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Maps

A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such
as objects, regions, or themes.

Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic
or interactive. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any
space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale, such as in brain mapping, DNA
mapping, or computer network topology mapping. The space being mapped may be two
dimensional, such as the surface of the earth, three dimensional, such as the interior of the earth,
or even more abstract spaces of any dimension, such as arise in modeling phenomena having
many independent variables.

Types of maps

1- Political Maps

A political map does not show topographic features like mountains. It focuses solely on the
state and national boundaries of a place. They also include the locations of cities large and
small, depending on the detail of the map.

2- Physical Maps

A physical map is one documents landscape features of a place. They generally show things like
mountains, rivers, and lakes. Bodies of water are always shown with blue. Mountains and
elevation changes are usually shown with different colors and shades to show relief. Normally
on physical maps, green shows lower elevations while browns show high elevations.

3- Topographic Maps

A topographic map is similar to a physical map in that it shows different physical landscape
features. Unlike physical maps, this type of many uses contour lines instead of colors to show
changes in the landscape. Contour lines on topographic maps are normally spaced at regular
intervals to show elevation changes (e.g. each line represents a 100-foot (30m) elevation change)
and when lines are close together the terrain is steep.

4- Climate Maps

A climate map shows information about the climate of an area. They can show things like the
specific climatic zones of an area based on the temperature, the amount of snow an area receives
or the average number of cloudy days. These maps normally use colors to show different
climatic areas.
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5- Economic or Resource Maps

An economic or resource map shows the specific types of economic activity or natural resources
present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors depending on what is being
shown on the map.

6- Road Maps

A road map is one of the most widely used map types. These maps show major and minor
highways and roads (depending on detail), as well as things like airports, city locations and
points of interest such as parks, campgrounds, and monuments. Major highways on a road map
are generally shown in red and larger than other roads, while minor roads are a lighter color
and a narrower line.

7- Thematic Maps

A thematic map is a map that focuses on a particular theme or special topic. They are different
from the six aforementioned general reference maps because they do not just show natural
features like rivers, cities, political subdivisions, elevation, and highways. If these items are on a
thematic map, they are background information and are used as reference points to enhance the
map's theme.

Map scale

Map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the corresponding
distance on the ground. For example, on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the map equals 1km on
the ground.

Map scale is often confused or interpreted incorrectly, perhaps because the smaller the map
scale, the larger the reference number and vice versa. For example, a 1:100000 scale map is
considered a larger scale than a 1:250000 scale map.

Map Projections
Latitude and longitude coordinates specify positions in a spherical grid called the graticule (that
approximates the more-or-less spherical Earth). The true geographic coordinates called
unprojected coordinate in contrast to plane coordinates, like the Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) and State Plane Coordinates (SPC) systems, that denote positions in flattened grids.
These georeferenced plane coordinates are referred to as projected. The mathematical equations
used to project latitude and longitude coordinates to plane coordinates are called map
projections. Inverse projection formulae transform plane coordinates to geographic. The
simplest kind of projection, illustrated below, transforms the graticule into a rectangular grid in
which all grid lines are straight, intersect at right angles, and are equally spaced. Projections
that are more complex yield grids in which the lengths, shapes, and spacing of the grid lines
vary. Even this simplest projection produces various kinds of distortions; thus it is necessary to
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have multiple types of projections to avoid specific types of distortions. Imagine the kinds of
distortion that would be needed if you sliced open a soccer ball and tried to force it to be
completely flat and rectangular with no overlapping sections. That is the amount of distortion
we have in the simple projection below (one of the more common in web maps of the world
today

Many types of map projections have been devised to suit particular purposes. The term
"projection" implies that the ball-shaped net of parallels and meridians is transformed by
casting its shadow upon some flat, or flatten able, surface. While almost all map projection
methods are created using mathematical equations, the analogy of an optical projection onto a
flatten able surface is useful as a means to classify the bewildering variety of projection
equations devised over the past two thousand years or more.

There are three main categories of map projection, those in which projection is directly onto a
flat plane, those onto a cone sitting on the sphere that can be unwrapped, and other onto a
cylinder around the sphere that can be unrolled. All three are shown in their normal aspects.
The plane often is centered upon a pole. The cone is typically aligned with the globe such that
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its line of contact (tangency) coincides with a parallel in the mid-latitudes. Moreover, the
cylinder is frequently positioned tangent to the equator (unless it is rotated 90°, as it is in the
Transverse Mercator projection). As you might imagine, the appearance of the projected grid
will change quite a lot depending on the type of surface it is projected onto, how that surface is
aligned with the globe, and where that imagined light is held. The following illustrations show
some of the projected graticules produced by projection equations in each category.

GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,

analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. The key word to this technology is
Geography – this means that some portion of the data is spatial
In other words, data that is in some way referenced to locations on the earth.
Coupled with this data is usually tabular data known as attribute data. Attribute data can be
generally defined as additional information about each of the spatial features. An example of
this would be schools. The actual location of the schools is the spatial data. Additional data
such as the school name, level of education taught, student capacity would make up the
attribute data.
It is the partnership of these two data types that enables GIS to be such an effective problem
solving tool through spatial analysis.

