lV1'S than the speed of 5Oulld1
p.odlKe • Shock
wave th~t ruches ~ WRin ABOUT rT Describe
the ground and what happens when a plane
can be heard n accelerates past the speed
a sonic boom. of sound.
l TWC ABOUT IT Would you
like to fty faster than ~nd?
r - - -::-- - - SGni< 800m Mard lot'l! If so. would you rather be
the pilot or a pas§engef?
 What Are Some
Properties of Light?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
light wa .... es make it possible Inquiry Skill
to see. By understanding t he way
Analyze Data When you
light waves behave, scient ists have
analyze data, you look for
been able to develop such important
patterns in observations and
technologies as eyeglasses. cameras,
other information. Th ese
microscopes, telescopes, lasers, and
patterns can help you to
fiber optics.
make inferences, predict, and
hypothesize.

Materials
• rubber ball
• flat mirror
."'"
• large cardboard box
• small penlight
Bouncing Beam
Procedure
o Collaborate Stand a few feet from a
partner and bounce a ball back and forth.
Observe the angle at which the ball
strikes the floor and the angle at which it
bounces up. Record your observations in
your Science Notebook.
e Experiment Change the distance between
partners several times. Repeat step 1 at
each new distance.
e Experiment Inside the box, center the
mirror on one end and tape it in place.
Position the penlight CIS shown so that it
faces the center of the mirror.
e Observe In a darkened dClssroom, turn
on the penlight and observe the angle at
which the light strikes the mirror and the
angle at which it bounces off. Record your
observations.
" Experiment Tilt the penlight slightly to
change the angle at which the light strikes
the mirror. Observe the path of the beam
as it bounces off the mirror. Change the
tilt of the penlight several t imes and
record your observations.
Investigate More!
Conclusion Design an Experiment
How might a WIVed mirror
1. Analyze Data Compare the way that the affect the path of a light
ball bounced and the way that the beam beam striking its surface?
behaved. Experiment with a wrved
mirror to find out. You may
2. Infer Based on your data, make an
design a wrved mirror from
inference about the angle at which light
bounces, or reflects, off a flat mirror. aluminum foil.
\.eaf~ by Reading
Properties of Light
VOCABULARY

-"
reflection
ref'ildion
visible light
,",
,,~

, .
p. F65
MAIN IDEA Ughl way~ "re electromagnetic: waYi!J..
light tan Iravelthrough a viKuum or througtl II
medium. White light can b@separated into colon.

READING SKILL
Cause lind EH~t As you
read, i0oi: fOf wIla! calMS
light to be refra<ted,
Electromagnetic Waves
Mechanical waves, such as sound waves,
always need a medium like air or water to travel
through. Electromagnetic waves are wavcs
that can tmvellhrough II medium or th rough
11 vacuum. Visible light, radio waves, gamma

DO •
rays, microwaves, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays,
and x- rays are all examples of electromagnetic
\\,II\'CS. Together, these \\'(1\'($ make up the
electromagnetic spe.::lrum, as show n in the chart
on the facing pOIse.
Different kinds of electromagnetic w,IVCS
hove diffCT(:nl frcq ucl\ciCIJ lind wllvclcnsth,.
Remember that wavelengt h is the distance
betwccn the wave's crests. Frequency is the
number of wavelengths th at pass a given point
per second.
Gamma lIltraviolet Visible Infrared Mi(rowallt' Radio
In"using Wa.el~9th

A Different types of eleCtfomagnetic radiation have different

properties, depending on their wavelengths and frequencies.

Visible light is radiation that other materials. Ozone in Earth's

humans can see. It is in the middle of atmosphere absorbs UV rays. X-rays
the spectrum. Visible light consists of and gamma rays can penetrate most
seven different colors of light. each materials, but are stopped or slowed
with its own range of wa\·elengths. down by thick concrete. lead. or steel.
The Sun and other stars constan tl y
~ CAUSE AND UfUT How do
emit visible light. which is why we
can see them. However, they also e lectrO"""91lelic wave. differ ?
emit all of the other wavelengths of
electromagnetic waves.
Some of these waves can be
harmful to living things. Fortunately,
Earth 's atmosphere blocks many
of the harmfu l x·rays from the Sun.
•
Sunlight reaching Earth's surface
still contains ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. Long exposure to UV
radiation has been proven to cause
skin cancer. That is why you should
wear sunscreen to block UV radia tion
and protect your skin.
Uke sound waves, electromagnetic
waves interact differently with
different materials. Radio waves
can travel short distances through A Different materialS will reflect certai n
most materials. Visible light passes wavelengths of tight and absorb others.
through tran sparent materials, such The apple rellects red wavelengths and
as glass, but can be blocked by most absorbs other wavelengths.

F65
Reflection and Refraction
Electromagnetic waves behave
in different ways when they strike
different materials. Sometimes the
waves are absorbed. Absorbed ligh t
is converted into therm<ll energy.
Oth(>r wavelengths may be reflected.
Reflection occurs when a wave
bounces off of a material. Light
reflecting from objecls is what makes
them visible.
The metal used to co.,t the back
of <I mirror is an example of a
ma t(>rial th at reflects almost all light
tha t stri kes it. When you look at
a mirror, you see <Ill the different Refraction A
wavelengths of light reflected. The Refraction uuses the JH!ncil to apJH!ar
image you see is almost like looking broken. even though it is not.
at the object itself!
Like sound wa\'es, light waves For an example. look at the
IT,wel at different speeds through picture of the pencil In the glass. The
different ma teri<lls. When ligh t waves pencil appears to be broken, although
p<lSS from one material into another, It is not. It appears broken be-cause
they usually ch<lnge speed. This light travels through water and glass
change causes the light to refr<l<l, or at diffel\"nt speeds than through ai r.
bend. Refraction occurs when the 11w lighl wa\'es I\"fract. or bend. as
path of a ligh t wave changes as it they pass from wa ter to glass to air
moves from one material to another. on their way to the tens of the camera
that took the pictul\".
How C.ln refraction be put to good
use? Devices that refract light include
eyeglasses. contact tenses, cameras,
microscopes, and telescopes .
•
... Refl ection
A mirror reflects most 01 the light
coming from an object. The image
you see In the mi rror clo~ely
resembles the object itself.

16 • lesson J
 All of these devices use lenses.
A lens is a curved piece of clear
material, typically glass or plastic,
that refracts light in a predictable
way. Lenses can refract light to create
useful images of an object.
There are many kinds of lenses.
A convex lens is thicker at the center
than at its edges. This type of lens
bends light rays toward one another.
Normal Eyesight
light that passes through the the tens of
an eye is refracted so that it focuses an
image at the back of the eye. or retina.
Corrected Eyesight
Neanightedness
Image forms in hont
of retina
Corrected
A concave lens is thinner at its center.
It bends light rays away from one
another.
By combining convex and concave
lenses in different ways, people can
make all sorts of different devices. For
example, many telescopes use hvo
convex lenses to make faraway obje<:ts
look larger. Microscopes use lenses to
make small objects appear larger.
Your eyes also have lenses. In
an eye with perfect vision, the lens
focuses images onto a structure
called the retina. Sometimes, images
form slightly in front of or behind
the retina, and vision is blurry. The
remedy is corrective lenses, which
bend light rays just enough to focus
the image correctly.
Ii") CAUSE AND EFfECT
correct vision?
Farsightedness
Image forms behind
retina
Corrected
'67
 Total ;nttfnal . tflt<lion prr.of'llb light from
esupingltwough the sides of .. op'CiQI tibe<.
Tha1 is wIIy)'O\l CM\ __ light only " I the end!;
01 the tiben.

Optica l fibers usc 11 special coating

Fiber Optics that reflects light. Light wa\'e5
Reflection of li gh t lies at the heart con tinu ously reflect off Ihe in terior
of an important tcchnology called of the fiber as they travel along it. In
fiber optics. [n fiber optics, spedal this way, the fibers ( an transm itlighl
fibers carty light wa\"es along a over long distances.
flexible cable. ll'Ie technology has
improved communications o\'('r UUSliNDUFHT lM>at property 01
telephones and thc Internet. Doctors light Is used in opticat fi w r$1
usc fiber optics to look down a
patient's throat and into the stomach.
Remember that light typically
travels in 11 straight linc. How can
it follow the looping palh of an
o ptical fiber? The anSW(,T depends
on a property called lotal internal
reflection.
When light strikes th c inner
surfac(' of glass or plasti c, it usually
Pllsses righllhrou gh. Howe ver,
when light s trikes a su rf<lce a t 11 wide
e no ug h angle, it will reflcoct, as if it
hi ts a mirror.

If you look straight down into a lake, you

will see through the water. But look at the
surface at a wide enough angle, and the
light will be reflected. "

X-rars are e.ampl e~ of
electromagnetic waves.
fOlms 01 energy that
can u aveltllrough a
V*<:U\IJIl.
T~ colors that you
see are different
waveleng ths of visible
light . Whit e light
contains all of the
different wavelengths
of visiblt lighl.
Lighl t.\Jl be
transmil1ed. absorbed,
. e/I..:t .... 0< re/facl@<!.
MATH Use a Protractor With a partner, lISe
a mirror to view an obje<:t around a comer. Note
the positions of the viewer, the minor, and th e
object. Use a protractor to measure the angle
formed by the viewer, mirTOt and obje<l
TECHNOLOGY Maku Postrr Find
out how certain types 01mkroscopes or
lelescopes use minors and lenses to reflect and
refracl ligh t. Make a poster Ihal labels the parts
of Ihe device and shows the path of the light.
Review
o MAIN IDEA How are
electromagnetic waves different
Irom me<hanical waves?
6 VOCABULARY Write a
paragraph about lighl USing the
toons reflection and refriKtion.
o READING SKILL: CauSe and
Effect Whilt causes light to
refract? Give an example from
everyday life.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
What might cause an overhead
PfOjector image to be out of
focus? How might you corrKl the
problem?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Analyze
Oata A ma teflars inde. of
refraction indicates how greatly
light is refractl?d by that material.
Bawd on the data below, v.tIkh
material refracts light the most?
Material
,'"...
tnM~
,.•
of Refraction
>.,
Water
"
"" TEST PREP
Electromagnetic wavts di ffe. from
mechanical waves in that they
A. can be reflected.
B. cOlltain less energy.
C. can travel through a vacuum.
D. can travel thrOllQh matter.
IIIIJ Technology
• VISit w_.@<!upta.:e.coml$qlllOfind
out "..,.. about light
READING : Compare and Contrast
= Chapter 16 Review and Test Prep
Voca bulary
Comple te each sente nce wi th a term from the list.
1. The __ 01 a sound is how high Of low it is. _gy F44
2. _ includes all 01 the wavelengths 01eam color. kinetic energy F46
lens F61
1, A rapid back·arllHol'th rnovemrnl is a _
mechanical wowe F52
<A __ requires a medium to tr.wel through. pitdl FS6
5. __ is the abilily to do wOO, potent~1 energy f46

6. Stored energy is called _ reflection f66

refraction F66
7. A __ occurs whef1 a wave OOul"lCes off a material.
nbrMion f~
S. __ is a measure of a sound wave's intensity. visible light F65
9. Energy an obje<1 has due to ilS motion is called _ volume F51
10. __ occurs when the path of light is changed by passing from one
ma terial into another,

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choke.
11 . An example of kinetic tnergy is _ 13. A device that refracts light in a predictable
W~IS _
A. a rod MId above tilt !1ound
8. a txlwstring pulled back A. a mirror
C. a OOntl of oil 8. alms
D . <llllOYing roIiEor CGaiII'f C. an optical rober
D. a tuning fOO:
12. ThemtaI et\efgy an be ~ribed as _
14. WI'Iich 01the' following is part of the
A. potenli<ll energy
elKtromagrK'tic spectrum?
B. the ITOOYefllI'fIt of electrons
C the ~<lt6on of light A. medIaolicai energy
D. the motion of p.Mt~ in manl'f B. potential energy
C. sound waves
D. rildio waves

F12· Chllpttr 16
 Inquiry Skills

15. Analyze What illight of only one
frequency was passed through a prism?
Would it separate into different colors?
Explain your answer.
17. Apply How might you improve the sound
quality in a concert hall where the music
sounds high·pitched and squeaky?
18. 5ynthesize EXjllain why matter is
necessary for sound to travel through.
Where could no sounds be heard?
19. 5equence A golf bilil is dropped in wa ter.
In what way does energy change?
20. Analyze Explain how wavelength relates
to the energy of ele<tromagnetic waves.
Give examples of high· and low·energy
waves.

16. Hypothesize Can a dog see different Performance Assessment

colors? Form a hypothesis. How could you
te~t it? Make a Diagram
Draw a diagram of how transverse and
longitudinal waves travel. Show how differences
Map the Concept in wavelength affe<t pitch in sound waves and
tolor in light waves.
Copy the concept map shown here.
Then enter words into the map from the
list below.

electromagnetic waves
light Two Type,
of Energy
mechanical waves
radio waves
sound waves
water waves
x·rays
ultraviolet waves examples e.amples
LESSON

1
When cold water
splashes over a hot
fire, what happens
to the temperatures
of both?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
From red to yellow to

2 blue, this lamp shade

changes color with
temperature. Different
parts of the shade receive
more thermal energy
from the light bulb.
Read about it in lesson 2.

What Is
Thermal Energy?
Why It Matters...
To shape a piece of metal, a
blacksmith heats it in a fire to soften
it, The metal becomes hot enougll
to glow!
All matter has thermal energy,
which it gains or loses through heal.
As OJ blacksmith knows, heat can
affect the properties of matter.
..
•
PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Inquiry Skill
Measure When you measure,
you select and use app ropriate
tools and units to accurately
describe and compare
organisms, objects. or events.
Materials
• I"r~ plcntio: (OIll~ill~1
• small plastic container
• hot water
• 2 thennometm
• ice cubes
• stopwatdl
Science and Math Toolbox
For step 3. review Using a
Thermometer on page H8.
• .....
•

Melting the Ice

Procedure
o Experiment Fill the large and small
containers with hot tap water. Leave a
little room in each container. Use t he
thermometers to measure the temperature
in each container. Record your
measurements in your Science Notebook.
e Observe Choose two ice cubes that are
about the same size. Carefully place one
ice cube into each container at the same
time and start the stopwatch. Record
how long each cube takes to melt in its
container.
e Measure Measure the temperature of the
water in each container immediately after
its cube has completely melted. Record the
time and temperature.
o Use Numbers Calculate the change
in temperature for each container.
Subtract the temperature of the water
after the cube melted f rom the original
temperature of the water.

Conclusion
1. Analyze Data Explain the difference in the
temperature changes in the two containers.
Design an Experiment
2. Infer What can you infer about the amount Investigate what happens
of thermal energy in each container before if you use two ice cubes or
the cubes were added? hall as much water in each
3. Predict How would the temperature container. Compare your
results with the results 01
change if you used a much larger container
this investigation.
of water?
v af1l by Reading
Thermal Energy
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Thermal energy i~ the tot .. 1 kineti< energy of
heat p. f80 the parti(ie~ thai make lip a substan(e.
temperature p. F78
thermal energy p, F18
Temperature and Thermal Energy
READING SKill All matter is made up of liny p.lTticles, such as
Compare and Contrast
atoms and molecules. These p<lrtides are constantly
How are thermal energy and moving, which mt'ans they have kinetic energy.
temperature related? How Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the
are they different 1 pnrticles that make up a JTh1teriai.
Each cup below contains the same amount of
soup, bullhc cup of hot soup contains much more
thermal energy. This is because the particles of the
hot soup are moving faster than those of the cold
soup. The filstCT particles have more kinetic energy.
Words such as hoi and cold describe
tempera ture. Temperature describes the average
kinetic energy of the particles that make up a
material. The temperature of the hot soup is higher
bei:ause its pMticles have a grelller kinetic energy.

Comparing Thermal Energy

Cold Soup .6. Hot Soup .6.

Slow-moving partid~~ hav~ Fa~l-moving p;tflidt~ h"ve
littl~ kinetk energy. lOIS of kinetk energy.
17 • Lesson 1
 (els iu ~
Thermometers are marked (0e) (Of )
with t('mperature scal5 th1lt are
divided into units called degrees.
The symbol for a degree is a small -~
".
raised circle. The two most widely
used tempera ture scales are the
Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius '~­
...... ~--
' 00 - 1
s<ale. Both are shown on the
thermometer at right.
-.
.

The Fahrenheit s<ale is commonly

used in the United States. This scale,
indicated by th(' letter F, is shown on " - i
the righ t side of the thermometer.
Notice that wa ter frc(!Z5 at 32"F
and boils at 212"F.
Scientists usc the Celsius scale
for measuring temperature. People
also usc this scale in daily life in
most countries around the world.
The Celsius s<ale, indicated by a
C, i ~ ~how n on the left side of the
thermometer. Water freezes at (r'C
and boils at lOO'C.
Many thermometers consist of a
thin glass tube con taining a liqUid,
usually m('rcury or alcohol. R('Call
that most materials expand when
cnergy is added to them and con trac t
when energy is removed. Glass
thermometers usc this property to
indicate temperature.
,---- .
Changes in tempera ture aff('Ct the
level of the liquid in the thermometer.
When thermal energy is added to
the liquid, it expands and rises in
the tube. When thermal energy is
removed from the liquid, it contracts
and goes down. Tempera ture
is indicated by the s<ale next to
the liquid. Temperature
MAIN IOU Compare the properties of water at different
What is temperature? temperatures. What is water like at 23"(

30 cup"
A Although temperature i~ the ~ame in the
small (UP and the large urn, the (o(oa in the
urn has 30 times more thermal energy.
Heat
Thermal energy is often produced
when other forms of energy go
through a transformation. For
example, a large amount of thermal
energy is produced when solar
energy, or sunligh t, strikes obje.:: ts
and warms them. Other sources of
thermal energy incl ude chemical
reactions, friction, and elec tricity.
Look at the large urn of hot
coco., and the cup of hot cocoa next
to it. The cocoa in the cup was just
poured from the urn, so it has the
s.1me temperature as the cocoa in
17 • Lesso n 1
the urn. However, the urn contains
more cocoa, which means it has more
particles in motion. Thus, it has more
thermal energy than the COCo.1 in
the cup.
Thermal energy can move through
ma tter. The movement, or transfer, of
thermal energy from warmer regions
of ma tter to cooler regions is called
heat.
Be<:ause the liquid in the cup has
less thermal energy, it will cool more
quickly than the liquid in the urn.
The liqUid cools as its therma l energy
is transferred as heat to the air, the
cup, and the table.
Before a hot liqUid is poured in to
a cup, the cup will feel cool to the
touch. After the hot liqUid is poured,
the cup will feel warm. That Change
in temperature is a result of the
transfer of thermal energy.
Re.::allthat therm al energy is the
total kinetic energy of the particles
that make up a sample of matter.
Particles of the hot liqUid will collide
with particles in the cold cup,
transferring some of their kinetic
energy to the cup. So. the average
kinetic energy of the particles of the
cup increases. The cup gets warmer.
The liquid loses some thermal energy
and gets cooler.
Just as thermal energy of the
liquid is passed on to the cup,
this energy can be transferred to
all matter in con tact with the cup,
including the air. Eventually, the
liquid, the cup, the air, and the part
of the tabletop touching the cup will
all have the same temperature.
 Thermal energy always travels
from a region at higher temperature
to a region of lower temperature-
from warmer to cooler ma tter_In
the photo below, the snowball has
a lower tempera ture than the boy's
hand. Therefore, thermal energy
moves from the hand to the snowball.
The hand gets cold because it loses
thermal energy. Cold docs not travel ... Hand warmers generate their own thermal
from the snowball to the hand. energy, either from an electrical battery or
from the reaction of chemicals in the warmer.
In the other hand, the pretzel is
What happens to this thermat energy?
the warmer object. Thermal energy
is transferred to the boy's hand.
The hand be<omes warmer. As the
prctzclloses th ermal energy, it cools.
Its temperature approaches the
tempera ture of the hand and the air.

What is heat?

Snow Hot Pretzel

Since the sMlwball is (older The pretzel is warmer than
than the hand, thelmal energy the hand. So. thermal energy
moves from the hand to the moves from the pretzel to the
snow. The snowball gets hand. The hand gets warm and
warmer and starts to melt. T the pretzel (ool~ T

.

Specific Heat (apacity
Different materials heal up at
rliffC«'nt ratcs. For example, if you
placed 10 g of copper and 10 g of lead
in a hot o\'cn for one minute, Ihe lead
would be holler than the COpJX'T.
Look at the picture below. The
wa ter and the concrete walkway have
been exposed 10 the same amount of
sunlight for the Solmc amount of time.
Yet, if rOil wal k across the concrete
lind jump in thc pool. you'll find thai
the water is much cooler than the
concrete. [n fact, on a very sunny day.
the concrete could bum your feel.
Why do the w<ltcr and the
concrete have different temperatures
while receiving the s.1me amounts
of energy from the Sun? Pari of thc
Comp~.~ the specific heat UljHldtiu of
water and concrete. These vailies explain
why the concrete walkway is warmer
than the wattf on a wnny day. ..,
answer is thatlhey have different
specific heat capacities. The amount
of therma l energy it t~kes to raise the
temperature of 1 g of a givCll material
by l"C is called the specific heat
capacity of that material.
Scientists measure all kinds of
(>nergy in uni ts called Joules 0).
The chart below shows tl\(> specific
heat capaciti es for several common
materials. The unit is Joules per gram
and "C.
As you can see, wa ter has a ve ry
high specific heat capacity. [t takes
a lot more energy to heat the water
in the pool than it does to heat the
concrete around it.
Ii} MltN IDU
capacity?

Thermal energy is the
10t,,1 kinetic energy
of the particles that
make up a SIlbstance.
Temperature is the
"ver"~ kinet;( energy
of the particles.
Heat is Ihe transfer
Ofl hermal energy
from warmer 10 (()(lIe'
regions 01 matter,
Different materials
absorb thermal energy
at drfferen t ratt!'S. 1he
amount of energy
nuded to raise the
temperature oil g of
a material by " C is its
spe<:ific hea l capa<ity.
. t TEST PREP
MATH Cal(ulate Look at the table of
specific heat capacities on page Fal. How many
times greater is the specific heat capacity of
copper than that of lead?
WRITING Expository Resea rch the
diS(overies of James Joule, whose experiments
showed that heat is produced by motion, or ~ Technology
kinetic energy. Write a report about his work. iii.
Review
o MAIN IDEA What is thermal
energy? Describe two objects
that have different amounts of
thermal energy.
o VOCABULARY How are thermal
energy and hea t related?
f) READING SKill.: Compare
and Contrast How does the
thermal energy of a tublul 01
hot water compare to that of
a glass of water at the same
temperature? Explain.
O CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
Why (an you quid:.ly become
chilled in a swimming pool, even
if the temperature of the water
is 001)' a linle lower than the air
temperature?
o INQUIRY SKILL: Infer Why
iso', water used as a liquid in a
thermometer?
When an ice cube is placed in a
glass of water, thermal energy
A. Increases.
B, moves lrom the ice to the
water.
C. moves from the water to
the ice.
D. decreases.
Visil www.eduplacuomlscpl tofood
out more about thermal energy.
'B3
 Technology

Do you ever (all a refrigerator an "ice box"? One

hundred years ago. that name was more accurate than it is
today. Before electricity, people kept food cold in cabinets
that housed large blocks of ice. In many cities, workers
delivered ice from insulated warehouses to homes and
businesses.
People's lives changed for the better when electric
refr ige rato rs became available. Refrigerators use a special
substance, called a (oolant, that cycles through tubes on
the inside and o utside of the refrigerator. The ( oolanl
absorbs th erm al energy from the inside of the refrigerator
and releases it to the outside.

Would you believe that Ice was once a

valuable resource1 During winter In cold
pl aces, people cut in and stored it for the
Summer. Sometimes tile ice was shippfllto
warmer plilees in insulated containers.

-
SOCIAL STUDIES

Comprenor
This Is the mOlor of

Outside Heat·
£Xchanging Coils
The (oollWlt loses
tMrm~1 !'IIf' !IY ;tS it
flows through coils
on tile outside of
tile re lrlge'~tor. As
it cools. it condenses
from a !1M to a liquid.

Expansion Valve
Hefe tile coolan t
e.pands ,lnd l RU.oING CHfCK
eYiIpOfates into a Describe the
gas. This prO<:elOS cycle of events
II»o.bs tIIerrn.1 that keep a
energy, KI the relriget'iltOf cold.
cool.n t bt<omes
l. WRIT( ABOUT IT
Compare a
refrigerator to
Inside Heat- an old-fashioned
Exchanging Coils ice box.
Now • cold gas.
Ihe coolant takes 3. TAlK ABOUT IT
up thftmal energy How do you think
from the Inside 01 refrigemors
1M ,efrigftator. The have changed
inside bKomes cold l how people liw 1
 How Does Thermal
Energy Spread?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Sometimes you want things hot, Inquiry Skill
and sometimes you want things (old.
Use Variables When you use
Many devices (ontrol the transfer
variables, you chan ge one
of thermal energy. Some examples
factor of the experiment to
ind ude refrigerators, toasters, hair
see how that chan ge affects
dryers, blankets, ovens, and fans.
the results. The (ont rots of the
eKperiment do not change.

Materials
• plastic knife • low, wide bowl
• stick of buner • hot water
• ru ler • stopwatch
• thin metal rod

Science and Math Toolbox

For step 3. review Measuring
Elapsed Time on page H14.
The Melting Point
Procedure
Safety: Be careful when using hot water.
o Collaborate Work in a small group. Create
a chart like the one shown in your Science :I 16 .", ""'", ....

Notebook.
e Use Variables Use the plastic knife to cut
three equal pats of butter. Use the ruler
to measure distances Cllong the metal rod.
Place the first pat of butter at one end of
the rod. Place the second pat 8 ern from
that end, and place the third pat 16 em
from the same end.
o Experiment Fill the bowl to a height of
3 em with hot tap water. As one group
member holds the bowl in place, carefully
slide the unbuttered end of the metal rod
into the bowl. Cover as much of the rod as
possible with water, but keep the butter
out of the water. St art the stopwatch
when the rod enters the water.
o Observe Time how long it takes for each
butter pat to begin to melt and slide off
the rod.
e Record Data Record the t imes in your
Science Notebook.

