Radio Access Network

Beginner-Level Overview

Prepared by AMOS NENEJE, DSM, Tanzania

+255754710282
aneneje@gmail.com

5 July 2017
1. Background: Communication
✓ Focus on Basic form of communication (audio);
➢ Necessities: speaker, listener, medium (air);
➢ Main PIs: audibility and clarity
➢ Constraints: distance, speaker loudness, ear positioning & sensitivity, other noises.

Perfect alignment and proximity of
speaker and listener, speaker
speaks softly (whispers). No other
disturbing sounds nearby
Ideal Environment
Normal conversational
environment: normal distance,
normal speaker voice level (not
loud, not whispering)
Normal Environment
Noisy environment: Conversing in such
environment prompts the speaker to be
loud even if close to the listener. This
increases the noise for others, who may
speak louder in turn (vicious cycle)
Interference problem
Trying to converse/call someone who is
far off: speaker needs to shout to try to
overcome the effect of the large
separation. At larger distances even
shouting would not work
Attenuation/coverage problem

Telecommunication was invented in the late 1800s to address the challenge of distance.
1. Background: Telecommunication

✓ Telecommunication introduced a secondary speaker and listener: the phone, between actual conversing people.
➢ Phones converted voice to electrical signals, transmitted over wires, and converted electrical signals back to voice;
➢ In their earliest form, they were directly connected devices (one phone to one other phone);

Transmitter (“secondary” speaker) Receiver (“secondary” listener)

1. Background: Earliest phones
✓ Telecommunication: introduced a secondary speaker and listener: the phone, between actual conversing people
(continued..)
➢ Connecting phones directly was inconvenient… Too many devices and connections required. This gave rise to the need
of a go-between system, the EXCHANGE, to which all phones should connect, and be routed to the desired
destination
OFFICE FACTORY

HOME

EXCHA
NGE

Earliest types could handle as few as 50 simultaneous calls (late

1870s), and were manned. In 20th century manual exchanges
eventually gave way to automatic (electromechanical) ones, and in
the modern age, to automatic digital exchanges
1. Background: Fundamentals of a Fixed Network (Wired Access)
✓ Basics of a Mature Public Fixed Network
➢ The interconnection of exchanges through “trunk” lines forms the basis of the CORE NETWORK.

EXCHA EXCHA
CB NGE-1 CB
NGE-2
Exchanges and
CB: Connection boxes connectivity thereof
for bundling subscriber forms the
cables toward the Exchanges “Core Network”

