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1. Ecology
• Scientific study of give-take relationship between organisms with their environment
• A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, became the first person to use the term ‘ecology’.
• Term 'Deep Ecology' was coined by- Arne Naess (1973)
• Study of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical environment (abiotic)
• Levels of Organization in Ecology-
2. Environment
• Biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population which have an influence in their survival, development and
evolution.
3. Ecosystem
○ An ecosystem is a structural & functional unit of Biosphere, where living organisms interact among themselves and also
with the surrounding physical environment.
○ The term 'Ecosystem' was coined by- AG Tansley (1935)
○ Features of Ecosystem-
Open system (continuous variable flow of material & energy)
Basic functional unit without any boundaries
Different climatic conditions present different ecosystem
○ Components of Ecosystem
four basic components of an ecosystem-
□ abiotic part (non-living component)
□ producers or autotrophs
□ consumers or heterotrophs (herbivores, detritivores, Carnivores, Omnivores)
□ Decomposers (Saprophytes)
○ Types of Ecosystem
○ Ecosystem Services-
According to World Development Report, 2010, the 'Millennium Ecosystem Assessment' describes following
ecosystem services-
4. Ecotone
○ Zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems
○ Characteristics of Ecotone-
Zone of Transition – condition is intermediate to the adjacent ecosystem
May contains organisms which are entirely different from that of adjoining communities
Edge Effect – Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species is much greater
in size than either community. Ex:- Edge species – Eg. Birds
5. Ecological Niche-
○ Concept was coined by- Joseph Grinnell
○ Unique functional role & place/habitat of a species in an ecosystem
○ Unique for a species
○ Knowledge of Niche helps in conservation of a species
○ Types of Niche-
Habitat niche (specific species present in specific habitat)
Food niche (certain species adapted to certain specific food habit)
Reproductive niche
○ Types of Biomes-
Tundra
Taiga
Temperate Deciduous forests
Tropical rain forest
Savannah
Grassland
Desert
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Functions of Ecosystem
• Energy Flow
• Nutrient cycling (Biogeochemical cycles)
• Ecological succession
1. Energy Flow:
○ Sun is the primary source of all energy of ecosystem. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% is Photo-synthetically
Active Radiation (PAR). Plant captures only 2-10% of PAR. This small amount of energy sustain the living world.
NOTE: Energy level decreases with increase in trophic level but efficiency to utilize the energy increases.
○ Trophic level interaction – Way in which members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs
○ Bio-magnification- Process by which substances become more concentrated in the bodies of consumers as one moves
up the food chain (trophic levels).
○ Bioaccumulation- occurs within a trophic level due to absorption from food.
○ Types of trophic level interactions-
Food chain
Food web
Ecological pyramids – Pyramid of numbers, Biomass and Energy
a. Food Chain:
A sequence of organisms that feed on one another.
Starts with the producer and ends with top carnivores.
Types of food chain-
□ Grazing food chain (Starts with plants at the base; primary consumer – Herbivore)
□ Detritus food chain (Starts from Dead organic matter, primary consumer – microorganism)
b. Food Web:
All possible transfer of energy and nutrients among the organism in an ecosystem
c. Ecological pyramids:
Graphical representation designed to show biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem
Roughly 10% energy is transferred (10% Law) for one trophic level to the next & remaining energy lost in the form
of Heat.
Types-
□ Number
Can be inverted also
□ Biomass
Can be inverted also (Ex: Aquatic ecosystem)
□ Energy of Organisms
Most suitable for understanding bio-magnification
Follows law of thermodynamics
Always upright (never inverted)
c. Nitrogen Cycle-
most complete of the nutrient cycles.
reservoir pool is atmosphere and exchange pool operates between organisms and the soil
Atmospheric Nitrogen is fixed to Nitrate which is absorbed by the plants.
Ultimately they are released as ammonia when organic material is decomposed.
Ammonia is changed back to nitrates by the action of bacteria.
d. Phosphorus Cycle-
Can be easily disrupted (as sedimentary cycle)
Phosphates in the soil are taken into plants for protein synthesis and are passed through the food chains of
ecosystems.
