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Taylor formula: solved exercises

Exercise 1. Compute the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order n at x0 for the
following functions:

f (x) = log 1 − sin2 x



(a) (n = 4, x0 = 0)

(b) f (x) = ex (n = 4, x0 = −1)

(c) f (x) = 2 + x + 3x2 − x3 (n = 2, x0 = 1)

1
(d) f (x) = . (n = 4, x0 = 0)
1 + 2x + 3x2

Solution

(a) Using the McLaurin expansions of functions sin t e log (1 + s) one gets that
"  #
 2

2
 1 3 3
f (x) = log 1 − sin x = log 1 − x − x + o x =
6
  
1
= log 1 − x2 − x4 + o x4

=
3
 2
   
2 1 4 4 1 2 1 3 4
+ o x4 =
 
=− x − x +o x − x − x +o x
3 2 3
1 1 1
= −x2 + x4 + o(x4 ) − x4 + o x4 = −x2 − x4 + o x4 ,
 
x → 0.
3 2 6
Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order n at x0 for f (x) = log 1 − sin2 x


is
1
f (x) = −x2 − x4 + o(x4 ).
6

1
(b) Setting t = x + 1, we have that, if x → −1, then t → 0 and

f (x) = ex = et−1 = e−1 et .

Using the McLaurin expansion of the function et we obtain that


 
1 1 1
f (x) = ex = e−1 et = e−1 1 + t + t2 + t3 + t4 + o t4

=
2 6 24
 
1 1 1
= e−1 2 + x + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4 + o (x + 1)4

=
2 6 24
1 1 1 1 1
= + (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4 + o (x + 1)4 ,

x → −1.
e e 2e 6e 24e
Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order 4 at x0 = −1 for f (x) = ex is

1 1 1 1 1
+ (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4 + o (x + 1)4 .

f (x) =
e e 2e 6e 24e

(c) Setting t = x − 1, we have that, if x → 1, then t → 0 and

f (x) = 2 + x + 3x2 − x3 = 2 + (t + 1) + 3(t + 1)2 − (t + 1)3 =

= 5 + 4t − t3 = 5 + 4t + o t2 = 5 + 4(x − 1) + o (x − 1)2 ,
 
x → 1.

Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order 2 at x0 = 1 for f (x) =
2 + x + 3x2 − x3 is
f (x) = 5 + 4(x − 1) + o (x − 1)2 .


1
(d) Using the McLaurin expansion of the function 1+t = (1 + t)−1 we obtain that

1 −1
= 1 + 2x + 3x2

f (x) = =
1 + 2x + 3x2
2 3 4
= 1 − 2x + 3x2 + 2x + 3x2 − 2x + 3x2 + 2x + 3x2 + o x4 =
 

= 1 − 2x − 3x2 + 4x2 + 12x3 + 9x4 − 8x3 − 36x4 + o x4 + 16x4 + o x4 =


 

= 1 − 2x + x2 + 4x3 − 11x4 + o x4 ,

x → 0.

Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order 4 at x0 = 0 for f (x) =
1
is
1 + 2x + 3x2
f (x) = 1 − 2x + x2 + 4x3 − 11x4 + o x4 .


Exercise 2. Compute the derivatives of order 4 and 5 of the following functions at the point
x0 = 0:

2
h i
(a) f (x) = ex sin x f (4) (0) = 0, f (5) (0) = −4.

sinh (x2 + 2 sin4 x) h i


(b) f (x) = f (4) (0) = 48, f (5) (0) = 0.
1 + x10
h i
f (4) (0) = −23, f (5) (0) = −180.
p
(c) f (x) = 3
cosh (3x + x2 ).

Solution

(a) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions ex e sin x we get that

f (x) = ex sin x =
  
1 2 1 3 1 4 4
 1 3 1 5 5

= 1+x+ x + x + x +o x x− x + x +o x =
2 6 24 6 120
1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
= x − x3 + x + o x5 + x2 − x4 + x3 − x5 + x4 + x5 =

6 120 6 2 12 6 24
2 1 3 1 5 5

= x + x + x − x + o x , x → 0.
3 30
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!
by comparing summands of the same order, we get
1 1
f (4) (0) = 0, f (5) (0) = − · 5! = − · 120 = −4.
30 30
Hence, the derivative of order 4 of f at x0 = 0 is 0 and the derivative of order 5 is −4.