Conclusion Design an Experiment

1. Infer Why did the butter pats begin to melt
at different times?
2. Use Variables What part of the experiment
could you change t o test your inference?
Will using cardboard, plastic,
or doth melt a buttE!( pat as
quickly as using a metal rod?
Form a hypothesis. then test
it with an experimefll.
 Tra of
VOCABULARY
(ondud ;on p. f88
Thermal Energy
conductor p. F92 MAIN IDEA Therma l energy is transferred by conduction,
convection p. fS9 convection. and radiation,
insulator p. f92
radiation p. F90
Conduction
READING SKILL Thermal energy is spread, or transferred,
Main Idea and Details through three different processes: conduction,
Complete the graph ic <.:onveclion, and radiation. Transfer of thermal
organizef to show the energy through direct contact is called conductio n.
diffefent ways thE(ma l Conduction occurs main ly in solids, when rapidly
enefgy can be transfefred.
vibrating particles cause nearby particles to vibrate
more rapidly.
Remember that particles in a solid do not move
from place to place, but vibr~te back and forth. As
they vibrate, they collide wi th and pass some of
their kinetic energy to ncarby p.~rtklcs. In this way,
thermal energy can spread throughout a solid object
or among solid objects in contact with each ot her.
In the picture below, thermal energy from the
burner is transferred to the bottom of the pan
through conduction. This happens bcc~use vibrating
particles in the burner pass some of their kinetic
energy to the bottom of the pan. As the process
con tinues, thermal energy is conducted throughout
the pan and into the food it contains. The pan and
its conten ts become warmer.

.. Conduction
Thermal energy from the burner is
transferred through the metal by the
process of conduction. Conduction
happens when partides transfer their
vibrations to neighboring particles.

17 • Lesso n 2
 .. Convection
Curnnh of waler or air
crealed by the process
01 convection are called
convection currl!1'lt!..

Convection
As you have learned, gases and liquids are
not rigid li ke solids. Their particles move much
more freel y. When a ~as or liquid is in conta ct
with a hOi object, it expands and becomes less
dense as ils temper~ture increases. A warmer,
lighter liquid will rise, while Ihe surrounding
cooler, denser liquid will sink.
This process is called convection.
Conveclion is the process for transfer of
thermal energy in liquids and gases.
The aquarium alxwe uses a heater to warm
the water. Water becomes warmer as it touches
the healer, causing it 10 exprmd and rise. As the
warm waler rises to the top of the aquarium,
it carries thermal energy with it. Some of that
energy is transfel'Tl:'d to other water p..'\rticlcs by
collisions. ... Tile llealer allhe bottom of
When the warm water reaches the surface, the balloon creales convection
il continues to lose thermal energy to the currents Ihat fill t he balloon
surroundi ng water and the air. As the waler with hot air, causing it to ' ~e.
cools, it becoml'S denser and sinks. Eventually, i t
reaches the heater and starts the journey again.

How do conduction and conVf'ct ion

compare?

'"
Radiation
Thermal e nergy can also be
transferred by radiation. Radiati o n
is the transfer of energy by
electromagnetic waves. All objects
emit therma l r<ldia tion. Even E<lrth's
pola r ice caps emit a little. Living
things, including your body, emit
some radiation. A hot burner on a
stove emits much more.
When an objec t absorbs thermal
radiation, its particles vibrate faste r.
This increases their kinetic energy
and raises the temperature.
Radiation
The fire emits infrared waves. which
radiate in aU direct ions and warm the
campers. T
Here on Earth, the most importan t
source of radia tion is the Sun. Th e
Sun emits radia tion of differen t
wavelengths. Some are waves of
visible light. O thers are in frared
(ihn fruh REHD) light, which have
a longer wavelength. Most of the
hea ting power of the Sun comes from
infrared radiation.
A campfire is similar in some
ways to the Sun, only on a smaller
scale. Both emi t waves of visible light
and infrared light. After sunset, the
campers will use the fire as a source
of ligh t and heat.
You feel infr,ued radia tion as heat
because the specific wavelengths o f
this radia tion affect the motions of
the particles of your body. Longer
infrared wavelengths cause particles
to move fas ter a nd increase their
thermal energy. Shorter infrared
wavelengthS, such as those used in
The special bulb in the picture emits
infrared light. These light waves heat
the inside of an incubator, helping to
keep newborn animals warm. T
A Ozone In EIIr1h's almosph~r~ blocks som~
of 1M harmful urtraviol~t rays from th~ Sun.
remote control devices, do not cause
particles 10 speed up very much. So,
they do not incl"<'asc thermal energy.
Ail electrom agnetic waves cilrry
energy. Matter can absorb some of
tlK> waves in infr.ued, ultrilviolet,
and visible light. Any waves tha t are
absorbed will add thermal energy to
whate\·er absorbs them.
This is the reason certain colors
of clothing feel warmer or cooler on
a hot summer day. Lighter colors
I"<'flect more solar radi ation than
they absorb. Wearing lighter-co lorcd
clothes will keep you cooler. Darker
colors absorb more solar rildiation
than they I"<'flecl. Wearing darker-
colored clothes on a cold, sunny day
will keep you warmer.
A Sunscreen (iln help
reduce the harmful effects
of ultraviolet rays.
Ultra\'iolel (UV) rays are
electromagnetic waves wi th shorter
wa\'elenglhs thiln visible light. The
rays penetrate your skin and al"<'
absorbed. Too much UV radiation
C,1n cause a sunburn. This is why )"ou
should wear a sunscreen to block out
UV rays.
Fortunately, a layer of ozone in the
upper atmosphere blocks much of
the Sun's UV rilyS. Even so, a certain
amount of the radiation always
passes through.
~I ' t!i ili If' What kinds of infrared
waves are fe lt as heal7

.. The metal spoon transfers thermal
energy better than the wooden
spoon. Me tal is a better conductor
than wood .
Conductors and Insulators
Some materials transfer thermal
energy better than other materials.
These ma terials arc called tOnd uctors.
Mos t solids are better conductors
than liquids or gases. The particles
17 • Lesso n 2
in solids are close together, making it
easier for vibrations to be transferred
from one particle to the next.
Most metals are excellent
conductors of hea t. Other solids,
such as wood, contain "pockets" of
air trapped be tween their particles.
These materials conduct heat at a
much slower rate than most metals.
Look at the spoons in the picture
to the left. The boiling water has a
lot of thermal energy. This energy
gets transferred into both spoons by
conduction. The metal spoon on the
right will soon be too hot to touch.
The wooden spoon on the left will be
warm, but not too hot to handle.
Materials that are poor conductors
of heat arc called insul ato rs. Plastic
is a good insulator. When )'ou heat
water in a pot. the pot and the water
can get ver), hot, but the plastic
handle stays relatively cool.
Air is also a good insulator. In air,
thermal energy is transferred through
collisions between molecules, and air
molecules are far apart.
A bird's feathers trap air,
which adS as insulation.
Some winter coats are
lined with a type of
feather called down .

How do thick blankets and heavy
coats keep you warm in Ihe winter?
They do not keep cold out. They keep
therm al energy from escaping into
the air. Re<:all that thermal energy is
transferred from Wilrmer regions to
colder regions.
Wi thout ~ (0.11, your body heat
would be transferred to Ihe cooler
air around you. You might Wiln! this
on a warm summer day, but not on
a cold winter one. Insulators, such as
coats and blankets, tTilP the thermal
energy that your body generates. This
helps keep you warm.
Houses and buildings are also
designed with hcaltransfer in
mind. In cold places, most houses
and buildings burn natural gus or
use elec tric heaters to WMrn the air
inside. To trap thai energy, walls are
lined wi th pockets of non-moving <liT.
The pockets aCI as insulation.
.. This infrared photo reveals
radiated I!nl!rgy from a hOllsI!.
RI!d arl!as show the most
radiation-places where t he
homeowner might add insulation.
" Keeping windows seall!d
.J---~~ with caulk prevI!nts
heat from escaping.
Fiberglass insulation traps heat
I!ven bl!tter than air. Adding this kind
of insulation can save hundreds of
dollars in energy bills every year.
Glass windows help to heat homes
by transmitting radiant energy. Glass
allows sunlight to pass through into
your house, but it is a relatively poor
conductor of heat. So, much of the
thennal energy stays inside the house.
To increase th e insulating effec t of
a glass window, many homeowners
cover windows with clear plnstic
during the winter. The plastic adds
a lnyer of nir between the house
and the glass. Plastic caulking and
weather stripping can also help seal
the frames of windows and doors.
)J', MAtN IDEA
How dOfls an insulator help
keep something warm?
'93

Home Heating
You won't be surprised to learn
that the mo\'ement of thermal energy
plays an import.,n t role in the way
homes, schools, an d other buildings
are heated. Oifferenttypes of heating
(Ire based on the three types of
thermal energy transfer that you ha\'e
learned about.
Some buildings have rad ia tors,
which are metal structures wi th
ribs. Hot water is pumped through
the radia tors to heat them. Then, as
the name implies, they radiate heat
into the room. Some thermal energy
from the radiator warms the air by
cond uction. However, a cat lying on
a rug in front of the radiator will get
much warmer than the air because of
the radiant energy it absorbs.
Some butldtngs have forced air
heating. This method involves using
a fan to force heated air through
ducts into all parts of a building. The
W(lrm ai r mo\'ing into each room
heats the room th rough convection.
f94 • 11 • Lesson 2
Some heati ng systems involve
more than one type of energy
transfer. For example, the baseoo.1rd
heater shown below uses all three.
First, electricity passing through
the heater warms long rows of thin
metal vanes through conduction.
The vanes then warm the air in the
narrow spaces between them through
radiation. Fina lly, th e warm air inside
the heater expands and becomes less
dense. This warm air exits through
the open space in the frame and rises.
As warm air rises, cool, denser air
moves in to take its place. This cooler
air is then W(lrmed by the baseboard
heater. Eventually, a continuous
convection curren t of warm air is
drculating through the room, and the
room is nice and oozy.
<E'i!!i,i! iJ' How do r~di~lors M~I ~
room7 is only r~d iatiOfl invotved1
This electric baseboard heating
system uses all three forms of
eMfgy transfer.
 -
\.O"on Wrap-Up

Visual Summary
Review
o MAIN IDEA Name and des<ribe
the three ways that thermal
Thermill ~ne.9Y ;~ energy is transferred.
tfan~feffed through
snlids by conduction. a VOCABULARY What is the
In liquids and gases difference betwe€!l cooduction
both conduction and and convection?
convecticm OCCur.
f) READING SKILl..: Main Idea
and Detail s Why 00 some
materials make good conductors
(leClromilgnetic
while others make good
' "di,,'ion 'itn (h .. n~
insulators?
into thermal energy.
Radiation may travel
through empty space.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
How might you determine if
a material is a conductor Of
an insulator!

Condu(!o~ usily o INQUIRY SKILL: Use Variables

transle, thermal ene,gy.
Insula tors transfer
thermal energy poo, ly.
How would you design an
experiment that shows which
of three materials is the best
conductor of thermal energy?
Identify the variables in your
experiment.

~ TEST PREP
Infrared rays emined by a fire are
an example of
MATH Solve a Problem Suppose tha t
adding insulation to a home will cost SJ,OOO, A. radiation.
but will save an average of sa per day in energy B. convedioo.
costs. Determine whether adding the insulation C. insulation.
will result in a net savings over two years.
D. cooduction.
TECHNOLOGY Bea Smart Consumer!
Research different products designed to improve
home insulation, such as window caulking and ~ Technology
weather stripping. Find out how th~ work and 'iii. Visit www.~dupla(uomls(p r to firld
out more about CondUCtion. cor"'e<t>on.
how they help homeowners save money.
and radiation .

'"
READING : Compare and Contrast
= Chapter 17 Review and Test Prep
Voca bulary
Complete each sentence wi th Oil term from the list. You may
use terms more than once.
1. The 1I_ler 01 thermal energy t/wough the mowrnent 01 Oil I~id conduction F88
orgas IS _ conductor f92
2. _ is Itw tJansfer of thermal energy "om warmer legions to (onv~jon F89
cooler regions. he~ F80
insul.ator F92
1 . A material that easily lJansfers thermal energy is atn) _
raeNtion f90
4. The transle!' of lhefmal energy by __ does not rl'qUire matter.
tem~iI1vre H8
s . The average kinetic _gv of me particles in a wmple of matter thermal eMfgy f78
isilS _
6. A material that transfers mermal energy poorly is a(o) _
7. The transfer of ttlermal ef1eJgy 'rom one particle to another is _
8. The __ of a substal1(e may rise as thermal energy is absorbed.
9. Intrared light is a lorm 01_ .
10. The total kinetic energy of the particles of a substance is its _

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choice .
11 . The.-mal fm'fgy is a form of _ 13. Thermal energy is often transf~rro in
gases and liquids by _
A. electrical energy
B. chemical energy A. corwection
C. kinetic: energy B. conduction
D. gamma radioMion C. radiation
D. Plearomagnmc: WiM'S
12. Wheo your skin absofbs too much _
you get Oil sunburn. 14. A good e)(ilmple of a conductOf is _
A. ~iI* light A. aif
B. in"",fd light B. copper
C. UV light C. pLntic: foam
D.~ D. wood

F98· Ch"pter 17
 Inquiry Skills
15. Measure Wha t tool would you use to
measure the average kinetic energy of
particle<; in a sample of matter?
11. Applying Why might damage to the
azooe laye.- in Earth's atmosphere be
dangerous?
18. Synthesizing What coold you conclude
from an experimen t that measured the
temperature of three amounts of the same
substance and showed each to have the
S<l1I1l! tempe-rature?

19. Evaluate How might you decide if a

material would ma ke a good conductor?
Descrille a test you might perform.
20. Analyzing How is (onduction similar to
convection? How are the two processes
different? Give examples to support your
answer.
16. Use Variables Create an experiment that
would test the ability of different materials Performance Assessment
10 prevent heat loss. Identify the variables Make a Diagram
in the eXpe!iment.
Draw a diagram th<lt shows how a simple
(oovectioo current transfe!'s heal through
Map the Concept wate!' in a tea kettle. Label the heat source, the
Write the teons from the Word Bank in their direction that the healed wale!' travels. and what
proper position in the concept majl. happens as it mOlies aloog the current
<onduction
co nductor
convection
insul ator
radiation
"~~~";';"~'~""'f"'~"~'1~~____~~ t,ande'~
poorly

thermal energy

transfers by

I
( )
LESSON
Chemical reactions and

1 magnets can be used

to produce electricity.
How is electricity
produced for your
home and school?
Read about it in lesson 1.

LESSON
For electricity to move

2 in a circuit, it needs a
pathway to travel. How
can you make a circuit?
Find out in lesson 2.

LESSON
Electric appliances

3 convert electrical energy

to other forms of energy.
How do they do this?
Read about it in lesson 3.
 How Is Electricity
Produced?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
Many things use electrieity- Inquiry Skill
from alarm docks to refrigerators to
Collaborate When you
stereos and computers. Electricity tan
collaborate, you work in
be produced in many ways, some of
a team to plan and make
which are better for the environment
investigations, share
than others. Maybe someday you
observations, and consider
will develop new technology for
the ideas of others.
producing or using electricity.
Materiillis
• large plastic foam plate
• wool cloth
• aluminum pie pan
• foam cup
• masking tape
• LED light
Store a Charge!
Procedure
o Collaborate Work with a partner. Tape the
foam cup upside down onto the middle of
an aluminum pan. Bend the two prongs
of the LED gent ly apart ,

e Experiment Place the foam plate upside

down on a tabletop. Rub the plate with
the wool cloth for one minute.
o Experiment Using the cup as a handle,
place the aluminum pan on top of
the foam plate, then litt it off again,
Be careful not to touch the pan itself!
Continue to hold the pan through st ep 4.
e) Observe If possible, dark.en the room.
Holding one prong o f the LED between
your t h umb and indeK f inger, touch
the other prong to the aluminum pan.
Record your observations in your Science
Notebook,
e Repeat step 4. Record your observations.

Conclusion
1. Infer What did you observe when you
touched the LED to the aluminum pan the
fi rst time? How could you explain what you Investigate More! - -
observed? Design an Experiment
2. Compare What d id you observe when you Repeallhe procedure you
touched the LED to t he aluminum pan the used Ie stere a charge using
second time? elhf'f malf'fials. Predict
how eadl matf'fial might
3. ttJPOHitisize Develop a hypothesis to respond. Hew tan you
explain the difference in your observations accounl fCf diffefMCH in
between steps 4 and 5. How could you test the w"'! various matefials
your hypothesis? SICfe charg@s?
v afn by Reading
Electricity
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA Eledritity is the movement of eled.ons
electrk current p. flQ5 from one place to .. nolher. II ';In be produced by
electric generator p. Fl07 transforming other forms of energy.
static electricity p. F1()4
Static and (urrent Electricity
READING SKill
H~ve you ever rubbed a balloon on a carpet,
Text Structure Organ ize
information about the forms
then placed it against a w all? The balloon might
of ele(!ricity dis<ussed in stay on the wall for a minu te or longer! This happens
this lesson. be<:ause of static electricity- an ele(:tric force
between non-moving electric charges.
When you rub a balloon against certain kinds of
carpet, electrons from the carpet will jump to the
balloon. The balloon acquires an overall negative
charge because of the e xtra electrons. Rub a balloon
against plastic, however, and the electrons will
jump off the balloon. The balloon is left with an
overall posi tive charge because it now has fewer
electrons.

Rubbing helps
ele(tron~move from
the carpel to the blue
balloons, which gain
a negative charge.
Electrons move from
the orange balloon
to the plastk, so
this balloon gains a
positive charge.

18· Lesson 1
 Charge Behavior
like
Charges
Repel
The two negatively· charged
balloons repel each other.
Charged objects exert a force on
one another. Two objects with the
same charges repel, or push away
from each other. Study the photo
of the two blue balloons. Both have
a negative charge, so they repel
each other. Two positively....-:harged
balloons would repel each other, too.
Two objects wi th opposite charges
attract, or pull toward each other.
Look at the photo of the blue and
orange balloons. They have opposite
charges, so they attract each other.
Have you ever walked across II
thick carpet, then touched a metal
doorknob? The doorknob might
have given you a slight shock! You
Opposite
Charges
Attract
The negatively and positively·
charged balloons attract each other.
may have even seen a spark. This
is a discharge, or release, of static
electricity. Electrons will move
between you and the doorknob.
Lightning is another example of a
discharge, only on a larger scale.
A discharge of static electricity can
release a lot of energy, but only for a
very brief amount of time. To provide
a steady flow of electric charge, you
nced to create an ele<tric current. An
electric current is a continuous flow
of electric charge through a pathway.
!:) TUT STRUCTURE What is an etect,it
(unent1
FI05

Alkaline battery
Alkali Is anotller name for a
base. tile opposite of an add.
Alkaline batteries ale named
for tile compound used as
an electrolyte.
Batteries and Fuel (ells
A battery contains one or more
electrochemical cells. The cells use
chemical reactions to create an
electric current.
The cell shown here uses
manganese dimdde, powdered zinc,
and a p..1.ste called an electrolyte
(ih LEHK truh Iy t). When wires
connect the bailer)' to a load, such as
a light bulb, the chemical reactions
begin and electric current nows. Zinc
loses electrons, which move through
the brass nail and out the negative
termina l. They tra\'el through the
wires and ligh t bulb, then return to
the positive tenninal. The electrons
are picked up by the manganese
dioxide.
Notice that the cell separates the
zinc and the JTh1.nganese dioxide.
If the two came into con tact, the
electrons would now inside the
ballery instead of through the wires
and light bulb.
Fl06. ellapl e. 18 • l esson 1
posi tive
lellninal
_ _ manganeie
dioxide
"11--- Wp.ilr~ tor
- Hf---- ;uwI
powdered l inc
electrolyte
---tl--- br;tSS nait
~ _ _ ou tt r sleeve
negative
terminal
Eventually either the zi nc or the
electrolyte will be used up. The
chemical reactions will stop and the
battery will no longer work.
Bring used batteries to a battery-
recycling center. Batteries contain
chemicals tha t are toxic to humans
and can harm the environment.
There are many different types of
batteries. Car b.1.tteries usc lead and
acid, and can be recharged for use
over and over again.
In the future, fuel cells may
replace some batteries. Fuel cells
run by combining oxygen and
hydrogen to form water, creating an
electric current in the process. Thei r
advantage is that they keep running
so long as they h.we enough fuel.
NASA space missions have used a
type of fuel cell since the 1960s. The
fuel cells provide both electricity and
drinking wa ter for the astronauts!
Fuel cell technology for e\'eT)·day usc
is still being researched. One problem
is how to supply the hydrogen.
Generator of ,otation
In an electric generator, a
loop of wire is rotated in a
magnetic field, generating
a current in the wire. "

Di,ection ___
The bicycle light is powered by
01 cutren t
a generator. The turning bicycle
magnets _ _ wheel turns the ridged wheel,
providing mechanical energy for
the generator. '"
Making Electricity
What makes the electricity that powers your
home and school? The answer is an electric:
generator, a device th at converts mechanical
kin"tic "n"rBY 10 "Iff! r ical "n"'"tw. A friction
genera tor, such as the one shown on the Solar cells

=,...,
bicycle, converts the mechanical kinetic energy Some roadside signs are
of the spinning wheel into electrical energy. powered by solar cells. "
In an electric generator, a loop of wire is
turned very rapidly through a magnetic field.
This produces an electric current in the wire.
What turns the loop of wire? The mechanical
energy to tu m the wire can come from many
sources, including the turning wheels of a
bicycle. As you will read on the next page, at
electric power plants the energy to turn the
wires may come from burning fossil fu els,
moving water, wind, or even splitting atoms!
Solar cells provide another way to
generate electricity. Solar cells are made of
semiconductors, such as silicon. When sunlight
strikes, electrons are knocked out of silicon
atoms, allowing an electric current to fl ow.
~ TUT STRUCTURE How does a generator work ?

Electric Power Plants
The electricity that powers your
home comes from a power plant. At
almost all power plants, electricity is
made using the S<1nle type of electric
generators. But the energy sources
used to power the generators differ.
Many power plan ts burn coal or
other fossil fuels. The burning co.,l is
used to heat wa ter and make steam.
The steam turns turbines, which are
like large fans. The turning turbines
power electric generiltors.
Hydroelectric power plants use
running wawr to turn turbines. These
plants rely on rh-er dams to channel
the water to the turbines.
Nuclear power plan ts use the
energy found inside an atom! In
a process called nucleM fission,
uran Ium nuclei are split apart_ 1l'le
energy released is used to heat
wa ter and make steam, which turns
18 · tesson 1
turbines just as in a coal-burning
power plant.
Unfortunately, each of these
technologies has drawbacks. Fossil
fuels are limited. Burning them
can pollute the environment.
Hydroelectric dams can damage
ecosystems around them. Spent fuel
from nuclear power plantscreall.'S
dangerous waste.
For these reasons, scientists are
studying alternative energy sources.
Most of these are used to a small
exten t toda y. Windmills harness wind
energy. Solar cells and panels usc the
Sun 's energy, and geothermal power
relics on heat from Earth's interior.
With new technology and fi nancial
support, all these alternatives could
provide the elect ricity of the future.
~ TUI snuctulE What suppl~$ the
kinetit energy to a hydroelectrk power
plant7
HydroeledJic
Power Plant
When water pours through
the gates. the rushing water
turns turbines that power
ele<tr;c generators.
\,O"on Wrap-Up
Review
Visual Summary o MAIN IDEA What is ell'(lric
current?
Obj e (l~ with opposite
chilrges attract eac:h f) VOCABULARY Wr ite a
othe., Objects with statement thai defines the
like charges repel term statk electricity.
each athe •.
9 READING SKill:
TeKt Structure D~(fibe how a
generatOf produces ele<:triciry.
Inside alkaline
batteri es. chemical o CRITICAL THINKING: Apply
reactions release and Describe the advantages and
take up electrons. This disadvantages of using baneries to
can make an ele<lrk create ~ectricity. 'Mry do you think
current. fuel cells are used on the space
shuttle instead of batteri~?

Mechankal kinetic
o INQUIRY SKILL: Collaborat e
energy is converted to Work with classmates to research
electrical energy in a Wind power. geothermal power.
genera tor. Generators or another alternative energy
rotate IOOIH of wire source. Describe its beoefits
through iI magnetic and drawbacks, and how it may
field to produce eleelfie be used in the future.
current.
~ TEST PREP
Fuel celis use _ to produce
electrical energy.
A. zinc and an alkaline
electrolyte
MATH Draw a Bar Graph Which brand of B. ml!(hanical en!!fgy
alkaline battery lasts the longest in a Hashlighl? C. copper and zinc
Design and conduct an experiment to lind out. D. hydrogen and oxygen
Presen t your findings in a bar graph.

TECHNOLOGY Create a Display ~ Technology

Research how solar power is used 10 heat homes '. Visi1 www.~dupla(~.<om'sq,' to lirld
Of generate electricity. Create a di~lay !>hawing out more about electricity.
some of the uses 01 solar power.
 What Is an
Electric Circuit?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
When yo u flip the switch on a Inquiry Skill
lamp, the light (omes on. Plug in an
Record Data Store yo ur
electric heater, and it wi ll radiate
science observations in a f orm
heat in to the room. Push a button on
that wi ll be understandable to
a doorbell, and you hear the chimes.
you and oth ers in th e future.
How do these devices work? All rely
on elect ri c current. Materials
• flashlight banery
• b~n~ry hold~r

· 2 light bulbs and fixtures

. 4 wires

... A (irwit box contains circui t

breakers. which afe designed to
break the connection of an electric
circuit if 100 much current flows
through it .
Light Bulb Circuit
Procedure
o Collaborate Work with a partner to
connect t he battery. wires, and two bulbs,
as shown in the photo. Leave one wire
unconnected.

e Re<:ord Data In your Science Notebook,

draw a diagram of the incomplete circuit.
e Observe Connect the loose end of the
third wire to the negative term inal of the
battery. Observe and record the results.
o Experiment Disconnect one wire from the
battery or a bulb, then reconnect it. Test
the effects of d isconnecting different
wires from the circuit. Record the results.
e Collaborate Take apart the circuit.
Reassemble the parts as shown in the
photo. Draw a diagrorn of the new circuit.
Record your observations.
o Experiment Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the
new ci rcuit. Record your observations.

Conclusion Investigate More!