Biotic Interactions
• Deals with effects that the organisms in a community have on one another.
• Types of Biotic interaction-
Type Relation
Mutualism + +
• BP- maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
• CC- maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly
depleting or degrading those resources
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Aquatic ecosystem
• Water as the main habitat.
• Classification based on salt concentration-
○ Fresh water ecosystem – 5 ppt (Lakes, Ponds, Pools, springs, Streams, Rivers)
○ Marine ecosystem – Equal to sea level 35 ppt (Ocean)
○ Brackish water ecosystem – 5 to 35 ppt (Estuaries, Salt marshes, Mangroove swamps)
• Aquatic organisms (based on Zone of occurrence):
○ Neuston (organism on surface of water)
○ Periphyton (shallow depth-algae)
○ Plankton (similar to periphyton- Algae, Protozoa, Crustaceans Zooplankton)
○ Nekton (Swimming insects-fishes)
○ Benthon (organism at bottom of water mass)
• Factors limiting the productivity of Aquatic life
○ Sunlight (Littoral Zone, Photic Zone, Aphotic Zone)
○ Dissolved oxygen
○ Transparency
○ Temperature
Eutrophication :
• Ecosystem's response to addition of artificial or natural substances, mainly phosphates, through detergents, fertilizers, or
sewage, to an aquatic system.
• Impact-
○ Algal bloom->Restricts the penetration of sunlight->Oxygen depletion-> No photosynthesis, Decomposition
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Mangrove
• Medium height trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics (between latitudes
25° N and 25° S).
• These are salt tolerant trees (halophytes) adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. To deal with such situation it has
following modifications-
○ Viviparity- condition whereby young plant grows through fruit while still attached to the parent plant.
○ Stilt roots- Adventitious roots emerged from main trunk
• Characteristics of Mangroves-
○ Evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores
○ Physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to water logged anaerobic mud
○ Need abundant sunlight, has the ability to absorb fresh water from saline water source
○ Pneumatophores (Blind roots)
• Examples- Avicennia, Rhizophora
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Coral Reefs
Miscellaneous terms
• Ecological Footprint- minimum area of the land required to completely sustain life of person. Its unit is Global Hectares.
• Bionomics- synonymous with ecology & stresses on value of natural systems which influence human life.
• Productivity- rate of production of organic matter is known as its productivity. Primary productivity-> from autotroph level;
Secondary productivity-> from heterotroph level. Tropical rain forest has maximum productivity (more than ocean).
• Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region.
• It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form.
Levels of Biodiversity
Patterns of Biodiversity
Measurement of Biodiversity
• Two main factors taken into account when measuring diversity are-
○ Richness (number of different species in a region)
○ Evenness (abundance of the different species in a region)
• Simpson’s Index - takes into account both species richness and evenness among the species.
• Three indices used by ecologists:
a. Alpha diversity – within a particular area
b. Beta diversity – Comparison of diversity b/n ecosystem
c. Gamma diversity – Overall diversity
• More diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive.
Importance of Biodiversity
• Helps in development of human community by providing below services-
Loss of Biodiversity
• The biological wealth of the planet has been declining rapidly.
• Some examples of recent extinctions include
○ dodo (Mauritius),
○ quagga (Africa),
○ thylacine (Australia),
○ Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and
○ 3 subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
• Causes of Biodiversity loss-
○ Natural causes- (Earthquake, floods, landslides, etc.)
○ Habitat loss and fragmentation (most important cause- Ex: loss in tropical rain forest area)
○ Overexploitation
○ Alien species invasion
○ Co-extinctions (dependent plant and animal species also extinct)
○ Global climate change
○ Hunting and Poaching
• Mass extinction-
○ It occurs when the prevailing rate of extinction far exceeds the background or natural rate of extinction.
○ This rate is measured normally in number of species going extinct over a given period of time.
○ The opposite of extinction is speciation- the rate at which new species are formed, which contributes to the biodiversity.
