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A Cross-Cultural Analysis of
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A Cross-Cultural Analysis of
Ethnocentrism in China, India,
and Taiwan
a b c
Arun Pereira , Chin-Chun Hsu & Sumit Kundu
a
Department of Marketing, John Cook School
of Business, St. Louis University, 3674 Lindell
Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63108, USA
b
John Cook School of Business, St. Louis University,
3674 Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63108, USA
c
Department of International Business, John Cook
School of Business, St. Louis University, 3674 Lindell
Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63108, USA

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 A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Ethnocentrism
in China, India, and Taiwan
Downloaded by [Indian School of Business] at 00:27 14 July 2011

Arun Pereira
Chin-Chun Hsu
Sumit Kundu

ABSTRACT. This research focuses on the popular measure of ethno-

centrism, CETSCALE and attempts to validate the multi-item scale in
China, India, and Taiwan. LISREL is utilized to test the unidimension-
ality of the scale and multiple tests are used to analyze the internal con-
sistency reliability of the scale in these countries. Further, given the
cultural differences between China, India, and Taiwan, this research
hypothesizes and tests for differences in ethnocentrism among consum-
ers of these countries. The results provide useful insights for academic
researchers as well as managers of multinational companies who are
involved in these countries or have plans to enter them. [Article cop-
ies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service:
1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website:
<http://www. HaworthPress.com>  2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights
reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Ethnocentrism, Asia, cross cultural analysis, China, In-

dia, Taiwan, CETSCALE, LISREL Technique

Arun Pereira is Associate Professor, Department of Marketing, John Cook School

of Business, St. Louis University, 3674 Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108
(E-mail: Pereira@slu.edu). Chin-Chun Hsu is a doctoral student in International Busi-
ness and Marketing, John Cook School of Business, St. Louis University, 3674 Lindell
Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108 (E-mail: Hsuc5@slu.edu). Sumit Kundu is Associate
Professor, Department of International Business, John Cook School of Business, St.
Louis University, 3674 Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108 (E-mail: Kudusk@
slu.edu).
Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 15(1) 2002
http://www.haworthpressinc.com/store/product.asp?sku=J046
 2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 77
 78 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING

INTRODUCTION

The multi-item Consumers’ Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale (CETSCALE)

was developed and tested by Shimp (1984) and Shimp and Sharma (1987).
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Further, Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein (1991) established the cross-

cultural reliability of CETSCALE and provided general support for its validity
across samples from four westernized countries (i.e., United States, France,
Japan, and Germany). More recently, Durvasula, Andrews, and Netemeyer
(1997) tested the cross-cultural reliability of CETSCALE and provided sup-
port for its validity across samples from two culturally diverse countries, the
United States and Russia. However, to date, the CETSCALE and related mea-
sures have not been validated and compared outside westernized cultures. It is
important that such a task be undertaken because with the continuing integra-
tion of developing economies (for example, the case of many Asian econo-
mies), culturally diverse peoples are coming together to better compete in
global trade, even though each group may be distinctively different when it co-
mes to consumer behavior. Thus, an understanding of how similar (or dissimi-
lar) the consumption and behavior patterns are of these culturally different
groups is critical to the success of business strategies of multinational firms at-
tempting to serve these markets.
The main objectives of this research are the following: First, we seek to es-
tablish the dimensionality and internal consistency of CETSCALE among
consumers in mainland China, India, and Taiwan. As such, this study focuses
on non-westernized cultures and complements other research that have fo-
cused on westernized cultures such as U.S., France, Germany, and Canada.
Second, this study uses Hofstede’s (1976, 1980) “Country Individualism In-
dex” to examine China, India, and Taiwan on the individualistic-collectivistic
continuum and offers hypotheses on the relationship between individualism
and consumer ethnocentrism.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Consumer Ethnocentrism

The term “consumer ethnocentrism” is derived from the studies of general

ethnocentrism. As indicated by Sumner (1906):

Ethnocentrism is the technical name for the view of things in which

one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and
rated with reference to it.
 Pereira, Hsu, and Kundu 79