1. Compare Describe how the l ight bulbs were
connected differently in the two types of
circuits. What effect did th is have on the
electric current?
2. Use Models Which of the two circuits would
be better for power ing appliances in your
home?
Design an Experiment
How would you connect
two batteries to increase the
current flowing through the
light bulbs? How would you
conn€"(t the batteries to have
o~ battery keep the light
bulbs lit if the other battery
failed? Draw diagrams. With
yoor teacher's approval, do
the experiment.
v afll by Reading
Electric
VOCABULARY MAIN IDEA An ele<lrk dn:uit is a pathway for electrons
condudor p. fl13 t o travel. The energy of moving electrons can be changed
electric circuit p. fll2 inlo diffe rent form\, including light, heal, and sou nd .
iMulator p. flU
parallel circuit p. FilS Circuits
series circuit p. F114
To complete a circllit means to s tart at a
switch p. flU
beginning, travel away, then return by a different
voltage p. Fl12
roule. It is related to the word circle.
READING SKILL
Think about a water park ride. The boats s tart
••
• at the high point of the track, flow with the water
Draw Conclusions Use a
graphic organi~er 10 draw down a pathway, then climb to the high point
(onclusions about the way again to take on new passengers. What would
electrkity travels through happen if a section of the ride were blocked o r taken
••
(i r (ui~ away, or if the motor tha t lifted the boa ts stopped
working? The ride would stop because the boats
cou ld not oomplete their circuit.
The pathway for an electric current is called
an electric circuit. The elcctric charges are li ke the
boats in the ride. The battery in the circuit is like
the motor that lifts the boats to the top of the track.
The motor docs work lifting each boat, giving it
higher gravita tional potential energy. The battery
does work to "'lift" each charge, giving it higher
electric potential energy. The amount of electric
potential energy per unit charge is called the
voltage of the battery.

This amusement park

ride is a circuit. A circuit
is a dose-d loop. ~

18· Lesson 2
 Like the boats in the ride, electric
curren t flows only through a certain
path. This pa th for an elKtric current
is determined by substances called
conductors and insul~tors.
A conductor is a substance that
carries elKtricity well. Most wires
used in electric circuits are made
of copper, which is an excellen t
conductor. Other metals make good
conductors, too.
An ins ul ator is a substa nce tha t
does not carry electricity very well.
Plastic is a good insulator, which is
why most w ires are cooted with plastic.
Wood and air are also good insulators.
Do you think water is a better
conductor or insulator? If you chose
conductor, you arc correc t. Electricity
travels quite easily through water.
This is why you should k~p water
away from elec tric applinnces.
When an electric curren t cnn travel
through conductors in a complete
circuit, the circuit is called a closed
circui t. When insulators, such as
wood or air, block this path, the
circui t is called an open circuit.
A simple device called a switch
changes a circuit from open to closed
or from closed to open. A switch is a
movable section of a circuit that can
open or close a path for electricity.
Look closely at the electric circuit
above. When the switch is closed,
electric current flows readily through
the battery, wires, and light bulb.
How does electricity light a light
bulb? In many ligh t bulbs, current
flows through a thin tungsten wire
called a filament. The tungs ten heats
up and glows as it resists the current.
!) DRAW CONCLUStONS Why must you
keep e le<tri< ilppli,m <es ilWilYfrom
showers ilnd swimm in g pools?
 Series Circuit
The photograph shows a closed
circuit tha t includes batteries and
three light bulbs. Notice that you can
trace only one path for the electric
current to follow. If any of the wires
were cut, the entire circuit would
become open. Electricity would stop
flowing and no bulbs would light.
This circuit is an example of a
series ci rcui t. In a se ries circuit, only
a single path for electricity connects
two or more different light bulbs or
other devices. The light bulbs are 5.1id
to be "wired in series."
To open a series circui t, you could
disconnect one of the wires or remo\'e
one of the bulbs from its socket. Or, if
one of the bulbs burned out, curren t
would stop flowing as well.
Series Circuit
These three tight bulbs are wired in a series circuit . Remove one light
bulb• and the ci rcuit becomes open. All three bul bs go ou t Compa re the
cireuit to the sche matic diagram.
F114 • Cha pter 18 • Lesson 2
What would happen if you added
more and more ligh t bulbs in series?
The circuit would remain closed, but
the light bulbs would become d immer
and dimmer. The reason is that the
battery can deliver only a certa in
amoun t of voltage. When the voltage
is divided among many light bulbs,
there is less voltage to push the
currenl lhrough each bulb.
Look at the schematic diagram
of the circuit. The light bulbs are
represented by jagged lines, which
are symbols for resistors. The symbol
for the battery is a group of long and
short dashes.
Diagrams like these are simple
ways to illustrate circuits. They are
used by people who work wi th
circuits, including electricians,
computer technicians, and scientists.
Parallel Circuit
The photograph on this page
shows the Solme three light bulbs and
a battery. But IlOtice that the light
bulbs are wired in a different way.
Each bulb is part of a unique p.lth that
can form a circuit with the ballery.
This is an example of a parallel
circuit. In a parallel ci rcuit. electric
current ca n follow two or mort"'
different paths. The ligh t bulbs in
this example are said to be "wired in
pa ra llel.~
What happens if you disconnect
one of the bulbs from its socket in a
parallel circuit? The other bul bs will
stay lit! The reason is that you opened
only one path of the circuit. not the
paths that connect the other bulbs.
Ught bulbs are also brighter when
connected in parallel than when they
are connected in series. The reason
is that, in a parallel circuit, aU bulbs
recch·e the full voltage from the
battery. Each bulb will be as bright as
if it were the only bulb in the circuit.
The circuits in your home are
arranged in pa rall el, not in series.
When you tum off the switch on a
lamp, only that lamp goes out-oot
all the electrical appliances in the
room!
Even strings of holiday lights are
often arranged in p..l rallel. If they were
arranged in series, aU wou ld go ou t
when a single bulb burned oul.
DRAW CONClUStONS How do parallel
circuits and series ciT(u its differ1

Parallel CirCUIt

I"hHe thrH bulbs are wired in a parallel circuit. R~ one light butb,
and only one part of the cir<uil \)Homes o~. The ollie. two lighl
bulbs r_in liL
 Eleclrical Safety .. tn wall outlets
like this. the ,ed
Electricity can be dangerous.
I I blrtton is t onnected
•
You should insert only the plugs to
•
--
10' special kind 01
electric appliances into household (ir(uil bruker. The
outlels, never anything clse. You button pops out 10
could gct shoc ked! bruk Ihe (i«tlil
and prevent an
Electri city is also dlll"lgerous I I t tK lrit shod.
because i t can change into therma l
energy. This means that lamps and •
other appliances can overhe<lt, as can
current-carrying wires. Acciden tal
fires often s ta rllhis way.
The higher the current flowing
in the same cin:;uit, the more h('al
is producW. To stop circuits from
overhea ting and ca usi ng fires, most
homes use eit her fuses or cin:;uil
breakers.
At the heart of it fuse is a thin
metal strip tha t is p.1rt of ;m electric
Circui t. When too high a CUTrent flows
through the strip, it melts. The circuit
opens as a resu lt.
A circuit breaker works a lot like a
fuse. The difference is that too much
current trips a switch, which in tum (i,(uil brtaokers.espond 10 ovt'~ing
opens the circuit. The advantage of by Ill,owing a swilth 10 break Ihe circuil.
Unlikt lusts,. l!ley t;Jn be used ove, and
circuit brea kers is that they can be
ovel again. "
uS('(! again and again, w hile fuses
mus t be replaced after they stop
electrici ty just once. For this reason,
most new homes are built with circui t
breakers.

What e~nts do
; ;;;; and t irt uit breake rs prevent?

When .Iuse is overloaded, the loogue melt!'

brnking the chui!. The fuse has to be

(~~~~~~~~~~~)
F116. Chapter 18 o wsoo 2 _ __ _ _ _ _ ~'fPIKed to close ~ (ifelli! . •
 Review
o MAIN IDEA Why does an
electric circuit have to be dosed
Cir(uit~ ~r~ unbrok ~ n for it to work?
pathwaY$- Ele(tri<
( ;r(u;t~ must be dosed a VOCABULARY In your own
for elKtricity to flow. words. define parallel circuit.

9 READING SKilL: Draw

Concl usions You plug in a string
Series circuits have only of lights and none of them lights
one pathway for cUllent up. You test the outlet and verify
to follow. Parallel that it works. What might be the
cir(uits have multiple problem?
pathwaY$-
o CRITICAL THINKING:
Evaluate What would you
suggest to a pe!"son who
compla ined about having to
replace fuses all the time?
f o<@<and.orco;t
breakers are designed
o INQUIRY SKILL: Record Data
to break the pathway
How are series circuits and
01 a circuit and prevent parallel circuits similar and
different? Draw diagrams.

~ TEST PREP
Which of the following produces
a Voltage?
A. light bulb
MATH Calculate Voltage In a series circuit,
B. battery
the voltage across the circuit is divided among
the devices in the circuit. If you use a l.s·volt C. wires
battery to power three lights of the same type D. a closed switch
in a series circuit, how many vo lts will each
bulb receive?
~ Technology
SOCIAL STUDIES MakeaPoster , . . Visit www.eduplacuomlscplto liM
Research the inventions and discoveries of oot more aboot eleark dr(Ui~ .
Thomas Edison, the inventor of the light bulb.
Make a poster explaining one of his inventions.
 Readers' Theater

Versus
What is the best way to provide electricity to a city?
The yea r is 1884. Th omas Edison is abou t to greet a new
employee named Nikola lesla. Soon the two great scientist s
will have a power stru9gle- a struggle over power sources,
that is.

Characters
Narrator
Thomas Edison:
Am~ri(an scientist inwntOf,
and fOOOMI .fG.~"."'o<';<

Serbian scientist and

rival of Edis.on
George
Westinghouse :
American l(ientist
and businessman

Narrator: Thom<lS Alv<l Edison
invented the light bulb, the phonograph,
the microphone, and m<lny other
products that use electricity.
Edison: Some might call me a genius.
But as I always say, genius is 1 percent
inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.
Narrator: Nikol<l Tesla was another
great scientist of Edison'S time. [n the
year 1884, Tesla immigrated to the
United St<ltes from Serbi<l <lnd began
working for Edison.
Edison: What do you think of New
York City, Mr. Tesla? Electricity is
available here to the general public,
th<lnks to me and my company.
lesla: That is truly wonderful, Mr.
Edison, except ...
Edison (upset): Except what?
lesla: So many wires carry the
electricity, Mr. Edison, and they are so
huge. They sag from pole to pole.
Edison: Well, I'm afraid th<lt can't be
helped. The wires carry a great deal of
electrici ty. If they were thinner, they
would overheat.
lesla: The wires carry direct current,
don't they?
Edison: Yes. OC, we call it. The
electric current moves directly along
the wires, in one direction. [ invented
the system myself.
READING
lesla (/IlOllg/II/lIl1y): Hmmm , .. I
wonder if the city could be powered
by electric current that moves back
and forth.
Edison: Are you suggesting
alternating current, or AC? Don't
make me laugh!
lesla: Why is that so ridiculous? With
AC, current could travel farther and
waste less energy. That would make it
less expensive.
Edison: Spare me that nonsense!
No one's complaining. Besides, no one
has figured ou t how to make a reliable
AC motor.
Narrator: In fact, Tesla already had
an idea for such a motor. But Edison
had heard quite enough about
Tesla's ideas. Every conversation
between th e two scien ti sts led to
argument. Finally, Tesla decided to
quit Edison's company.
l esla (to hilll5elfJ: That bullhe<lded
Edison. He wouldn't know a good idea
if it bi t him on the nose. But what wHl
I do now?
Westinghouse (I'utering): No need
to worry, Mr. Tesla! For years I've been
looking for ways to use alternating
current. ['II buy your AC devices for
my company.
lesla: Why, I can use the money to
open my own labor<l tory!
 Narrator: So which system would Tesla: My system is just as safe, it costs
prove to \)(' the better way to power less, and it requires far fewer electrical
cities: Edison's direct current or Tesla's wires. Our cities won't look like they're
alternating current? caught in giant spider webs!

Edison: The answer is obvious. My Narrator: In 1893, both Edison and

system came first, it's safe, and it has Westinghouse bid to supply electrical
my name on it. power to the Columbian E:o:posi tion,
a huge fair in Chicago, Illinois.

These Ih ick
wires provided
DC eledrk ity
Ih.oughoullh
ci ty. The wires
sagged from
pole 10 pol _
especially during
a snowy win ter.

( fll0. Chapter 18 · Lesson 1 )

 World's Columbian Exposition
I World's First
Edison: I'll power the entire fair for
one million dollars. I'll string heavy
copper wires all over the fairgrounds.
Westinghouse: With Tcsla's system, we
can power the fair for half that cost-
and without a heavy web of wires!
Narrator: Not surprisingly, Tesla and
Westinghouse won the rights to power
the fair. They also ran a booth at the
fair, and Tesla impressed visitors with
demonstrations of AC electricity.
Edison: Hmmff. What about me?
Narrator: Well, your demonstrations
didn't go so well.
Tesla: Don't feel bad, Mr. Edison.
You'll always be remembered for your
many accomplishments.
Ferris Wheel
Edison (WIder /I;S brratll):
Whippersnapper. Ah well. Back to
the drawing board.
Narrator: A short time later, AC
generators were chosen for a power
plant in Niagara Falls. In 18%, Buffalo,
NY, became the first city to be totally
w ired for AC. Today, Tesla's AC system
is the standard all over the world.
Sharing Ideas
1. RE.t.DING CHECK Why was the Columbian
Exposi tion important to Westinghouse
and Tesla?
2. WRITE ABOUT IT What were the
advantages of Tesla's AC system?
3. TALK ABOUT IT Discuss the con met
betw~n Edison and Tesla. Does it remind
you of conflicts today?
 How Do People
Use Electricity?
Why It Matters ... PREPARE TO INVESTIGATE
When yo u pluck the st rings on an Inquiry Skill
electric guitar, the vibrations of the
Predid When you predict, you
strings are sensed by elect ric pickups,
use observat ions, patte rns,
The pickups send signals to an
data, or cause-and-effect
amplifier and speakers. Making music
re lationships t o ant icipate
is just one of co untless ways people
use electricity in daily life. results.

Materials
• I1ld~ti( p!Op~lIer
• motor
• • switch
• I.S-volt banery
• battery holder
• 3 wires

, •• » ,. oj .

'~
 - "
" ' 'i i

Motorized
Electricity
Procedure
o Collaborate Work in a small group. Attach
the propeller to the axle on the motor.
Make sure that the switch is in t he off
position. Then make a circuit using the
battery, switch, motor, and three wires,
Use the photo as a guide.
e Observe Hold the motor SO the propeller
can turn. Turn the switch on. Observe
the response of the motor's propeller.
In your Science Notebook, record your
observations.
e Experiment Turn the switch off to stop
the motor. Disconnect the wires that are
attached to the battery and reattach them
to the opposite battery terminals.
• Observe Turn the switch back on. Observe
the response of the motor's propeller.
Record your observations.

Conclusion
1. Compare What change did you notice in
the response of the motor's propeller?

2. Predid What would ch ange, if anything,

if you reversed the order of the switch and
the motor in the original circuit? Explain
your answer.
Investigate More!
Be an Inventor What else
could be attached to the
motor's axle? Invent a device
that is useful. entertaining.
or artistic Draw a diagram
to show your de$ign.
v afn by Reading
VOCABULARY
('I('clrk mot or p. f1l6
READING SKILL
Cause and Effect Use a
dia9ram like the one shown
to show cause and efie<t in
an elffl.;c mOIO!".
DO
Telegraph key A
The monitor on the computer
,onvert~ electrical energy
into light energy. The disk
drive converts electrical
energy to kinetic energy to
spin the drive. ~
Electricity
MAIN IDEA Eledritill energy is transformed into
light, mechank,,1 energy, and thermal energy for
a variety of everyday use$.
•
•
••
Energy Transformations
One of the first popular eledric devices was the
telegr~ph machine. To send messages, a telegraph
operator used a simple switch, called a key. The
switch was connected to a circuit tha t spanned
long distances. Pressing down on the swi tch closed
the ci rcuit temporarily. At the other e nd, some
re<:civcrs used a poin ter Inn! moved back and forth,
converting the elcctrical energy to kinetic energy.
Other receivers used a buzzer.
Both typE'S of receivers used electromagnets
to convcrtthc electrical cnergy into a nothcr form.
The buzzer made its sound because an electromagnet
rapidly vibrated a pie<:e of metal against anothcr
ma terial. The pointer was also opera ted by an
electromagnet.
 Look at the headlamp the studen t
picturro on the right is wearing. It
consists of a simple series circuit made
from a battery, a switch, and a light
bulb. The filament in a light bulb
resists the now of current. As a result,
the fi lament heats up and gives off
light. Electrical energy changes into
light and thermal energy.
The hai r dryer also con\'erts
electrical energy into thermal energy.
Coils of thin wire inside the hair dryer Radiant Energy
resist the electric current. The coils The light bulb in the headlamp converU
are made of an alloy, or mix ture, of electrical energy into light-radianl energy.
nickel and chromium, This material
has very high resis tance.
The coils pnxluce a lot of therma l
energy as current nows through
them. A fan Ihat com'erts electrical
energy into mechanical kinetic
energy pushes the hOlnir out of
the hair d ryer. Switches on Ihe hai r
dryer allow the user to va ry the
temperature and the airnow.
The saw also converts electrical
energy into mechanical kinetic Thermal Energy
energy. It has a switch for varying the The hu ting (oils in the hair drye< convtrt
speed of the saw. The switch works electrical energy in to thermal enelgy.
by changing the vol tage to the electric
motor in the S<ll\'. When pushed <I
li tt le, Jess voltage is applied to the
motor. Less current nows and the
motor runs at a lower speed. When
the switch is pushed all the way. the
full \'oltage is applied. More current
nows and the motor runs faster,
1"") UUS! AND EffECT
Why does a light
bulb filame nt g low?

Mechanical Energy
The 5aW \ISH a mOIOI to convert t lectriul
energy inlo mechaniul kinetic entl"gy,

Electric Motors
An electric motor changes electricJI
energy into mechanical kinetic
energy, To do this, a motor uses both
an electrom.1gnct and a permanent
magnet. Thanks to clever construction,
the poles of the electromagnet
constantly e~changc positions, which
allows it to keep spinning.
The diagram shows the parts of a
DC motor, meaning a motor that runs
on direct C1.lrrent only. Here is how it
works:
"The a~1e holds a kind of fr.1nlC
called an armature. "The armature
includes a set of coils wound around
a me!.ll rod, Also attached to the a~le
is the commu tator, which is a pair of
springy metal pieces with small gaps
between them. The commutator is
connected to the COIls of the armature.
Resting on the commutator are
brushes, wh ich are connec ted to the
molor's power supply.
When current is supplied to the
motor, the currenl flows through the
F1 26 . Chapter IS · Lesson 3
brushes, lhe commutator, and the
coils of the armature. This m.lkcs the
armature act as an electromagnet. The
poles of the permanent m.lgnet repel
like poles of the electromagnet. This
causes the armature to rotate half a
tum, bringing the like poles closer
together,
The armature continues to rotate
because of the gaps in the commutator.
The gaps are positioned where the
magnets attract each other and
would stop the motion, The gaps
break the circuit, briefly turning the
electrom.lgnet off.
When the commutator contacts
the brushes again, its two metal
pieces receive the opposi te polari t)'-
This reverses the current through the
coils, which !l'\'erses the poles 01 the
elcctrom.lgnct. "The armature completes
the other half tum.
Different motors drive each
set of whHIs. This allows the
wflttlchair to turn or moV('
st raight. ~
 How Electricity Reaches Your Home
High voltage
power lines
Transformer
L Step-down
transformer
Power Distribution
Lar~e ~ener<ltors <I t power pl<lnts
produce the electricity that tr<lvels
to your community. This often is <I
long journey, sometimes covering
hundreds of kilometers.
Electric power can be lost to he<lt.
This is why long-distance power lines
carry electricity <It low current but
very high voltage, as high as 500,000
volts or more. Such wires typic<llly
are strung high nbove the ground,
as they are dangerous if touched or
disturbed.
To raise or lower voltage, power
companies use devices c<llled
transformers. A step-up transformer
increases the voltage. This is done
(IS electricity le<lves the power pl<ln\.
A step-down transformer lowers
volt<lge. Volt<lge is lowered before
entering your home.
Step-up
[f you look up at a power line in
your neighborhood, you may see
a drum-shaped can. This houses a
step-down transformer that reduces
the vOllage to 240 volls, the level that
enters your home.
[n homes in North Americ(l, most
household appliances, including
televisions, lamps, and computers,
run on 120 volts. However, m(ljor
appliances such as water heaters,
clothes dryers, and air conditioners
run on 240 volts. Household circuits
C<ln be wired either to the 240-v01l or
120-voll supply.
~ CAUSE'NDEFHCT Why do power
plants distribute eled rid ty at hig h
voltages?
 Review
o MAIN IDEA What are two ways
that electrical energy is converted
Elewic devices work to other forms of energy?
by converting elewical
energy into other 6 VOCABULARY Write a short
form~ of energy. such paragraph explaining how an
as th ermal. light. and electric motor works.
me<:hanical energy.
9 READING SKILL: Cause and
A motor converts Effect Electricity can be changro
e lewicat energy to into radiant eoergy. thermal
me<:hanical energy by energy. and mechanical energy.
using the properties Give examples of devices that use
of magnets and each kim:! of change.
electromagnets.
o CRITICAL THINKING: Analyze
Electr;c power plants If you buy a te levision Of
produce ele<:tri(;ty computer in another cou ntry. why
that is distributed over might you have trouble using it in
power lines. the United States?

() INQUIRY SKILL: Predict

for Home
and School
MATH Ratios A pole transformer reduces
the voltage from the power line from 7.200
volts to 240 volts. Write a ratio in simplest form
to describe the reduction in voltage.
WRITING Narrati ye Write about the
ways that electricity is part of your daily life.
Include at least four examples.
A student builds a motor from a
kit. but wraps the coils of wire
much rTlOfe loosely than the
instructions suggest. How would
the motor be aHected? Explain.
~TEST PREP
The parts of a motor that are
attached to a battery are tile
A. commutators.
B. armature-s.
C. brushes.
D. permanent magnets.
~ Technology
~ V~it www.eduplace.comls<p/l0 find
01.1\ more about how electrical power is
produc!<l.

18 · Lesson 3
 Acoustical Engineer
The next time you enjoy the music at a
live concert, give some of the credit to the
acoustical engineers. These professionals
are experts in sound. They help design
" (Oncert halls, theaters. and auditoriums.
Acoustical engineers may also work to
blod<. out sounds. They design features in
COIfS to block road noise. They also find ways to reduce noise from
airports and construction sites.
What It Takes!
• A degree in engineering or physics
• An understanding of architecture and electronics
related to sound production

Gaffer ....................... .
Special lighting effects thri ll audiencE'S
of movies, television shows, and plays.
They are created by electricians
known as gaffers. Gaffers work with
light fixtures, color fillers, and many
other kinds of equipment. They
sometimes set up portable electrical
generators and transformers at
remote filming locations, such as a
desert-far from any commercial
power source.
What It Takes!
• In some places, being a licensed
electrician
• An understanding of electricity
and electrical equipment related
to lighting
• Art istic talent and judgment
 Crackle! Flash! Those wool socks you just
pull.d out of the drier ara full of Imbalanced
electrical charges. Pull them apart In a dark room
and watch the sparks fly!
Believe it or not, lightning itself is an uample of
statit:. electrldty. The big difference 15 size. A single
bolt of lightning carries enough electrical currant to
light up a small dtyl
Like static electridty in your home, lightning is
produced by a build-up of charge. Parts
of a thundercloud bacoma positively
or negatively charged. A statit:. charge
jumps from one part to another, or
down to the ground. Ba-booml
From sparks in your socks to
flashes In the sky, It's all static
discharge.
READING : Compare and Contrast
= Chapte,18 Review and Test Prep
Vocabulary
Complete each sentence wi th a term from the list.
1. A{n) __ C~ electrical Mel'9\' to mrchanical energy. (ond&Ktor fIn
2. A(n) __ is a subslance that carries electriciry well. el«tric tinyi! FlU
eledric cUtTen! FlO'S
l , All electricallOfCt bttwHf1 nonmoving charges is called _
fiKtric g@llerator fl01
4. A(n) __ call be used to open and dose an tI«tric {ileui!. t'Ieoctric: motor F126
5. A (irruillhal is wired in ooe dirK! pathway is a(n) _ inMlliJtor Fl \3
6. Electric potential energy per unit charge is called _ parallel circuit Ftl S
$(Ories circuit f 114
1. A flow of ~Ktri< charges moving tlvough a pathway is Uliled _
statk elKtritity fl04
8. FQr electricity to flow, wires must complete a ckMd _ switch FI13
9. A(n) _ cooverts mechanical energy to electrical erlergy. vohage f112
10. A(n) __ has mul tiple pathways throogh which electricity can ~ow.

I Test Prep
Write the letter of the best answer choke.
11 . A __ is used to raise or lower voltage. 13. A __ doe!; not use a turbine 10 operate a
generator.
A. gl'lMfator
8. motor A. too (Pil
C. translOl'llle'l' 8. hydroelectric dam
D. " "
C. windmil
D. nuclear reaeta'

12. Aln) _ is a material tMt conducts 14. A __ is a dl!vice that breaks a circuit.
electriOty poorly. when the CUlTffll bKClI'MS too high .
A."""""
B. substation
c. motor
. ""
B. switdl
C. wire
D. iMulalor D. transfonne-r

F132 • Chapter 18
 Inquiry Skills
15. Compare Describe ~imilaritie~ and
differences between series circuits and
parallel circuits. U~e the diagrams below
a~ a reference.
Critical Thinking
17. Predict Fos~il ruel~ are the main ~OUI(e
of energy used to produce electricity. What
might happen when fossil fuels are used up?
Are tIlere alternatives? Uplain.
18. Apply How might you improve a set of
clecorative lights that are wired in series,
so that tile rest of tile lights would stay on

± if one of them went out? What would be a

possible disadvanta~ of doing that?

t 19. Evaluate Are fuses a necessary part of

a household electric circuit? What are the
al ternatives? Explain.
parallel
20. Analyze What are the parts of an electric
16. Infer You reach out to shake someone'~ motor? Describe what they do.
hand and feel a static electric spa rk. What
can you infer abou t the charges on you Performance Assessment
and on the otller per~on? Make a Diagram
Draw a diagram to explain how a ~nerator
Map the Concept works. Add labels and a caption to the diagram.
Write the term~ below where tIley belong in the
concept miljl. Doe of the term~ can be used twice.
circuit electricity
electric cell parallel
electric current series
electric generator static electricity
 ' UNIT F Review and Test Prep

Write the letter of th e beu answe r.
1. Which is the best title for the diagram
below?
4. Which sound wave will produce tile
loudest sound with the JOWl'S! pitch?
A.

