FİZ-467 HEALTH PHYSICS

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OPTICALLY STIMULATED
LUMINESCENCE
DOSİMETRY

EBRU ARSLAN (20822826)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

--Introduction

-- Optically Stimulated Luminescence

--Historical Development of OSL Dosimetry and It’s Applications Luminescence Theory

--Stimulated Relaxation Phenomena

-- The Energy Transition of Luminescence Process

--Mathematical Description Of OSL

--Advantages vs Disadvantages of OSL

--Three Main OSL Modes

Continuous Wave OSL (CW-OSL)

Linear Modulated OSL (LM-OSL)

Pulsed OSL (POSL)

--Clinical applications

--Retrospective accident dosimetry using OSL of electronic components of mobile phones and ID cards
(fortuitous dosimeters)

--Reference
 Introduction
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) has become the technique of choise for many areas of
radiation dosimetry.The technique is finding widespread application in a variety of radiation dosimetry
fields.

OSL is used in at least two different applications:

optical dating of ancient materials: mainly geological sediments, but also sometimes fired pottery, bricks
etc., although in the latter case thermoluminescence dating is used more often

radiation dosimetry, which is the measurement of accumulated radiation dose in the tissues of health care,
nuclear, research and other workers, as well as in building materials in regions of nuclear disaster

The OSL dosimeter provides a new degree of sensitivity by giving an accurate reading as low as 1
mrem for x-ray and gamma ray photons with energies ranging from 5 keV to greater than 40 MeV. The
OSL dosimeter's maximum equivalent dose measurement for x-ray and gamma ray photons is 1000 rem.
For beta particles with energies from 150 keV to in excess of 10 MeV, dose measurement ranges from 10
mrem to 1000 rem. Neutron radiation with energies of 40 keV to greater than 35 MeV has a dose
measurement range from 20 mrem to 25 rem. In diagnostic imaging the increased sensitivity of the OSL
dosimeter makes it ideal for monitoring employees working in low-radiation environments and for
pregnant workers.

Optically Stimulated Luminescence

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) is the luminescence emitted from an irradiated insulator or
semiconductor during exposure to light. The OSL intensity is a function of the dose of radiation absorbed
by the sample and thus can be used as the basis of a radiation dosimetry method. The process begins with
irradiation causing ionisation of valance electrons and the creation of electron/hole pairs. Pre-existing
defects within the material then localise the free electrons and holes through non-radiative trapping
transitions. Subsequent illumination of the irradiated sample with light leads to absorption of energy by
the trapped electrons and transitions from the localised trap into the delocalised conduction band.
Recombination of the freed electrons with the localised holes results in radiative emission and
luminescence. This is the OSL signal, the intensity of which is proportional to the dose of absorbed
radiation. OSL signals are often accompanied by photoconductivity phenomena.

Historical Development of OSL Dosimetry and It’s

Applications
Many crystal materials have luminescence ability and can be used as osl materials.Aliminium oxide
was one the first materials recognized as having the required characterictics and was used as a
thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) in 1950’s.In 1990’s, Akselrod et al (1990) found that if oxygwn
valancies were included in the Al2O3:C stracture this would give the material a higher OSL sensitivity.
This was the first published paper introducing Al2O3:C as a OSL material. In 1995 using Al2O3:C as an
OSL luminescent material was validated by McKeever et al. (1995) after they had compared it with other
crystalline material.

Antonov-Romanovskii et al.(1956) developed a method of using infra-red light to stimulate

luminescence from strontium sulphide and found that the phosphor had a linear response over a wider
irradiation dose range with a fading effect that was dependent on the exposed dose. Relatively a few
luminescent materials are suitable for dosimetry. The requirements are: a high sensitivity to radiation,
high optical stimulation efficiency, low effective atomic number and good fading characteristics. Few
papers were published reporting the use of OSL in radiation dosimetry for many years until the late
1980’s when the Riso laboratory took advantage of it’s existing TL measurement platform to develop a
new reader based on OSL techniques.