Since first introduced and applied by Sumner (1906), and Levinson (1950),
“ethnocentrism” has been defined in several different ways. Adorno, Frenkel-
Brunswik, Levinson and Sanford (1950) defined ethnocentrism as a tendency
in the individual to be “ethnically centered” and to be rigid in his or her accep-
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tance of the culturally “alike” and in his or her rejection to the culturally “un-
like.” Drever (1952) defined ethnocentrism as an “exaggerated tendency to
think the characteristics of one’s own group or race superior to those of other
groups or races.” LeVine and Campbell (1972) proposed that ethnocentrism
possessed a general connotation of provincialism or culture narrowness. Brislin
(1993) defined ethnocentrism as people viewing their own in-group as central,
as possessing proper standards of behavior, and as offering protection against
apparent threats from out-groups. In-groups are those groups with which the
individual identifies him of herself. Out-groups are those groups with which he
or she does not have a sense of belonging. Out-groups are considered as anti-
thetical to the in-groups. From the perspective of ethnocentrism, in-groups are
the recipient of uncritically supportive and positive attitudes and opinions,
while the out-groups are the targets of negative, and sometimes hostile, atti-
tudes and opinions.
The term “Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies” was first applied by Shimp
and Sharma (1987) to represent the beliefs held by consumers regarding the
appropriateness and morality of purchasing foreign-made products. Consumer
ethnocentric tendencies play a significant role when products are perceived to
be unnecessary and when consumers believe that either their personal or na-
tional well-being is threatened by imports (Sharma, Shimp, and Shin 1995,
Shimp and Sharma 1987). Ethnocentric consumers view purchasing foreign
products as wrong because it hurts the domestic economy, causes a loss of
jobs, and is simply unpatriotic. For non-ethnocentric consumers, foreign prod-
ucts should be evaluated on their own merit, rather than based on where they
are produced (Shimp and Sharma 1987).

THE CETSCALE

Shimp and Sharma (1987) narrowed the broad concept of ethnocentrism to

consumer ethnocentrism to address product-specific tendency, the tendency to
favor domestic-made products over foreign-made products. They developed a
17-item measurement instrument, CETSCALE, to measure this latent con-
struct.
A series of nomological validity tests indicated that consumer ethno-
centrism is moderately predictive of consumers’ beliefs, attitudes, purchase in-
tentions, and purchases of foreign products. Results revealed that American
consumers with high scores on CETSCALE were predictably related to both a
 80 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING

preference for domestic products and an aversion toward foreign products.

Consumers who held strong ethnocentric beliefs are more likely to evaluate
foreign products negatively than are those who do not hold such beliefs. Con-
sumers with high CETSCALE scores believe that it is wrong to buy foreign
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products and also tend to perceive those products as lower in quality than do-
mestic products. However, as cautioned by Shimp and Sharma (1987):

The concept of consumer ethnocentrism and its measurement via the

CETSCALE are limited to contemporary American society . . . . Trans-
lating the scale into other languages and testing it in other countries is a
needed next step.

Hui and Triandis (1985) also suggest that a key concern in extending theories
and their associated constructs to other countries is whether the instruments
designed to measure the relevant constructs are cross-nationally invariant.
Moreover, Parameswaran and Yaprak (1987) and Mullen (1995) identified a
lack of concern for measurement invariance in cross-national consumer re-
search. To answer this request and numerous calls for the cross-national vali-
dation of measures, Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein (1991) assessed
the nomological validity of the CETSCALE across four different westernized
countries (i.e., the United States, France, Japan, and Germany). Strong support
for the CETSCALE’s unidimensionality and internal consistency was found
across the four countries. Durvasula, Andrews, and Netemeyer (1997) tested
the cross-cultural reliability of CETSCALE and provide general support for its
validity across samples from two culturally distinct countries, the United
States and Russia.
As a next step, this study focuses on non-westernized countries by examin-
ing CETSCALE among the consumers in China, India, and Taiwan.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Dimensionality

To treat CETSCALE as a summated scale, it is important to show that all

the items in CETSCALE are unidimensional, meaning that all the items are
strongly associated with each other and represent a single concept. Thus,
unidimensionality would be indicated by each CETSCALE item loading
highly on a single factor. The unidimensionality of CETSCALE has been estab-
lished in almost all previous research done in westernized countries (Shimp and
Sharma, 1987, Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein, 1991, and Durvasula,
Andrews, and Netemeyer, 1997). If the CETSCALE is a truly universal scale,
 Pereira, Hsu, and Kundu 81

its unidimensional factor structure should hold in other non-westernized coun-

tries too.