+
s.
J'VVV\.
A. open circu it C. WaYfl

B. seril'S circuit
C. pafailel circuit
D. circuit switch D.
NVV\ _.
2. Jane made an elearomagnel with a 5. A molO!" uses the properties of magnets
I.S volt battery, a nail, and some wire. and electromagnets to convert _ __
Which is MOST likely to illCrease the
A. elecnical eflefgy to magnetism.
magnet's strength?
B. magnetism to mE'(hanical ef1ergy.
A. using a 1TH.Id11onge.- nail
C. medlanical erwrgy to tlKtrkal energy.
B. adding a switch 10 !he circuit
O. electrical ffierg'f 10 mechanical ~.
C. adding lTlOfe coils of wire to the nail
D. using a nail with a grealtf diametef 6. Which power'geoefating ledinology
produces both electricity "lIld water?
3. Ey~lass lenses work because
01 _ _ A. solar cell s
B. fuel cells
A. atKorption.
C. geotherlnill power
B. reflection.
D. alkaline batteries
C. refraction.
D. total internal reflection.

FU4. U~
7. The handle of a spoon ge~ hot when till'
bowl 01 till' spoon sits in some hoI ~.
Whkh method 01 themlal ro~gy transf~
explains why?
Answer the following in complete
sent enCei.
, . A ball rolling aU05S a grass lawn slows
down and evefItually stops. Why is this
NOT a violation of Newton's First law?

10. On a hot day. yOl! are standing at the edge

01 a pool. The concrete beneath your feet
is WfY warm, but the wat~ in till' pool is
cool. El:;lIain this in tffiltS of spKiflC heat
A. radiation capacily.
B. convection
C. irool.ltion
O. conduction

8. Which playground tquipmrot is an

example of a wheel and axle?

A.~·

e.

c.

D........_ "
 You're standing in a forest at night , and it's so dark that you
clln't even see your own hand. Yet when you look t hroug h special
gogg les, sudden ly you ca n see the trees all arou nd you . In o ne
t ree, yo u spot an owl slaring back at you. Welcome to t he world
of night vision !

Image-inte nsifier tube

Night-vision goggles
work by applying a
high voltage to an
image·intensifier tube.
The added energy and
special plates allow a
few photons of light
to be multiplied many
limes..

All night·vision equipml'flt needs some source of light, el'1!fl if it is very faint.
SOme equipment indudes an infrared light built onto the glasses ()( eyI! scope.
Infrared light cannot be set'I1 by an unaided eye. oot It can pr~ l'flOUgh light
to allow tilt night·vision equipment to work .
Leilrn mort .. bout seeing in the dark. Go to www.eduplacuomIS(pllo
set txa~ of how nMjn·vision ledInoIot,w is being IMd in evefyday life.
Science and
Math Toolbox
Using a Microscope .......................... H2
Making a Bar Graph ........•......•......... H3
Using a Calculator ................. • • ........ H4
Finding an Average ................. . • ....... HS
Using a Tape Measure or Ruler . . .. .. .• .. ....... H6
Measuring Volume .................•......... H7
Using a Thermometer . .. .. . .. . .. . • •• • • .. . .. . . H8
Using a Balance ............................. H9
Using an Equation or Formula ................ H10
Making a Chart to Organize Data ...... • •...... H11
Reading a Circle Graph ...................... H12
Making a line Graph ........................ H13
Measuring Elapsed Time ........ ..... • •...... H14
Measurements .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .• .. ..... . H16

• f'

"'
 Using a Microscope
A microscope makes it possible to see very small things
by magnifying them. Some microscopes have a set of lenses
that magnify objects by different amounts.

Examine Some Salt Grains

Handle a microscope carefully; it can break easily.
Carry it firmly with both hands and avoid touching the lenses.

--''Y'" ;''' tube

o Turn the mirror toward a source
of light. NEVER use the Sun as a
light source.

e Place a few grains of salt on the

slide. Put the slide on the stage of
the microscope.
focus
adjustment
knob
o Bring the salt grains into focus. Turn
the adjustment knob on the back of
the microscope as you look through
the eyepiece.
_ _ mirror

o Raise the eyepiece tube to increase

the magnification; lower it to
decrease magnification.

- - - mkroscope slide

• S(ien(e and Math ToolboK

Making a Bar Graph
A bar graph helps you organize and (om pare data.
For example. yoo might want to make a bar graph to
compare weather data for different places.

Make a Bar Graph Snowfall

of Annual Snowfall atr Su"rt.IICcm)
For more than 20 years, the cities listed Atlanta, GA ,
in the table have been re<ording their yearly Cha.le1 ton. SC '-,
snowfall. The table shows the average Houston. TX ,
number of centimeters of snow that the Jackson. MS 1
cities receive each year. Use the data in New O<luns, LA •.,
the table to make a bar graph showing Tucson, At. 1
the ci ties' average o!Innual snowfall.

I . Title your graph . The titl e !.IIould

hel p a reaM' understand wIIat
your graph deK ribu.

2. ChOOHe a S(ale ""d "",rtr. equal

Intervals. The ~rliul scale should
Include the lust value oVId the
9.eatHt ulue in the se t of .uUI,

1. ubfl the ~.tiUol ..is Snowfilll ~ • -• - , • >

• •.!• i I 1 -~
(em) and thot hori~ont" pis Ciry. <
SpMe the city M InH 1!'qU.lty.
>
< r

4. C;lrelu'l~ gr ..... the ~UO.

u
I
Depending on thot ;"It..... you City
choose, some ilmOUnU ..... ~ be
betWHn two numOtrs..

[ 5. ChI!(. tad! sttp of ~our work , 1

Using a Calculator
After you've made measurements, a calculator
can help you analyze your data. Some calculators
have a memory key that allows you to save the
McNItt.
_C_
Rainfall

result of one calculation while you do another. ""

'ob.
'"
us
Mar. 98
Add and Divide to Find Percent
The table shows the amount of rain that was
collected using a rain gauge in each month of one
..,
Ap<. m
.
year. You can use a calculator to help you find the
'OM
July
",
total yearly rainfall. Then you can find the percent ,,,,. ".
of rain that fell during January. Sept.
o Add the numbers. When you add a series of
numbers, you need not press the equal sign
Oct.
"
unti l t h e last n u mber i) entered.
the plus sign after you enter each number
Ju~t press
Nov.

"". '"
lOB

(eKeep! the last),

e If you make a mistake while you are entering

numbers, press the clear en try (CEIC) key to
erase your mist ake. Then you can continue
entering the rest of the numbers you are
adding. If you (an' t f ix your mistake, you can
press the (CElC) key once or twice until the
screen shows O. Then start over,

o Your tot al should be 1, 13 1. Now dear the

calcu lator until the screen shows O. Then
d ivide the rainfall amount fO( January by the
total yearly rainfall (I , 13 1). Press the percent
(%) key. Then press the equal sign key.

214 1131

The percent of yearly rainfall that fell in

January is 18.921309, which rounds to 19%.
Finding an Average
An average is a way to describe a set of
data using one number. For example, you
could compare the surface temperature of
several stars that are of the same type. You
(ould lind the average surface temperature
of these stars.

Add and Divide to Find

the Average
Suppose scientists found the surface
temperature of eight blue-white stars to
be those shown in the table. What is the
average surface temperature of the
stars listed?

o First find the sum of the

data. Add the numbers in
e Then divide the sum
(53,800) by the number of
the list. addends (8).
7.200
.,00
.,00 -"
6.550
USO
6,800 -""20
1.500
+ 6,300 -"
53,800
-""o
o 53,800.;. 8 :: 6.725
The average surface
temperature of these eight
blue-white stars is 6,72S· F.
Using a Tape Measure
or Ruler
Tape measures, metersticks, and rulers are tools for measuring
length. Scientists use units such as kilometers, meters, centimeters,
and millimeters when making length measurements.

Use a Meterstick Use a Tape Measure

o Work with a partner to fjnd
the height of your reach.
o Use a tape measure to fjnd
the circumference of, or
Stand fating a chalkboard. dist',lnce around, your
Reach up as high as you can partner's head. Wrap the tape
with one hand. around your partner's head.

e Have your partner use chalk

to mark the chalkboard
e Find the line where the
tape begins to wrap over
(It the highest point of itself.
your reach.

o Use a metersticK to measure

your reach to the ne(lrest
o Record the distance around
your partner's head to the
centimeter. Measure from nearest millimeter.
the floor to the chalk mark.
Record the height.
Measuring Volume
A graduated cylinder, a measuring (UP, and a beaker are
used to measure volume. Volume is the amount of space
something takes up. Most of the containers that scientists
use to measure volume have a scale marked in milliliters (ml ).

A This measuring cup 11M " 'hi~ beaker hitS marks A This g.;Jodual~d
ma,b for each 25 mL fOfuch SO mL ()'Iinde. ho» marls
fo, every' mL.

Measure the Volume of

a Liquid
o Measure t he volume of some juice.
Pour the juke into a meamring
(ontainer.

e Move your head so that your eyes

are level with t he top of the juice.
Read the scale line that is dosest t o
the surface of the juice. If the surface
of the juice is curved up on the sides,
look at t he lowest point of the curve.

o Read the measurement on the scale.

You ca n estimate the value between
two lines on the scale to obtain a
more accurate measurement.
bo"';" 01 tile
curw is a t 35 mL
Using a Thermometer
A thermometer is used to measure temperature.
When the liquid in the tube of a thermometer gets warmer,
it expands and moves farther up the tube. Different scales
can be used to measure temperature, but scientists usually
use the Celsius scale.

Measure the Temperature

of a Liquid
o Half fill a (UP with water or
another liquid.

o Hold the thermometer so that the

bulb is in the center of t he liquid,
Be sure t hat t hen" are no bright
lights or direct sunlight shining
on the bulb.

o Wait until you see the liquid in

the tube of the t hermometer stop
moving. Read the scale line that is
closest to the top of the liquid in
the tube. The thermometer shown
reads 22' C (about 7, · F).
Using a Balance
A balance is used to measure mass. Mass is the amount
of matter in an object. To lind the mass of an object, place
the object in the left pan of the balance. Place standard
masses in the right pan.

Measure the Mass of a Ball

o Check that the empty pans are
balanced, or level with each
o Place a ball in the left pan. Then
add sta ndard masses, one at a
other. When balanced, the t ime, to the right pan. When th e
pointer on the base should be pointer is at t he middle mark
on the middle mark. If it needs again, each p;;in is holding the
to be adjusted, move th e slider same amount of matter, and the
on the back of the balance a same mass.
little to the left or right.
o Each st andard mass is marked to
show its number of grams. Add
the number of grams marked on
t he masses in the pan. The total
is the mass of the ball in grams.

• 1iI
Using an Equation
or Formula
Equations and formulas can help you to determine
measurements that are not easily made.

Use the Diameter of a Circle to Find Its Circumference

o Find the circumference of a
circle that has a diameter of
Th~ circumference
(e) i5 ~ meawlt
10 ern. To determine the 01 tM distance
circumference of a circle, 10 em
"round" circle.
use the formulil below.

C = 'TId
C_3.14 x ID em V The diameter (d)
01<1 circle is a
line "1IlMflt tt..t
C:31.4cm passes 111,ougll
the untt' 01
The circumference of this (ire Ie is 31.4 em. th e circle Md
connects two
il the symbol for pi. Always 1M 3.14 as the
1'\" points on the
val\lt for ", unlMs anotller value 10 r pi is given. ,i,de,

Use Rate and Time to Determine Distance

o Suppose an (lir(f()ft travels at 772 kmlh
for 2.5 hours. How many kilometers
d~ distance

does the aircra ft travel during that r"' .ate, or tilt spHd at wIIlch
t ime? To determine distance traveled, tilt air<ralt is traveling,
use the distance formula below,
r " tile le"glll of time traveled
d=rt
d .. 772x2.5km
d = 1,930 km
The aircraft travels 1,9]0 km
in 2.5 hours.
Making a Chart to
Organize Data
A chan can help you record. compare,
or classify information.
Organize Properties of
Elements
Suppose you collected the data
shown at the right. The data presents
properties of silver, gold, lead, and iron.
You could organize this information
in a chart by classifying the physical
properties of each element.
Si~
My.'"
(Ag) II.Js ~ density of 10.5 p ',
It melts ilt 961"( iIIld boils ill 2.212°(.
It is U5ed ., dentistry iIIld 10 ~ jeweky
and tlecOOIli( cordouoo.
Gold melts at 1.064"( and boils at
2.966°(. Its chemical symbol is Au. II h.M
a cler6ity of I!U ~' and is used Iof
jewelry• ., coF6. ¥d in dentistry.
1M me!bog poi1t of lead (Pb) is 328"C.
1M boiIlII9 point is 1.740"(.11 lias a
density 0111.3 gian', ~ lM5 for ltad
are in norage batterie'l, paint\, and dy6.
\''''' (11!) hn a ~ity of 7.9 gkm'.
It will melt at 1,5]5'( and boil al
3,001)0(, II is used for building materials.
In manulac:nxifl9, aocl as a dietary
w""",,"'

Crute (.ttgories 1"", Give the cha.t iI Make SUre the information
d6C,ibe Ihe information li11e thai desc,ibH Is listHi Kcural~1y in nch
you have found. wIIat is IjSl~ in 11. column.

" • .,

.
.1

'"
--
• ,u ,n

-
Reading a Circle Graph
A circle graph shows the whole divided into part~ You
can use a circle graph to compare parts to each other or to
compare parts to the whole.

Read a Circle Graph of Land Area

The whole circle represents the approximate land area of
all of the continents on Earth. The number on each wedge
indicates the land area of each continent. From the graph
you can determine that the land area of North America is
16% X 148,000,000 kml, or about 24 million square
kilometers.
land Area of the Continents
(Total Area 148 m111ion kml)
Togeth er Anta.clica
and Australi~ are about
equal to the land <lrn
of North Amt.ic".

Alrial
2O"Ao Alri(" ;Kcounts IOf /110ft
i-H of the Earth's land arn
than South Amerka.
Making a Line Graph
A line graph is a way to show continuous
change over time. You can use the information
from a table to make a line graph.

Make a Line Graph of Temperatures

-
The table shows temperature readings over a
tHour period at the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport in
Texas. This data can also be displayed in a line
graph that shows temperature change over time.

I . Choose I ti tle. The

title should "tip iI l •..II- l'

~+= "
. ud • • und.r1:Und
what your graph
2. Choose a Kale describes. S'_M,
6,."
and mart equal
intervals.. The "
vertiul Kille
5hould ilKludt
the lust value
and tilt 9rutest
value in the Sft
S. Cartfullr g,~
of~U'. tht datil.
Depen.ding on
1. Label tilt tile inte .... al you
hOfizonlal •• is choose, some
Ti_ and lhe temperatures
vellkal aI ls will be betWHn
Tem~ratufe ' "C). two numbers.

•.
4. Write tilt hours 6. Check each
on lhe horilOnl~ slep 01 \'OUr
axis.. S~e lilt ~
hours equ~ly. Ti me
Measuring Elapsed Time
Sometimes you may need to find out how much time has passed, or
elapsed. A clock is often used to find elapsed time. You can also change
units and add or subtract to find out how much time has passed.

Using a Clock to Find Elapsed Minutes

You need to time an experiment for 20 minutes. It is 1:30.

• Start at 1:30.
• Count ahead 20 minutes,
by fives to 1:50.
• Stop the experiment
at 1:50.

Using a Clock or Stopwatch to Find Elapsed Seconds

You need to time an experiment for 15 seconds. You can use a Se(ond
hand on a clock.
o W(lit until the se<ond
hand is on a number.
Then start the experiment.
e Stop the experiment when
15 seconds have passed.

You can also use a stopwatch to figure out elapsed seconds.

o Press the reset button
on the stopwatch so you
see 0:0000.
e Press the start button
to begin.
o When you ~ee 0:15«l,
press the stop button
on the watch.
Changing Units and Then Adding or
Subtracting to Find Elapsed Time
If you know how to change units of time, you can
use addition and subtraction to find elapsed time.

o To change from a larger unit to

a smaller unit. multiply.
G To change from a smaller unit
to a larger unit. divide.
2d= . h 78wk: . yr
2 .. 24 .. 48 78+52= lj
2d;48h 78wk= Ii yr

Another Example
Suppose it took juice in an ice-pop mold from 6:40 A.M. until
10:15 A.M. to freeze. How long did it take for the juice to freeze?
To find out subtract.

"
'o-h
7Smin
IS min RMamf 'Ohr15min
Units of Time
as 9 h 75 min, since
' hr " 60 min. 60 i«Onds (~) .. 1 m'Alltf (min)
6h 40 min
60 m'AIIln " 1 hour (hr)
, h 35 min
24 hours" 1 day (d)
7 days " 1 Wffk (wk.)
You can al50 add to find elapsed time. 52 Wffks .. '\'far (yr)
3h 30 min 14s
+lh 40 min 45,
4h 70 min 59s:Shl0min59s
Volume Area
1 l 01 sp0rt5 drink is I II bIsletb.i11 tourt COYm about . ,700 It'.
lill~ mono chan I qt. It (overs abou l.15 m'.

Metric Measures
Temperature Volume
• let ~ at 0 dlogr_ Celsius ("() . , a.tiI:mtter(m')" I m x , m x 1 m
• W~ter k~z<'5 at O"C • I a.tiI: <entimelef (on') •
• Water boils at 100"{ Icm x lcm xlem
• I ~te< ru • 1,000 mi~ilitets (mU
l en!l th and Distan ce ' lcm'_ lml
• 1,000 meters (m) • , kilometer (km)
• 100 (entimeten «m) • I m
• 10 mill~en (mm) _ 1 em

Force
"' .
• , sqlUfe kiIotntter (km') • I tm x 1 kill
• I hectare. 10.000 Ill'

• 1 nrMOn (N) .. MaSS

I tiIogram x I (mI'lerlsKond) pel" ~ond
• 1.000 11- (g) = I kilogram (kg)
• 1.000 mil1qarns (mg) .. 1 9
 1 J

Temperillture l ength/Dist ance

The tempe. at".t at an indOOf basketball A basketball .im is about 10 It high. Of
!IiIme might ~ 21"(, wflkh is SO"F. a li tt le mOfe than 3 m Ifom tile llOOf.

Customary Measures Metric and

Customary Rates
• km.1l . tJIometers ptf hour
• Water irf'tltS • fills • meters ptf wond
• Water boils at 21n • mph • miIH ptf hour

l ength and Distan ce

• 12 inchn rill) • 1 fool {ft}
• lit • I yao-d (yd)
• 5.280 It . 1 mHe (mi)

Weight
• 16 OUfIC" (Ol) . I pound (lb)
• 2.000 pIIIII"d$ . I ton (T)

Volume of fluids
• S lluid CUlC@S(ft01l • 1 041 (e)
• 2c • 1 plflt (Pt)
• 2 pt • I I!IIif1 (qt)
• 4 qt • I gallon {9if)
Health and
Fitness Handbook
Who is in charge of your health? You! Doctors, nurses,
your parents or guardian, and teac.hers (an all help you stay
healthy. However, it's up to you to make healthful choices.
What are some healthful chokes you can make?'n this
section you'll learn:
• how to keep your body systems Slrong and healthy
• how to choose healthful foods
• how to e~ercise your heart ilnd lungs every day
• how to be prepared for emergencies
• the benefits of avoiding OIleohol, t obilCCO, .. nd oth ... drugs
The Muscular System ............................ . H20
Do you know the three types of muscles in your body?

The Skeletal System ............................. . H21

learn more about your body's support system.

Exercise Your Heart and Lungs ................... .H22

Find out what aerobic exercise is and why it's important.

Food Labels . .. ... . . ................... . .. .. . . ...... H23

Reading food labels can help you choose what to eat.

Emergency Safety ................................ . H24

Plan ahead to stay safe when disaster strikes.

Tobacco, Alcohol, and Other Drugs ..... .. . ...... . H25

Keep yourself drug free for a healthy life.
The Muscular System
Your muscular system has three
types of ml.lKles.
• Skeletal muscles pull on bones
to move them. You use them
whenever you move your
body.
• Cardjac muscles make up the
walls of your heart and keep
it beating.
• Smooth muscles line the blood
vessels, the stomach, and
other organs.
Most skeletal ml.1S(les are
voluntary muscles. You (an control
them. Cardiac and smooth muscles
are involuntary muscles. They work
without you even having to think
about them!
Many skeletal muscles work in
pairs. When the biceps muscle in
your arm contracts (gets shorter).
the !rieeP'S muscle relaxes (gets
longer), As a result, the elbow
bends. How wou ld the mUl.c!es work
together to straighten the arm?

FACTS

• Your muscles receive about

50 messages from your brain
every second.
o You have more than 650
musdes.
The Skeletal System
Joints connect bones. If
you had no joints, you (Quid
not bend or move. Each type
"
of joint allows different kinds
of movement. You r elbow has ij aw bone)
a hinge joint. The arm bends
only one way at t he elbow.
Think about your shou lder.
It has a ball-and-sode! joint.
Whilt move ment does it
allow'
Your skeletal s~tem gives
your body strengt h and
support. II worb w ith your -",'"~ (made
0126
muscular syst em to move
body parts. You r bones a im
protect your organs.

FACTS

• You have 206 bones

in your body. More
than half of them are
found in your hands
and feel!
• Your bones come in
a ll shapes and sizes.
There's even a bone
in your ear shaped
like a hammer!
Exercise Your Heart and Lungs
Exercise that mak~ yom
he<lrt i!lnd lungs work hard
is <ailed aerobic exercise.
Aerobic means ~with
oxygen,- Any kind of steady
exercise that raises your
heart and breathing rates
is aerobic exercise. Jogging,
swimming. bicycling, and
playing s()(cer afe all good
ways to get aerobic exercise.

Five steps toward a great aerobic workout.

o Choose your activity. Pick an activity you enjoy. Do you
like I!xf!rd~ing with other~7 Bi'l~kpth,,11 might hI! a go.od
choice. Do you like exercising to music? Maybe you'd
like dancing!

t) Get the equipment you need. Make sure you have the
right clothes and shoes for your activity. Wear any safety
gear you need. Your clothes and safety gear should fit
correctly. Ask a parent, guardian, Of physical education
teacher fO( help.

. , Wann up. Do gentle activity such as walking for five

minutes. Then stretch your mUKles.

o Exercise. It's best to exercise for at least 20 minutes.

Exercise at a level that makes your heart and lungs work.
Stop right away if you are injured.

o Cool down. Exercise at a lower level for five to ten minutes

to let your heart and breathing rates come back down.
Then stretch your mUKles again.
Food Labels
The United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) requires most
companies that sell food to label their
packages. The facts shown on food
labels {an help you make smart food
choices. Food labels list the ingredients
in the food. They are in order by
weight. This means that the food
contains the most of the first ingredient
listed. The label also tells you the name
of the company t hat makes the food
and the total weight or volume of the
food in the package.
Food labels also include the ... Wh.iIt nutrient~ "re in the lood yOll eilH
Nutrition Fach panel. The panel on Rud the Nutrition Filds pilne lto lind out!
the right is for a (an of chicken soup. (illories meilsure the energy in lood.

FACTS
Get Enough Nutrients
• Carbohydrates provide
energy. Fiber helps the
digestive system.
• Your body uses protein f or
growth and development.
• Vitamins and minerals are
important for many body
f unctions.
FACTS
Limit Some Nutrients
• A healt hful diet includes
a limited amount of fat.
Saturated fats and trans
fats can increase the risk. of
heart disease. Cholesterol is
a fat-l ike substance that can
clog arteries.
• Too much sodium can
increase the risk. of high
blood prenure.
Emergency Safety
E.1rtl'lquak.es, hurricanes, and tornadon are 1111 E'Kamples of
natural disasters. You {an pilln ahead so )'00 know what to do
when II disaster happens.

Plan Ahead
You might not have fresh running water or
electridty during a nat ural disaster. Here afE' some
items you might want to have on hand.
• flashlights with batteries
• candles or lanterns with matches
• at least two gallons of fresh water
• canned or packaged food that does
not need to be cooked
• radio with batteries
• first-aid kit

What To Do
Earthquake Get under something solid like a desk or doorway.
Stay away from window;. Also stay away from anything that
might fall on you. If you are outdoors. get to a wide open area.

Hurric ane If there is some warning that a hurricane

is coming. you may be told to evacuate. Tape all
windows. Yoor parents or 9uardian will probably
~nut off tne 9as, water, and electridty.

Tornado If you are inside, 90 to a storm snelter

or basement if you (an. If there is no basement,
90 to an inside room witn no windows. If you are
outside, lie down in a low area and cover your head.
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Other Drugs
A drug is any substarKe, other than food, that
changes how the body works. Drugs are sWllllo~,
smoked, inhaled, or inject ed.

Helpful Drugs
Some drugs are helpful. Medicines can
t reat diseases and relieve pain. Drugs people
{an buy without a doctor's order life called
over-the-counter medicines. Medicines
thllt need ill doctOf"'s order are called
prescription medicines.
Medicines can harm you if you use them
iocorrealy. Only t<lke medicine when your
parent. guardian, or doctor tells you to.
Follow your doctor's instructions or the
innruC1ions printed on the package.

Harmful Drugs
Some drugs can harm your health.

Tobacco is a leaf that is smoked, sniffed, or

chewed. Tobac<o contains many harmful substances,
---
"'---
-_...............-._.......-.. .
including nicotine which speeds up the heart.
Tobacco is addictive. This means that it is very hard
.=_
_-,---_-
to stop using tobacco once a ~rson starts. Tobacco
increases your risk of heart disease and rung disease.

Alcohol is /I drug found in drinks such as beer

.......
lind wine. Alcohol slows brain act ivity and muscle
activity. Heavy drinking can lead t o ad diction and
can damllge the liver and ot her organs. People who
drink alcohol are more likely to get into accidents.

