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Exercise 1. Compute the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order n at x0 for the
following functions:
1
(d) f (x) = . (n = 4, x0 = 0)
1 + 2x + 3x2
Solution
(a) Using the McLaurin expansions of functions sin t e log (1 + s) one gets that
" #
2
2
1 3 3
f (x) = log 1 − sin x = log 1 − x − x + o x =
6
1
= log 1 − x2 − x4 + o x4
=
3
2
2 1 4 4 1 2 1 3 4
+ o x4 =
=− x − x +o x − x − x +o x
3 2 3
1 1 1
= −x2 + x4 + o(x4 ) − x4 + o x4 = −x2 − x4 + o x4 ,
x → 0.
3 2 6
Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order n at x0 for f (x) = log 1 − sin2 x
is
1
f (x) = −x2 − x4 + o(x4 ).
6
1
(b) Setting t = x + 1, we have that, if x → −1, then t → 0 and
1 1 1 1 1
+ (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4 + o (x + 1)4 .
f (x) =
e e 2e 6e 24e
= 5 + 4t − t3 = 5 + 4t + o t2 = 5 + 4(x − 1) + o (x − 1)2 ,
x → 1.
Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order 2 at x0 = 1 for f (x) =
2 + x + 3x2 − x3 is
f (x) = 5 + 4(x − 1) + o (x − 1)2 .
1
(d) Using the McLaurin expansion of the function 1+t = (1 + t)−1 we obtain that
1 −1
= 1 + 2x + 3x2
f (x) = =
1 + 2x + 3x2
2 3 4
= 1 − 2x + 3x2 + 2x + 3x2 − 2x + 3x2 + 2x + 3x2 + o x4 =
= 1 − 2x + x2 + 4x3 − 11x4 + o x4 ,
x → 0.
Hence the Taylor expansion with Peano’s remainder of order 4 at x0 = 0 for f (x) =
1
is
1 + 2x + 3x2
f (x) = 1 − 2x + x2 + 4x3 − 11x4 + o x4 .
Exercise 2. Compute the derivatives of order 4 and 5 of the following functions at the point
x0 = 0:
2
h i
(a) f (x) = ex sin x f (4) (0) = 0, f (5) (0) = −4.
Solution
(a) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions ex e sin x we get that
f (x) = ex sin x =
1 2 1 3 1 4 4
1 3 1 5 5
= 1+x+ x + x + x +o x x− x + x +o x =
2 6 24 6 120
1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
= x − x3 + x + o x5 + x2 − x4 + x3 − x5 + x4 + x5 =
6 120 6 2 12 6 24
2 1 3 1 5 5
= x + x + x − x + o x , x → 0.
3 30
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!
by comparing summands of the same order, we get
1 1
f (4) (0) = 0, f (5) (0) = − · 5! = − · 120 = −4.
30 30
Hence, the derivative of order 4 of f at x0 = 0 is 0 and the derivative of order 5 is −4.
(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions sinh t, sin x e (1 + s)−1 we get that
sinh (x2 + 2 sin4 x) −1
f (x) = 10
= [sinh (x2 + 2 sin4 x)] 1 + x10 =
1+x
1 2 3
= x2 + 2 sin4 x + x + 2 sin4 x + o x6 1 − x10 + o x10 =
6
" #
4 1 6
2 1 3 3 6
= x +2 x− x +o x + x +o x [1 + o(1)] =
6 6
7 7
= x2 + 2x4 − x6 + o x6 [1 + o(1)] = x2 + 2x4 − x6 + o x6 , x → 0.
6 6
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!
by comparing summands of the same order, we get
3
1
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions cosh t e (1 + s) 3 we get that
p 1
f (x) = 3
cosh (3x + x2 ) = cosh (3x + x2 ) 3 =
1
1 2 2
1 2 4
5
3
= 1+ 3x + x + (3x + x +o x =
2 24
1
9 1 27 9 3
= 1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + x4 + x5 + o x5 =
2 2 8 2
1
9 2 3 31 4 9 5 5
3
= 1 + x + 3x + x + x + o x =
2 8 2
2
3 31 3 1 9 2 31 9
= 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 − x + 3x3 + x4 + x5 + o x5 + o x5 =
2 24 2 9 2 8 2
3 31 3 9
= 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 − x4 − 3x5 + o x5 =
2 24 2 4
3 23 3
= 1 + x2 + x3 − x4 − x5 + o x5 , x → 0.