H1a: CETSCALE has an unidimensional factor structure among Chi-

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nese respondents.

H1b: CETSCALE has an unidimensional factor structure among Indi-

ans respondents.

H1c: CETSCALE has an unidimensional factor structure among Tai-

wanese respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability

One form of reliability is the internal consistency of the construct indica-

tors. Internal consistency in this case means that the individual items or indica-
tors of the CETSCALE should all measure the same construct and thus be
highly intercorrelated. If the CETSCALE is as applicable to non-westernized
countries as western ones, we should see high levels of internal consistency
when tested among the Chinese, Indians, and Taiwanese.

H2a: CETSCALE has internal consistency reliability among Chinese

respondents.

H2b: CETSCALE has internal consistency reliability among Indian re-

spondents

H2c: CETSCALE has internal consistency reliability among Taiwanese

respondents

Nationality and Ethnocentrism

Hofstede (1976, 1980) classified cultures and nations in terms of collectiv-

ism and individualism. He defined a “Country Individualism Index” (IDV)
and calculated IDV scores for forty countries. The people in a country with
high IDV tend to be more individualistic and the people in a country with low
IDV tend to be more collectivistic. High IDV indicates that identity is based in
the individual and emphasis is put on individual initiative and achievement. In
contrast, low IDV implies that identity is based in the social system and em-
phasis is on belonging to organization.
Nicholson, Lee, Hemmasi, and Widdison (1993) found that people from
collectivistic cultures tend to be more ethnocentric than people from individu-
alistic cultures. Moreover, Triandis (1972, 1989) and Schweder and Levine
 82 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING

(1984) suggested that people in collective cultures obey in-group authorities

and are willing to fight to maintain the integrity of the in-group, and are unwill-
ing to cooperate with members of out-groups.
Thus, the people in collectivist cultures are likely to be strongly ethno-
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centric. They think about the effect of their behavior on society and feel re-
sponsible for others. In support of this, Sharma, Shimp, and Shin (1995) found
that consumer ethnocentrism is positively related to collectivist tendencies
among Korean consumers. India is sometimes described as a pluralistic soci-
ety, i.e., India has many different, interacting ethnic and religious groups
within it. Thus, the boundaries and distinctions between self and foreigners
may be more blurred in India than in say, the Chinese culture. In addition, the
India (IDV of India = 48) is a comparatively individualistic culture whereas
Chinese (IDV of Taiwan = 17) is comparatively collectivistic culture (Hofstede,
1980).
Thus, Indian consumers are likely to have comparatively lower ethno-
centric tendencies than Chinese consumers because Indian people are more
heterogeneous and individualistic than the Chinese. In other words, Chinese
should exhibit greater consumer ethnocentrism, as measured by CETSCALE.

H3a: People of Chinese culture (China and Taiwan) are more ethno-
centric than Indians.

Even though mainland China and Taiwan share the same Chinese culture,
there are substantial differences in the level of industrialization and the degree
of western influence among the two countries. While Taiwan has become rela-
tively advanced and can be considered an industrialized country, open to the
west and its culture, mainland China is still considered a developing nation,
largely closed to the western world. Huff and Alden (1998) point out that in
newly industrialized countries, consumers tend to be the strongly affected by
advertising and promotion. Thus, one can expect the people of Taiwan (in
comparison to the people of mainland China) to be exposed to the western
world and its culture, and affected by the advertising and promotion efforts of
western multinationals, producing an erosion of ethnocentric tendencies.

H3b: The Chinese are more ethnocentric than the Taiwanese.