Illegal drugs include marijuana, cocaine, t'(stasy,

LSD, and amphetamines. These drugs can ca use
serious physical, emotional, and social problems.

acc. luation (a k seh l uh RAY shuhn),
change in velocity (f9)
acquired trait (un KWYFlO 1'lIyt),
cNorllCler;stic th.U iln orgfnilm develops
afle< it is born (A84)
ad.pution (lid ilP TAY shuhn). II tr. it Of
w.Kteristi< that Mips an organism ,.".. ive
in its environment tA 102, 840)
.i, mass (a ir mas), huge volume of air
responsible for types 01 ~a ther (OtS)
a"alpl! dllta (AN uh Iyz OAY ,,,I'll, t o
look for patterns in coll~le-d information
that leold to making Iogicallnferencn.
predictions, and hypoth6e'i
angiospenns (AN jH uh splIrmd. plants
wi th seeds covered by prOIt'(tiYe fruits (A70)
an"".t reprod ..«ion (oy SEHK shoo
uhl ret! pruh DU HK ,huhn), production 0 1
o ffspring from only one parent (A96)
ask qUfltion$ (..,t KWEH S ehun zl, to
,ute q~lions orally or in writing to find
oul how or why S<IIMthing ha~
.ll. ... ld (AS tuh roydl. small. rocky object
thaI orbits the Sun (053)
atmosphere (AT muh slihr), mi rture of
g<»e1 that surrounds E,rth (016)
atom (AT uhml. the smal1ell particle of an
element that Itil1 has the properties of that
element (E6)
autumnal ~uinoll taw TUHM nuhl EE
kwuh nahks), September 22 0< 23, when the
number of hou.s of d ,yfight and darkness
are the same (034)
nil (A K sihs). imllginary tine thllt goes
through the ~en t e r of Earth from the North
Pole to the South Pole (032)
H2O
bioma (BY ohm). large group of similar
e<05yStems (8 t 2)
boiling point (BOY lihng point).
temperllture at which II substance changes
from II liquid t o a gas (E45)
<;el1 (tel'll). the basic structurlll unit of a
living thing (A6)
chemiUlI cha"ge (KfHM ih Itunl chaynj).
chllnge in ""'rter that rewlts in new
substaroo;es being formed (E53)
chemiUlf formula (KEHM ih kuh l FAWR
myuh luh). a shorthllnd way to deS<ribe the
chemlcill ma keup of II compound (E29)
dle miUlI pt'Operty (KEHM ih kuhl PRAHP
uhr tee). ability o f a mate.ial to change its
chemiuol makeup (E4 ])
chemica l ..action (KEHM ih tuhl ree
AK shuhn), 'process in which one or more
'Ub~t"lCe, ilfe c...... nged IntO une 01 more
di fferent substllnces. or a spe<i fic uample
of oroe or more chemical changes (E28. E53)
chemlUlf symbol (KEHM ih kuhl 51H M
buh l).• letter Or letters tha t abbreviates an
element 's name (E I6)
dllorophyll (KLAWR uh fihl). the 9reen
pigment In 1ellves that col1ects energy from
sunlight (AS\)
chloroplllSts (KLAWR uh plasu). pl'r>t
org,nel1es iroside which photosynthesis
takes place (A51)
chromosome (KROH muh sohm). short,
thick coil o f ONA (A86)
<;;Iia (SlHL ee uh). smal1 structl>l'es that look
like hIIin (A16)
d ••• ifiUltion (killS u h l ih KAY iIIuhn).
Pfocess of sorting th ings based on
similarit ies a nd differences (11.24)
c1l1Slify (KLAS uh fy). to sort objects iroto
groupllICcording to their properties to
order objects accordirog to .. p"tern
climate (KLY miht), normal pattern of
weather that ocwrs in an area over a long
pe riod o f lime (B 12, 07)
coll aborate (l uh LAB uh ra)lt), 10 work
as a team wil h ot h e~ 10 co llect and sha re
data, observations, findings, and ideas
(omet ( KAHM iht), small orb iting body
made 01 dust, ice, and frozen gases (059)
(o mmunicate (kah MYOQ nuh ka)lt), to
expla in procedures or shafe informal ion,
data, Or f indi ng' wit h ot hers t h rough
written or spoken words, actions, graphs,
charts. table" diagram" or sketches
community (kuh M YOO nih tee), group 01
living things of differenl specie, found in
an ecos~tem (B7)
compare (kuhm PAIR), 10 obse"", and tell
how objects or events are alike or different
compound (KAHM pownd), a substance
that is made up of two or more elements
that are chemically combined (E26)
condensation (kahn de hn SAY shuhn),
change of slat e from a gas 10 a liquid as
energy IS removed (ESS)
conduction (kuhn OUH K shuhn), transfer
of thermal energy between two substances
or between two parts of the same
substance (F88)
conductivity (ku hn duhk TlHV ih tee),
abili ty to ca rry energy (E46)
conductor (kuhn OUHK t uhr), maler ial that
easily transfers thermal energy or electr ici ty
(f 91)
conse rvation (kahn sur VAY shuhn),
efficient use of resou rces (08)
consumer (kuhn sao muhr), organism that
gets energy by eat ing lood, not producing
it (B24)
contour lines (KAHN lur Iynz), line, on a
topographic map t hat indicate areas wit h
the same elevation, or height above sea
leve l «(10)
convection (kuhn VEH K shuhn), t ransfe r
of thermal energy by t he flow of liquid, Or
gases (F89)
(ore (kohr), Earth's innermost structure
«(41 )
(r\>lit (kru hst), the thin, roc ky outer layer of
Earth I hal ma kes up t he cont inenls and Ihe
ocean floor «(7, (40)
density (OEHN sih tee), mass per unit
volume of a substance (EM )
deposition (dehp uh ZIHSH uhn), (lJ
const r uctive force in which sediments thai
have been moved from one p lace are
dropped or released in another place, or 121
change of state from a gas to a solid {(Z4,
E86)
desert (OEHZ uhrl), a very dry area (814)
diffusion (dih FYOO zh uhn), movement
of particles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration (A 17)
DNA mo lecule found in the nucleus of
a cell ami shaped like a double helix;
3«oci3 t~d with th" tr3ns/"r of 9"ne tic
information (A86)
dome mountains (do hm MOWN tuhnz),
mountains that form when magma pushes
up on Ea rth 's crusl bul does not brea k
through «(64)
dominant trait (OAHM uh nuhnt trayt),
trait that is upresse<! when an organism
receives genes for two different forms of a
Irait (A99)
earthquake (URTH kwayk), violen t sha king
of Earth's crust as buil t·up energy is
released «(54)
ecosystem (EH K oh sihs tuhm), all the
living and nonliving Ihing' that interact
with one another in a given area (86)
EI Nino (ehl NEE nyo), pe riodic change in
the direction of warm ocean currents across
the Pacific Ocean (010)
 . IKtric c. 1I (ih tEHK trihk sehl), device
mit uses a chemic.1 reaction to produce
electricity
e l. rtrlc circuit (ih tEH K trihk SUR kiM),
pathwIIY for an electric current (F, 11)
. liId.k current (ih tEHK trihk leUR
uhnt), continuo~ flow 0 1 electric ch"rge
"'ong" pathw"y
. I.ctric g.n ••• tor (ih LEHK trihk JEH N
uh rlly tutu), devke tnat converts kinetic
ener9Y to electricity (FlO])
e l.etrlc motor (ih tEH K trihk MOH tuhr),
device thllt converts ele<:tric.1 energy into
kinetic energy (Ft 26)
. 'ildromag ... t (ih lehk troh MAG niht), •
magnet that i~ powerl!d by electricity (F32)
. I.rt.on (ih tEHK trahn).. particle in an
atom tnat has a negatiw char9'! (E7)
. I. m.nt (EHl uh muhnt), a wbstance
that unnot be brOken down into other
SUbllances (E6)
e ndangilred S9Ki., (ehn OAVN
juhrd SPH sheez), a $pe<:ies close to
m .... "j,'!oI ,,~ ti,,<\ (159)
. n u", (EH N uhr Jee), ability to do wOfk
(F44)
. pi,.nte. (EHP in sehn tu"'), point on
Earth's wrface directly.bow tnt locus of
an earthqu" ke (C54)
erosion (ih ROH zh uhn), destructive force
in which pie<:es of rock lIre moved by water,
wind, or mewing Ice (C '6)
ilKpoiI.i m. nt (ihks SP£HR uh muhnt), to
investigllte and COllect data Ihat either
supports. hypothesis or shows thilt it
is f.lse while controlling varillbles and
changing only one part of an e_perimenlal
setup" a time
ilKtinrtio n (ih k STlHNG K shuhn), when ali
members o f a $pe<:ies die out (851)
fault (fawlt ), (flick In Ea rth's (fust along
which movement takes place «52)
"28
fault-bIOCk mount.ins (fahwlt blah!<
MOWN tuhnz), mount.lns thaI form .'ong
fault lines where blocks of rock fall, are
thrust up, or slide (C63)
ff .gellum (lfuh JEHL uhm). whip-lib tail
that helps single-<elled org"nisms mow by
spinning like a propeller (AI])
focus (FOH kuhs), point underground
where the faulting in .n earthqUllke occurs
(C54)
fold mount.lns (fohld MOWN tuhnz),
mountains th.t form where two plates
COllide and force layers of rock into folds
(C62)
food chilin (food chayo). description of
how ener9Y in an ec05ylltem flows from one
organism to another (825)
food w.b (food wehb), desuiption o f 1111
the food chili ... in .n ecosystem (826)
forc. (IIIwn), push or pull acting on lin
object (F])
fossif (FAH suhl), physlul remains or ""Ces
,"',
of II plant or IInimlllthat lived long '90
foss il fu. 1 (FAHS uhl fyool),
nonreneWllble resource formed from
ancient pl.nts and anim.ls (C1S)
friction (FRIH K shuhn), force from rubbing
(fI2)
front (fruh nt ), narrow region between two
.ir manes that naw different properties
(0'9)
fungi (fUHN Jee), kingdom of living thi"9l;
its organisms .re muit icelh,llllr, h"ve nuclei,
lind often feed On decIIVlng mailer (A26)
911II1K, (GAL uhk see), an enormou\ system
o f g"5e5, d~t. and stars held together by
grll"';ty (018)
ga, (gas), state of mailer mat h<JS no
definit e shape Or volume (E18)
g.ne {jeenJ, short segment of DNA thllt
determines.n organ~'s inherited tr.its
IASn
grasslands (GRAS landz), land covered by
grasses with few trees (814)
gravity (GRAV in tee), pulling force
between objects (Fl1)
gymnosperm, (J1HM nuh spurmz),
pl ants wit h ",em that are not cove red by
protective fruit s (A69)
habitat (HAB in tat), the natural
environment where an organism lives (838)
heat (heet), transfer of thermal energy
from warmer areaS to cooler areas (F80)
he redity (huh REHO ih t ee) , genetic
transfer of characteristics from parent t o
offspring (A84)
hybrid (HY brihd), organism that has two
different genes for the same trait (A99)
hypothesiu (hy PAHTH uh syz), to make
an ed ucated g uess about why something
happens
inertia (ih NUR shuh), resistance to a
change in motion (f 7)
infer (ihn f UR), to u'" facts, data, and
ob",rva tions to draw a condusion about a
spe<if ic event
inne r planets (lHN uhr PLAN ihtz), the
four planets o f the solar system that are
closest to the sun - Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Ma~ (064)
insulato r (lH N suh lay tuhr), material that
dOM not easily tra nsfer the rmal energy Or
electricit y (f92)
inve rtebrate (ihn VUR tuh br iht), animal
that has no inter nal skeleton or bones (A2 8)
kinetic e n ergy (kih NEHT ih l< EHN uhr
jee), ene rgy of a moving object (F46)
kingdom (KIHNG duhm), largest g roup of
organisms that share traits in common (A24)
life cycle (Iyt SY I<uhl), sequence of life
events beginning with a seed and ending
with t he neJ<! genera tion of seeds (A68)
light-year (lYT yihr), unit of measurement
fo r d istances outsid e the solar syst em and
equal to about 9.5 trillion km (075)
liquid (L IHK wihd), state of ma tter that has
a definite volume, but no definite shape
(En)
lithosphere (lI HTH uh sfihr), shell formed
from Earth's solid upper mantle and crust
(C41)
luna r eclipse (LOO n uhr ih KLIHPS), when
Earth passes directly between t he Sun and
the Moon. casting a shadow on the Moon
(046)
m agm a (MAG muh), mel ted rock below
Earth's surface; ca lled lava at the surface
(C~6)
magnitud e (MAG nih toad), brig htness of
a slar as perceived from Earth (075)
m a ntle (MAN I ll. thick layer of Earth',
st ruclure jusl below Earth's crust (C4 1)
m easure (MEHZH uhr), 10 use a variet y
of measuring instruments and tools to
find the length, distance, volume, mass,
or temperature using appropria te units of
measurement
m ech anica l wave (mih KAN ih
kuhl wayv), wave thai can t ravel only
through matter (f52)
m e lting (MEHllihng), change of Slate
from a solid to a liquid as energy is added
(ES4)
melting point (MEHl t ihng point).
l emperat ure at which a subslance changes
from a solid to a liquid (E45)
m ello'phe r e (MEHZ oh steer), layer of Ihe
atmosphere above the stratosphere and
below the thermosphere (017)
m etill l (MEHl I), anyone of the elements
locat ed on t he le ft and bottom 01 the
per iodic table, which are usually sh iny, can
be bent or stretched, and conduct electrici ty
(E17)
m eteOf" (MEE tee uhr), chunk of matter
that ent ers Earth's atmosph ere and is
heated by fr iction with the air (060)
meteOf"ites (MEE tee uh ryU), chunks of
me teor matter that fall to the ground (060)
mixture (M IHKS chuhr), physical
combination of two or mo re substances
(E6O)
molecule (MAHl ih kyool), two or more
at oms joined by chem ical bonds (EIO)
moon phases (moon FAYZ ihz), shapes
created by the changing amounts of t he
visible lighted areas of the Moon (044)
motion (MOH shuhn), change in an object's
posit ion (F6)
mutatio n (myoo lAY shuhn), change in the
genes 01 an organism (AS9)
natural r esource (NACH uhr u hl REE
sawrs), resource found in nature, such as air,
water, minera ls, and soil «(74)
neutron (NCO trahn), a particle in the
nucleus of an atom that has no charge (ES)
n ewton (NCOl n) , unit to measure force, it
is equal to t he force requ ired to acce lerate
a 1 kg mass by I mis' (Fl1)
niche (nihch), t he role o f an organism in its
habitat (S39)
noble gas (NOH buhl gas), anyone of the
elements located in the far right column
of the periodic t able, which generally do
not combine wit h other elements to form
mole<:ules (nO)
nonmetal (nahn MEHl I), elements that
are usua lly du ll, brittle, and do not conduct
electricity (EI7)
nonrenewable resource (nahn rih NCO
uh buhl REE sawrs), resource that is
di fficul t to replace «(75)
nonvascular plant (na nn VAS kyoo luhr
plano, a simple plant that lacks true leaves,
stems, and roots (A62)
nudeotide (NCO klee uh tyd), basic
st ructural u nit of DNA (AS7)
nucleus (NOO klee uhs), storehouse of the
cell's most important chemical informat ion,
or the central core of an atom (AS, El)
observe (UHB luhrv), to use the senses
and tools to gather or collect informat ion
and determine t he properties o f objects or
events
ocean current (OH shuhn KUR uhnt),
movi ng stream of water created by winds
pushi ng against the ocea n's surface (010)
orgilln (AWR guhn), group of one or more
kinds of tissues t hat work together to
pedorm the same function (AB)
organ system (AWR guhn SIHS tuhm),
group of interco nne<:ted organs that
perform related life fu r>ctions (AB)
orgillnelle (AWR guh nehl), cell structure
that performs speci fic functio ns (AS)
osmosis (a hz MOH ,ihs), ty pe 01 diffvs ion
in which water passes thro"9h a cell
membrane (A17)
outer planets (OW tuhr PLA N ihu), the
five planets of the solar system farthest
from t he Sun- Jupit er, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto (066)
parallel circuit (PAR uh leh l SUR kihO,
circuit whe re ele((rk current can follow two
Or mOre different paths (F II S)
penumbrill (pih NUHM br uhl, large partial
shadow in an ecl ipse (046)
periodic table (pihr ee AHO ihk TAY
buhl), a tilble that organize'S the elements
by t h"ir p fOp<!rti", (E I 5)
phloem (FlOH ehm). ~pedaliled ti~~ue
wit h in roots, ,t"ms, and l"a""5 that mov",
mat",;als (A63)
photosynthesis (Ioh toh 51HN thih sihs),
the process by which plants us... light energy
to <onvert waler and ca rbon dioxide in l o
sugars and oxyg...n (A50)
physical change (FIHZ ih kuhl <haynj),
chang" in th" liz", shap", or state of maner
with no new maner being formed (£52)
physical property (F IHZ ih kuhl PRAHP
uhr tee). characteristk Ihat can be
m"a,ur"d Or d"I"CI"d by Ih" s...ns...s (E43)
pitch (p ihch), perceiv"d highness or
lowne'Ss of a sound (F56)
plane t (PLAN int), larg" bod ies Ihat revolv"
around the Sun (OS6)
plMe t ectonics {play! tehk TAHN ihksl,
theory that giant plates of crust are mov ing
slow ly a(fOSS Earth's surfa<e «(42)
pollination (pahl ih NAY shuhn), pro<:ess of
del iveri ng poll"n (mal,,) t o the egg (female)
in a plant (A69)
pollution (puh LOO shuhn). addition of
ha rmful substances to the environment
(860)
popufation (pahp yuh LAY shuhn), all the
members of t he same I ype of organism
liying in an "cosyst"m (88, 846)
population d ensity (pahp yuh LAY shuhn
DEHN sih tee). number o f indiyiduals in a
population in a given area (847)
potential energy (puh TE HN shuhl EHN
uhr jee), energy stored in an object (F46)
p ... dator (PREHO uh tuhr). animal that
hunts and eat, o ther an imals (847)
p ... dict (prih DIH Kn, to state what you
think w ill happ<!n ba",d on past exp<!ri"nc",
obs...rvations, patterns, and cause·and·effect
relat ionships
p ... y (pray), animal that is hunted and
eat en by predators (847)
producer (pr uh 000 suhr), organism that
make'S its own food from raw materials and
en"rgy (824)
protist (PROH tih,I), kingdom of living
things; its organisms are mostly one-celled
but have nuclei and other organelles (A25)
proton (PROH tahn), a particle in the
nudeus of an atom that has a positive
charge (E8)
protostar (PROH tuh st ahr). first stage in
th" forma tion of a ,tar (076)
radiation (ray dee AY shuhn), transfer 01
thermal energy through electromagnetic
wa",,' (F90)
... ce$Siv. trait (rih 5EHS ihv t rayt). trait
that is not exp ressed wh"n an organism
receiyes genes lor two different forms of a
trait (A99)
record data (rih KAWRD DAY tuh), to
write, draw, audio record, video rewrd,
0, photog'3ph 10 ,how Ob'''fV3Iion'
recycling (ree 5Y klihng), process of
recovering a re'Source from one item and
using it to make anot her item «92)
re ffection (.ih FLEH K shuhn), bouncing of
a wave off a material (F66)
re fraction (rih fRAK shuhn), changing of
Ihe palh of a wave as it move'S belween
materials of different densit ies (F66)
ren ewable resource (rih NOD uh
buhl REE sawrs), resource that is eas ily
replaced or renewed (06)
research (rih SURCH), to learn more about
a subject by looking in boo k" newspapers,
magazin"" CD-ROMS, ",arch ing th"
Internet, or asking science experts
residual soil (r ih ZIHJ 00 uhl soy I), so il
fOl'med d irectly from the bedro<:~ below it
«(85)
revo lution (rehv uh LOO shu hn), one ful l
trip, Or orbit, around t he Sun (031)

scienti'ic inquiry Isy uhn TIH Ilk
IN ~w;h reel. ~Ihod scientists use to as\:
.nd '''lW<'r que.tioos about thoe world
.round them (S3)
n dime nt (SEHD uh muhnt), small pieces of
rock ((14)
seism ic waves (SYZ mihk w.yvz), waves
of ene<gy sent through Earth's crust when
P3'fIS ollhoe en"t move suddenly ((53)
.. Iedive btweding (suh LEHK tiltv
8Ree ding), practice of breeding pl.nts and
,nimals for desirable traits (A 100)
n mi-m e tal (SEHM ee meht I), elements
that ha~e some properties of metals and
some properties of nonmetals (Eln
s.rles c ir<;uit (SIHR HZ SUR kihtl. circuit
where only a single path for ele<:tricity
con~s two or more devi<e. If 1 14)
"_ua' ~uction (SeHK shoo uhl ree
pruh DUHK shOOn), production of ofupring
by thoe union of male and female gamete.
(....!lS)
simple machin. (SIHM puhl muh SHEEN).
a machine tha t has few or no moving parts
IF 17)
so il (soyl), natural resource mw up of
small rocks. minerals. w"er. gMe.. and
organic milner 1($It)
soil profile (soy! PROH fyl). all of the soil
horizons. or laye~ in a soil sample «(86)
sola. ec lipse (SOH luhr Ih KlIHPS), wr.en
the Moon passes directly betweerl the SUrl
arld Earth. cast ing a shadow Orl Earth (046)
solar system (SOH luhr SIHS tuhm), the
Sun and 1111 bodie. that revolve around it
(056)
solid (SAHl ihd), state of matter th<lt hM a
delinite shape and volume (f76)
solubility (sahl yuh SIHllh teel. me(lsur.
of how much of one substance carl dissolve
in another substance (E46)
solute (SAHl yoot). substan<e that is
dissolved in a solution (E62l
rL-
H12
so lution (suh loo shuhnl. mi.ture of
two or more wbst;mce. that are evenly
distribut~ throughout the mi)(ture (E62l
solvent (SAHl vuhnt), substance th<ll
disso~ the solute in a solution (E62)
speed (speed). measure of the dilt,nce an
object mo~e. in a given unit of time (f8)
spons (spawrz). rep roductive stnKt ures
found in fungi and limple plants (A68)
sta.. (stahrz), giant sphere of glowing
gases (074)
sUtl of m a tt. r (Sl(ly! ultv MAT uhr).
ptlyslUlI form that matter takes; 'lis. liquid,
,nd solid (E74)
static e le ctricity (STAT ihk ih lehk YRIHS
ih tee), electrical force bet~en nonmOlling
electric chllrges (Fl04)
stomata (STOH muh tuh). small openings
through whkh ga.e. move in ,nd out 01
luves(ASl)
stratosphere (5TRA tuh steer), layer 01 the
llmosphere above the troposphere and
below the mesospr.ere (017)
$ublimat ion (sunb luh MAY shunn).
change of Slate Irom a solid to a gas (ES6)
s ubso il (SUHEI soyl). layer of soil beneath
the topsoil ((86)
s umme r solstic. (5UHM uhr SAHl stihs),
June 21 or 22, the longest day 01 thoe ~ar
in the Northem Hemisphoere (034)
switch (swih.ch), movable section of a
c;rcuit that uon open or close a P3'th for
electrkity (Fl I 3)
symbiosis (sihm bee OH sihs). dose. long_
lasting relationship between species (B42)
ta iga (TV guhl. area that hM long. severe
winters and short. tool summers (81S)
t echn.o1oty (tehk NAH luh j«). tools.
things built with tools, Or me thods lIS~ 10
accomplish a practical purpose (S I 1)
temperate forests forests tllat experience
four disti"" seasons: summer, f<'lll, winler,
and spring (8n)
temperature (TEHM p uhr uh churl,
measure of t he average kinetic energy of
the particles that mah up a substance (F78)
thermal energy t ota l kinetic energy of the
particles of a substance (f78)
thermal upansio n (TH UHR muhl ih k
SPA N shuhn), increase in si~e of a substance
due to a change in temperat ure (E87)
thermosphere (THUHR m uh , l eer), t he
outermost layer of the atmosphere, above
the mesosphere (D17)
threatened species (THREHT nd SPEE
sheel), a species close to becoming
endange red (859)
tissue (TIHSH 00), group of one or more
kind, of specialized ce lls that perform the
same f unction (A33)
topographic map map that shows
the shape 01 surface leatures and t heir
eleva tions above se<'l level «(10)
topsoil uppermost l<'Iyer of soil «(86)
transpiration (Iran sp uh RAY shu hn),
evapor<'l tion th rough the leaves of a pla nt
(A64)
transported soil (trans PAWRT ihd soyl),
so;; that Ila, oo.en carried from one place to
anolher by erosion «(8S)
tropical rain f o rests forests in regio",
th<'lt <'Ire very hot <'Ind very rainy (813)
troposphere (TROH puh slihr), layer of
Earth', at mo'phere close,t t o Ea rth', surface
and containing about three-quarters of the
atmosp here's gases (017)
tundra Ea rth's coldest biome (BI5)
umbra (UHM bruhl, small, d<'lr k SM<'Idow in
an eclipse (046)
use variables (yoo~ VAIR ~ uh buhlz),
10 keep all conditions in an experiment
the same except l or t he va riab le, Or the
condition that is be ing tested
vapori~ation (v<'I y puh rih ZAY shuhn),
change of st<'lte from a liquid to a gas as
energy is added (E8S)
vascular plant a p lant wit h specialized
tissue, and orga", for transporting
materials (AG)
velocity (vuh LAHS ih tee). measure of
speed and direction (F8)
vernal equinox (VU R nuh l EE kwuh
nahks), March 20 or 21, when the number
of hours of daylight and darkness are t he
same (034)
vertebrat e (VUR tuh briht), an imal that
has an internal skeleton or backbone (A2G)
vibration (vy BRAY shuhn), rapid back-and-
forth movement (FS4)
visible light portion 01 the electro-
magnet ic spectrum humans can see (F65)
voltag" (VOHL tihj), measure ol lhe force
that mOveS electrons (FI27)
volume (VAHL yoom). loudness of a sou nd,
or the space an object t<'lhs up (F57)
weathering destrllctive force thaI brea ks
down rocks into smaller p ieces «(14)
winter solstic. (WIHN luhr SAHl stihs),
~cember 21 Or 22, the shortest day of the
year in the Northern Hemisphere (034)
work (wu rk), resu lt of a force moving an
object a certain distilnce (FI G)
xylem (ZY luhm), specialized pl<'lnt t iss ue
that moves materials (A63)
 Arttrie<, A34 Biome',Bl2, B30-B31
A$<h, Frank. 820 desert. 814
Asexual reprodudion. A 18, foo-e.t 813
A<ce leration, F9

...
A96-A97 g rassland, BI4
A<oustiUlI enginHr<, F129 A.ian long-homed beetle, marine, 816-817
A<ou.ti"" FSS taiga, 815
A<quired tr.it ... A84, ASS Astef<1id Belt. 057 lundra, 815
Adaptotion. A.tef<lid. visual summary ot 819
habi tat, B40 dinosa ur extirKtiOfl b y, 855 Bison, 859

..,
marine biome, 817
naturalsele<tion <au.ing,

population chan9", BSO

in oola, .y<tem. 058
A.tfonaut<. 081
Almo<pn.re
composilion of, 0 16
BI",k hol<l., 077
BoIlr, Ni. I., E7
Boiling point £45, [ 8 5,
[90-[91
trait, Al02- Al01, Al 06- ,t"Xlu rt o f, 0 17 Bone ... A38
A 107, 8 17, B30-831 AtQffls. SH al>o Eltments Brain. An
Adfenal gland., A39 <alcula ting, Ell Bra ... E64
"-rogel, F%-f97 chemkal change in, E51 BrH ding. AI06-AI07
Air magnetic fi eld< o f, f 30-f3l Breeze., 08
compos it iOfl Of, 016 model. o f, E7 Bridgef, Jim, 0 8
pollution, B60 organization ot E8-E9 Bron ze, E64
vibfation of, fS4-f55 physkal change in. E52 Buddin9, A18, A97
Aif mas., 018 vi.ual.umma 'y o f, El l Bur ... A76-A77
Aifplane., F27, F60-Hi I Autumnal Hjuinox. 034
Alaska, 038-039 Axi', 032_0B
AIg.ae, A IS Axle., F20-F21
Alien 'p"'<i." 848
Alloy ... E64 Calcium, EI9, E27
Aluminum, £10 C.""",llag.e. A 10)
Amir>(l ",id., ASS Canyon.
Amoeba, A 16, A17 8a<Ofl_8er<. y, Jun., 013 features of, C7
Anernon><!te .., 022 !!.acteria foo-maliOfl of, C1 6
Angiosperms, A70, A74 binary fi .~Ofl Of. A 18 capilla fiH, A34
Animal. harmful v. bent/idal. A1S carbon &toms, E8-£9
adaptation of, A I 01-A 10l- moneran> a. , Al5 carbon dioxide
on pa. l .... rization 01, A20-Al1 al mo.phere composition
cell. of, A9 Saobab IfH<, Al7 01,016
kin9dom ot AlB Saromelef", 022 <ycl ... , A~
pollination by, A72 Sal1erie., FI06 formation of, (80
.e~ d i,per<al b y, An ee",he., C8 pIIolosymh ... i. pr<><...s us·
.ele<1ive breed ing o f, 8ig Dipper, 075 ing. A51
p'opeflies 01, n 1
.pHd.
A lOO-A I OI
o f, F9
Antibiotics, A15
8in.ary f ission. A 18
Biograplly r"",ifalOO-y 'yslem'. use of.