○ Extinction events are important starting point of speciation activities.
○ More than 90% of all organisms that have ever lived on Earth are extinct.
○ Below are important mass extinction events in past 500 million years-
Biodiversity conservation
• Conservation is the act of preserving, guarding, or protecting biodiversity.
• Modes of conservation-
○ Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside their area of existence (Ex: Zoo, Botanical garden, Seed bank, etc.)
○ In-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity into their area of existence (Ex: Sanctuaries, National Parks, etc.)
Extinct (EX): no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.
Extinct in Wild (EW): only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population
Near Threatened (NT): close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
Least Concern (LC): Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category
Threatened: based on the criteria-
A. Declining population (past, present and/or projected)
B. Geographic range size, and fragmentation, decline or fluctuations
C. Small population size and fragmentation, decline, or fluctuations
D. Very small population or very restricted distribution
E. Quantitative analysis of extinction risk (e.g., Population Viability Analysis)
Biodiversity Hotspots
• Concept was given by Norman Myers
• Biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.
Plant Community
• The group or association of plants growing together in a particular habitat is called plant community.
• It has two basic characteristics-
○ Plants are ecologically related and can live and grow together in a particular habitat
○ Plant community is well organised i.e., it has well developed composition and structure
Vegetation
• All the plants which grow together in any area form its vegetation
• Most abundant biotic element of the biosphere
• Two habitats may have similar floras but different vegetation and two habitats having different floras may have similar
vegetation.
• Vegetation type is primarily dependent upon the rainfall and temperature of a place.
• Other factors such as soil, topography, primitive vegetation, animal species, etc. also influence vegetation.
• Important Terms related to vegetation
○ Canopy: The cover of branches and Foliage formed by the crown of trees is called Canopy.
○ Canopy Density: The percentage area of land covered by the canopy of trees is called Canopy density.
○ Carbon Stock: It is defined as the amount of carbon stored in the ecosystem of the forest especially in living biomass and
soil.
○ Very Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 70% and above.
○ Moderately Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%.
○ Open Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40%.
○ Scrub: Degraded forest land with canopy density less than 10%.
○ Non-Forest: Lands not included in any of the above classes.
○ Endemic plants: The original natural vegetation, which are purely native are called the endemic plants.
○ Exotic plants: Those which have come from outside are called the exotic plants.
Deciduous
Moist Deciduous Dry Deciduous
Climate • Sufficiently high rainfall (150 to 200 cm) • Annual rainfall 70 to 100 cm
Tropical Thorny
Tropical Thorny Sub-Tropical
Climate • Annual rainfall is less than 50 cm Sub-Tropical
• Dry season is hot and very long Climate • Wet hills forests occur at 1000-1200m
Location • South-west Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat altitude.
• MP and UP Location • Eastern Himalayas
Characteris • Small trees (8 to 10 m high) and thorny or • Western Himalayas
tics spiny shrubs of stunted growth. Characteris •
• Forests remain leafless for mostly (thorn tics
scrub or scrub jungles).
• Most of the vegetation is confined to Examples • Eastern Himalayas (wetter area)- oak,
areas along seasonal rivers chestnut, ash, birch, pine
• Western Himalayas- Chir & Pine
Examples • babool, ber, khejri, date palm, khair, • Drier areas of Kashmir- wild olives
neem, palas, acacia etc.
Temperate
Wet Temperate Vegetation Moist Temperate Vegetation Dry Temperate Vegetation
Climate • Rainfall is high • Mostly in western Himalayas • Inner dry ranges of western
• Temperature is moderate in between 1500-3000m Himalayas where precipitation is
summers and winters are cold. below 10cm
• occur between 1800-2700m
altitude in Himalayas
• Above 1500m in South
Location • Eastern Himalayas • Western Himalayas • Inner areas of western Himalayas
• South India- Nilgiris, Anamalai and
the Palani hills (SHOLA forest)
Characteri • Rate of evaporation is not high and • 30-50m in height and undergrowth • coniferous forest with xerophytic
stics trees do not shed their leaves. is mostly evergreen shrubs
• Trees are shorter there with • Mosses and ferns grow on the trees. • Epiphytes and climbers are rare
abundant undergrowth and
epiphytes.
