Characters Characters Discussed (Great Characters in Literature)

Abigail Williams

Abigail Williams, a strikingly beautiful seventeen-year-old. She is willful and a flirt. Her rebellion against
society is expressed in her wayward behavior, which she transforms into a witch scare by going into fits
and stimulating and coercing her girlfriends to do likewise. Abigail senses that the community of Salem,
Massachusetts, is uneasy, that it suffers from societal tensions, and that it is prepared to believe that its
internal divisions are the result of witchcraft. Abigail and her minions charge many of the most prominent
people in Salem with practicing witchcraft.

Tituba

Tituba, a black servant from Barbados who introduces Abigail and her friends to certain superstitious
practices. It is her confession that leads to the witchcraft scare.

The Reverend Samuel Parris

The Reverend Samuel Parris, a stiff, intolerant man who is at first nonplussed by the eccentric behavior of
the girls. Soon, however, he turns their antics into an indictment of the community. Interpreting their
hysterical fits as sure signs of witchcraft, he exploits them to whip his congregation into line. Finding the
witches becomes a way for this pious and credulous man to assert his authority.

John Proctor

John Proctor, a man who had a brief affair with Abigail. He does not believe that her fits are caused by the
devil. Although he is estranged from his wife, who knows of his liaison with Abigail, Proctor resists Abigail’s
advances, knowing that the consequence will be that he and his wife will stand accused of witchcraft.

Elizabeth Proctor

Elizabeth Proctor, John’s estranged and unforgiving wife. Although her husband has admitted his lapse into
sin and is thereafter faithful to his wife, his relationship with Abigail always stands between them. As
husband and wife, however, they maintain their integrity and refuse to confess to the false accusation of
witchcraft, even though their protestations of innocence result in a death sentence.

Giles Corey

Giles Corey, one of Salem’s prominent citizens who opposes the charges of witchcraft and then is accused
himself. Rather than admitting to a false accusation, he endures the torture of being crushed to death.

The Reverend John Hale

The Reverend John Hale, an expert in matters of witchcraft. He comes to Salem to set up the trials.

Thomas Putnam

Thomas Putnam, a prominent Salem citizen and an argumentative man who turns his quarrels with his
neighbors into a hunt for witches.

Mary Warren

Mary Warren, one of Abigail’s friends. She tries to tell the truth, that the girls were only feigning possession
by witches, but she loses courage when Abigail intimidates her.

Rebecca Nurse
Rebecca Nurse, one of the most devout residents of Salem. Despite her piousness, she is accused of
witchcraft. Her conviction illustrates how widespread the hysteria and paranoia of the community have
become.

Judge Hathorne

Judge Hathorne, the hanging judge of the Salem witchcraft trials. Hathorne has little sympathy for the
accused and takes his responsibility quite seriously.

Characters

Ezekiel Cheever Cheever is a tailor and a clerk of the court who places great importance in his job, which
he sees as a holy one. He is at once fearful, embarrassed, apologetic, and a little officious. He discovers
the doll that Mary knitted for Elizabeth Proctor. Discovering a needle in the doll's stomach, he believes that
Elizabeth is practicing some kind of witchcraft that has affected Abigail.

Giles Corey An old man, Giles Corey is "knotted with muscle, canny, inquisitive, and still powerful. . . . He
didn' t give a hoot for public opinion, and only in his last years did he bother much with the church. He was
a crank and a nuisance, but withal a deeply innocent and brave man." Corey refuses to answer the charges
levied against him and is crushed to death beneath heavy stones that are placed upon his chest by the
inquisitors, who are attempting to torture a confession out of him. Because he neither admitted the charge
nor denied it and risked being hanged, his property passed to his sons instead of the town. His refusal to
cooperate and his disdain for the trials is illustrated in his last words before he dies beneath the stones:
"More weight."

Deputy Governor Danforth Danforth is described as a "grave man of some humor and sophistication that
does not, however, interfere with an exact loyalty to his position and his cause." Contrary to the strong and
proficient appearance he puts forth, however, he is revealed to be, at times, distracted and
uncomprehending of the proceedings over which he presides. Although, like Hale, he is presented with
considerable evidence that Proctor and the others are innocent, he refuses to grant them clemency. He
argues that it would reflect badly on the court if he released prisoners after executing a number of people
accused of the same crimes—regardless of their innocence. He is a stubborn man who sees no flexibility in
the law and whose pride and position will not allow him to reverse a previous decision.