(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions sinh t, sin x e (1 + s)−1 we get that
sinh (x2 + 2 sin4 x) −1
f (x) = 10
= [sinh (x2 + 2 sin4 x)] 1 + x10 =
1+x
 
1 2 3
= x2 + 2 sin4 x + x + 2 sin4 x + o x6 1 − x10 + o x10 =
  
6
" #
 4 1 6
 
2 1 3 3 6

= x +2 x− x +o x + x +o x [1 + o(1)] =
6 6
 
7 7
= x2 + 2x4 − x6 + o x6 [1 + o(1)] = x2 + 2x4 − x6 + o x6 , x → 0.
 
6 6
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!
by comparing summands of the same order, we get

f (4) (0) = 2 · 4! = 48, f (5) (0) = 0.

Hence, the derivative of order 4 of f at x0 = 0 is 48 and the derivative of order 5 is 0.

3
1
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions cosh t e (1 + s) 3 we get that
p 1
f (x) = 3
cosh (3x + x2 ) = cosh (3x + x2 ) 3 =
 1
1 2 2
 1 2 4
 5
 3
= 1+ 3x + x + (3x + x +o x =
2 24
 1
9 1 27 9  3
= 1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + x4 + x5 + o x5 =
2 2 8 2
 1
9 2 3 31 4 9 5 5
 3
= 1 + x + 3x + x + x + o x =
2 8 2
 2
 
3 31 3 1 9 2 31 9
= 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 − x + 3x3 + x4 + x5 + o x5 + o x5 =

2 24 2 9 2 8 2
3 31 3 9
= 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 − x4 − 3x5 + o x5 =

2 24 2 4
3 23 3
= 1 + x2 + x3 − x4 − x5 + o x5 , x → 0.

2 24 2
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is

1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!

by comparing summands of the same order, we get

23 3
f (4) (0) = − · 4! = −23, f (5) (0) = − · 5! = −180.
24 2

Hence, the derivative of order 4 of f at x0 = 0 is −23 and the derivative of order 5 is−180.

Exercise 3. Compute the principal part of the following infinitesimals:

(a) f (x) = 2 + x + 3x2 − x3 − 5ex−1 , x→1 [−(x − 1)]

 
x 1 5
(b) f (x) = sin x − x cos √
3
, x→0 x
270

 
√ 1 2
(c) f (x) = cos x − 1, x→0 − x
4

 
π 1 1
(d) f (x) = − arctan x − , x → +∞. − 3
2 x 3x

Solution

4
(a) Setting t = x − 1, we have that, if x → 1, then t → 0 and using the McLaurin expansion
of the function et we get that

f (x) = 2 + x + 3x2 − x3 − 5ex−1 = 2 + (t + 1) + 3(t + 1)2 − (t + 1)3 − 5et =

= 5 + 4t − t3 − 5 (1 + t + o(t)) = −t + o(t) = −(x − 1) + o(x − 1), x → 1.

Hence, the principal part of f as x → 1 is −(x − 1).

(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions sin x and cos t we get that
x
f (x) = sin x − x cos √ =
3
   
1 3 1 5 5
 1 2 1 4 4

= x− x + x +o x −x 1− x + x +o x =
6 120 6 216
1 1 5 1 1 5 1 5
= x − x3 + x + o x5 − x + x3 − x + o x5 = x + o x5 ,
  
x → 0.
6 120 6 216 270
1 5
Hence, the principal part of f as x → 0 is 270 x .

√ 1
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions cos x and 1 + t = (1 + t) 2 we get that
√ 1
f (x) = cos x − 1 = (cos x) 2 − 1 =
 1
1  2 1 1
1 − x2 + o x2 − 1 = 1 − x2 + o x2 − 1 = − x2 + o x2 ,
 
= x → 0.
2 4 4
Hence, the principal part of f as x → 0 is − 41 x2 .