Antibodies, A40
Apollo Spate Mi .. iOfl.,
8 a con_B e r<~. June, 013
Fra nklin, Ro<alind , A92
Ha hn, OliO, E22
'"
Cardi", mu«le, A38
Ca~ e r . in kie""e, [89
048-049 Ha rper, Hazel Juanila, E22 acou.lical en9 inHf, FI29
Ar<haebacteria, A25 Howafd, Luke, 012 ~stron a U1 , 081
Arctic. Cir<le, 038-039 Ladd .... , Kalhafina, E23 <~rtogr a pher, (97
Ariel. Valley of, OSS Marguli •• Lynn. A93 computer .)'Stems
Art Link. Meilner, Lise, E22 tK h ni<i~n, 081
Bu ild a Sculpl ure, C4S Molina, MariO, En enlomol09i. t 865
M.k e . Coloo-~ , E47 fa''''''f, (97
M.k e . f'osttf, A19, 061 foo-ensi< chemi.t [89
 g~fle<. FUll C.. an AI. A(I, 862 Conlinenyl drift, C42~3.
p)'fole<hnidan. E89
<hip's <ap,ain. 865
C~ lr.'s NHd ... C2O-Q ,
CI.....I•• 06-011
'M
Conlour lir>K, (10
C.miv ........ 826 air mall influencing. 018 ContrKlion. E87

""gl.",e<I'onoIo9Y IOf. £81 11mo.phe<e infl.-.cing.

016-011
ConYKlion. F89
Cowe<. flO. EI8
hybfM:l Ie<hnoIogy IOf. biome. defined by. 812 C",.., rMk. (27
00>«' bfeezn Infl.-.cing. 08 C_. C40. C41
Cartiboge. A38 ~.8Sl ,~

Ca<109r....... (97 desM, 814 mo.rt.' i<:>ffl in. A89

Canoer. Geo<ve watJling,on. IOf"I, 81) poIli"'lion 01. A12

,,-
."

fOfmalionof. CIS
CeM rnembf_. AI. A 16
C. g theory. A7
C.,I ....1I. AS
C"I<. A6. See .Iso Songle-
(elled Of~r'IiirnI
.""""'. A9
d;scovoery 01. A6
kingdom dW'Kle<'''iu 01.
""
mutation of. A89
Of\l4ninl;on of. A12_MO
pam 01. AB-A9
plln~ AI!
tr.'t determination in.
graWand. B14
marine. 816-817
ocuns I>r>d. 0,0
.Ir""'... eof. A74
Cru.1, O. C.eD-C41
0ynaIs. E66-(67
11"91'.8'5 Cyolic: fibtoois. ,11.90
lund, •. 815 CytopIaom. AS
...... , ........... ryof.OII
zones. 07
Clipper sh;p.. Flti
CIouock. 0 12
Dalton. John. E7
,-,
C..... C7S.n
O.rt maner. 078
O.rwin. Ch.dn. B41
fel'urn 01. C8
C""' Iion. ,11.64
Color.clo Ri_. (lO-Ol
~ylighl, 0]4. 0311-019
Oef ....... talion. ,11.54. B!oS
Color. ,lon. ,11.,03 OemCKrilu•. E6
C_to. 059. 07, OM.ity. E44
-Come ••• MetKln. and ~ xyr ibonu<leic: .dd . See

""-""
yi'ual.umma,y 01. AI,
A.. erold •• " Oll
Commen..,' I..... B42 ""
o.e ~ilion. (24-<25. E86
CF($. See ChIOfoflUOfCKlrbolli Community o.e,matologisl>. ,11.40
Chemic:.1 ( hanllH Ktlon. 863 o.est" biomes. 814
dillili<", ion of. ES4-ESS e<osys'em.87 Chawan. Jagdish. Cgg
prOpe<l;" Of. ES3 Compound. o;./og<H (Calileo). 036
"' ..... ,.ummaryol. E57 (~moul fOfmul., 01. E29 Dia"""""'. E9
C~miaol -'9Y. F4S d>emiurl ,eKlions 01. E28 Diaphragm. A1S
Chemiaol formula. E29 (ombining. E26 Dialom .. ,11.1 4. ,11.42-,11.43
Chemiaol 1>1'--'.... E41 .-yd"y. E)(I oatusion. ,11.17
ChemicalQK!M>m. E28. E53 e~01.£27 D;ge.t.ivt .yolHrl. A36
Chemical .ymboI<. E16 formulas IOf. E29 Dinosaur extin(tion. 854-t155
Chic:ken .. A I06-A 107 mi ..... nv_E61 ~.~ .A90

Chlori .... E)(I .........1"'"""""Y of. En DNA (deo""ibon ...dei< .ud)

Chlorofluoro<.arbon. (CF(.). va'e<. po'open1et of. E26. mit ~""A91
m m rnut.tiorn, A89
,~i<ation. ASS
ChIorophrll. ASI
Chloroplasu. Al0. Al7. ASI .yo_
COIYIpQ,,1on. El8
Campul.r ted>";' .1flXt... e. AS7
uail detPlmination by.
Ch ............... "86 AS7. MB
C~ia. A16
Citcuit bfu Un. FI 16. See
-'"' 08.
Condtn..,t.ion.
Conduction. F88
EBS _M'
X-<ay picturn of. A92
~- ~
CI .. ulatory.yo......
~ EI«Uk <.. (";1.

Classifourtion
~
Condu<tivity. U6
Conducton. F92-flll. FII]
Conif.... A63-A£9
Dome """",Yin.. C64
Oom;n_~ Agg

(0MUme<. 826. B2B Con ...... ation. C78, C92-<95 Doorbell.. FH

Of9lnism, A2"A19

Eanh
atmosphere of, 016-D23
a. <S, 032- 033
I\o<izon of, 036
mU.uremen\S of, D65
met..."ites wi~ing, D60
Moon of, 042-047
re>our<e. from, C74-<79
",aoom of, 032-037
in ",Iar Syslem, OS7
structure of, C38--C4S
"Eanh (harg~ d in M~leo"'s
fo.ry DO'alh," 070
Eanhquakes
fault lines of, (52-<:53
mU.uring , (S4-<:55
Ring of Fire.one of, (58
v<sual .ummary of, C59
Eanh's surf"".
COil.t .', C8
deposition on, (24-<2S
eroding. ( 16--C 17, (111
glacial deposit< on. (28
mapp;ng, (10
""'u, al ~~n" <h~n.g ; ng,
'"
OCUn a., (9-00
pushing up, (26-<27
",lid futu res of, C7
v<sual .ummary of, Cl1,
(19,(29
waler bodies on, (6
wealhering. ( 14-<:15
Edipses, 0 46
EcosysU!ms, s.... also 8iorne<
community in, 87
cycles in, 826
defining, 86-87
ene'gy fl ow in, 824-829
freshwater, 818
human impa<1 on, 8S8-B64
pollution of, B60
population of, BB, I146-B53
v<sual .ummary of, 89
Edison, Thomas. f 118-f121
EI Nino, 010
EIKIfi< circuit<, f112 _f117
pa'a llel, FilS
safety around, FI 16
.erie., F114
[ IKtrk motor<, F126
.
EIKtrk;ty
,,
baUe<ies and fuel cells fo<,
current. Fl(\S
diwibUlion of. FI27
energy from, F45
gene<alo<, f l07
maki ng. fl 07
power plan t. for, FI08,
F127
statiC, FI04-Fl0S
uam/o,min.g, FI24-FI2S,
FI26
u,ing, F124-f128
vi.ual summary Of, f 109,
Fl 17
EIKtrormrtgnelic energy, F45
EIK trormrtgnelic w","es,
F64-F65, F'lO-F91
[ IKIromagnel<, F32-F33.
F36-F37
[ IKtron., E7
Element<
a",ient Greek, EI4
ato"" and, E6-E 11
cla.,ification of, E17- E20
compound, tl6- t ~~
Mendeleyffs t<lble 0/, (15
melal. EI7, EI8
molKUles and, El0
noble 9<"', flO
nonmelal, E17, E20
organization 0/, EI4
",mirnetal, EI7, [19
viSu.>1 summary of, El l
Enc. lad us, 058
Endangenodspec .... 859
Endangenod SPK'" Act. 862
Endocrine SY5lem, A39
E nd~l ... mic reticulum, AIO
[ ndosymbiont hypothesi.,
'"
[ ne' 9Y
calculating mechanical, F48
elecUic. F45, FI04-fl28
10'"" of, f 44-F45
potential and kinetic.
F46-F47
thermal, F45, F78-F95
tramformation., F124-
FI2S, FI26
visual summary 01, F49
Energy flow
<y<:lfl,826
Ko>ystem, 824-829
lood chain for, 825
lood webs lor, 826, 827
pyram>d, B28
visual summary 01. B29
Entomologist .. B6S
EnvifOnmentlegi5lation, 86 3,
s.... allo Resourcfl
EpicHlter, (S4
Equinox, 034
Erosion
ca<»flof, CU;-C H
e .a m~e of, (20-<21,
00-<3 1
.odden changes cau",d by,
'"
Eubacteria, A2S
Euglena, A17
Evapo. alion, 08
Everglades, 87, 820-<121
E""rg/;>dH: Buffalo r.gB and
th. Ri_ of Grass (lour .. ),
."
Excrelory .ystem, A39
t xercise, A4\I
Expansion, (87
E"inction
dimale <hange .s ca"", of.
'"
de/orestalion and, 858
d inosau',854-1155
Io<.i l 'esea rch on, B51
Ey. sight, F67
Fa,ming
ca,ee" (97
~rharvestin9, 859
topsoil conservation for,
'"
topsoil protection for, C87
F~ult · b lod mount<oins, C63
F~ult i ng, C63
Faults, C52-<:53
Fern., A68, A69, C44
Fenilization, A70
Fiber opli"', F68
Fiagellum, AI7
Flooding . OS Frui1s. A70. A71. A74 Hah n. 0110. £22
Flo. ida. 87. 820-821 Fuel <ell•. Fl06 Ha los. 07B
flowering plant> Fujita «ale. 024-025 Harper. Hazel Juanila. E22
reprodu<tion 01. A70-A71. Fuller. 8uckminster. E9 Headland •. (17
A93-A99 Fun9i. Al6 Hea ll h
m""tu r ~ of. A74 inMrlled Ifai" of. A90
va''''ty in. A74 maintaining. A40
f luorine. E20 Health Link.
f a",.. On Make a Food Py,amkl. 829
Biography. A92- A93. Gaffe rs. F129 Write a Report. MI. E21
012- DIl. En-En GaLa xle. Heart
Hi'IO<)' 01 S<:ien<;e. A20- <ompo<ition 01. 078 ca rdiac mu><le in. A38
A21. F26-F27. F60-F61 type> 01. 079 in circulatory 'Y'tem. A34
Lite r01ure. B20-821. Galilee. 036 HU I. FBO-FBI
070-071 Gamel .... A87 . A98 capacity. ,pedlie.. F82
Primary Souf(e. BS4-BSS. Gametc.pt.yte •• A68 home. f94
,,~
GO-ell. 038-039 Helium. EI O
R ~ad e ,,' Thutre. A56- noble. no Hemophilia. A90
AS9. (46-<49. FIl S-FI21 parlides 01. E78 Heredily. A84
Technology. (80-(8 1. 'Iale cha"9'!' in. E85. £86 Hill .. C7
E80-E81. F84-F85 ,tate 01 mailer of. £74. Himalaya •• (27
m
,,,.,
Fold mountain~. (62-(63
GasoliM.08
HippOpolamuSfl.830-831
Hi,tory Link>. 853
energy from. 824-82'9 GeMralor. f 107 History 01 Science. AlO-A21.
plant produ<tion 01. Ge ...... AS] F26-F27. f60-F61
ASO-A55 dominanl Y. rec .... i.e. A99 Hooke . Robe"- A6
,in\1l-=elled org.ni,m tw.a llh ar.d. A90 Hookwo. m .. 842
collection of. A16 Ge. min.l ion. A70 Hormones. A39
f ood chain•. B25 Gey ..'" 0S-C39 Ho .... and buggie •. F26
f ood webs. 826. 827 Gla.r:iers How.rd.luke. DI2
f Of(e. F7 depOSits from. 08 Human
balanced a r.d unbalarxed. ...-o,ioo by. (17 ecosyslem impacted by.
Glanck. A39
'"
01 irxlined pla~ F22
01 leve". FI8-l'19
GI ..... Ell. E43. E80-E8 1
Gol9i apparalu • . A9
SS6-864
organ 'Y'lemi. A34_A41
papulation growth. 861
mea.urir.g. fll Grana. AS I Hun \ing. 859. 862
wur.d .olume a nd. fS7 Grand C.nyon. 00-01 HUffiarne radars. 021
01 wedgM and >< r~ WI. F23 G"phile. £8 Hybridizalion. A l ao-A 101
01 wh ~el •. a xle\, ar.d pul· Gr ...... A74 Hybrid •. A99
le ys. F20-F21 Grauland biome •• 81 4 Hydroelec";c power pl.nt<.
work ar.d. FI 6-FI7 Gravily. AM. FI2 ,,~

f ord. He nry. F27 Grut Red Spot. 066

f o~n.;c <hemi.t. E89 Gymnospe. m •• A69
Fo~st
biomeS. 813
delore,tat>on ai, AS4. 858 Immune .ystem. A40
f a,. .. luel.. AS4. 860. OS. Inbreeding. A 10 I
Habilall. B38 Indined plane .. Fll
GO
adaplat;onS. B40 Ine rtia. f1
f os.II•. 8SO. 8S I. (44
los, 01. BS9 Infr • • IId. F65. F90
Franklin. Rosalind. A92
,u""val in. 839-43 Inhe. iled Irail<
Freezing. £84
.iwal ,umma ry 01. 843 acquiring. A96-A 101
f ri<lion. FI2
f ronll. 019 delerminalion 01. A86-A89
 diseases as. A90 fiber opt ic< from. F68 weal her observations. 020
Inne. pl ~neU. 064-065 reflection. F66 Ma.gul". l ynn. A93
l"Ilui<y nill ref.a<tion. F66-F67 Mafine biome. 816-817
use models. 00 vi,iblt. F6S
vi, ..... I .... mmary 01. f69
M,"
In,ulalo". F92-f9l. Fill. character"I'" of. 065
f96-f97 Light-year. 075 exploration of. D68
Integu mentary system. A40 Lightning. FllO-F1l1 Marshlands. C8
IntestinH. A36 Liquids Mass. [44
In". nebrales. Al8. A38 "ate change. in. E84. E85. Math Link.
Angle Mea.urM. fl5
10.058
Ifidium. 855 '"
<1ale of matte, 0/. E74. Cakulale and Compare.
I."". E27. [29 E75. [77
Island fo",.ali"". (26 lite.alure. B20-B21. 070-071
lithosph ••e. C41
'"
Cakulale Diamete •. C45
Cakulale Populalion Den-
live •. A36 ,ity. 853
~ fWons.A62 Cakulale s.pecilic Heal
Lodders. Kalharina. En Capacity. f8l
Joinll. AJ8 LodestonH. flO (akulate $peed. f II
Jupite •• 066 Lourie. !'eler.821 (akulate Total Atoms. En
Luna. eclipse. D46 Cakulate Voltage. FI17
Lungs. AJS Ca lwlate Vol""",. E47
LymphatiC system. A40 Convert Units. C6S
Ly<o<o ........ A9 Est imate Speed. 069
Kevla •. El4- El5
Find an Average. BI9
Kidneys. A39
Make. Chart Al()4. E65
Kineti< ene'9Y. F46-F47
Make. Di~gram. 061
Kingdoms. A24
Make a Graph. A41. A6S.
a ... imal. A~R MOoChl" .. .<>.91. ~19. ~43. ( 5 \1. (7\1.
fungi. A26 compound. F24 (96.037. ES1. F49. fS9.
mone.an. A25 simple. FI6-F23
plant A27
proti". A25
vi.ual wmma ry of. f25
M"9lev I.ain. F36-f37
""'
Mak~ a M~ I. 080. EI I
Ma~ ~ a \.ca le Drawing. A7S
v"ual ,ummary 0/. A29 M"9ma. (26. C56-<:57 Ma~ ~ a Tab l ~. All. 864.
Kud.u vines. A50
Kwolek. Stephanie. E34
M"9 ..... ium. EI8 ,n
M"9 ....U Make an [Slimatt. 89
mag ....li< li elds and. Prepare a Kit. E21
flO-fl2 RatiOS. F128
making. fl2- fll Solwo a Problem. (19. (29.
If,ndlills. 8&0. C94.
If,nd,lide,. CI8
~rman e nl. fH
vi.ual ,ummary of. fl5 ",
Use a Formula. ASS. 047.
M"9 ... itude. 07S
If,,,,,,. f7O-F71
If,VI. C26. C57
Manipulate<llraiU. A8S.
Al06-A l 07
'"
Use a Protractor. f69
U... an Equation. E86
If,voioie r. Anloine·lf,urent.
Mantis shrimp. 866-B67 Work With Decimal •• £79
'"
Leav... AS2-AS3
Mantle. C4O. C41
Mapping
Matle,
(hange' in. E!!4-E88
L..uw .... ho.k. Anto ... van. A6
canography caree. for. C97 (o"",rvalion 0/. E56
Len..... F67
[a<th', ..... Iace fealu. .... p<oP't.lies Of. E42- E47
Lewo ... Fl8-FI9
ligaments. AJ8
Light
'"
resource Io<atio",. C9S
~I al StudiM Link. to.
, tale. Of. E74-£79. ES4-E88
.i.... al .... mmary of. E47
Mauna loa. Hawaii. (26
electromagnetic wave. of.
ASS. (29 MlKhan ical energy, F4S
f&<i-f6S
Technology Link. to. B.41 calculating. f48
 t,~",lo'rnaHon to, F125. Motion. F6 Nonmetal •. £17. £20
FI26 mea",ring. F8-f9 Nonrenewable resources. OS
Me<h...,k al wa.e •. FS2- F53 Newton', lim law of. NonvaKula. pl...,ts• .0.62
Meitne •. Lise. E22 f7-f10 Nu<iur fis""". E22
Me lting. E84 N..wton's second law 01, Nu<iur I>OWer plants. fl08
Me lting point. E45 FII-f12 Nucleotides. AS7
MMde leyev. Dmit'i. EI5 Mountains Nucleus . .0.8, E7
M" rtuf)' dome. (64
<haracte,;sti« 01. D64 leature. of. (7
l(I(alion 01. 057 lokling and fault·bl(l(k.
Me><»phere .OI7 (62-<:63
de Me·u ral. George. A76 lorm~ l ion 01. (27. (62- Ocun(.)
Metal brH ZM. 08
~lIoys. E64
<onducti.ityof, E46
'"
predpitation from, 09
Multicellular organi,m ••
climate and, 010
<urrenl<.DIO
elemental <ia ..;ncation of. A32- All erosion cau.ed by, CI7
E17. E18 MUKulardy. trophy. .0.90 feature. of. C9. Cl0
Meteorite •. 060 MUKularsystem. !U8 marine biome and. BI6-
Meteo .... 060. 070-071 Mushroom •. A26 on
Mic<",,,kH Indian<. 821 Mutation. AS9. .0.90 mountain effect
MicrOO<gani<m •. Sff $i"9le- Mulual;Sm. B42 pre<ipitation near. 09
<el led organisms Ring 01 Fire in. C58
Micros<0pe5 Oil
de.elopment 01. A7 a, nonrenewable r..source.
Milky Way. 078 m
Mimicf)'. AI03 Natural •• ents 'pill,. 860
Mi.ox ...... d. ia. AID . .0.91 dinosaur extinction by. 8SS Omniyore •. 826
Mi>.ture. Earth's surl""" <han9"d by. Ophthalmolog;St .. .0.40
O. al 9rooye. AI6
alloys a,. E64
compound,. E61
separating. E61
'"
population change by. 849
rada" detecting. 021
Org,," <yltems. .0.33. A34-M I
Organelle.;. A8
ty~s 01. E60 Natural gas. 05 Or9<'ni.m.
.isual s"mmary 01. E65 Natural .... ource •. 04 d~"ilication 01. A24-A.29
Modeling Natural selection. 841 multic el l ul~'. .0.32- .0.33

atoms. E7 Nebula. 076 ,i"9le.;:e lled, A 14-A 19

Math Link,. 080. Ell Neon. E20 '~mbi"'i' among. B42
Molecule •• El0. SH al>o Neptune. 061 "ail< of, A84
Coml>Ound, Nervous .ystem. IUl Organs
Molin a. Mario. En Neurons . .0.37 human, All
Moneran .. Al5 Neutron. E8 plan~ .0.63

Moon(s) Newton (mea<urement). F II Orth<>pedi<I< • .0.40

<haracteristi« ot 042. Newton. Si. I.... ac Os.cillos.cope. F55
043. 0 48-049 Fi"tl.aw 01 MOtion. O.mosi •. AI7
e<lipse 01. D46 F7-f10 Outer planets. 066-067
phases. 044. 045 Second Law 01 Motion. OYerharvesting. B59
Sal"rn',.058 fll-f12 Ox~gen

in oola' 'ysU.m. OSS Un i.e""ll.awof circulation of. A34

Uranu,'. OSS Gravitation. FI 2 <)'C~ A54

.iewing. 043 Nich .... 839 photmynth<'Si. proc"ss f",.