Goody Sarah Good Goody Good is a ragged and crazy woman who seems to live on the edges of town life.
Although past child-bearing age, she is thought to be pregnant. The fact that she is eventually jailed as a
witch suggests how eager the townspeople are to condemn anyone who does not conform to the accepted
norms of their community.

Reverend John Hale Hale embodies many of the moral contradictions of the play: he is a man of integrity
who, although at times misguided and overzealous, is willing to change his mind when confronted with the
truth. Despite this admirable trait, he lacks the moral conviction to act against proceedings that will
condemn innocents to death. He comes to realize that John Proctor is guilty of nothing more than adultery
yet he lacks the courage to question the decisions of the court and the prevailing attitude of seventeenth
century society. While his fair-mindedness and humanity deserve a measure of respect, Hale's inability to
perceive—and endorse— the power in Proctor's stand for personal virtue leaves his character ignorant and
weak.

Judge Hathorne Hathorne is a "bitter, remorseless Salem judge" who has bigotted views although he
appears courteous and respectful on the surface.

Marshall Herrick Herrick seems to be the gentle and courteous side of law enforcement in Salem. He
follows the law carefully, treats people gently, and has the respect of the townspeople. Despite this, he is
still a participant in the inquisition that results in the executions of numerous residents.
3

Mercy Lewis The Putnam's servant, Mercy Lewis is described as "a fat, sly, merciless girl." She quickly
follows Abigail in her accusations and finds a power and confidence in accusation which contrasts with her
usually fearful demeanor.

Francis Nurse Nurse is a hard-working, honest member of the community who is shocked by his wife,
Rebecca's arrest. Both he and his wife are shown to be kindly town elders who, before the accusations fly,
are highly respected and liked by all. He is more or less an innocent bystander whose life is turned upside
down by the hysteria that grips Salem.

Goody Rebecca Nurse When Rebecca is accused of witchcraft it becomes clear that the town has lapsed
into collective madness as she stands out uniquely as a woman of great wisdom, compassion, and moral
strength. She is gentle and loving, deeply spiritual, and a mother of eleven children and twenty-six
grandchildren. Her moral character and strong sense of her own goodness is evident in her adamant
refusal to sign a confession. When she is brought into the room where John Proctor is about to sign his
confession, her presence proves pivotal in Proctor's decision to take a stand for integrity and not sign the
confession.

Betty Parris Reverend Parris's daughter, Betty, is caught up in the fear and accusations which are
generated after the girls are discovered dancing in the woods. It is not revealed whether her illness is
feigned or if it is a genuine physical response to a traumatic situation, but it is clear that she is easily
influenced and deeply affected by her experiences.

Reverend Samuel Parris Parris, Salem's minister, and Abigail's uncle, is a weak character who appears to
enjoy and to be protective of the status which his position brings. This aspect of his personality is evident in
his dispute about whether the provision of his firewood should be taken out of his salary or is extra to it. He
is concerned with appearances, and, when interrogating Abigail about her dealings with witches in the
opening scene, he seems to worry more about what these activities will mean to his reputation than
Abigail's spiritual state. He continues to follow public opinion right to the end of the play, when he insists
that Proctor's confession must be made publicly in order for it to be effective.

Goody Elizabeth Proctor Although both her husband and Abigail remark on her coolness, Elizabeth is
gentle and devoted to her family. Her goodness and dignity are evident in the way that she argues calmly
against Hale and Danforth's accusations. Her loyalty to John is most clearly demonstrated when, thinking to
protect him, she denies that he has committed adultery. Her acceptance of John's decision to recant his
confession further illustrates her wisdom and her ability to grasp the wider issues of morality and personal
integrity for which her husband is willing to die.