(d) Setting t = x1 , we have that if x → +∞, then t → 0. Since


π 1
x>0 =⇒ arctan x = − arctan ,
2 x
using the McLaurin expansion of the function arctan t, we get that
π 1 1 1
f (x) = − arctan x − = arctan − =
2 x x x
 
1 1 1 1
= arctan t − t = t − t3 + o t3 − t = − t3 + o t3 = − 3 + o
 
, x → +∞.
3 3 3x x3
Hence, the principal part of f as x → +∞ is − 3x1 3 .

Exercise 4. Compute the following limits using Taylor expansions:


ex − sin x − cos x
(a) lim [1]
x→0 ex2 − ex3

5

5
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2
 
9
(b) lim −
x→0 x4 5


3

3
x2 − x2 − log (cos x)
 
sin 1
(c) lim
x→0 x sin x 3

2
log (1 + x arctan x) + 1 − ex
 
4
(d) lim √ . −
x→0 1 + 2x4 − 1 3

Solution

(a) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions ex , sin x, cos x we get that, as x → 0,

ex − sin x − cos x =
   
1 2 2 2 1 2 2
= x2 + o x2 ,
   
= 1+x+ x +o x − x+o x − 1− x +o x
2 2
2 3
ex − ex = 1 + x2 + o x2 − 1 + x3 + o x3 = x2 + o x2 .
  

Hence we have that

ex − sin x − cos x x2 + o(x2 )


lim 2 3 = lim =
x→0 ex − ex x→0 x2 + o(x2 )

by ignoring all negligible summands

x2
= lim = 1.
x→0 x2

√ 1
(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the function 5
1 + t = (1 + t) 5 we get that as x → 0
p 1
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2 = 1 − 5x2 + x4 5 − 1 + x2 =
5

 
1 2 4 2 2 4 2 4
− 1 + x2 =
  
= 1+ −5x + x − −5x + x +o x
5 25
1 9
= 1 − x2 + x4 − 2x4 + o x4 − 1 + x2 = − x4 + o x4 .
 
5 5
Hence we have that

5
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2 − 59 x4 + o(x4 )
lim = lim =
x→0 x4 x→0 x4

by ignoring all negligible summands

− 59 x4 9
= lim =− .
x→0 x4 5

6
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of functions sin t, cos x, log (1 + s) we get that as x → 0
√3
√3
x2 − x2 − log (cos x) =
sin
√  √  
3
2
1 2 2
 3
2
1 2 2

= x − x +o x − x − log 1 − x + o x =
6 2
√ 1  √ 1  1
= x2 − x2 + o x2 − x2 + x2 + o x2 = x2 + o x2 ,
3 3 
6 2 3
2 2

x sin x = x(x + o(x)) = x + o x .

Hence we have that


√ √ 1 2
sin
3
x2 −
3
x2 − log (cos x) x + o(x2 )
lim = lim 3 2 =
x→0 x sin x x→0 x + o (x2 )

by ignoring all negligible summands


1 2
3x 1
= lim = .
x→0 x2 3

√ 1
(d) Using the McLaurin expansion of functions arctan x, et , log (1 + s), 1 + z = (1 + z) 2 we
get that as x → 0
2
log (1 + x arctan x) + 1 − ex =
    
1 1
= log 1 + x x − x3 + o x3 + 1 − 1 + x2 + x4 + o x4
 
=
3 2
 
1 1
= log 1 + x2 − x4 + o x4 + 1 − 1 − x2 − x4 + o x4 =
 
3 2
 2
1  1 1 1
= x2 − x4 + o x4 − x2 − x4 + o x4 − x2 − x4 + o x4 =
 
3 2 3 2
1 1 1 4
= − x4 − x4 − x4 + o x4 = − x4 + o x4 ,
 
3 2 2 3
p 1
1 + 2x4 − 1 = 1 + 2x4 2 − 1 = 1 + x4 + o x4 − 1 = x4 + o x4 .
 