Examples • Oak, poplar, elm, laurel, maple, • Deodar, spruce, maple, walnut, • chilgoza, deodar, oak, maple, ash,
birch, magnolina poplar, cedar, chestnut, birch, oak, celtis, olives, etc.
etc.
• Environmental change
○ change or disturbance caused by human influences and natural ecological processes.
○ Includes physical changes, biotic changes & also those caused by infestation of invasive species.
• Climate change
○ Long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators.
○ Causes-
Natural (volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation)
Human causes (Increase in the level of greenhouse gases & Deforestation)
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Global Warming
POLLUTION
• Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil.
• Agents that bring about such an undesirable change are called as pollutants.
AIR Pollution
• Industry and transport are the largest sources of air pollutants. Air pollutants can be either gases or aerosols (particles or
liquid droplets suspended in the air).
• Sources of Air Pollution-
Natural Man-made
• Dust from Deserted areas • Stationary sources-power plants, factories,
• Methane from various sources waste incinerators, construction sites, etc.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the • Mobile sources- Vehicles, aircrafts, etc.
• Smog-
○ combination of smoke and fog.
○ invented around 1911 by the physician Harold Des Voeux.
○ Two types-
London type smog Los Angeles type or Photochemical Smog
• Occurs at very cold temperatures. • Occurs in sunny condition
• Burning coal leads to emissions of CO2, SO2 • It is result of emissions from traffic.
and dust. When these pollutants mix with • Nitrogenous oxides from car exhausts and
fog, droplets of highly corrosive Sulphuric hydrocarbons react in the presence of
Acid are produced in the air. sunlight to produce a noxious mixture of
aerosols and gasses.
• Photochemical smog contains tropospheric
Water Pollution
• Presence of undesirable substances (organic, inorganic, biological or radioactive) in water which make it unfit and harmful for
use by the human beings, animals and marine life is water pollution.
• Sources of water pollution-
○ Domestic Sewage
○ Industrial Waste
○ Agricultural Waste
○ Off-shore Oil Drilling
○ Thermal Pollution (water used in cooling purpose in industries)
• Important Terms related to water Pollution-
○ Biological/Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)-
It refers to the amount of the oxygen that would be consumed if all the organic matter in one litre of water were
oxidised by bacteria.
It is used to measure effectiveness of wastewater treatment plant.
The sewage water is treated till the BOD is reduced.
BOD is a measure of the organic matter present in the water & greater the BOD of waste-water, more is its
polluting potential.
○ Eutrophication-
enhanced plankton growth due to excess supply of nutrients. Large growths of phytoplankton are known as
blooms.
Mycofiltration-
NOTE- Chlorine, Chloramine, Chlorine dioxide, Ozone and UV rays are commonly used as water disinfectant.
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Noise Pollution
• Any sound, which is unwanted or unpleasant to our ears, is called noise.
• Any undesirable sound which adversely affects the physical and mental health of its recipient is called noise pollution.
• Green Mufflers-
rows of green plants are grown near the noisy places like highways or industrial areas so that they obstruct the sound
noise.
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• It is defined as transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the
surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
• The land area is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct
ecosystem.
• Primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is characteristic vegetation of aquatic
plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil (saturated soil with anaerobic conditions).
• Ramsar Definition-
○ Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres.
• Classification-
Marine/Coastal Inland Human Made
• Saline • Fresh water • Aquaculture ponds,
• Shallow waters less than 6 m deep, • rivers, streams • irrigation channels,
• Coral Reefs • Inland river deltas; • irrigated fields,
• Shores (Sand, shingle or pebble) • Freshwater springs, • seasonally flooded agricultural land,
• Brackish • Oasis • salt exploitation sites,
• Mangroves, • Lakes • Water storage areas
• coastal lagoons, • Saline, Brackish or Alkaline • Dams
• estuarine waters, • Bogs, Peats, Marshes
• Karst
• Main types of wetlands-
○ Marsh-
Found at the edges of lakes and streams (transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems)
Dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species
○ Swamp-
Found adjacent rivers or lakes
Forested wetland having slow moving or stagnant water.