✓ To reach party-B, party-A has to first

Multiple (simultaneous) access
of phones to the core network
was possible since each phone
connected to the core network
directly and separately
EXCHA
NGE-3
ACCESS the Core Network, which would
know how to reach to, and connect to
party-B;
✓ In this case, Core Network access is
CB done through a wired connection
(Wired ACCESS) between the phone
and one of the Exchanges.
1. Background: Fundamentals of a Fixed Network (Wired Access)
1. Background: Voice Digitization in Digital Exchanges
✓ The phone works as a transducer for voice. The resulting varying electrical signal is digitized in the exchange
according to Nyquist Sampling Theorem: For analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) to result in a faithful
reproduction of the signal, slices, called samples, of the analog waveform must be taken frequently. The number
of samples per second is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency. Sampling frequency should be at least
twice the highest frequency (Fmax) component appearing in the analog signal.
✓ As the detectable voice range for humans spans between 300Hz and 3300Hz, Fmax=3300. Making the process
even more reliable, Fmax is considered to be 4000Hz. Thus Sampling rate becomes 2Fmax = 8000 samples/sec.
This means the analog electric signal representing voice is measured 8000 times in one second.
✓ Each measured (sampled) value is assigned a number between 0 and 255. These numbers are in 8-bit binary
format, varying from 00000000 (0) to 11111111 (255). This results into a 64000 bits/sec bit stream (8000
samples/sec x 8 bits/sample). This voice digitization standard is referred to as Digital Signal Zero (DS0).
✓ Thus digital exchanges for Fixed networks were operating at the basic bitrate of 64kbps.
1. Background: Radio Access
✓ Need for communicating-on-the-go gave rise to the need to “cut the cord” on traditional fixed phones,
meaning, to have phones that user could carry around. So phones needed to connect to exchanges wirelessly.
➢ The human audio detectable range (300Hz to 3300Hz) is not suitable for transmitting
electromagnetically in this range, due to antenna size limitation, and too much interference
among transmitters.
➢ Mobile Phones employ electromagnetic waves in the RADIO Frequency range to ACCESS
(connect to) the Core Network, giving rise to the generic term RADIO ACCESS Network that
bridges the gap between wireless phones and Core Network.
➢ The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum categorizes frequency ranges due to varying characteristics of the waves
depending on the frequency range. Radio Frequencies constitute one of the ranges, and is generally used for
communication purposes.
1. Background: Radio Access (contd)
✓ Generic Voice processing for Radio Access
➢ Conversion of voice to varying electrical signal (varying voltage). Done by the phone as for fixed networks. This
varying signal is the Baseband analog signal, meaning it is still in the original voice frequency.
➢ Voice digitization (as for the DS0 case in fixed networks, only that it happens on the phone, not at the
exchange). The resulting bit stream is still a Baseband digital signal.
➢ Voice Compression: This happens so as to end up with less bitrate for Baseband digital signal. This is required
for efficient use of “Carrier” frequency resources during transmission (eg in 2G, baseband bitrate for one user
can be 13kbps or less).
➢ Modulation: This is the process by which the baseband digital signal is used to modify a known constant
frequency signal (Carrier Frequency) whose frequency is much higher than the highest frequency of the
baseband analog signal. The modified (modulated) Carrier is referred to as the RF signal, as opposed to the
Baseband signal.
➢ The modulated RF signal is what is transmitted over the air between wireless phone and network.
➢ At the receiving end, the reverse process is done.
✓ The absence of direct physical connection between the phone and the exchange makes it necessary to
introduce more network elements between the phone and the exchange for radio communication: This is the
Radio Access Network (RAN), which essentially constitutes of Transceiver Stations and their controlling-cum-
aggregation (bundling) nodes. Backbone
Air Interface
Phone RAN
Transmission Core
Network
2. Frequency Band Designations
✓ RF (Radio Frequency) has traditionally defined frequencies from a few kHz to roughly 1 GHz. However, the
microwave frequencies are sometimes considered to be part of RF, in which case the RF range extends to 300
GHz. The following table outlines the various nomenclatures for the frequency bands.
Frequency band designations

Microwave Letter-band designations

✓ To transmit and receive RF signals, antennas are required: these convert varying electrical current to RF signals
(transmitter) and from RF to varying electrical current (receiver). For efficient operation of antennas, the
physical dimensions need to be comparable to the wavelength of the RF signal.
3. Main challenges to be addressed for going wireless
✓ The main challenge of RF access is to have simultaneous users connected wirelessly to the network, and still be
able to separate their calls such that they do not interfere with each other. The techniques employed to do this
are referred to as Multiple Access Schemes. Main Types used are:
➢ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): each user is assigned a different carrier frequency. This means if
10 users need to simultaneously be connected to the network, 10 different carrier frequencies are needed.
➢ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): multiple users using the same frequency, but taking turns in using the
frequency in short recurring periods of time
➢ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): multiple users using the same frequency simultaneously, but each user
data assigned a special code (bit pattern) that only the intended receiver can decode to recover the
information.

✓ Some of other considerations:

➢ Mobility: call should be sustained even when user moves from one coverage area to another
➢ User location: should be tracked so as to know which area to page the user in case of incoming call
➢ Phones having batteries: battery life should be extended by minimizing unnecessary usage
➢ Security: wireless signals can be picked up by any appropriate antenna, so some kind of encryption is required
to provide privacy in case of eavesdropping.
4. Cellular Networks Basics