GIS is more than just software. People and methods are combined with geospatial software and
tools, to enable spatial analysis, management large datasets, and the display of information in a
map/graphical form
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What can we do with GIS?

GIS can be used as tool in both problem solving and decision making processes, as well as for
visualization of data in a spatial environment. Geospatial data can be analyzed to determine (1)
the location of features and relationships to other features, (2) where the most and/or least of
some feature exists, (3) the density of features in a given space, (4) what is happening inside an
area of interest (AOI), (5) what is happening nearby some feature or phenomenon, and (6) and
how a specific area has changed over time (and in what way).

1. Mapping where things are: We can map the spatial location of real-world features and
visualize the spatial relationships among them.
Example: below we see a map of agricultural districts (in green) layered over soil types. We can
see visual patterns in the data by determining what soil types are best suited for ag districts.

2. Mapping quantities: People map quantities, such as where the most and least are, to find
places that meet their criteria or to see the relationships between places.
Example: below is a map of cemetery locations in Wisconsin. The map shows the cemetery
locations as dots (dot density) and each county is color coded to show where the most and least
are (lighter blue means fewer cemeteries).
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3. Mapping densities: Sometimes it is more important to map concentrations, or a quantity

normalized by area or total number. Example: Below we have mapped the population density
of Manhattan (total population counts normalized by the area in sq. miles of census tracts.)

4. Finding what is inside: We can use GIS to determine what is happening or what features are
located inside a specific area/region. We can determine the characteristics of "inside" by
creating specific criteria to define an area of interest (AOI). Example: below is a map showing
noise 'pollution' near an airport in Minneapolis. If we add demographic data from the Census to
this map we can determine the socioeconomic characteristics of people that live within the
defined 'noise pollution' area of interest
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5. Finding what is nearby. We can find out what is happening within a set distance of a feature
or event by mapping what is nearby using geoprocessing tools like BUFFER. Example: below
we see the effects on features within specified radii of a simulated explosion. Use of buffering
tools to generate set distances can aid in emergency response to disasters like these.

6. Mapping change: We can map the change in a specific geographic area to anticipate future
conditions, decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy.
Example: below we see land use maps of Barnstable, MA showing changes in residential
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development from 1951 to 1999. The dark green shows forest, while bright yellow shows
residential development. Applications like this can help inform community planning processes
and policies.

What GIS data types exist?

The two primary types of spatial data are vector and raster data in GIS.

What is the difference between raster and vector data?

Vectors models are points, lines and polygons

Vector data is not made up of a grid of pixels. Instead, vector graphics are comprised of vertices
and paths.

The three basic symbol types for vector data are points, lines and polygons (areas). Because
cartographers use these symbols to represent real-world features in maps, they often have to
decide based on the level of detail in the map.

POINTS are XY coordinates

Vector points are simply XY coordinates. Generally, they are a latitude and longitude with a
spatial reference frame.

When features are too small to be represented as polygons, points are used. For example, you
can’t see city boundary lines at a global scale. In this case, maps often use points to display
cities.
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LINES connect vertices

Vector lines connect each vertex with paths. Basically, you’re connecting the dots in a set order
and it becomes a vector line with each dot representing a vertex

Lines usually represent features that are linear in nature. For example, maps show rivers, roads
and pipelines as vector lines. Often, busier highways have thicker lines than an abandoned
road.

On the other hand, networks are line data sets but they are often considered to be different. This
is because linear networks are topologically connected elements. They consist of junctions and
turns with connectivity.

If you were to find an optimal route using a traffic line network, it would follow set rules. For
example, it can restrict turns and movement on one-way streets.

POLYGONS connect vertices and closes the path

When you join a set of vertices in a particular order and close it, this is now a vector polygon
feature. In order to create a polygon, the first and last coordinate pair are the same.
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Cartographers use polygons to show boundaries and they all have an area. For example, a
building footprint has a square footage and agricultural fields have acreage.

Raster Types: Discrete vs Continuous

Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells). They are usually regularly-
spaced and square but they don’t have to be. Rasters often look pixelated because each pixel has
its own value or class.

For example:

Each pixel value in a satellite image has a red, green and blue value. Alternatively, each value in
an elevation map represents a specific height. It could represent anything from rainfall to land
cover.

Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously. For example, elevation
surfaces, temperature and lead contamination.

Raster data models consist of 2 categories – discrete and continuous.

DISCRETE RASTERS have distinct values

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Discrete rasters have distinct themes or categories. For example, one grid cell represents a land
cover class or a soil type.

In a discrete raster land cover/use map, you can distinguish each thematic class. Each class can
be discretely defined where it begins and ends. In other words, each land cover cell is definable
and it fills the entire area of the cell.

Discrete data usually consists of integers to represent classes. For example, the value 1 might
represent urban areas, the value 2 represents forest and so on.