John Proctor The central figure in the play, Proctor is an ordinary man, a blunt farmer who speaks his mind
and is often ruled by his passions. It is revealed early in the play that he has had an adulterous affair with
Abigail, who worked as his servant. Yet he clearly shows remorse for his act and is attempting to right his
error; he is conciliatory with his wife, Elizabeth, and disdainful of Abigail's sexual advances.

When the accusations fly at the trials, he is determined to tell the truth, even if it means criticizing and
antagonizing the investigators. His determination to expose Abigail's false accusations eventually leads him
to admit his own adultery to the court. He is at his most self-aware in his final speech when he realizes the

importance of maintaining his integrity. Explaining why he has recanted his confession, he cries: "Because
it is my name! Because I cannot have another in my life! Because I lie and sign myself to lies! Because I
am not worth the dust on the feet of them that hang! How may I live without my name? I have given you my
soul, leave me my name!"
Goody Ann Putnam Goody Putnam is "a twisted soul . . . a death-ridden woman haunted by bad dreams."
The death of all of her children has affected her deeply. Her pain has been turned into a vindictiveness
which is directed at Rebecca Nurse.

Thomas Putnam Putnam is "a well-to-do hard-handed landowner" who attempts to benefit from the
accusations made against other members of the community. Giles Corey accuses him of taking advantage
of accused landowners' plights. Knowing that the convicted will be forced to sell their land for much less
than it is worth, Putnam is all too eager to attain these properties at cut-rate prices. He has many
grievances, and his vengeful, angry behavior seems to stem from his desire for power and possessions.

Tituba Tituba is Reverend Parris's black slave and a native of the island of Barbados. She is suspected of
black magic due to the traditions of Voodoo that were prevalent in her home country. She is genuinely fond
of Abigail and Betty. The events bring out her superstitious nature, and her fears become uncontrolled,
eventually degenerating into madness when she is in jail.

Susanna Walcott Susanna Walcott is carried along by the hysteria of the other girls, enjoying the attention
which they get from making accusations. Otherwise she is nervous and tense.

Mary Warren Mary Warren is the Proctors' servant who seems timid and subservient but who finds a
powerful role in a kind of people's jury in the courtroom. She occasionally dares to defy Proctor, particularly
in her insistence that she must attend the hearings, but she is easily intimidated into at least partial
submission. Proctor convinces her that she must expose Abigail's lies to the court, which she agrees to do.
She becomes hysterical before the court, however, and soon joins Abigail in pretending that mere is evil
witchcraft at work. Her behavior in the court contributes, in part, to John Proctor's arrest.

Abigail Williams In the character of Abigail are embodied many of the main issues of the play. Her
accusations initially reveal a mischievous enjoyment in wielding power over other people's lives. But the
fact that the events which they set in motion seem to far outweigh the initial mischief suggests that the
community of Salem has embedded in its fabric elements of social corruption, moral disease, or unresolved
and repressed feelings of anger and hostility. Abigail's actions should be seen as an effect rather than a
cause of the town's accusatory environment.

It is noteworthy that, because her parents were brutally killed, she is without adults to whom she is close:
Parris cares for her material needs, but there is no evidence that they are emotionally close or that he
provides her with anything but the most basic of guidance. Her adulterous relationship with John Proctor
might be seen as a craving for affection which, in the absence of family love, manifests itself in physical
desire. Her eventual escape to Boston where it is reported she became a prostitute suggests the same
craving for emotional love through physical intimacy. Abigail's apparent belief in witchcraft may have similar
roots to her sexual neediness. It is psychologically plausible that she would need to find an alternative to
the strict and, it seems, loveless Puritanism of her uncle, and that this would attract her to precisely the
things—black magic, physical

expression, and sexual conjuring—which the religion of her community forbids (she craved attention
regardless of whether it was positive or negative attention). She is at once a frightening and pitiable
character, malicious in her accusations and sad in her need for close human contact and attention.
Summary Overview

Summary of the Play A group of teenage girls from Salem, Massachusetts, is discovered dancing naked in
the woods by the town minister. Knowing that the punishment for their behavior will be severe, the girls
claim that they were possessed by the spirits of members of the community who are trying to initiate them
into witchcraft. Because of the gravity of the accusations (witchcraft is punishable by hanging), a court is
set up to determine the guilt or innocence of those accused. Judges are sent to Salem from the Boston
area to hear the cases. As each case is heard, the girls scream and faint to indicate whether the accused is
afflicting them.