✓ Public wireless telephone networks are organized into small geographical areas called “Cells”. A Cell is the area
around an antenna where a specific frequency range is used. It is the basic geographical coverage unit,
resulting into the name “Cellular Networks”. Cells are represented graphically as hexagonal shapes, but in
reality they are irregular in shape
✓ The physical structure supporting antennas is the “Site”. Antennas on the site structure would point to
different directions: these directions define the coverage Sectors. One or more cells can be defined under one
Sector or site.
✓ Cells are organized in Clusters called Location Areas (or Tracking Areas). These are used for tracking the
general location of each user for efficient call forwarding in case the user is called.
5. Cellular Networks Evolution in a nutshell
6.0 Main Components of 2G & 3G RAN (GERAN & UTRAN)
7. RAN Basic Functions
✓ Mobile Station:
➢ Converts speech to a digital format and transmits this to the BTS/NodeB via the air interface in the form of
Radio waves;
➢ Receives radio waves from the BTS and converts the digital format to speech
➢ Monitors the quality and strength (level) of radio waves from the BTS, and reports these back, so that the
controlling node (BSC or RNC) can decide if the MS needs to receive from another BTS/NodeB;
➢ Encrypts the radio signals so that the call cannot be listened to by RF eavesdroppers.
✓ Transceiver Station (BTS/NodeB):
➢ Receives radio waves and converts them to another digital format ready to transmit to controlling node,
aggregating multiple users. Also performs the reverse process.
➢ Monitors quality and strength of radio waves from the MS, reports to the controller for decision making
regarding what should be the best BTS/NodeB each MS should receive from;
➢ Holds its own configuration and software;
➢ Reports alarms back to controlling node;
➢ Provides interface for Operations and maintenance
7. RAN Basic Functions (contd)
✓ RAN Controller:
➢ Sends and receives calls from all its Transceiver Stations to and from the Core Network: controls main call
functions;
➢ Makes handover decisions based on measurement reports received from the BTS/NodeB;
➢ Holds configuration and software for itself an all Transceiver Stations attached to it. It also holds software
backups;
➢ Takes alarms for itself and NEs under its control, and passes them to the monitoring system (OSS – Alarm
Monitoring Application);
➢ Takes performance data for itself and all the Nodes under its control and passes it back to the OSS –
Performance management application (This data is used for generating KPI reports)
➢ Provides O&M interface for configuration changes and software upgrades/downgrades for the controller and
nodes under its control

✓ In more details, there are some functions that are Technology-specific (2G or 3G), but these are beyond the
scope of this discussion
9. For future discussions
✓ RAN main Interfaces
✓ More Discussion on role of RAN on Data Services
✓ RAN Major KPIs, and dependencies on Core & Transport networks;
✓ Introduction to LTE RAN

Q & A / DISCUSSION
Radio Access Network
- Data Handling
- Interfaces
- KPIs
- LTE RAN overview

12 July 2017
1. Recapping on Previous Discussion: Voice Processing

Transmitter +
Speech Coding Antenna
(A/D Conversion & Compression)
(codecs, eg AMR) GMSK (2G), QPSK (3G)

Modulation
Usually 4.75kbps to
(Modifying carrier frequency with
12.2kbps, depending
speech bits)
on channel conditions

Channel Coding
Encryption
(Addition of redundant
e.g 22.8kbps (to avoid RF eavesdropping)
bits for error correction)
for GSM FR
2. Role of RAN for Data Services: Important theoretical considerations
✓ Compressed voice channel for one user does not require high net bit-rate (<13kbps) and gross bit-rate over
the air interface (<30kbps). However, demand for data services per user is usually much higher than that. This
has been the main driving force for evolution from 2G to 4G and beyond: how to get more user data rates by
more efficient utilization of available frequency bandwidth.
✓ The Shanon-Hartley Theorem summarizes the dependency of achievable bitrate on available channel
bandwidth (B in Hertz), the strength of the desired signal at the receiver (S) and the power of undesirable
signals detected by the receiver (N) with similar frequency range as the desirable signal

✓ Thus to maximize achievable bitrates, one needs to increase channel bandwidth, increase the desired signal
strength, or implement measures to reduce the noise (N). The higher the SNR (S/N), the better the RF
environment (“radio conditions”), implying less interference. High SNR improves bit-rates because:
✓ it allows for usage of higher modulation schemes (sending more bits per transmission symbol), hence
improving bitrates.
✓ Channel coding is applied to a lesser extent (fewer protection bits added, thus more user bits transmitted per
transmission symbol).
✓ A lower bit rate codec can be used, hence allowing for more users.
3.0 Role of RAN for Data Services (contd)
✓ Data content is generated via various applications (eg web browsers), where the actual user data could be
videos, graphics, music/audio or text.
✓ Applications in the mobile device would use some protocol stack to convert the content to bits in the physical
layer. To transmit and/or receive the content at the desired rate (without too much delay), usually higher bit
rates than for voice are required. To achieve these, measures taken are:
✓ Use higher modulation schemes in good radio conditions (8PSK for EDGE, 16QAM/64QAM for 3G);
✓ Increase channel bandwidth (5MHz for UMTS, shared by many users), and also using multiple carriers. (GSM
RF channel has always been 200kHz).
✓ Use of optimized codecs suitable for respective content (eg video codecs)