METHODOLOGY

Multi-group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) model (Joreskog 1971)

represents the most powerful and versatile approach to testing cross-national
measurement invariance. In this study, hypotheses 1a, 1b, and 1c and hypothe-
ses 2a, 2b, and 2c are tested using the method of multi-group Latent Variable
 Pereira, Hsu, and Kundu 83

Structural Equation (LVSE) modeling through LISREL 8.30, providing multi-

variate goodness-of-fit statistics. For hypothesis 3a and 3b, ANOVA analysis
is used.
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Sampling

Sekaran (1983) indicated that the two major concerns to achieve sample
comparability are: (1) to select matched samples for homogeneity on the basis
of some set of characteristics of interest, and (2) to draw nationally representa-
tive samples. To enhance the homogeneity of the samples and to be consistent
with Shimp and Sharma (1987), Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein
(1991), and Durvasula, Andrews, and Netemeyer (1997), university students
served as the population of interest in China, India, and Taiwan. Using stu-
dents in all three countries ensured respondent homogeneity, an important
issue in cross-cultural research (Douglas and Craig 1983). To match the re-
spondents in terms of age and area of study in samples across countries, all stu-
dents from Taiwan, India, and China were university students studying business.
The sample for Taiwan consisted of 100 junior and senior accounting ma-
jors at a university in central Taiwan. The India sample consisted of 89 MBA
students enrolled at a university in North India. The sample for China con-
sisted of 109 senior students majoring in different fields of business at a uni-
versity in Beijing. Bentler and Chou (1987) indicate that in structural equation
modeling, a ratio of 5 subjects per variable is sufficient in the case of normal
and elliptical distributions and a ratio of at least 10 subjects per variable would
be sufficient for other distributions. In our study, the PRELIS software shows
clear evidence of normality for each of our three samples. Given that there are
18 variables in CETSCALE, we have 5.56 subjects per variable for Taiwan,
6.06 subjects per variable for China, and 4.94 (approximately 5) subjects per
variable from India.

Questionnaire Translation and Administration

The questionnaire was drafted originally in English and translated (for

China and Taiwan) and then administered during class time in each country.
The questionnaire for the Indian sample was composed directly in English as
virtually all Indian MBA students have a functional knowledge of the lan-
guage. A Taiwanese PhD student and a Chinese PhD student, both studying in
the U.S. and both fluent in Chinese and English, helped draft the questionnaire
for the Taiwanese sample with traditional Chinese characters and the question-
naire for the Chinese sample with simplified Chinese characters. In both cases,
the questionnaires were first translated into Chinese (traditional and simpli-
fied), then back-translated into English to ensure consistency with the original
and the cross-cultural equivalence of measures (Berry 1980, Douglas and
 84 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING

Craig 1983, and Parameswaran and Yaprak 1987). Additionally, two other bi-
lingual professors (one from Taiwan and one from China) provided independ-
ent checks on the back-translation.
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RESULTS
Dimensionality

A set of confirmatory factor analyses were run applying covariance matrix

input via LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sorbom 1993) to examine the dimen-
sionality of the CETSCALE in each of the three samples. Since the uni-
dimensionality of the CETSCALE was under scrutiny, one latent variable was
applied along with 17 observed variables corresponding to the 17 items in the
CETSCALE. As shown in Table 1, several measures can be used to assess the
fit of the one-factor model. First, the Chi-square of the one-factor model pro-
vides a significantly better fit than that of the null model of no relationships
(with only errors estimated) for all Taiwan (χ2 = 333.55, p < 0.01), India (χ2 =
338.54, p < 0.01), and China (χ2 = 591.93, p < 0.01). Second, a χ2/d.f. ratio of 3
or less has been advocated as an acceptable level of fit for confirmatory factor
models (Carmines and McIver 1981). This ratio is slightly higher than the cut-
off for the China sample (4.97) and acceptable for the Taiwan sample (2.79)
and the India sample (2.84).
Bentler (1990) indicates that some of the conventional fit measures from the
LISREL output, such as GFI and AGFI, tend to underestimate the fit for small
sample sizes. The suitable sample size should be between 100 and 200. In ad-
dition to GFI and AGFI, two more fit measures were added to the analysis: the
comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean square residual (RMSR). These in-
dexes indicate that the level of fit is moderate for the Taiwan sample (GFI =
0.72, AGFI = 0.64, CFI = 0.75, and RMSR = 0.087) and India sample (GFI =
0.69, AGFI = 0.60, CFI = 0.73, and RMSR = 0.080) but it is relatively lower
for the China sample (GFI = 0.59, AGFI = 0.47, CFI = 0.56, and RMSR =
0.13). Finally, all 17 items were significant, and loaded as predicted for Tai-
wan, India, and China. In summary, the results are consistent with the results
provided by Shimp and Sharma (1987), Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein
(1991), and Durvasula, Andrews, and Netemeyer (1997). Thus we have sup-
port for hypotheses H1a, H1b, and H1c, establishing the unidimensionality of
the CETSCALE in samples form China, India, and Taiwan.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Table 2 provides the results for hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c, all of which tests
the internal consistency reliability of CETSCALE. Four statistics are utilized
 Downloaded by [Indian School of Business] at 00:27 14 July 2011