OSL was first suggested for dosimetry purpose by Antonov-Romanovski et al.(1956), Braunlich et
al.(1967) and Sanboren et al.(1967) in the 1950’s and 1960’s. The OSL characteristics based on photo-
transferred thermoluminescence of Al2O3:C were first investigated by Miller in 1988. Single crystals of
anion deficient Al2O3:C were developed originally as a highly sensitive TL material and as they
appeared to be satisfactory for OSL use became widely used as an OSL dedector.

In the 1980’s Al2O3:C film material was developed as a commercial OSL dosimetry system for
radiation protection by the Battelle Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. This material, İntegrated with
the development of the Inligh dosimetry system (Perks et al.2007) by Landauer , OSL, has become widely
used in radiation dosimetry.

Many methods of stimulating and measuring the luminescence of OSL materials were developed and
the most common ones are: “continuous-wave-OSL (CW-OSL)”, “linear modulation OSL (LM-OSL)”
and “pulsed OSL (POSL)”. In the CW-OSL method, the stimulation light intensity is kept constant and
the OSL signal is monitored continuously throughout the stimulation period. In the LM-OSL method, the
stimulation intensity is ramped linearly while the OSL is collected. For the POSL method, the
stimulation source is pulsed and the OSL is collected only between pulses.

One class of measurements, known as stimulated phenomena, OSL have been used for many areas in
radiation dosimetry, including: personal monitoring , environmental monitoring, space dosimetry, uv
dosimetry, medical dosimetry and retrospective dosimetry. The first reported use of OSL as a dosimetry
tool for radiation dose measurement in radiotherapy was in by Huston et al (2001). An Al2O3:C based
dual-probe optical fibre dosimeter system was successfully used in vivo for checking head and neck
IMRT treatment and in a solid phantom for the measurements of central axis depth dose of a radiation
field.

Luminescence Theory
Luminescence is a phenomenon in which the crystalline and/or semiconductor materials store energy
when receiving radiation. This energy may be released as photons when the materials are stimulated by
an external thermal or light source.

The luminescence process can be explained in terms of the band structure of a semiconductor: There
are two kinds of energy bands in material:

-An upper conduction band- which may be empty in the case of an insulator or partially filled in
conductors and semiconductors.

-Lower valance bands-this lie below the conduction band-which may be filled in insulators and
conductors or partially filled in a semiconductor.

When an insulator or semiconductor absorbs thermal or photon energy, electrons may be promoted
from the filled valance band to the conduction band, leaving holes in the valance band. The electrons
trapped in the conduction band act as mobile charge carriers as do the holes in the valance band. When
pairs of charge carriers (electrons and holes) are formed they can move freely within the conduction and
valance band respectively increasing the materials conductance.

Most crystals and semi-conductors contain lattice defects or impurities that from intermediate energy
levels or traps between the conductive and valance bands. The charge carries (electrons and holes) may
be promoted by the absorption of energy from ionizing radiation sources and trapped in these electron
traps as “long-lived” levels (metastable). The crystal may be stimulated by an external thermal or light
source to make it return to its equilibrium state. When the luminescence centres formed are stimulated
light is emitted. The stimulating energy source commonly uses ultra-violet , visible or infrared light in
OSL applications. The storage lifetime of exposed radiation energy for a particular crystal is dependent
on the energy depth of the electron traps.
(copied from
http://www.rpe.org.in/article.asp?issn=09720464;year=2011;volume=34;issue=1;spage=6;epage=16;aulas
t=Bhatt)

Stimulated Relaxation Phenomena

TL and OSL phenomena have perhaps the commonest form of stimulated relaxation phenomena
(SRP).

Thermally stimulated conductivity (TSC) or photoconductivity, may also be used to detect ionizing
radiation. Instead of measuring the stimulated photon emission the electrical conductivity of the detector
can also be monitored.

In the case of OSL, the intensity of the stimulated relaxation is related to the rate at which the crystal
returns to equilibrium. The rate at which the equilibrium is re-established is a function of the
concentration of trapped (meta-stable) charge, and the rate in the simplest case is linearly proportional to
the trapped charge concentration. Normally the intensity of the luminescence as a function of time is
monitored resulting in a characteristic luminescence-versus-time curve.