While at first only a handful of citizens are indicated, the number soon grows to over a hundred. The
children, quite suspiciously, have prior grievances against many of those accused, who had in some way
offended them or made their lives miserable. Abigail Williams, the niece of Salem’s minister, accuses her
previous employer, Elizabeth Proctor. Abigail was dismissed from her duties as the Proctor’s servant when
Elizabeth discovered that her husband and Abigail were having an affair. As the town of Salem is overtaken
by mass hysteria, John Proctor knows from Abigail’s own admission that the charges are false. He fights
not only to save his wife, but also for the truth and for reason.

Elizabeth Proctor is not sentenced to hang because it is found that she is pregnant; however, John
Proctor’s attempts to uncover the truth bring dire consequences. Proctor brings to the judges one of the
original accusers, Mary Warren, who admits that the entire group of girls is faking their “fits.” This, of
course, threatens to undermine the entire court, and the girls are summoned for questioning. The girls, led
by Abigail, deny the charges. In a desperate attempt to discredit Abigail as a witness, Proctor then admits
his adultery; however, when his wife is brought in to verify the story, she tries to save his reputation by
denying the affair. Terrified of the other girls and of the punishment for lying to the court, Mary Warren soon
turns against Proctor. She accuses him of being aligned with the devil and afflicting her.

While many of those found guilty of witchcraft avoid hanging by confessing a connection to the devil, 19
others are hanged. On the day that John Proctor and Rebecca Nurse, another innocent victim with high
standing in Salem, are to hang, many attempts are made to coerce them to confess and save their lives.
Proctor knows that he has sinned in the past and feels unworthy to die now as a saint or martyr. Thinking of
his three children and of his wife, he chooses to sign a confession; however, he immediately regrets his
decision and refuses to give up the paper. He cannot bear the knowledge that his signature will be used to
condemn other innocent citizens. He tears up his confession, and the play closes with Elizabeth Proctor’s
reaction to deaths.

Estimated Reading Time

As a play, The Crucible was designed to be performed in one sitting. Hence, it should take you no longer
than three to four hours to read it in its entirety. The play is broken up into four acts, and some editions also
include an appendix, which is meant to follow Act Two. Arthur Miller himself, however, removed this scene
after the original production, and it is now rarely included in performance. The appendix will not be
discussed

in these notes. Also, each act has been broken down into “scenes”. These divisions were incorporated into
this Enote and do not appear in the actual play.

2
Summary (Society and Self, Critical Representations in Literature)

Set in Salem, Massachusetts, during the witch-hunts of 1692 but full of allusions to Senator Joseph
McCarthy and the House Committee on Un-American Activities’ persecutions of the 1950’s, Arthur Miller’s
The Crucible is a masterful play that ultimately transcends both historical contexts with its message of
resistance to tyranny. The play focuses on the moral struggles of John Proctor, a New England farmer, who
is sucked into a witch-hunt that rages through his Puritan society. By deftly juxtaposing the religious
paranoia that permeates a Fundamentalist community suddenly convinced that the devil is loose in its
village with the less lofty but more powerful forces of human greed, envy, and revenge, Miller exposes the
core of hypocrisy that is cloaked by the guise of authority.

The play opens in the attic bedroom of the Reverend Samuel Parris, minister of Salem, the night after
Parris surprised his daughter Betty, his beautiful and sensual niece Abigail, and a number of other girls
from Salem village dancing in the woods (a forbidden act). Parris all too quickly assumes that the girls have
been bewitched, and soon Parris’ bedroom is packed with Salemites convinced that witchcraft is afoot. As
the act closes, the logic and sense of Proctor’s doubts are overwhelmed by hysteria as Abigail and Betty
launch the witch-hunt by screaming out the names of those who have supposedly consorted with the devil.
They initially name, for the most part, those of the community who are vulnerable, and they name names in
order to escape punishment. This pattern of accusation and betrayal has a close resemblance to
McCarthy’s anti-communist tactics.