TABLE 1. Unidimensionality (LISREL Estimates)

Netemeyer, Durvasula, Hadjimarcou, Hu, Durvasula, Andrews, Present Study

and Lichtenstein (1991) and Bruning (1993) and Netemeyer (1997)
U.S. France Japan West U.S. Canada U.S. Russia Taiwan India China
Germ.
n = 71 n = 70 n = 76 n = 73 n = 184 n = 154 n = 144 n = 60 n = 100 n = 89 n = 109

χ2null136 970.02 803.93 778.71 930.57 N/A N/A 2421.94 514.12 948.72 1283.25 1205.3

χ2119 210.98 312.92 281.45 284.06 376.61 311.72 439.20 271.27 333.55 338.54 591.93

χ2/d.f. 1.77 2.63 2.36 2.39 3.16 2.62 3.69 2.28 2.79 2.84 4.97

GFI N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.79 0.80 0.70 0.66 0.72 0.69 0.59
AGFI N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.73 0.75 0.62 0.56 0.64 0.60 0.47
CFI 0.89 0.71 0.75 0.79 N/A N/A 0.86 0.60 0.75 0.73 0.56
RMSR N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.05 0.11 0.087 0.08 0.13

85
 Downloaded by [Indian School of Business] at 00:27 14 July 2011

86
TABLE 2. Internal Consistency (LISREL Estimates)

Netemeyer, Durvasula, Hadjimarcou, Hu, Durvasula, Andrews, Present Study

and Lichtenstein (1991) and Bruning (1993) and Netemeyer (1997)

U.S. France Japan West U.S. Canada U.S. Russia Taiwan India China
Germany
(N = 71) (N = 70) (N = 76) (N = 73) (N = 184) (N = 154) (N = 144) (N = 60) (N = 100) (N = 89) (N = 109)

Cronbach’s N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.89 0.92 0.88
Alpha

Composite 0.95 0.92 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.94 0.97 0.88 0.912 0.905 0.90
Reliability

Variance 0.55 0.43 0.41 0.49 N/A N/A 0.64 0.30 0.45 0.51 0.42
Extracted
 Pereira, Hsu, and Kundu 87