2 24 2
Since that McLaurin expansion of f of order 5 is
1 ′′ 1 1 1
f (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5 + o x5 ,
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x +
2! 3! 4! 5!
23 3
f (4) (0) = − · 4! = −23, f (5) (0) = − · 5! = −180.
24 2
Hence, the derivative of order 4 of f at x0 = 0 is −23 and the derivative of order 5 is−180.
x 1 5
(b) f (x) = sin x − x cos √
3
, x→0 x
270
√ 1 2
(c) f (x) = cos x − 1, x→0 − x
4
π 1 1
(d) f (x) = − arctan x − , x → +∞. − 3
2 x 3x
Solution
4
(a) Setting t = x − 1, we have that, if x → 1, then t → 0 and using the McLaurin expansion
of the function et we get that
(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions sin x and cos t we get that
x
f (x) = sin x − x cos √ =
3
1 3 1 5 5
1 2 1 4 4
= x− x + x +o x −x 1− x + x +o x =
6 120 6 216
1 1 5 1 1 5 1 5
= x − x3 + x + o x5 − x + x3 − x + o x5 = x + o x5 ,
x → 0.
6 120 6 216 270
1 5
Hence, the principal part of f as x → 0 is 270 x .
√ 1
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions cos x and 1 + t = (1 + t) 2 we get that
√ 1
f (x) = cos x − 1 = (cos x) 2 − 1 =
1
1 2 1 1
1 − x2 + o x2 − 1 = 1 − x2 + o x2 − 1 = − x2 + o x2 ,
= x → 0.
2 4 4
Hence, the principal part of f as x → 0 is − 41 x2 .
5
√
5
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2
9
(b) lim −
x→0 x4 5
√
3
√
3
x2 − x2 − log (cos x)
sin 1
(c) lim
x→0 x sin x 3
2
log (1 + x arctan x) + 1 − ex
4
(d) lim √ . −
x→0 1 + 2x4 − 1 3
Solution
(a) Using the McLaurin expansion of the functions ex , sin x, cos x we get that, as x → 0,
ex − sin x − cos x =
1 2 2 2 1 2 2
= x2 + o x2 ,
= 1+x+ x +o x − x+o x − 1− x +o x
2 2
2 3
ex − ex = 1 + x2 + o x2 − 1 + x3 + o x3 = x2 + o x2 .
x2
= lim = 1.
x→0 x2
√ 1
(b) Using the McLaurin expansion of the function 5
1 + t = (1 + t) 5 we get that as x → 0
p 1
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2 = 1 − 5x2 + x4 5 − 1 + x2 =
5
1 2 4 2 2 4 2 4
− 1 + x2 =
= 1+ −5x + x − −5x + x +o x
5 25
1 9
= 1 − x2 + x4 − 2x4 + o x4 − 1 + x2 = − x4 + o x4 .
5 5
Hence we have that
√
5
1 − 5x2 + x4 − 1 + x2 − 59 x4 + o(x4 )
lim = lim =
x→0 x4 x→0 x4
− 59 x4 9
= lim =− .
x→0 x4 5
6
(c) Using the McLaurin expansion of functions sin t, cos x, log (1 + s) we get that as x → 0
√3
√3
x2 − x2 − log (cos x) =
sin
√ √
3
2
1 2 2
3
2
1 2 2
= x − x +o x − x − log 1 − x + o x =
6 2
√ 1 √ 1 1
= x2 − x2 + o x2 − x2 + x2 + o x2 = x2 + o x2 ,
3 3
6 2 3
2 2
x sin x = x(x + o(x)) = x + o x .
√ 1
(d) Using the McLaurin expansion of functions arctan x, et , log (1 + s), 1 + z = (1 + z) 2 we
get that as x → 0
2
log (1 + x arctan x) + 1 − ex =
1 1
= log 1 + x x − x3 + o x3 + 1 − 1 + x2 + x4 + o x4
=
3 2
1 1
= log 1 + x2 − x4 + o x4 + 1 − 1 − x2 − x4 + o x4 =
3 2
2
1 1 1 1
= x2 − x4 + o x4 − x2 − x4 + o x4 − x2 − x4 + o x4 =
3 2 3 2
1 1 1 4
= − x4 − x4 − x4 + o x4 = − x4 + o x4 ,
3 2 2 3
p 1
1 + 2x4 − 1 = 1 + 2x4 2 − 1 = 1 + x4 + o x4 − 1 = x4 + o x4 .