The remainder of the play pits Salem’s authority structure, as typified by Deputy Governor Danforth with his
smug self-righteousness, against its helpless individual victims. Since “the accuser is always holy,” the
innocent—Proctor, Proctor’s wife Elizabeth, and the saintly Rebecca Nurse—have no defense. It is clear
that the accusations have nothing to do with witchcraft but are the result of long-standing animosities.
Abigail, who has had a sexual relationship with Proctor, wants Proctor for herself, and so Elizabeth is
named a witch. The play’s climax comes as Proctor, who has long struggled with the guilt over his infidelity
and with his powerlessness to assert his innocence in the face of an implacable and tyrannous authority,
realizes that he cannot destroy his true identity by signing a false confession: “Because it is my name!
Because I cannot have another in my life!” The play’s final image of an innocent Proctor going to his unjust
hanging was to be uncannily echoed three years after the play was written when Miller was called before
the House Committee on Un-American Activities and convicted of contempt of Congress.

Summary (Critical Survey of Literature for Students)

The Reverend Samuel Parris prays over his daughter, who lies stricken with a nameless malady. As he
prays, he is angered by the interruption of his Negro slave, Tituba, whom he brought with him from the
island of Barbados. Parris is frightened and furious, for he discovered his daughter Betty, Tituba, and some
of the village girls dancing in the woods. Now two of the girls, Betty and Ruth Putnam, are ill, and witchcraft
is rumored about the village. His daughter Betty and his ward and niece, Abigail Williams, were been
participants in a secret and sinful act. Parris feels his position as minister to the community of Salem is
threatened. Moreover, he suspects that more than dancing took place.

The frightened Parris sends for the Reverend John Hale, a reputed scholar familiar with the manifestations
of witchcraft. While waiting for Hale to arrive, the parishioners reveal the petty grievances and jealousies
hidden beneath the veneer of piety of the Puritan community. Parris feels that the community failed to meet
its financial obligations to him. He suspects John Proctor, a respected farmer, of undermining his authority.
Proctor resents Parris for preaching of nothing but hellfire and the money owed to the parish. Thomas
Putnam, a grasping landholder, disputes the boundaries of his neighbors’ farms. Ann Putnam lost seven
babies at childbirth, and she suspects witchcraft of mothers with large families, most especially Rebecca
Nurse, who has eleven healthy children.
Amid this discontent, the learned Hale arrives with his books of weighty wisdom. Under Hale’s close
questioning concerning the girls’ illicit activities in the woods, Abigail turns the blame away from herself by
accusing Tituba of witchcraft. Terrified by the threat of hanging, Tituba confesses to conjuring up the devil.
Putnam asks Tituba if she saw the old beggar Sarah Good or Goodwife Osborne with the devil. Sensing
her survival at stake, Tituba names both women as companions of the devil. Abigail picks up the
accusations and adds the names of other villagers. Soon the rest of the girls begin hysterically chanting out
the names of village men and women seen in company with the devil.

At the Proctor farm, Proctor tells Elizabeth that Abigail revealed that the dancing in the woods was only
“sport.” When Proctor hesitates to go to the authorities with this information, Elizabeth quietly reminds her
husband of his past infidelities with Abigail. Their argument is interrupted by the arrival of Hale, who comes
to inquire into the sanctity of the Proctor home. Elizabeth suspects that Abigail means to destroy her so that
she might become Proctor’s wife. Mary Warren, another of the afflicted girls and the Proctors’ servant,
returns from court where she gave testimony. She gives Elizabeth a rag doll that she made in court.

At this point, officers of the court arrive at the Proctor farm with an arrest warrant for Elizabeth on the
charge of witchcraft. They search the house for poppets (dolls) and find the one Mary gave to Elizabeth.
They discover a pin in its stomach and take it for proof that Abigail’s stomach pains are the result of
Elizabeth’s witchcraft. Elizabeth is taken away in chains. Proctor confronts Mary, demanding that she tell
the court the truth. At the court of Deputy Governor Danforth, Giles Corey, Francis Nurse, and John Proctor
present evidence to save their wives from the charge of witchcraft. Danforth confiscates the list of names
brought by Francis testifying to Rebecca Nurse’s good character and marks the petitioners for arrest. Giles
refuses to name the people who back him, so the deputy governor has Corey arrested. When Proctor
brings Mary to court to recant, Abigail pretends to be possessed by the evil spirits brought by Mary. Proctor
accuses the girls of lying and confesses to committing adultery with Abigail. Danforth refuses to believe that
Abigail can be guilty of so great a sin, but Proctor swears that Abigail was dismissed as the Proctors’
servant by Elizabeth because she knew of the affair. Danforth brings Elizabeth to the court and questions
her regarding Proctor’s adultery with Abigail. Elizabeth lies to Danforth to save Proctor’s name and
ironically condemns him as a perjurer.