The use of OSL in a radiation dosimetry is based on the fact that the integrated luminescence is
proportional to the trapped charge which is proportional to the absorbed radiation dose.

The Energy Transition of Luminescence Process

• Before irradiation, the system is at it’s equilibrium state. All electron traps above Ef are empty, all
hole traps below Ef are full. The filled energy state below the Fermi level are full, f(E)=1. All
states above the Fermi level are empty.

• After perturbation by radiation some electron traps are filled by electrons of an energy above the
Fermi level Ef, and an equal concentration are trapped in holes below the the Fermi level Ef. Two
quasy-fermi levels, one for electrons Efe and one for holes Efh can be defined. These are useful
means for describing the non-equilibrium state, which follows the perturbation in terms of
 equilibrium statistics by making the assumption that the trapped electron and hole population are
in thermal equilibrium over their available energy level.

• During stimulated relaxation, namely during illumination of the irradiated sample with uv, visible
and IR light, the filling function f(E) gradually returns to it’s preperturbation state. During this
process, the quasy-fermi levels gradually move back towards the equilibrium Fermi level as the
trapped charge concentrations decay back to their equilibrium values.

• And finally all states return to their original equilibrium occupancies.

Mathematical Description Of OSL

The total concentration of occupied meta-stable stages is a function depending on time and dose as it
increases during irradiation and decreases during stimulation. Time t may be represented by

μ (t) = ……..… γ1,,………….,,t) d γ1 d γ2 d γm

where the parameters represent:

n(γ1,,………….,,t): occupied state

γ1, γ2,…… γm : state parameters dictate the stability of the meta-stable state under the prevailing
conditions of temperature and illumination intensity.

n(γ1,,………….,,t: weighting function or distribution, expressing the concentration of occupied states

possessing the parameters γ1, γ2,…… γm

In general, n(γ)=N(γ).f(γ,t). Where n(γ) is the concentration of occupied states, N(γ) is the
concentration of available states and f(γ) is the occupancy of the state.

In stimulated luminescence measurements the intensity of the emitted luminescence during the return
of the system to equilibrium is monitored and represented by a characteristic luminescence-versus-time
curve. The integral of this term represents the trapped charge concentration and reflects the proportion to
the initial dose of the absorbed radiation. The luminescence intensity is proportional to the rate at which
the meta-stable states decay and is represented by a time-dependent probability. The form of the
probability depend on the stimulation method. For optical stimulation, the probability depends on the
optical stimulation intensity, the threshold optical stimulation energy required for charge release and
return to equilibrium and the photoionisation cross-section for interaction of the meta-stable state with
an incident photon.

In stimulated luminescence measurements , the intensity of the emitted luminescence during the return
of the system to equilibrium is monitored and represented by a characteristic luminescence-versus-time
curve. The integral of the luminescence-versus-time curve represents the trapped charge concentration
and reflects the proportion to the initial dose of the absorbed radiation. The luminescent intensity I is
proportional to the rate at which the meta-stable states decay and is represented by a time-dependent
probability.

I(t)= = …… γ1,,………….,,t) p(γ1, γ2,…………., γm,t) d γ1 d γ2 d γm

The form of probability p depends on the stimulation method.

Advantages vs Disadvantages of OSL

Adventages
• High sensitivity

• High precision

• Size

• Convenience

• Readout flexibility

• Fast nondestructive readout

• Narrow stimulating beams may could allow dose mapping

• No significant fading dose storage

• No need for annealing

• Although it can be bleached and re-used if needed*

Disadventages
• Sensitivity to light
• Non-tissue equivalent – energy dependence

• Only 1 material currently available (only 1 provider)

Three Main OSL Modes

The optical stimulation intensity depends on the method of optical stimulation.

Representation of different modes of optically stimulated luminescence and its decay with time.
Stimulation starts at time t1 and ends at t2 (for details, see text). For DOSL, the time scale in minutes
is for optically enhanced phosphorescence through photo-transfer

(copied from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2772040/figure/F0002/)

Continuous Wave OSL (CW-OSL)

The continuous wave osl (CW-OSL) using a fixed wavelength and steady stimulation intensity to
empty the traps and to record the luminescence as a function of illumination time is named the
luminescence-versus-time curve.