.i,ual mmrnary of. 047 Nitrogen. £20. E90-E91 All• .0.50-.0.51
Moose. 847 cy<:le<.826 respiration for. .0.35
Moose •. All• .0.62 Noble gaw.. E20
 leaves. A52- A53 himary Sou",e, B54-B5S.
moving maleriail irom. ClO-C21,038-039
A62- A65 hi,ms. F64
Pan<re as. A36. A39 nonvaKula r. A62 "'ol. in
Pang.af!a. (46-<49 organ •• A63 mUlalion, A89
Parallel , i",u;U. FI I S ~lIi""lion latlo" for. A72 .ynthesi<. ASS
Param. dum. A 16. A17 reprodUCIion. A68-A75. ProlislS. AlS
Para.iti,m. 842 A96-A91 "'Olon, E8
Parti<le •• E75 "'~ di. persal. A73 "'OIOSlar, 076
gas. E78 "'~Ie ... A68--A69 Pulkly>. F2o-F21
liq uid. El7 ",1"'live bteeding of. I'yrotechni<ian, E89
"'lid. El6 AlOO-AlOI
Pasteur. LOIJi • • A2o-A21 li,,,,es. A63
Pasteurization. Alo-All u.es. A56-A59
P~iatri<ian •• A40 vaKular. A63
Penumbra. D46 veins. A63 Radialion. F6S. F90-F91
Pe riodic table vi<ual ",mmary of. ASS. Radialors. F94
el~n t d a .. ificatiO<'l on. Railroad<. F17
A65. A7S
E17- £20 wale< flow in. A64 Rain. 022
el~n t organization 0<'1. Rain 10"'''
Plale boundaries. CO
'"
Mendeleyev'•• E15
Plal. lectoni«. C42
Plalu .... C7
biome. B13
deforestation 01. A54, BS8
people and. E17- E20 Plulo. 067 Read. ,,' Theale., A56-AS9,
read ing. E16 Polar <limates. 0 7 (4&-C49, Fl18-F 121
,,",ual .ummat)' of. El l Pollination ~ eading link, A93
Perma ..... nl magnels. F32 <oni fer. A69 ~ ead ing Skill
Petfoleum. C7S. C78 factor •• A72 {alegorlze, E14
I'hl~m. A63 Il owering p lan~ All <a ..." &nd "ffec ... A%, B46,
Pl><»pt..:m:, .••• £20 Pollulion (24, C52, 06, OR ESO,
Photo.ynlhesis red uction of. 862- 863 F64. FI 24
leal >\Ioxlure for. A52- A53 Iype. of. 860 <la«ify. A24, B24, (62, E52.
proces. 01. An. A5Cl-AS I
Phy.ital tha,,!!,",
Polymer>. B I
Populalion. 88. B46-853
'"
COmpare and con t r a . ~ A6,
d a .. ification of. ES4-ESS adaplalion 10 change in. A68. B38. 064, E6. E26,
properties of. E52 EGO, F7B
,,",ual .ummat)' of. E57
Physital properties. E43
Pianos. F24. FS6
Pistils. A70. A71
...""
alien .pecie. influence on.

b a l a ",~. 846
d raw {onclu.ion •• A14,
8SS, (84, 0 16, F30. FS2 •
Fl12
main idea and delail., 66,
dima te change inllue",.
Pitch. FS6 on, 852 C6, 074, E42, , 6, F88
Plains. C7 "'Iinclion of. 8S 1 problem and ",Iulion, G4,
Planana. A97 human, growth of, 861 C9 2. f l6
Planels. 056-057 limils. 847 sequence, ASO. A84, (14.
exploration of. 068
inner. 064-065
natural ,""en" influence
on. B49 '"
text .tructure, A62. B12.
OUler. D66-067 vi.ual ,umma ry of. BS3 Os. 056. E74, FI04
,,",ual .ummat)' of. 069 Pot21<.ium, e 18 R"",.. ive ge ....... A99
Planl«) Potential e nergy, F46-F47 ~ e<y <ling. (91. (92. C94-<9S,
adaplalion of. AI 02- A 103 Powe. pi ......, FI08. FI27 (98-<99
Cells. AS P",dpilation, 09 Re<l gianls. 076-077
lood prOOUCIion by. P",dalo", 846, 847 Refleclion. F66
ASO-ASS P",y. 647 ~efraction, F66-F67
kingdom. Al7 Refrigeration, f 84-f85
R"ge""'ralion. A9 7
Renew~ble .esource •. C76 Sea. 5ft Ocun
Reproduction Sea..,.,.
~se . u.l. A18. A96-A97 Emh ... D32-037
chromooomes. A1J7 temll"rawre ch~og", dur-
plant. A63-A75. A96-A97 ing. 035
sexual. A7D-A71. A9S---A99 "i",al ",mmary of, 031
"ngl~-<:ell o'gan"'"- A 18 Sediment. (14
tr~, A69 depo<ition of. (24--C25
Re'idualsoil, Ql5 SelMl di>pe~I_ An. A76-A77
Re<Ot.lr<e. SelMlleu planlO, Af>8-A69
conserva tion of. C78. Sei.mic waves. (53
(92--C96 energy of. (S4--CS5
locaHon Qf world. (95 Sei.mog. aph •• (52
n.tuf~l. C74 Sele<tive breeding. A100-
nonrenewable. C75 AIOI. AI06-AI07
'ecy<ling. (91. (93 Semimetals. EI1. EI9
, ~ a bl e .(76 Senses. E42-E43
Raspi'atory system. A1S Se,i.s ci,cuits. FI14
Revolution. Oll Snual . eprodu<lion. A7D-
Ribosomes. A9 A71. A98-A99
Richte. ><ale, (55 Ship<
Rive. val leys taptain of. 865
ftatUfes of, C7 dipptr. F26
flood iog. (25 Sickle cell anemia. A90
formation of. (16. OD- Silicon. Elg. Ell. E80
'"
~ o< ks
f""il. in. BSO. B51. (44
Silver. EtO
Simon. s.oymour. 071
Simp!. mathi ......
gl"'ia l depo<it. (28 i""linlMl plan~ a., F22
meltiog, (26. (56 le"""a., FI8--19
weathe'ing. (14 wed!)'" and S('ews a., Fn
Root pre>sure. A64 wheels, a.les and pulleys
Rust. E27 as. F20-F21
Ruthe rford. Ernest. n wor k of . • 16-1' 17
Single-celled o.gani .... ,
diffu,ion in. A 11
food collection by. A16
life Pfoce.ses of. A14
St. Helens. Mount. 849, mo""m~flt of. A 17
(66---C67 re production of, A18
Salt, ElO ty!>",of,Al5
S.nd, E19. E3 1. ESO .i""al ""mmary of. AI9
Sale llit.... 022 Sinkh<lles. (18
Saturn Skeletal mU1-<ie's. A38
ch,,,acteristic. of. 066 Skeletal system. A38
location of. 057 Skin. A40
MOOfl' of. DS8 Smooth mu,de .. A38
Sa..-anna Socilll Studies Unks
habital 838 Ala'ka: Land of the Mid -
ni(he. 839 night Sun. 019
Schield ..... Matthia •. A7 Bacon-8e.-cey. Jun ~. Oil
Sch.6dinge<, Erwin .
Strews. f23 " (I.-opat,a·, Nef'dle, (20
(ooling Off, F84
OinOO<lU' E. ti""tion. 855
GI~ ... E81
M.ke a Map. ASS. (29
Make a f'osler. f117
Pa'teurization. A1. 1
P ~opl~ and t~ Periodic
Table, E22-En
T~ Sound 8a"ie,. f61
T,an'pottation. F26-f27
Sodium. ElO. no
Soil
«''''''''''<Ilion of. (88
fQ, ..... tion Qf. QlS
p.ofi le. (86
protecting. (87
t~!>'" of. (84
v;sual summary of. (89
Sola,ulls.FI07
Solar ""lips.. 046
Solar@f\e'gy.(76.(77
Solar sy.tem. 5ft also Sta,s
asteroids in. 058
comets in. 059
met""", and mel"""it'" in.
060. D70-07I
in Milky Way galaxy. 078
Moon. in. OS!!
plane" in. 056-057
Sun in. 0S6---0S7
v;sual .ummary of, 061
Solids
p'optrties Qf. £74. E76
stale changes in. EM-E87
SoI.tke .034
Solubility. E46
Solute. E6.2
Solutions
makiog. E62
a, physical chaog"'. ES4
,~p.aratiog, E63
v;Sual ,ummary of, E65
Sol""nt. E6.2
·Som. Riv ...• (~m). 820
Sonic boom. F60-F61
Sound
acouslical engineer
careers. F129
acoustic •. fS8
barrie<. breaking. f60-f61
m«hanical wa"", and.
f52-fSl
pitch, FS6
 vOsu~ 1 summary of, FS9 Supernova.. 077. 0 82-083 ThermQSphe~. 017
volume, FS7 Switch. F113 Thomwn. J.J" E7
waws. F54-F55 SymbiosiS. typeS of, 842 Th~at e ned $peties. SS9
SPilt<! e><j>lQration, 0&8, F27 Symmetry, A43 Thyroid gland, A39
SPilt<! shuttle, F27 Till, C28
SPilt<! suits, E34-£3S Tire" (96-<99
SlIKifk heat capacity, f82 Tissue" A32
SpeO<l, f8 organization of, All
Spinal cord, Al7 Taiga biomes. B1S plant. A63
Spontaneous gen. ration, TechnolOgy Topographic maps. C10
A20-A21 dean te<h nology, 863 T""soil
Sporangia.. A&8 fi ber opti<. F&8 con<ervalion of, C8S
Spo~$, A&8 Focu, On. C80-<8 1. p<olile of, C86
Star$ [80-[81, f84-f 8S p<Olecting. (87
8ig Dipper, D7S gla .. , E8()-[81 T"madot •• 024-02S
gala.i",of, 078, 079 hybrid <.iI '. (8O-C81 Traits
life <y<le 0 1, 076-077, refrigeralor. F84-f8S a<q uirO<l, AB4. ASS
082-084 Technology Link. adaptation of. A I02- A103,
mapping, on Be a Foreu"e., 023 8 17. 830-B31
Son as, 074-075 Be a Smart (oru umer. F9S by ase. ual fep<oduction.
vOsual summary of, 080 (rute . Photo Esury. 069 A96-A97
States of matter, E74- E79 O ,~ w a Oiagr ~ m. Og Inherited, AB6-A90.
chang'" in, E84_E88 G~ther D. t ~. 819 A96-AIOI
Static elKtricity, FI ()4..FI05, Make a Diag ram, Al l manipulatO<l, ASS
F13O-F131 Make a Display, [57. Fl09 mutation influe",e on,
Stems, A63 Make a Post .... A7S, 89,
Stoma<h, A36
Stoma ... , A)l
F.S. FlS. FS9. f 69
U"'. Mop. D4l
""
organism. AS4
by . el"""ye breeding.
Suatosphere, 0 17 Write a Report. ( 59. (96. AlOO-A10l. A106-AI07
Sublimation, [86 037, £33, E79 by sexual feproduction,
Subsoil, ( 86 Tel",cope<. 0 68 A98-A99
5"9"'" A51, E28, [63 Temperate dimat .... 07 yisual summary of. A91
Sulfur, E20, £29 Temperate forests. B 13 Transpiration, AM
Summer soHtke, 034 Temperatu ~ . S<M Thermal Transportation, f 26-f 27
energy Transported soil. (85
'""comet's orbit around, OS9 Tendon" A38
dayl ight from, 034, 038- Tesla. Nikola, fl18-f l 21
The,mal energy
,-
Trash. B60, e92, C94

reproductiQn 01. A69

'"
Earth', ' u .".,. <.iIu....t by,
032-037
conduction of, f88
conductors of. F92- F93
trunks of, A63
Tropkal climates, 07
eclillSe 0 1, 046 convection of, F89 Tropkal fain forest, S<M Rain
electromagnetk wa ..... hut and, F80-F8 1 for"'t
from, F65, f 9 1 home """'ling and, F94 Troposphe~. 017
food chain and. 825 insul ~ to " of, F92- F93 Tubeworm., B17
heat ing by, 06 propert ies Of. F44 Tundra bi<>m<!s, BIS
ideas about. 036 radiation of. F9O-F91
solar er.ergy from, 06, speci fk heat capacity of,
on
'ystem ~ nd, DS6-0S7
,ol ~ r
"ar properti", of, 074-
'"
temperature and, F78-F79
tra",formation to. FI2S Ultraviolet rays, F6S. f91
visual summary of. f83. f 95 Umbra, 046
'"
Sunflowers, AN
SUp"rte US, 024
Thermal npa",ion, E87
The, mometer" 022. F79
 milel"'", EliS pr~ 01, (26. Ell.
"'~
<hM.n,.,.i\liO 0/, 067
Moon 01. DS8
-~,
mountain fomwlion. (65
Newton" law. of motion,
'"
0Hd dispe<wl by.,.,n
stale <"'''9'i of, EM-ESS.

'"
petiodk
ph'f~iol
lab~. (2 I
( h ang<'<. (57
'"
W'VM. m«hiOniul l. F53
WNlhofing by, ",",mical,
VlKuoIn.. A9 plaMU. 069 m
loocl<oIIe<toon by. A '6 plants, ASS. AliS, A75 w._
water rele~ by, A 11 popuIatiOn~. B53 ~Io,ctt<:>fl\logMlic, F~S.
VaporizaUon. £85
lI_ula, <.>mbium, A63
Vaseula. planll. Ali)
~a .......037
lingle-<ellO'd Of9l'nismJ, '"
medI.niUll, FS2-fSl
>O<.....d.
FS.... F55
Vein<
hu ....... n, Al4
'"
\Oil, C89 WNlher. SH also Cli .... te
ai' .....s and. DIS
lOIil' Il'tem. 061
plant. A61 loOIulio.... (liS almoop/>e<e I<Id. 016-011
Veltro, A76-An sound, FS9 kant>, 0\9
Velotity. Fe .tlr1. oeo insUume<1I1. 021
.... nu. 1ht<.... I~gy. FBJ, f95 otM<vJng. 020
ckor;octeri'llia of, 064, O6S trails, 1191, A104 radar, 02 1
location of, 057

--
.okanCoH, (59 sat ellit e<, 022
VoIrnal equinox, 034 weatM', 023 vis .... llumtnaf)' o f, 023
Vertebrale .. Ala. A38 WNIhe. ir>g
Vibral""'" fSl-FSS dinouur e!<tinctiOn by, BSS chemica~ C15
11_. Rudolf. "'7 eruplion of. (56-<57, e~of, 00-<21
lI;";bI<I light. <<is (66-(:67 me<NoniuoI, CI4-< 15
lIi$uaI SumrNoIY , .,,11 II .... 0 1. C'ioII W_ ..... .t.If..cl. Ct2. C46-
~Ioms. En
b iom~l , BI9
<elll, All
I~ndllio:le< <a...w by. ( 18
mounta in, lor l"nM by. (64 '"
W""IM'g ' . 1. ... Lka. D70
pop,d~t>on <h~nge by. 849 W... tinghou .., Geo'ge.
<hemiul <I\;ong.t<. (57 I\,n-g 01 Fire lOM 01. (sa Fn8-f 121

--
di"""te.Oll ......... II<.Itt'It'f\IIIY 01. CS9 WetlMwl .. BS9
compounds. El3 1IoItag.e, f 112. FI17 ~I<. F2O-F21

. '"
tonse.ntion. C96 Whiu! dwarl .. 077
earthqu.kn. C59 matter. E44 Wildtif, ..f~. 862
Earth', feoour< .... 09 IOUnd. fSl
Earth"lltu<lure. ( 45 energy. ' tntw~ble. 06.
Earth', surfKe. CIt. Cl9. m
'"
t<0Iy\1em<. B9
WaltuHJ, 830-331
I.>nd and \e~. DB
pollinalion by. An
tlectJi6!y. Flog. fl 11 Wfll dilperuol by. All
element\. Ell Wat.., SH .1>0 ()(ean _.u-ingby.
energy. F49 ("..,,1. C8 ..-hanK.1. Cl 4
energy lIow. 829 (on_lion 01. F89 Wintt ' ..."tltt, 0)4
habilat .urviv.l. 84] cy<:1n. B26 wo1Vfl.847
human impact on on Earth', surioKe. C6 wort<. FI 6-FI7
t<0Iy\1etm. 864 t<OI)'Item<. BIB w_
hurNon DfgM1 ')'Item<. A41 _ 0'. rflM!W.obIe. (76. hook.P"~$itk. 842
kingdomlof hfe. A29 m tube, adaptatlon 01. B11
light. F69 erOlion by. Cl6-< I7 writing Unk.
mad'liMl, f 2S ~.O8-<l9 Crn" .... 080
"""g~lI. F35 plant " ow 01. A64 ExplaNllory.864
matter. E47. [79. E88 poflinalion by. An
 Expo<i!ory, A19, M5, Ell,
E65, Fl), F49, F83
Narrative, C19, C89, 047,
F128
Wfi t,.. Poem, A29, E88
Wfi t,.. Story, C65