to the hypotheses: Cronbachs Alpha, Composite Reliability, and Variance Ex-

tracted. Cronbachs Alpha is a commonly used measure of reliability for con-
struct indicators. Values range between 0 and 1 and higher values indicate
higher reliability among the indicators. This measure is high and nearly equal
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across the three countries, ranging from a value of 0.88 for the China sample to
0.89 for the Taiwan sample and to 0.92 for the India sample.
Composite Reliability is a principle measure used in assessing the measure-
ment model and testing the internal consistency of the construct indicators.
The Composite Reliability (CR) and Variance Extracted (VE) for a latent con-
struct must be computed separately for each multiple indicator construct in the
model. Although the LISREL 8.30 and other programs, such as EQS or
AMOS, do not compute CR and VE automatically, all the information neces-
sary to compute both statistics is readily provided. The CR of a construct is cal-
culated as: CR = [(Σ standardized loading)2]/[(Σ standardized loading)2 + Σεj].
The standardized loadings are obtained directly from the LISREL output and εj
is the measurement error for each indicator (Fornell and Larker, 1981). Each
indicator measurement error is 1.0 (standardized loading)2 and can be ob-
tained from the theta-delta matrix in the LISREL output. The Composite Reli-
ability estimates are high for all the Taiwan (0.91), India (0.95), and China
(0.90) and are similar to reliability estimates reported by Shimp and Sharma
(1987), Netemeyer, Durvasula, and Lichtenstein (1991), Hadjimarcou, Hu,
and Bruning (1993), and Durvasula, Andrews, and Netemeyer (1997) in the
case of Westernized countries.
Variance Extracted is another measure of reliability. This measure can reflect
the overall amount of variance in all the items accounted for by CETSCALE,
the latent construct. Higher variance extracted values occur when the items are
truly representative of the CETSCALE. In this study, Variance Extracted mea-
sure is applied as a complementary measure to the Composite Reliability. The
VE of a construct is calculated as: VE = [Σ (standardized loading)2]/[Σ (stan-
dardized loading)2 + Σεj]. The VE measure is quite similar to the CR measure
but differs in that the standardized loadings are squared before summing them
(Fornell and Larker, 1981). It has been suggested that a level of 0.05 or greater
supports the internal consistency among items in a scale. The Variance Ex-
tracted estimate for the India sample (0.51) exceeds the advocated level.
Though the Variance Extracted estimates for both the Taiwan sample (0.45)
and the China sample (0.42) are a bit lower, they are greater than those seen in
previous studies, such as France (0.43), Japan (0.41), West Germany (0.49),
and Russia (0.30). Taken collectively, Cronbachs Alpha, Composite Reliabil-
ity, and Variance Extracted provide supports for the internal consistency and
support for H2a, H2b, and H2c.
 88 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING

Nationality and Ethnocentrism

Hypothesis 3a states that Chinese consumers (i.e., from mainland China
and Taiwan) are more ethnocentric than Indian consumers and hypothesis 3b
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states that among the Chinese peoples, the consumers from mainland China
are more ethnocentric than those from Taiwan. Table 3 shows the results of the
ANOVA that was run to test these hypotheses. The results indicate that indeed
the Chinese are more ethnocentric than the Indians (mean for Taiwan and
China are 3.3 and 3.4 respectively, whereas the mean for India is 2.9). Further,
it is clear that the consumers from mainland China are more ethnocentric than
those from Taiwan. Thus hypotheses H3a and H3b are supported.

CONCLUSION
Economic integration through the formation of trade blocs is spreading to
all parts of the world, including Asia, as countries attempt to band together to
better compete in global trade. These developments present specific chal-
lenges to multinationals as they confront large markets that are not necessarily
“single” markets with regards to consumption patterns and consumer behav-
ior. As such, research is needed to examine the degree of similarity (or dissimi-
larity) of different peoples and cultures that make-up large trade blocs. This
study addresses this need by focusing on ethnocentrism in the countries of
China, India, and Taiwan. As such, this research complements the existing lit-
erature by focusing on non-westernized cultures and examines many of the hy-
potheses that have been tested only in the west. Results indicate that consistent
with studies done in the west, the CETSCALE has an unidimensional factor
structure when tested in China, India, and Taiwan. Also we see strong internal
consistency (an important measure of scale reliability) in these countries,
much like those established in the westernized countries. Further, this research
uses Hofstede’s (1976, 1980) “Country Individualism Index” to examine
China, India, and Taiwan on the individualistic-collectivistic continuum and
test hypotheses on the level of ethnocentrism among the peoples of China, In-
dia, and Taiwan. Results indicate that the people of Chinese culture (i.e., China
and Taiwan) are more ethnocentric than the Indians, and that people of main-
land China are more ethnocentric than the Taiwanese.

TABLE 3. ANOVA Results

Taiwan India China F-Value P<

Mean 3.30 Mean 2.94 Mean 3.41 4.886 0.00

S.D. 0.86 S.D. 1.29 S.D. 1.11
 Pereira, Hsu, and Kundu 89

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SUBMITTED: May 2001

FIRST REVISION: September 2001
SECOND REVISION: October 2001
ACCEPTED: December 2001

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