The optical excitation light source in a continuous wave is either from a laser or from a high power
arc lamp with monochromator /filter system.

Huntley used 514.5 nm light from an argon laser to irradiate an OSL sample at room temperature and
demonstrated a luminescence-versus-time curve, which is also named as OSL decay curve.
 Linear Modulated OSL (LM-OSL)
Linear modulated OSL (LM-OSL) as an alternative technique to CW-OSL , is based on the
stimulation intensity linearly ramped from zero to a present value during luminescence readout . In the
measurement of LM-OSL, the luminescence shows a linear increase until the traps are depleted
sufficiently that the signal decreases and eventually decays to zero.

Bulur used a simplified model to represent three different orders of kinetics: first order, second
order, and general order kinetics.

Pulsed OSL (POSL)

Pulsed OSL (POSL) is based on a pulsed stimulation with different pulse intensity, pulse width and
pulse period(lifetime). The stimulation source is pulsed at a particular modulation frequency and a pulse
width chosen to appropriately match the lifetime of the luminescence.

The optical stimulation intensity is separated in two parts: the emission during the excitation pulse and
the emission after the excitation pulse. The efficiency of the POSL process is represented by the ratio
of the luminescence emitted after the pulse to that emitting during the pulse. In POSL stimulation mode,
only the OSL emission between the pulses rather than during the pulses is measured. POSL technique is
very sensitive to the luminescence lifetime of material. POSL detects the faster decay due to the
intrinsic F-centre luminescence lifetime, which is typically 35ms at room temperature for Al2O3:C. The
OSL signal is usually acquired at short times with a strong, promp, temperature-independent OSL
component, which is stronger than the delayed signal from OSLs.

Clinical applications
OSL has emerged as a powerful tool for the measurement of ionizing radiation in clinical applications
ranging from intricate radiological diagnostic exposures to a variety of modern radiation therapy
treatments. Digital imaging systems using OSL of PSPs have already replaced the radiographic films in
computed radiography; in addition, successful attempts have also been made to use them in radiation
therapy as an inexpensive tool for digital portal imaging of megavoltage beams, verification of intensity-
modulated beams, proton beam dosimetry, and routine check of dosimetric parameters, e.g., field size,
flatness, symmetry, etc., for quality assurance; and in several other applications where radiographic films
were used as a passive detector. The use of mobile PSP cassettes (analogous to film cassettes) is an
example of the application of OSL of PSPs for digital imaging, especially in cases where electronic portal
imaging systems cannot be used. Other recent studies and applications of OSL are centered around the
use of OSL from tiny crystals of Al2O3:C as a point detector. A probe of Al2O3:C of the size of a fraction
of a millimeter could measure doses in the range of mGy to several Gys with high precision. Detectors
based on Al2O3:C have become available in different shapes and sizes. Two modes of OSL measurements
used in clinical applications are 1. passive or integrating mode, in which the detectors are exposed to
radiation and the readout is carried out at a later time (like TLDs); and 2. real-time or on-line mode, in
which the readout is carried out during exposure to radiation by transporting the light signal through an
optical fiber to provide the dose rate (like plastic scintillation dosimeters, Si diodes, and MOSFET
transistors). The information on total dose becomes available through OSL measurement immediately
after an exposure. For in vivo medical dosimetry, OSL system based on Al2O3:C appears to offer high
accuracy, a possibility of fast measurements, a high special resolution in view of the small size of the
detector probe, no or few dependencies on the beam parameters, and ease of use and calibration. The
main aspects of the passive and on-line modes are presented below.