CONTINUOUS RASTERS have gradual change

Continuous rasters (non-discrete) are grid cells with gradual changing data such as elevation,
temperature or an aerial photograph.

A continuous raster surface can be derived from a fixed registration point. For example, digital
elevation models use sea level as a registration point. Each cell represents a value above or
below sea level. As another example, aspect cell values have fixed directions such as north, east,
south or west.

Phenomena can gradually vary along a continuous raster from a specific source. In a raster
depicting an oil spill, it can show how the fluid moves from high concentration to low
concentration. At the source of the oil spill, concentration is higher and diffuses outwards with
diminishing values as a function of distance.

Did you know?

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Spaghetti Data Model

The spaghetti data model was one of the first conceptual models to structure features in a GIS.
It was a simple GIS model where lines may cross without intersecting or topology without
attributes.

What are advantages of using vector data?

Because vector data have vertices and paths, this means that the graphical output is generally
more aesthetically-pleasing. Furthermore, it gives higher geographic accuracy because data isn’t
dependent on grid size.

Topology rules can help data integrity with vector data models. Not only that, network analysis
and proximity operations use vector data structures.

What are disadvantages of using vector data?

Continuous data is poorly stored and displayed as vectors. In order to display continuous data
as a vector, it would require substantial generalization.

Although topology is useful for vector data, it is often processing intensive. Any feature edits
requires updates on topology. With a lot of features, vector manipulation algorithms are
complex.

What are the advantages of raster?

Raster grid format is data model for satellite data and other remote sensing data. For raster
positions, it’s simple to understand cell size.

Map algebra with raster data is usually quick and easy to perform. Overall, quantitative
analysis is intuitive with discrete or continuous rasters.
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What are the disadvantages of raster?

Because cell size contributes to graphic quality, it can have a pixelated look and feel. To
illustrate, linear features and paths are difficult to display.

You cannot create network datasets or perform topology rules on rasters. Also, you don’t have
the flexibility with raster data attribute tables.

Raster datasets can become potentially very large because they record values for each cell in an
image. As resolution increases, the siz e of the cell decreases. But this comes at a cost for speed
of processing and data storage.

Vector vs Raster: Spatial Data Types

It’s not always straight-forward which spatial data type you should use for your maps.

In the end, it really comes down to the way in which the cartographer conceptualizes the
feature in their map.

 Do you want to work with pixels or coordinates? Raster data works with pixels. Vector
data consists of coordinates.
 What is your map scale? Vectors can scale objects up to the size of a billboard. But you
don’t get that type of flexibility with raster data
 Do you have restrictions for file size? Raster file size can result larger in comparison
with vector data sets with the same phenomenon and area.Spatial data structures

Spatial data types provide the information that a computer requires to reconstruct the spatial
data in digital form.

In the raster world, we have grid cells representing real world features. In the vector world, we
have points, lines and polygons that consist of vertices and paths.

Vector and raster data both have their advantages and disadvantages
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ArcGIS uses the concept of a Geographic Information

System (GIS) to build maps in which each category of
spatial feature is a separate layer. The layers are spatially
"registered" so when the user overlays them the program
can line them up correctly to build a map. There are
several types of layers, and the user has many choices
regarding how to depict them. The first three listed are
called "vector layers" or "feature layers" and contain
individual features that the program can distinguish.
 Point (e.g., buildings, landmarks). Zero-
dimensional.
 Line or arc (e.g., roads and streets, streams, railroads, power lines). One-dimensional.
 Polygon (e.g., political entities, census geographies such as tracts). Two-dimensional.
 Raster images (e.g., an aerial photograph, scanned topographic map, or an elevation
model). Contrasting with feature-based vector layer, these are images based on an X by Y
grid of cells, each of which has a value that represents something like elevation, land use
classification, or color value.
Data can be associated with the spatial features, and mapped or analyzed:
 There can be attributes, or tabular data, associated with each feature in a layer (e.g.,
demographic data for each Census Tract).
 Data tables (e.g., database or spreadsheet files) can be added ("joined") to a layer if there is
a field with common values (e.g., census tract number).
The program can also map spatially referenced data files in some spreadsheet and database
formats (e.g, if one field contains latitude/longitude coordinates). Tables that contain address
data can be "geocoded" to map the locations based on a street layer. Users can open a non-
registered raster image and georeference it using the program's functions, or vectorize features
from a raster image.
You can also add your own information to a map with drawing and writing tools.

ArcMap is the main component of Esri's ArcGIS suite of geospatial processing programs, and is
used primarily to view, edit, create, and analyze geospatial data. ArcMap allows the user to
explore data within a data set, symbolize features accordingly, and create maps. This is done
through two distinct sections of the program, the table of contents and the data frame.

ArcToolbox is an integrated application developed by Environmental Systems Research

Institute (Esri). It provides a reference to the toolboxes to facilitate user interface in ArcGIS for
accessing and organizing a collection of geoprocessing tools, models and scripts