X.rays, DNA, An
Xylem, A63

Ye "9~r, (huck.. F60

Yf~1
pu,~,Al5
,ep,od"'tiOn. A 13, A97
Yellow.tone National Park.
Wyoming, 08-09

Z~ r a mU$ ~ I •• 848
Zygote., A68, A69
 literatu re:
he .. pt from The lI;...e.ofG~" f.om E_·
glM1n: ",H.,o r.gtrlnd!he llWe<ofG .....
by ~te. Lou<ie. COjIjI'5gIlt 0 1994 by ~tet
Lourie. Rep,inted by pe,mI$tion of Ca,oline
Holllt. Boyds Milll P,el~ IrK.
SonNIIIIWn from ~"'9r"lJ PIHmJ: A View
'.om ,he E_<JI«1t<.by r" .... AAh. Cowigtl!
01')96 byf, ...... AAII. ~lnted by pe,mit-
tIon of _(OUt!. Inc. ThiI motet!'1 ....,- not
be ~odu<ed in .ny form or by at!\' "'"""
~I>ovt the pra ...... ltletl pe<mlilion of the
pUblli/ltt
E. e"pl f.om ~II M"r3~ .nd Pro,~1Ot of
Land and Ani.... '. from The "ori<h Wale.
SfOty: f,om ~indrop< 10 Il'Ie SH. by Pe-ggy
SiIoI U.n' ~ and Wiondy A. HIlt. (ot)y.igM
o 1t9IIby Pt9gy SiM Ulnl< ..-d Wtndy A.
Hilt. ~~inted by pe<mI\llOf'I 01 ~Ie
"m~
E><..-ptlrom Comet\. ~~ MId AJtt<oids,.
by!ioymour \;rnon. Copyright 0 1994 by
~ _ Reprinted by pe<mistlon of
W,I'1¥n MOrrow and (<IIT1I*lY. .... Impr..,t 01
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(IMtt)O 1'...1.... SoudeuKo,bh. 1):1...)9 0 It:
Y_hll~",Slor:kIPanot.mIc 1""'9H'
tqfioNl ~,,,,,, Soc;"ty. MQ (b) 0 Willh
AndfflonIACdaim lmagn. MQ (e) 0 I'«IrIMn
Wu/Mrndtn l'ictur". MQ (I) 0 10m I"ketieldl
Cotbio. 1141 (b) 0 An TWomeyIPhoto
_ t t . . .. Inc. 1141 (I)OAnhur Mor'nI
CotI:M$. 1142 (e) 0 CrIOg It:. lO<~
_ t t . . .. Inc. 1M2 (I) 0 OttInis It:unt:;eI
MicrOK<IP)I Inc. 1142 (I) 0 Chris NtwbertI
Minden l'ictur .... 10 (b) 0 Chrlt ~
Minden l'ictur .... 114) (e) 0 An ~ IO
_ t t . . .. Inc. 1M] (I) 0 K. V....wHt"..
p",Slor:l<NMoOf,mk IrrII9ftIN;KiontI
Geogo~ Soc;"ty. .... 0 Goiftl AOWIIIW
Cofbio. IM44S 0 M,nias It:lurnlNatioNl
Gtog!rl>J)ll1c IInI9t Colie«ion. M 0 MichHl &
Patritlll f~orbio.. lM 1 0 MitllHl
Our",.,....".,ndtn I'ktur .... 148 (bI) O.lamn E.
AppitbylUnlveulty of IIlinoil. II4' (lmet) 0
Bar~" Sl,...oo.aIPtIot o Resel'che .... Inc. 148
(I) 0 h,,.,. Run~lanIG"nl Heil"..n
Pholog,aphy. 1149 (Imet) 0 PholoOl1<. lroc)
PlJI'I(h Sloxk, 149 0 ~yot ~enr'ltdyICorbl •. BSO
(b) 0 Kevin S<:h,ferlCorbrs. eso (I) 0 MiellHl &-
Patriti. fogden!Co.bl .. 85 1 0 C•• 1g Au' .... lti
Corbi•• B5) (b) CI Mithael & Patricia fog<lenl
Co,bli. 85] (e) 0 PholoOlK. InCJPUIK~ Slor:k.
8s] (I) 0 MkllHl &- P""itl. fog<lenICorbh.
8S<I 0 Roge' R...omey<t.ICorbh. 856·57 0 W.
""'ry Conw,y/Co,bio. B5I 0 W' )'M laWItri
E(OSCfot. 159 (Ifflel) 0"'''''' pilC1irl\lGr.",
Hoeilman PtIolog'apIIy, Inc. IS' 0 Alu
MuanlScielKe l'tKMo libra,.,.lPtIoto
Rese"che, .. Inc. 160 (b) 0 PhotoOl1<. In<J
I'\n:h Stock. 160 (e) 0 IItneIUJI PreWt• .oO'Getty
Imagn. 160 (1)0 J.W.CodyICorbis. 161 0 Jason
HawlcnlCofbio. 862 (b) 0 TMo ... IIoM... biI.
862 ( ) Ooav;(! f"lieJ. "2 (I)OW. WII"fN
lockwood, M_OJCorbol. N] (bl) 0 ~1tWtytf'1
Slone1GH\y ~ . 86] (bf) 0 iOM'pII SohtnI
CotI:M$. N ) (Insft) 0 ... andon (0l0i(... 1>11. NJ
(II) 0 GIbe ".Imt<lCorbio. N) (If) 0 I\oge<
Reutneyt,lCorlMl. ~ (b) 0 GIbe p"mt<1
CotI:M$. ~ « ) 0 Jason HlwknlCotbio. BioI It)
o ~n l'it..imIG.ant HeUman PtIologrljlohy.
H46 • Credits
Inc. 865 (bI<gd) 0 ACE Pholo AgIHIqI
fIObe,mocO;_"S (t) 0 Darling It: inde"1eV
I'ict",. Lillra.y. fl66..61 0 Nat;on.l Geogol>J)llitl
Getty lmagn. 868 0 John Onc.1Ios~e'
Arnold. 11K. Unit ( Opener 'i"f pag<I 0 Rudolf
8.. H..-m.nionil Geogr"""" Image
CoIlKtion. unit (~.JftId OC'1oig
~orbiI. O-JO COf ..... 0 (b)OQennit
fauitnerKorbis. 0 (e) 0 Goo<go f . Mob~
"'tronal Geogo~Sodoty Image CoIie«1OfI.
o (f ) 0 William M.VIn;"gKorbi$. (4·5 0 Golen
_ I and ~ Producl.iom, InC. CI 0
Corbio.. 0 (I) 0 Phil Oe!l9'f"OgtfilMth S<:e ......
o (I) 0 ~ P. GIcIomok"""'o
1I......'tt.. .. In<. CI (I) 0 It:MIy---.ey
PholograpllylCorbio. U II) 0 Tonv AI.uz"
Corbio.. C9 0Captain Albert E. Thebergo.
Courtfly of NOAA. CtO 0 Or. KIOA Mac~
Photo _ t t . . .. Inc . (II OCirJrlOin"'lbe<\
E. Thebe'ge. eoun..'Y of NOAA. ( 11 ·U OSitkl
l..-lanIPa"",amic IfTY9""IN.uoOilI G.!>g,I>J)II it
Society Image (ollKtion. ( " OPoihoyo>l!PN.
( 15 0 Bob 1t:.i<tlCOfbil . (Ii (b) (I Llu liqurV
(orbio, CI6 (I) 0 Oale Jo'ge<MnISupe"lor:k.
""" Ct 1 (I) 0 0<I\Od MueroclVCor1>I •. CI1 (,) 0
Joe Ma<[)onaldNiIU.ls Unlimited, Inc, Ct. (b)
0 .... R''''''ylPt>oloEdit, Inc. Cl8 (I) 0 APNlfde
Wofld PholO'J, (\9 (1) 0 liu liqunlCo,b ll. CI9
(2) 0 l'>ihoyosilPN. C19 (l) 0 Joe MacDoOilIdl
Vi",,"rs unlimiled. In<. 09 (4) 0 APiWide
Wofld PholO'J, 00 0 Joan Ia<<>r'rfni/ll'u<e
Coleman. 11K. 01 0 Gia n B.no Vannl/(... bI1,
02·23 0 01Ve G. Iiouse,/Corbio. O' 0
r..offrty CliffOf~A'iAflPN. O S (b) 0 And,e
hrt"hlM'ild Tropb;. (25 (I) 0 MI'II Milie<,
\.InNersity of Or"9Df1/Ameritan GeoiogOI
Ins\itvl • • CU Coun...., of NA~ 0 1 0 Jon-
Pierre l'ieu<hotlTho! Image hnklGetty 1mIogotI.
01 (b) 0 Ed D.1facW....... Unlimited. Inc. oa
(I) 0 10m 8eanICOIbio. C29 (b) 0 Ed o.ackJ
~Ii Unlimited. Inc. C29 (e) Counny of
NASA. C29 (t) 0 Marli Mille1. Ur'IiverIity of
Or~_it.., c;..ologi<allnuillfle. 00-] 1
o Ron WaIIIICorb",OoI·JS 0 Gary ...aaKtV
Cc.bis. CJS (b) 0 William ~ingICorbio.. OS
«) 0 Mit""'"' S. V_Ilita/COfbio. CJS (t) 0
Jim SugaflCorbio.. Cl&-J1 0 Photaonc.. IncJ
Punch Slid. CJI (1)0 M¥1in 8 . Wither>; f,."k
~ Picture Agen<y/COfbro. CJI (. ) 0
ktlmannICorbii. CJ9 0 COfbi<. (44 () 0
Wolfgang KMIIlerlCorbro. ( 44 (1)0 GeorOl O.
lewlCorbio. C'S 0 'M:rlfgang It:..nieJlC... bi>.
(50.51 (b) 0 ~,Cir< ., tfVN,tronal Geogr.ph-
Ie Society. (50-51 (bkgd) 0 ~ I .' Garotfnl
NatioNl ~aphit Sor:iety. (51 «) 0
"""'e,oICorbh . CSl (Q 0 Oavid P.rbrlPtloto
_ .... cher •• Inc. C54 C ArUrt GiYonlAPiW"fde
Wofld PholO'J. C56 0 Jim Sug .... ICOfbi<, C59 (e)
o Jim SugarlCorbh. CS9 (I) 0 Anal GlvonlAPI
wfde wo,ld PhotO'J. (6().6 1 0 Plul A. So..de""
(o,bi •. C62 (I Po"",o""" Irnagesffl>e lmarge
Wofk., C6J 0 Jim War kJAI, Photo. ( 64 0 Doud
SehlLM.uals Unlimited. Inc. (66 USGS. (72·1)
OW. C<KIyICOfbh. cn (b) 0 Rith;jo,d
Hut,hing<lPhotoEd il. Inc. en (e) OSlrn
EIf'N.di"" SUnKOfbil Sygma. (n (I) 0 AviO
m.gory. Inc. 0'·15 0 EyeWiren'holaonc..ln<J
Punch SIOXI<. 06 (b) 0 ~on G~ingll'.,tf
Arnold. Inc. 06 (c) 0 KaJ R. Sven«onIScienr:e
Photo libfa,.,.lPhr>lo _r<her .. Inc. (71 0
Julien f 'ebet/Peter Arnold. Inc. C19 (b) 0
Co<bhlPundr SIOXI<. 0 ' (e) 0 AFP PtIotO/Jeff
HaynnIGetty Jmagn. C19 (I) 0 Ru« Curt'"
Pholo _cheri, In< . (flO 0 Jotep/I SohmI
Co<b ... Cll (b) OAfP I'tooto/Jeff HaynnIGomy
trmgfl.. CSI (e)OCOfbiolPundr Stock. ClI (I) 0
Ron GllifI9'I'eI.' AlnoId, WIC. CIZ (I) 0 Jo/In
Meuba.... _ot:dit. Inc. CIZ .. J (,) 0 ~troI
Co<b", QI.4 (l) (m) 0 St.ila Te<rytSc:ienr:e Photo
Llbfl<Y. (r) 0 (Ofbi\. (8445 0 ~ H;.n"-
Go,den PlCI .... e llbr,ry. C86 (b) 0 IN f"' le,'
Bruet Colt ........ Inc. Cl1 OJim 8rJndtnburw"
Minden Pict",". (II 0 Doug WechsltflEanh
S<:enes. en 0 IIrry leiOWfiG'ant tt.~"..n
PIIoCOIJ'1jlohy. InC. Cto 0 Th'N t.it>r-..lGeny
1mIrgn. (II (b) 0 llwee liooWGfny Irnign.
01 (e) 0 Doug _ 1 I ¥ 1 h S<:entl. C9t (f)
o Jim "'ndenburgIMrnden Pict ....fl. 02-93 0
MttiCrftlionllKlol "'='-' Photoo.. ct4 0 llil"
BarnnfTr_ltIIC..... Inc. OS (I) 0 _
oo..ieIIndn SI<Kk Imagory. (K «) 0 8ifly
BarnesfT,_ItIIC;e,., Inc. 01 It) 0 Gimon
Slock PtIotogrlj)hy. C97 (I) 0 Arthur C. Smith
NWGrant ~Iman PhotOlJ'~ C91-99 0 Jose
AoHfI....... Ofa. C99 0 Tr. MobIle I'rfli ~i<ler.
InC. CtOJ 0 '~Iy BarnesfT._ItIIC;"" In<.
Unit 0 0,..... l il'1t ~ 0 Tim ... .....wstone.'
Gotlty '""9"". Unit 0 0f*Ie< <p<Ud 0 CfHlI
l'tKMo Researchero, In<. 02 ·] 0 Photaonc..lncJ
Punch Sloxk . 0) (b) 0 N",SNPIIoto Researd,·
.... Inc. 0) (I) 0 S<:haft, & Hill/Pfle, Arnold.
Inc. 04 (b) 0 W.IIa<. G,,,iton/1n<ko. Stoxk
Irnagt<y. 04·5 (bkgd) 0 Robert f,er<k and
()(tyIsey Production!. inc. 01 (b) 0 XIIIn rO'Jle r'
Mllle,filt Stor:k Photo Ubmy. 01 (e) 0 Bob
KrlstICOfbls, 07 (I) 0 Ch,i. ("ud~ 1"..91
bnkJGelly Image •. OI l 0 Ch ,1s Cl>eacflflTl>e
Im'9t hnk/G.,ty 1""Sf" 012 (1) 0 Adam
JO"fsNholQ Reseiucl>e .... Inc .. 0 12 (2) 0 O<Ivk/
R, f,azit,l!'IIoto R.'"'c ..... ~ lroc . 012 (J) 0
Ray Ellis/PIIoto Rese~f(I>e, .. Inc. OIl (4) 0 Digl-
lalllislonlPunck Sloxk. 012 (I) 0 Nalional
Pon.. ~ Gi ll,,.,.. london. OH ·U (bkgd) 0
Corblo. on 0 Dr. Junt 8acon-8er<ty. OU·15
(btlJd) 0 o.vitI Muenci'VCOfb ... 017 0 ~te
furnt<1T1Ie IInI9t hnlrJGetty Imigon. 019 (b)
o lloyd tfortonlTllellnfgo Work\. 01' (t) 0
Jochtn TKkN'eter Arnold. Inc. 02 1 (b)
Courtny of NOAA. 021 (e) Coun"y 0 1 NOAA.
02 1 (0 counny of NOAA. 022 (I) 0 Barry
R~Ian/Grant Heilman Phologr~. 022
(2) 0 SIe-pMn OIiYft",.".ing It:IndertIey PIctu.e
UbrIlY. on (J) 0 1t:I" Shona'Doriing
It:rndttlleV pict ...e LlbtIlY. 022 (4) 0 L S-
SlfIY~'UCe Coleman. Inc. 022 (I) 0
0tnr'I)' Eiltrt!G,.rn Heilman Photography. OD
(b) 0 It:IorI Shone/OoJJ;ng ICindeflley l'icture
lib,lIY. 02) (t) 0 Pete lurnerl11'le Imoogo IankJ
Gotlty Imagn. 024-25 0 Wa"." f'idltyl
Io'IINlhenlock. 027 Courtny o f NOAA. 021
Coun.sy of NAS .... 029 (b) Courtny of NASA.
JPVC.itll(h. 01' (I) 0 Rob _rcKo<bh. 0)0
o Roy MorICl\ICo<bio. OJO (I (omnod Irnagt$.
0),·)9 0 Bob K.ioVCOfbio. 040-41 Courtny of
NASA. 042 0 O<Irre ll GuhnICor1>io. O4l 0 MPV
Gotlty Images. 044 Courtrtl)' of NASA/SOH(),t
EIlO, O4S {All moon cy<1t pllclO<j 0 uury
~ndollIll'llotO ~eleaf(I>e,~ lroc. 046 (b) 0
lohn CIluma<k1Photo ~tlea r cl>e ... 11K. 046 (I)
o Roger Rtllmt~rlCorbil . 047 (b)O Roge r
Re.~,ICorbl~ 0017 (c) 0 l&,ry Llndol,",
Pholo ~tlU'cl>e'" 11K. 041 (I) 0 O<I"ell Gulin!
Corbil. ~9 Courl ely Of NASA. 051 0 Ll rry
lIndolf....."o Rnur<IIe,~ inc. 051·Sl
Coun ...yof NAS .... Mauhall Spac. flight
Cent tf. OS) (b) 0 Roben Gend!ef/Sciente
Pholo lib'¥)'. OS] (e) 0 (orbr! Sl'9mo. 05 ) (I)
o Jonathan Burnt11/S(ientt Pholo 1Jbrl'y1
PhoIo _ .. chef .. Inc. 054·55 eo....t.sy of
N... SA. Jl'l.ICIhll(h. 051 (Ariel) Coun ...y of
NASA. 051 (Enceladvll Counny of N"'~ IPIJ
Called!. 051 (10) (I USGS/PIIoto _ .. chefl.
inc. 058 (IQ 0 NAs.AI5<lence Sour<_o
_ ..cIIers. Inc. 051 (b) 0 S<:01t lYtickJ
MMte<filt Slock PtIoIO lIbfl'y. OS, 0 Jerry
lodr 19UHlS<:ienr:t PIIroto Ubr If)01'hoto
IIflNrcllers. Inc. 0i0 llmet) 0 Jerry lodriguW
Pholo Re!eIrcIItJ1. InC. D60 0 David Parlctfl
Photo Rnearc ...... WIC. 061 (b) 0 Itfry
lodrlgouo_o _ e l...... In(. 061 (I) 0
USGSiPtIolo _ .. d_n" In<. D62 Courtesy of
NASA. 062-6) 0 f.ed E,_kHhoto
R6N/(I\et~ InC. 06t (Ix) 0 ClNin J. IUomilton.
06t {bI) 0 JaM Cl\ulYl.ckHhoto RftN.tl\e1"l.
Inc. I)i.I (bf) 0 CMIIk. D6S (h) COUltlf\' of
NA~ L.tnglty _ ..<h (em,... DiS {t}
Court"yof NASA. Oil (I) Courtlf\' of NASA.
0i6 (r) Courtlf\' 01 NASA. Di7 (bI) Courtlf\' 01
NASA. IPl.JC.ttI"Ch. Di7 (bf) Cc>utt...., 01 NASA.
IPl.JC.tted"!. Di7 (bf) 0 DeIJr.r V.. IWienIw.yI
'i<io-n<e PhoIO Ubf~ _ .. <he<!,. Inc.
D6I (h)(ourtlf\' 01 NASA. IPl.JC.tted"!. OM (tI)
o E u r _ SpKe AgMcy ESA HM>douII
ReuteulCoobk. 069 (b) Court"y 01 N... SA, Jf'IJ
Oiled"!. D6' (e) Courtesy 01 NASA. 069 {t} 0
CoobiL 011 (bkgd) 0 ~ 01 CkCOof'et,..
Arnold, Int. 071·1l Oc.....Y·f' ...... Hawa-i1
Te,",=opeIJeln a..,Jej CuillinclrtlScio-nte
PholO llbra.rylPhoto Rese ..dlel"l.ll"I(. 07.
Court .. y o f NASMOHO/(IT. 07S 0 Hrry
'i<~lo _ ..cn. .... Inc.. 079 (b) Courtfly
0 1 NM .... Tn. Hubble He'~1gI! TUm. 079 {c)
Court .. y o f NM .... Goddard SPICe mght
(wIer. 079 (I) COUIt"y of NASA, GockI"d
SPICe Flight Ctnt ..... 080 (b) Cou ,teoy 0 1 NASA..
Goddlrd SPICe fligh t Cenl e,. 080 (I) CI lerry
'i<h_holo Rese .."n..... In<. 081 (Inset) 0
Rob Crandl llISloc k Connt<donilPN . Oil
(bk9d) CoUft"y 0 1 N...S.... t,\ ... hlil Spac.
f light Ctnw. 082-4) Coult"y 0 1 NAs.... 08S
COUIt"y 01 NAS .... Tn. Hutlble He'lt~ Tum.
Unll E Ope .... 1i...1 pag<I CI Rot> CaMylStOMI
Getty~. Unit E Ope ... ' sp.ead CI JaM
William hnl9l'....rThe 1!"!\Ige 81ro101Getty
IfM9O"'. u ·) CI Bob Gomri'Corbb. U (b) 0
ca. .. . U (e) O ....<tWo k"""9'alico. S.AJ
ca.bk. U (I) 0 Mark CWlO::kI'i<ience l'hoIo
UllfarylPhoto R"u.<he<!,. InC. E"'S 0 Leoslt<
LflIr;ow,,;:oobk. E6 ClTIIe G<iIN"I9t'" Collection.
New 'fOrt. (I (0 CI 8afry ~YnlGrant
Helln"\lln Photog,aphy. InC. U CI t..ewr.n<.
~io-nte PhoIO Ubfary.f'hoto Iteseoo<th-
..... Inc.. lIO (1) ClPIIotoOiK. In<. (10 (2) CI
EyewiJeIPhotodiK. IntJPun<h !olodt. ( 10 () CI
1'tootoIibr..-y. ltd.llndeo. Slock~. (10 (.)
CI C"""lock ~"Iamr ~ ( 11 0
Corr6lodt Imagiw"Alamy 1n\a!It"I11d. (12· 1) 0
Terry Ma...."..-a. ( 15 (I)CI The Go-..-
CoIlt<:tiO<\ New York. ( 15 (,) 0 kience
t,\ .... u"" 5od• • 1(1 lind SocItlyPlrtUI'i! UbflWj.
Ell u..,..".,) CI Comnock. Ell (Ii,.-lu) CI
G. B.iJd lltWklSc..... Pholo llbra.ry_o
R...... d ..t< •• Ir\(. Ell (.-...gne<iurn) 0 (lH1h
'i<e ...... Ell (POIM"urn) CI J>.ndrew t.ambelt
Pholog.ophy/Sd.n<. Photo L l bf.-y~
R"eilfe~l, In< . E I 9 (c.kium) CI (hoI,1ft O.
Wlnt~.wphoto Resu,dle's, In<. EI9 (ehlp)CI
'oel G."'.... "ln/lJmn l·P!"ooIO Communlut;Onl.
U 9 (silicon) 0 R·Il!G,.nl fiellman Ph01og".
ptry. In<. UO (b) 0 NOrman TemaliMl"x.
Celeman. In<. £20 (Insel)O And,ew lIImbtlt
Photog •• p hy/Sdenc. Photo llbf.rylPhoto
_ .. el\et~ Inc. E20 (1) Cl8un lewbl
Democ:,.1 .nd Cho-onicie'''''' Wide WO<kI
Photo. (21 Clk,en<' t,\useu""S<it<"oCt ,nd
Society Picture libra.ry. (22 (b) CI'i<ienct PhoIO
lib,.rylPhoto Re.oearchen. l1li:. E22 (I) CI Dr. H.
I ~nlll _pe •• e2) (b) 0 D•. ~'lhoIriN
l - " (2) (t) CI Or. MiI';O I. Mol ..... U"'U
CI 0... 8IH1rufflll">dt>: SlodIlmage<y. Eli CI
lid< Antie<>orVI'ic! .... ....,slCorbiL (21 (b) CI
Ton KoeneNis~1s unhmited. Inc.. (27 (I) CI
Adam WoltittICoobis. UO Clltkhl<d MegnW
f...ct.NnI.! "",Iog.~ UI (b)CI 0 -
Kir9OorI"'ll ~rnde<11ey Pict .... lObra.ry. UI (e)
CI Pete< Hilfhcld\l'Coobk. El l ttl 0 D.I<wid
wr_1fIJIwM IJnlimlled, 11"1(. Ul CI R.-yrncnd
l ....uk-Produrc!iorl Servk...... _ CoIImal\
11"1(. U) O Ridw,d ~unc:t....m.1
Photogtlphs. 1)1 0 PhiliJdeiphil M......... e l
NVCo<bi>. US 0 11", Bioc:kih'iliorwrl
Geogtaphi< Soc .. ty. B 8 ·]9 0Zoo"" Milich!
t,\M!.t<1it. Slo<k l'hoIagraphjt. []9 (b) CI
PhotoOiK. Inc.. ( ]9 (<.I Cll'fler Slcinnt<"""'to
AftN.theo. Inc. E]9 (t) 0 lim C"""",nsfTnif
GeItJ ......... {oKI CI SI.pht<1 OIiYe,lOorling
~inderWy Net ...e libr....,.. (40-4 1 ClMiI,k
T""",ItyIM;merfiie Stod Pholo llbr..." E44i CI
ShtillTt<ryIS6enr;e Photo Ubf"f)'lPhoto
RftNrd"oe<!, In<. (49 0 Undo PltkinlT~
Im.lgo->. (5) (b) CllarrySI~"
Unlimito-d, Int. ( 5) CI Mediol~
Sl ock. ($4 0 Somboon·UNElWete< .... noId. Int.
E54i (AI) 0 W.11y Ebt<h.lrtN"...... b unJ;mno-d,
Int. Inc.. (57 (b) ClWol1y (bftl"oanN..... "
Unlimito-d, Int. (51 (e) 0 larry ~zI
v;w.b unllm~o-d, InC. ( 58-59 0 PholoOl"I(. Int.
E60 CI food Collt<:t_unch Slo<k. (62 CI
t..ewren<. S"panowiaIP...-.ogrophirs. (&2 CI
Ywr"en<. SlepanowiczIP.nogrophirs. Elil (bl)
CI Angelo Ov.llillndex Slo<k I"'*'Y. En (b<)
CI t,\"",o fermariellcl5cielll:e PIlote libr.ryI
Photo R""Melle,,_ In<:. Ul (u) CI Philip GouOll
Coobi>. E61 (I') 0 Jeremy Bishop/Scien<. Pholo
libf"'y/Pt>ote A... a,dlerS, In<. E60l (d C fi, ell)-
p.odlKlion!lCc,bi1. E60l (Q CI Teny f'",ma ni
PhotoEdil. In<. E6S (b) CTeny f,",,,,,,ni
PhotoEdlt. In<. (65 (c) C i..>Wfe n<e Steponow·
kzIPanog,aphin. ( 65 (I) Ofood Collectlenl
f'un<h Stock. E66-67 0 Rkha,d O. f"",",. £67 0
t,\,,,,ice Nimmo; f, ank l/I"" ";<lu,. AgBtcyI
Corbi1. E10-1 1 0 Annie G.lff ith> BeltlCorbi>.
E71 (b) OOO<fing I(lnderSiey Picture Ubf.ry.
E71 (t) CI Ralph .... Ct.. . . . .lCool>I<. E71 CI Jelf
ShermlrVGmy~. l12-7l CI ... Ivi. Up~i>I
GeItJ 1nWgoes. n ...,s 0 Ru..el( Monk!
Ma<Ie<lile Slo<k Phol" Ubtlry. { n 0 Alis9O<1
COn<~ Im.lgo->. (n CI furdoomentll
Phologr4lphs. (11 (All) CI f "",*",,-taI
PIIotogr4lphs. 119 0 R...... II MonkIMa<I..-file
Stodt Photo UIIf..-y. Ell (be) OTimwrigI"oV
CcrlH!. El l (bkgd) 0 """" L """"""'t<
.o.moId. Inc.. U I (II) CI ...... Bueltrlt<oI:Ip.-I
lar'Idoo. (&4 0 Roy ToftlH<rl."...1 Geogr. . .
IrNge CoIlt<:tion. EI S 0 MichaeI ...JI..,,1I\I
Ma<It<1,ie Siodt l'hoIo UIIf..-y; ( 86 (1:) Cllil
eoct.vol~1\y Im.lgo->. U7 (b) CI Tom
utrI~ unlim"ed. Inc.. U1 (t) 0
HMCoAuncMrnt<"oUIl Phologr.phs. Ell (1)0
Roy Tolt/NatioNl GeogtophK Image
Collection. Ell (2) 0 MidrMl Albt<rull/
t,\aolt,lile Siock PIlot" Ubt~ry. (II () 0
f""""men"'l Photograph<. EIB (.) ClTom
Uh ltTlMllVi> .... I. Unllmito-d, In<. En (bIcgd) CI
PhotoOI..:. Int. E89 (bk9d) 0 Met.creil""""
~ ai Power Photos. E89 (bkgd) 0 MetaC, ..
al!om/l(al P""",. PhoI", . 189 (I) CI OWlyne
Newt<>nlF'holoEdit. Inc. E90-91 0 Rich.l.d
Me "!!M'undamental Pholog'oph>, NYC. Unit f
Otr.ner 11"1 p,ag. 0 ER Degglnge,l(olor·1>ic.
In<. Unit f Opener .pre.d ClW"lrren faklt.yl
weoln..noxk. fl·l (bkgd) CI"'UIO Imagery.
In<. fl (b) 0 Alex BalteVPnoto _Mehe".
In<. f) (e) 0 Pfol~' Adam<l1ndex Stock 1""9tf)'.
f) (I) CI Reute<lICooM. f . ·S CllmageState·
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PundI Slock. f8 0 Hel"" ~luelmeie<1S!><>m
IIIUlllatedlfigure .... ater B.ian - - . 1918.
f9 (I) CI Chin.!. HililAnimllIl AnimH. f ' (1) CI
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.Jeff.ey G,eenbe,g.f'hoIo "_(hen. InC. Fl)
(I) CI Ned Thtrrie<WiIuIIls unlimited, Int. f2.
(I) 0 .t.rtYilit. Fl'a) CI Phil ( . _ I i n g
IOncIersIty Picture lIbrlWj. f2' U) CI Ho'Ianockl
PIIot<>Edit. 11"1(. fl' (a) 0 IIrItld JC Pi<I"' .....
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The Grange, Coilt<:tion. New YO<k. f:Z1 (r)
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(I,) Coutt"Y 0 1 NASA, .IOhnson Spooc;e Cent .....
f17 CI PopperfoIo. Fl7 CI CPVPopptrfotoJ
ItetrOIIIe. U I CI Spenc.... G<anllPhotoEdit. 11"1(.
f) 1 CI Spencer Grant.4'hot<>Edit. Int. fH CI .........
Dyk" ReslOO ..... f )4 ~) CI (hrn MiJdeIeyl
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flS (b) 0 V"" 0yI<" ltenoo...... fl6·17 CI AP
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f 40-. 1 (bkgd) CI StonelGttty. f. , (b) C Imtek
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fu kuhl,a. I n<JCoob~. f .... 0 800 DHmmeri(iV
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Mercury M,rI"" Comp,any. f •• Clloren M.
Winters. fa9( b) 0 lOOtn M. Win"". F.9(I)O
Corbb. f SO CI Joseph V"" OsIThe 1""9' Sink!
Getty ~ f so,s l (l>II.gd) CI GI,I & ..... n
Pvre"lICorbis. f 50l 0 Phil t.II;CIH1erlPhot<>Edit.
Inc.. f55 CI Coobk. fS6 0 AC! Phot" Agencyl
Roberulo<k. f57 (e<I5Iine) CI Ben liICorbi .. fS7
(...... ) 0 Corbk. f Sl (I) CI VIew Pi<lu ... lIdJ
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l'hoIogr"""". fS9 (b) 0 VItw Nctures lIdJ
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PhoI"Edit.. Inc. f60 Courteoy of United Stat"
N¥<y. f60 Courteoy of united Stat" A,I. for<t.
fli l CI GIorge ~ fli2 (bI) 0 Slone!
Getty 1n\a!It"I. f&2-6) (bIr:gd) Cllucl(lio Stuclio
InCJCoobi<. fl-t CI...c( l'hoIo fJ.ge<IcyI
Robertslock. f66 (b) 0 Chur(hlll and 1I1dv". f66
(t) CI SII.WisuaIs Unhmited. InC. Flit (b) 0
~ ~b unlimited. flit (I) 0
~ockbytel5upt<Slock. fH (b) CI SllJIViMJab
un~mlto-d, In<. f7007I 0 NIW(USlom Medical
Stock Photo/Sd.nc. PIIoto UbrlWjiPhot"
R....... chen. l1li:. f70 (b) CI MMimilian Stock
lTOISdence PIIoI" lIbrllry_o R.... ard.....
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flli 0 P. San<ho/Ma<ltrlile Stock Photo lib,.ry.
Fllli-11 (bkgd) CI Udo f,.nkNhot01ig hll. F89
(bf) 0 Rick ee,kowil zllnde. Slock "",lagrO·
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PhoI<>Ed,t. 11"1(. fts (b) CI Cyril L.M.rbK1\et1
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Courtlf\' of NASA f99 ClPIIoto();s(. Ir'IUPUfIdr
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In'IigeS Ud. II 10 CI Ear) Harpe<lEcoSto<k. fil a.
11 1 (bk9d) CI Spence< G, an1lf'ho10Edil, Inc.
f l U ClBerrle Rokelld•. • , " It) CI Dennis
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fl17 (0 CI S:tnie. "20 Cl aen~__
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MicI\M1 NOWfTIIII/PhotO[d1t. Inc.
Assignment Photography
CI HMCoJ(tull Oe/ o<d ; U' (0. CI HMCoJSha·
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DJJ CI HM(o./Coppola Studio! me.
OJ JOel CUbin. e54 Joel CUbin. os Joe
teMonnier. 07 Joel Dubin. (51 Joe leMon,
nit<. (62 .roe1 Oubin. en JOel 0ubitI. (6oI .roe1
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!,Itlvln. (11 8i. Mtlvin. U6 Bill Melvin. U7
8ill Melvin. ElO 8il1 ""'Mn. Ell liU MeMn.
El2 1i1l Melvin. ElJ ~geY. KtMn. us
George V. KeMn. E4~9 8 i. Melvin. E56 8 ,11
Mtlvln. (62 Bill Me lvin. (U Geo<g.t Y. Kelvin.
us George Y. "eMn. E79 Geo<ge Y. KeMn.
ES7 George Y. KeMn. E96 till Melvin. f6 1111
Me Mn. " 7 Bill Melvin. 11181)) MeMn. f20 Bill
Melvin. ' 21 Bill Mel ...... . l l Bill MeMn. ,n
Bill Me lvin . '30 Ron ( .. , bonl. fll Bill Me hlin.
F34 Slim fi l"". FJ5 Bill Me lvin . 160 Bill Me lvin.
'6 1 Bill Me lvin. '65 Mike s.unde". F67 Mik'
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Kelvin. FB5 81)) MeMn. '91 George V. Ke M n.
F90I Geo<ge V. Kelvin. FU George Y. KeMn .
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Slim Film<. 1136 8ill Melvin. H20 Joel 110. 1121
tart y . 'lKocciao.

Illustrations
A' 8ill Melvin. AI6 eill Melvin. AI' SI_
""'Emee. A32 1i1l MeMn. All 8at1 Yalle<occiao.
A)o& Joel 110. Al~ Ban. V. I IK()«~ . A16 JOel
110. An (t ) 8ill MeMn (b) JOel 110. All JOel
110. Alg Barl V"lt<occ~, AoI/I (t ) JOe leMon·
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McEntee. AS] VI'ge K.. k. ASS Virge ~ .' k .
AS' 8 111 Mt lvin , """ Vi rge Kllk. A65 Ste""
McEmu. Al0 Virge Kask, A79 Virge Kllk.
"" lau rl' O·KN lt . "" lautlt O·Keefe. AU
l .... ie O·KNIt. A91 Laut>OO· K. . f<I. A94,95
laurie O·~tt/e. " " ' " l..urie O·Kteft . A100
Laourle O· ~ Hfe . AI09 Lautle O·KH fe . AIU 8,1)
Melvin . A la.t 8ill Melvin. 111 JOe ltMonnie<.
112 JOe le!,lOfV\Ie<. 116-17 Rolin Grapllkl. 127
Rolin G<.phia. In RoI,n Gt.pIIlG. 129 RoI,n
Gtapllro. 129 Rolin G,aphlcs. lSI e~1 Mefvjn.
152 Joe ltMclnnltot. • S4>SS .ill MelYln. 'SS
Bil Melvin. 862-6) Joe ltMonnlet. 112 Ii"
MeMn. C6 em Melvin. 0 lill Melvin. a I~I
Melvin. C9 l ill MeMn. Cl0 (t) JOe t.emonnIet
(b) .,. MeMn. Cll lill Melvin. e15 lill MeMn.
(16 Bil Melvin, 00 Joe ltMonnitf. 06 Iii
MeIYln. 0 ' till MeIYln. ( 01/1 .IOeI Dubn. eu
Joe ltMonnle<. C45 (t) Joe ltMOr'lrNt< (b) .roel
Dubrn. e~ Ot-..r_<01'....ck As-.

H48 • Credits