A simple schematic representation of real-time/on-line readout system and the recording of RL and
OSL signals

(copied from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2772040/figure/F0003/)

Retrospective accident dosimetry using OSL of electronic

components of mobile phones and ID cards (fortuitous
dosimeters)
Studies of luminescence techniques have shown that materials which are not produced for dosimetric
purposes (nonsynthetic materials) may also exhibit OSL and/or TL comparable to synthetic materials.
Bricks and other building materials have been used for dose reconstruction in cases of several radiation
accidents, including Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Chernobyl. Of late, there has been growing concern for
the estimation of radiation doses for nonradiation workers (members of public) in the event of a
radiological accident, especially in view of the potential threat of a dirty bomb by terrorist groups aiming
at civilian targets. Such a situation cannot be covered by planned radiation dosimeters such as personal
dosimeters or area monitors installed at some strategic locations. The doses in these events may not be as
high as those of a nuclear accident but may be of great nuisance through creating panic. In cases of
unexpected situations, not only are the encountered doses low enough to escape the range of remotely
installed area monitors, but there is also the need for an evaluation of the doses in the shortest possible
time by using well-defined objects because the delay in communicating the information on the risks
enhances the disruption of normal life because of the resultant apprehensions. This also needs tracking of
the sources and the culprits by radiation dosimetry at the earliest possible time. It becomes important to be
able to measure much smaller doses as quickly as possible, and this enhances the search for sensitive and
most commonly used items. OSL of several electronic components has been reported to be sensitive and
to offer much faster measurements than TL.

Electronic components of mobile phones and ID cards have been evaluated for this purpose as these are
considered to be carried by most individuals all the time. Goeksu[55] appears to have taken a lead to
demonstrate that OSL in chip cards (health-care ID card or a phone card) could be used as a dosimeter.
Optical stimulation by 800 nm (infrared stimulated luminescence, IRSL) and an emitted signal in the
range of 320 to 650 nm were recoded as a measure of a dose. Low dose estimation was limited by a zero
dose response which was about 100 mGy. The OSL response of the chip cards was linear in the range 250
mGy to 5 Gy with a stable signal at ambient temperatures. Subsequently, memory chip modules from ID
cards were evaluated by Mathur et al., who studied blue stimulated luminescence (BSL). Stimulation was
done by using blue diodes in addition to an IRSL. The minimum detectable dose by using BSL was found
to be 20 mGy, with a linear dose response up to 10 Gy. These studies clearly proved the superiority of
OSL over TL, in which samples exhibited a large zero dose signal, which was absent for OSL. Very
recently, Inrig et all. demonstrated the potential of the electronic components of cellular phones and
similar devices for use as a fortuitous dosimeter with a linear response from 5 mGy to 100 Gy (possibly
beyond) by using 470-nm stimulation for emission in the range of 290 to 370 nm. The rectangular
resistors of size 1×0.5 mm and above were found to exhibit high OSL sensitivity from their white
porcelain substrates (typical composition of 97% Al2O3 and 3% SiO2) on tan underside which was
uncoated. The radiation-induced OSL signals of the resistors were found to be similar to those of the
standard Al2O3:C dosimeter. The OSL exhibited both short-term and long-term fading to an extent of
about 50% within 10 days. A mock experiment of evaluating doses was carried out by affixing cellular
phones and a commercial electronic dosimeter (ED) on an anthropomorphic phantom and by subjecting
them to gamma ray exposures from 137Cs and 60Co discrete source for 3 to 4 days. The resistors from the
cellular phones were removed after the exposure, and the doses were estimated from the OSL readouts by
being corrected for the fading. The estimated doses were within 0.02 to 0.15 Gy, and the accuracy was
within 20% against the EDs. Since the OSL measurements are supposed to be quick, this study appears to
have opened up a feasibility of dosimetry and dose reconstruction using the electronic components (as
fortuitous dosimeters) of gadgets of everyday use in the event of such unforeseen situations.

Reference
1) Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimetry (Lars Botter Jensen- Stephen W:S McKeever- Ann G.
Wintle)

2) Optically Stimulated Luminescence and It’s Applications in Radiation Therapy Dosimetry (2010 Bin
Hu)

3) Recent developments of optically stimulated luminescence materials and techniques for radiation
dosimetry and clinical applications (A. S. Pradhan, J. I. Lee, and J. L. Kim)

4) Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimetry (OSL) Dosimetry in Radiotherapy (Joanna E. Cygler

Eduardo Yukihara)