Hence we have that


2
log (1 + x arctan x) + 1 − ex − 4 x4 + o(x4 )
lim √ = lim 34 =
x→0 1 + 2x4 − 1 x→0 x + o(x4 )

by ignoring all negligible summands

− 34 x4 4
= lim =− .
x→0 x4 3

Exercise 5. Study the local behaviour of function

1
f (x) = 1 − (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + o (x − 2)3 ,

x→2
4

7
in a neighbourhood of x0 = 2, and discuss whether it is a stationary point, and, if yes, of which
type.

Solution

The Taylor expansion of f of order 3 centered at x0 = 2 is


1 ′′ 1
f (2)(x − 2)2 + f ′′′ (2)(x − 2)3 + o (x − 2)3 ,

f (x) = f (2) + f ′ (2)(x − 2) + x → 2.
2! 3!
Comparing the summands with the same degree in the expression of f we get that
1 3
f (2) = 1, f ′ (2) = 0, f ′′ (2) = −1 · 2! = −2, f ′′′ (2) = · 3! = .
4 2
It follows that x0 = 2 is a stationary point and, in particular, it is a local maximum of f .

Exercise 6. Determine the sign of the function


 
x 1−x
f (x) = e + log
e
in a neighbourhood of the point x0 = 0.

Solution

The domain of f is dom (f ) = (−∞, 1). Using the McLaurin expansion of functions ex and
log (1 + t) we get that
 
1−x
f (x) = ex + log = ex − 1 + log (1 − x) =
e
1 1 1 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + o x3 − 1 − x − x2 − x3 + o x3 =
 
2 6 2 3
1
= − x3 + o x3 , x → 0.

6
Since − 16 x3 > 0 if and only if x < 0, we have that, by the sign property of limits, it follows that
there exists a neighbourhood I of x0 = 0 such that f (x) > 0 if x ∈ I ∩ (−∞, 0) e f (x) < 0 if
x ∈ I ∩ (0, 1).

Exercise 7. Let us consider the functions

f (x) = ax + bx2 + o x5 ,

x → 0,
1 2
x + x3 ,

g(x) = f (sin x) − ax +
3
with a, b ∈ R.
Find for which values of a, b the function g admit a local maximum, or a local minimum, or
an inflection point at x0 = 0.

8
Solution

Using the McLaurin expansion of sin x we get


1 2
x + x3 =

g(x) = f (sin x) − ax +
3
1 2
= a sin x + b sin x2 + o sin x5 − ax + x + x3 =
 
3
 2
   
1 1 5 1 1 5
= a x − x3 + x + o x5 + b x − x3 + x + o x5 + o x5 +
 
6 120 6 120
1 2
x + x3 =

−ax +
3
 
1 1 a 3 b 4 a 5
x2 + x + o x5 , x → 0.

= b+ 1− x − x +
3 3 2 3 120
The McLaurin expansion of g of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
g (0)x2 + g ′′′ (0)x3 + g ′′ (0)x4 + g ′′′ (0)x5 + o x5 ,

g(x) = g(0) + g ′ (0)x + x → 0.
2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing the summands of corresponding order we get that
   
′ ′′ 1 1
g(0) = 0, g (0) = 0, g (0) = 2! b + =2 b+ ,
3 3
 
1 a  a b a
g ′′′ (0) = 3! 1 − =2 1− , g (4) (0) = 4! − = −8b, g (5) (0) = 5! = a.
3 2 2 3 120
It follows that x0 = 0 is a stationary point of g, for every a, b ∈ R. To establish whether x0 = 0
is a maximum or minimum or inflection point, we evaluate the sign of g ′′ (0), and if g ′′ (0) = 0,
of the derivatives of g of higher order at x0 = 0. We have that
1
g ′′ (0) > 0 ⇐⇒ b>− .
3
Hence
1
b>− ,a∈R =⇒ x0 = 0 is a local minimum,
3
1
b<− ,a∈R =⇒ x0 = 0 is a local maximum.
3
If b = − 31 , hence g ′′ (0) = 0 and in this case we have to compute the derivative of order 3 of g at
x0 = 0. We have that
 a
g ′′′ (0) = 2 1 − 6 0
= ⇐⇒ a < 2.
2
Hence
1
b = − , a 6= 2 =⇒ x0 = 0 is a point of inflection.
3
If b = − 13 and a = 2, then g ′′ (0) = g ′′′ (0) = 0 and in this case we have to compute the derivative
8
of order 4 of g at x0 = 0. We have that g (4) (0) = 3 > 0. Hence
1
b=− ,a=2 =⇒ x0 = 0 is a local minimum.
3

9
Exercise 8. Write that the McLaurin expansion of order 4 of the function

x
f (x) = x cos √ − α − x3 sin x

3

for all α ∈ R.
Using this expansion, find for which values of α the point x = 0 is stationary for f and specify
of which type.