Peat swamp forests- swamp forests where waterlogged soils prevent woody debris from fully decomposing &
creates acidic peat.
○ Mire-
wetland without forest cover, dominated by peat-forming plants.
2 types-
□ Bog-
mire that accumulates peat thus dome shaped acidic surface & higher than surrounding.
Functions as carbon sink
Mainly found in cold & temperate climate in NH.
□ Fen-
Served with both groundwater and rain water thus less acidic & mineral rich than Bog.
Located in slopes or depression in cold regions of Western Europe.
• Importance of Wetlands-
○ Aquaculture (harvest fish/aquatic animals for Humans and medicinal purpose)
○ Flood control (act as barrier or shock absorber)
○ Groundwater replenishment
○ Nutrient retention
○ Sediment traps
○ Water purification
○ Reservoirs of biodiversity
• Wetlands in India-
○ Account for 4.7% of the total geographical area.
○ Inland wetlands- 69%; coastal wetlands- 27%, and other wetlands.
Natural coastal wetlands have the largest area.
• Montreux Record-
○ List of wetlands of International Importance which are under threat due to developmental activities & pollution.
○ India wetlands in this list- Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan and Loktak Lake, Manipur
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1992 RIO EARTH • Also known as- United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
SUMMIT • Major issues addressed-
• production of toxic components (Ex: lead in gasoline, radioactive chemicals)
• alternative sources of energy (replacing fossil fuels)
• reliance on public transportation
• growing scarcity of water
• Outcomes-
3 documents:
Documents Details
Rio Declaration on • Consists of 27 principles intended to guide future sustainable
Environment and development
Development
Agenda 21 • Non-binding action plan of UN with regard to sustainable development
• (21 refers to 21st century)
• Contains-
• Social and Economic Dimensions
• 8 goals are-
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INDIAN ECOLOGY RELATED LAWS & DEVELOPMENT
S.No
Mineral India World
Production Source Production Source
1 Coal CH>JH>OR JH>OR>CH CHN>US>IND US>RUS>CHN
2 Bauxite OR>GJ>MH OR>AP>GJ AUS>CHN>BR GUINEA>AUS>BR
3 Iron OR>CH>KA KA>OR>JH CHN>AUS>BR AUS>RUS>BR
4 Magnesium MH>MP>OR OR>KA>MP CHN>S.AFR>AUS S.AFR>UKRN>AUS
5 Chromite OR>KA OR>Mani>Naga
6 Feldspar RJ>TG>AP RJ> TG>AP
7 Diamond ------ MP>AP>CH RUS>BOSTA>CONG AUS>CONG>BOSTWANA
8 Gold KA>JH KA>RJ>BR CHN>AUS>RUS AUS>RUS>S.AFR
9 Silver RJ>KA RJ>JH>AP MEX>PERU>CHN PERU>AUS>CHILE
10 Copper MP>RJ>JH RJ>JH>MP CHILE>CHN>PERU CHILE>AUS>PERU
11 Zinc RJ>JK RJ>MH>MP CHN>AUS>PERU AUS>CHN>PERU
12 Dolomite CH>TG>OR MP>AP>CH
13 Graphite TN>JH>OR ARUN>OR>JH CHN>IND>BR TURKEY>BR>CHN
14 Petroleum RJ>GJ ASSAM>GJ SAUDI>US>RUS VENEZ>SAUDI>CANADA
15 Natural Gas ASSAM>GJ ASSAM>GJ US>RUS>QATAR IRAN>RUS>QATAR
16 Lead CHN>AUS>US AUS>CHN>RUS
17 Cobalt CONGO>CHN>CAN CONGO>AUS>CUBA
18 Nickel PHP>RUS>AUS AUS>BR
19 Tungsten CHN>RUS>CAN CHN>CAN>RUS
20 Mica CHN>US>S.KOREA