− 34 x4 4
= lim =− .
x→0 x4 3
1
f (x) = 1 − (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + o (x − 2)3 ,
x→2
4
7
in a neighbourhood of x0 = 2, and discuss whether it is a stationary point, and, if yes, of which
type.
Solution
Solution
The domain of f is dom (f ) = (−∞, 1). Using the McLaurin expansion of functions ex and
log (1 + t) we get that
1−x
f (x) = ex + log = ex − 1 + log (1 − x) =
e
1 1 1 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + o x3 − 1 − x − x2 − x3 + o x3 =
2 6 2 3
1
= − x3 + o x3 , x → 0.
6
Since − 16 x3 > 0 if and only if x < 0, we have that, by the sign property of limits, it follows that
there exists a neighbourhood I of x0 = 0 such that f (x) > 0 if x ∈ I ∩ (−∞, 0) e f (x) < 0 if
x ∈ I ∩ (0, 1).
f (x) = ax + bx2 + o x5 ,
x → 0,
1 2
x + x3 ,
g(x) = f (sin x) − ax +
3
with a, b ∈ R.
Find for which values of a, b the function g admit a local maximum, or a local minimum, or
an inflection point at x0 = 0.
8
Solution
9
Exercise 8. Write that the McLaurin expansion of order 4 of the function
x
f (x) = x cos √ − α − x3 sin x
3
for all α ∈ R.
Using this expansion, find for which values of α the point x = 0 is stationary for f and specify
of which type.
Solution
Using the McLaurin expansion of functions cos x and sin x we get that as x → 0
x
f (x) = x cos √ − α − x3 sin x =
3
1 2 3
3
1 2 4
=x 1− x +o x − α−x 1− x +o x =
6 6
1 1 1
= x − x3 + o x4 − αx + αx3 + x4 + o x4 = (1 − α)x − (1 − α)x3 + x4 + o x4 .
6 6 6
Hence the McLaurin expansion of order 4 of f is
1
f (x) = (1 − α)x − (1 − α)x3 + x4 + o x4 .
6
1 1 1
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + f ′′ (0)x2 + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + o x4 ,
2 6 24
So, to let x = 0 be a stationary point, we have to choose α = 1. In this case we have that
f ′′ (0) = f ′′′ (0) = 0 and f (4) (0) = 24. It follows that if α = 1 then x = 0 is a local minimum of
f.
Exercise 9. Find the order of infinitesimal and the principal part of f as x → 0+ , with respect
to the test infinitesimal function u(x) = x, where f is the function
1 2 1
f (x) = ex− 2 x − 1 − x + xα
3
Solution
10
Using the McLaurin expansion of the function et , we have that as x → 0+
1 2 1
f (x) = ex− 2 x − 1 − x + xα =
3
2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + x − x2 + x − x2 + x − x2 + x − x2 + o x4 − 1 − x + xα =
2 2 2 6 2 24 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − x3 + x4 + x3 − x4 + x4 + o x4 + xα =
2 8 6 4 24 3
1 1 1
= − x3 − x4 + xα + o x4 , x → 0+ .
3 12 3
Hence if 0 < α < 3 the order of infinitesimal of f is α and the principal part is 13 xα . If α = 3 the
1 4
order of infinitesimal of f is 4 and the principal part is − 12 x . If α > 3 the order of infinitesimal
of f is 3 and the principal part is − 31 x3 .
Exercise 10. Find the order of infinitesimal and the principal part of f as x → 0+ , with respect
to the infinitesimal test function u(x) = x, where f is the function
Solution
Using the McLaurin expansion of functions cosh t, cos x, log (1 + s), sin x, we have that as x → 0
1 + 2x2 + o x2 − 1 + 21 x2 + o x2 x4
= =
3x − 92 x2 + 9x3 + o (x3 ) − 3x + 21 x3 + o (x3 ) − αx2
5 6 6
2x + o x
= , x → 0.
− α + 92 x2 + 19 3
2 x + o (x )
3
If α 6= − 29 , then
5 6
x6
2x + o 5
x4 + o x4 ,
f (x) = 9
=− x → 0.
− α + 2 x2 2
+ o (x ) 2α + 9
5
Hence the order of infinitesimal of f as x → 0 is 4 and the principal part is − 2α+9 x4 .
If α = − 29 , then we have that
5 6 6
2x + o x 5 3
x + o x3 ,
f (x) = 19 3 3
= x → 0.
2 x + o (x )
19
5 3
Hence the order of infinitesimal of f as x → 0 is 3 and the principal part is 19 x .
11