Solution

Using the McLaurin expansion of functions cos x and sin x we get that as x → 0

x
f (x) = x cos √ − α − x3 sin x =

3
   
1 2 3
 3
 1 2 4

=x 1− x +o x − α−x 1− x +o x =
6 6
1 1 1
= x − x3 + o x4 − αx + αx3 + x4 + o x4 = (1 − α)x − (1 − α)x3 + x4 + o x4 .
  
6 6 6
Hence the McLaurin expansion of order 4 of f is

1
f (x) = (1 − α)x − (1 − α)x3 + x4 + o x4 .

6

Since the McLaurin expansion of order 4 of f is

1 1 1
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + f ′′ (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + o x4 ,

2 6 24

comparing the summands of the same order we get that

f (0) = 0, f ′ (0) = 1 − α, f ′′ (0) = 0, f ′′′ (0) = α − 1, f (4) (0) = 24.

So, to let x = 0 be a stationary point, we have to choose α = 1. In this case we have that
f ′′ (0) = f ′′′ (0) = 0 and f (4) (0) = 24. It follows that if α = 1 then x = 0 is a local minimum of
f.

Exercise 9. Find the order of infinitesimal and the principal part of f as x → 0+ , with respect
to the test infinitesimal function u(x) = x, where f is the function

1 2 1
f (x) = ex− 2 x − 1 − x + xα
3

for every α > 0.

Solution

10
Using the McLaurin expansion of the function et , we have that as x → 0+

1 2 1
f (x) = ex− 2 x − 1 − x + xα =
3
 2  3  4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + x − x2 + x − x2 + x − x2 + x − x2 + o x4 − 1 − x + xα =

2 2 2 6 2 24 2 3
1 1 1 1 1  1
= − x3 + x4 + x3 − x4 + x4 + o x4 + xα =
2 8 6 4 24 3
1 1 1
= − x3 − x4 + xα + o x4 , x → 0+ .

3 12 3
Hence if 0 < α < 3 the order of infinitesimal of f is α and the principal part is 13 xα . If α = 3 the
1 4
order of infinitesimal of f is 4 and the principal part is − 12 x . If α > 3 the order of infinitesimal
of f is 3 and the principal part is − 31 x3 .

Exercise 10. Find the order of infinitesimal and the principal part of f as x → 0+ , with respect
to the infinitesimal test function u(x) = x, where f is the function

(cosh 2x − 4 cos x)x4


f (x) =
log (1 + 3x) − 3 sin x − αx2

for every α > 0.

Solution

Using the McLaurin expansion of functions cosh t, cos x, log (1 + s), sin x, we have that as x → 0

(cosh 2x − cos x)x4


f (x) = =
log (1 + 3x) − 3 sin x − αx2

1 + 2x2 + o x2 − 1 + 21 x2 + o x2 x4
 
= =
3x − 92 x2 + 9x3 + o (x3 ) − 3x + 21 x3 + o (x3 ) − αx2
5 6 6

2x + o x
= , x → 0.
− α + 92 x2 + 19 3
2 x + o (x )
3

If α 6= − 29 , then
5 6
x6

2x + o 5
x4 + o x4 ,

f (x) = 9
 =− x → 0.
− α + 2 x2 2
+ o (x ) 2α + 9
5
Hence the order of infinitesimal of f as x → 0 is 4 and the principal part is − 2α+9 x4 .
If α = − 29 , then we have that
5 6 6

2x + o x 5 3
x + o x3 ,

f (x) = 19 3 3
= x → 0.
2 x + o (x )
19
5 3
Hence the order of infinitesimal of f as x → 0 is 3 and the principal part is 19 x .

11

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