✓ Multiple Users data is aggregated as follows:

- BTS/NodeB System module aggregates user data for all cells defined for the site, forwards to BSC/RNC;
- BSC (PCU) / RNC aggregates users from all System Modules connected to it, and forwards to the Packet Core
Network, which processes and provide the gateway to external networks and the internet.
✓ Therefore, for good data performance, capacities of all interconnecting media (fiber, microwave) must exceed
the peak data rates that are passing through, end-to-end.
3.1 Example of user data aggregation: Example of GERAN scenario
4.0 RAN Interfaces

GERAN:

BTS – BSC: Abis (TDM or PA)

BTS – PCU: Abis (Packet)
BSC – CS Core (A)
PCU – PaCo (SGSN): Gb (Packet)

UTRAN:

NodeB – RNC: Iub

RNC – CS Core: Iu-CS
RNC – PS Core: Iu-PS
4.1 RAN Interfaces (contd)

Interfaces for
BTS/NodeB, BSC, RNC
are of different types (eg
TDM, Ethernet, Optical)
and different bitrate
capacities

For this network, the

actual HW modules
forming the interfaces,
and their capacities in
terms of throughput will
be covered in future
discussions that will
focus on HW
functionalities.
5.0 RAN Main KPIs

✓ RAN tracks events in the network through measurements reports received from Mobile devices. These reports
are used to update relevant RAN counters. The counters are usually accumulated for 1 hour before being sent
to the OSS for calculating higher order performance indicators (PIs).
✓ Some PIs are more important than others. These are referred to as Key PIs (KPIs). KPIs are used to indicate
how well the various tasks of the network are being performed.
✓ KPIs are aggregated in a combination of two ways:
✓ time aggregation (eg hourly, daily, weekly, monthly)
✓ Node aggregation (e.g BTS, Cell, site, BSC/RNC, PLMN)
✓ In general, KPIs would address Network Performance in Key Areas, namely:
✓ Accessibility: how easy of difficult is it for a user to gain access to the network whenever desired;
✓ Retainability: once users gain access to the network, how good is RAN in maintaining the connectivity until the
user decides to drop off
✓ Quality of Service: how well is the quality of the service subscribed to (eg throughput, voice clarity)
5.1 Example: VTL 2G Contractual KPIs dashboard (maintained by Nokia NPO)
Aggregatio
Area KPI Description Threshold 08/07/2017 09/07/2017 10/07/2017 11/07/2017
n Level

Call Setup Success Rate (System) 98.30 BH 98.12 98.02 97.98 97.80
SDCCH Blocking 0.5 BH 0.39 0.45 0.48 0.59
TCH Blocking 0.5 BH 1.24 1.33 1.35 1.48
SDCCH drop ratio without T3101 1.5 DY 1.74 1.79 1.82 1.79
Handover Success Rate 98.2 DY 97.67 97.65 97.67 97.59
TBF Drop Rate 1.5 DY 1.83 1.86 1.87 1.83
TBF Establishment Success Rate - DL 99.85 DY 99.85 99.85 99.85 99.85
TBF Establishment Success Rate - UL 99.45 DY 99.34 99.34 99.32 99.35
CS Traffic x DY 2292813.03 2286696.20 2340391.85 2289088.76
GSM Traffic-NBH x NBH 202407.29 209713.64 205725.01 203510.00
Payload (GB)-Day x DY 6051.47 6105.17 5570.19 5786.56
Payload (GB)-NBH x NBH 394.77 388.87 390.65
DL EGPRS RLC Throughput x DY 39.54 39.43 39.39 39.40
UL EGPRS RLC Throughput x DY 21.71 21.69 21.52 21.63
[V1] DCR 0.5 DY 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.60
[V2] %age of Cells with Dropped Call Ratio >5% 0.2 DY 0.22 0.14 0.22 0.20
[V3] ACCESS_SR Busy Hour CSSR 99.5 BH 98.81 98.75 98.87 98.57
[V4] %age of Cells with Call Setup Success Ratio <90% 0.3 BH 0.86 0.98 0.92 1.04
%age of Cells with > 2% Blocking 2 BH 2.05 2.30 2.60
6.0 LTE (evolved UTRAN) Architecture Overview
6.1 LTE (evolved UTRAN) Architecture Overview