In the Salem jail, Parris and Hale beg Rebecca and Proctor to confess to witchcraft in order to save their
lives. Hale and Parris realize too late that the accused were victims of the girls’ hysteria and the
townspeople’s private grievances. Rebecca remains firm in her convictions, refusing to confess, but Proctor
wavers. Proctor thinks that in lying to the court, he will be only adding a lie to the sin of adultery. Full of self-
contempt, Proctor confesses to witchcraft. Having confessed, he refuses to let the court keep his signed
confession. He recants his confession and goes to the gallows to save his name.

Summary (Masterpieces of American Literature)

The Crucible is about the right to act upon one’s individual conscience. In Puritan New England, Roger
Williams, the founder of Rhode Island, demanded his right to act according to his personal conscience. In
the nineteenth century, Henry David Thoreau considered the exercising of this right a moral obligation,
even if exercising it resulted in breaking the law. The individual’s right to follow his conscience is part of the
American heritage. In The Crucible, Miller shows how an ordinary individual living in a repressive
community gains tragic stature by sacrificing his life rather than betraying his conscience.

Salem is a divided and disturbed community. Hidden behind its sacred crusade are the petty grievances of
the self-interested and the vengeful. The town’s minister, the Reverend Paris, is desperately trying to
stabilize his power and is more interested in maintaining his social position than in ministering to his
congregation. When his daughter Betty, with Abigail Williams, Tituba, and other young girls, is seen
dancing naked in the forest, he fears the scandal will bring down his ministry. Thomas Putnam is disturbed
because he wants an excuse to confiscate his neighbor’s land. His wife, Ann, is jealous of Rebecca Nurse,
who has more children than she. Abigail Williams consciously seeks to avenge herself on Elizabeth
Proctor, who dismissed her from the Proctors’ service.

Miller clearly shows that in a community like this, which is at odds with itself, all that is needed to ignite
hysteria is the specter of Satan, the epitome of insidious evil behind which small-minded people hide their
own hostility and their quest for power. Soon experts such as John Hale are brought to Salem to find evil,
even where it does not exist. Next, a high court invested with infallible judgment acts on the testimony of
finger-pointing witnesses who indiscriminately accuse innocent people. Miller shows how judges at a purge
trial lead witnesses to give the appropriate testimony. Tituba, a Barbados native, confesses to witchcraft
because she knows what the authorities want to hear. The young girls accuse innocent people to deflect
blame from themselves and to gain power and publicity.

In this climate of hysteria, John Proctor, a simple farmer, is called upon to act. Proctor, an independent man
who is not afraid to oppose his minister and to work on the Sabbath, knows that the young girls are lying. At
first, Proctor is reluctant to act. He withdraws from the town and tries to prevent his wife from incriminating
herself. He not only knows that the young girls are making a sham of human justice but also knows that,
deep down, he does not believe in witches—yet he will not confess to this heretical view.

Moreover, Proctor is a guilty man, a sinner, with hidden sin gnawing at his conscience. He has betrayed his
wife and has committed adultery with Abigail Williams, so he also faces the judgment of his wife and has
shaken her trust in him. Miller follows a theme in American literature, one that is especially pronounced in
the works of Nathaniel Hawthorne. This theme examines the ways that private sin and nagging guilt
intermingle with public sin. To save his wife and the town, Proctor must discredit Abigail, but to do so, he
would have to expose his own guilt.

Proctor’s battle with the court is doomed, for the repressive court is implacable. He first tries to present
concrete evidence, but in the Puritan court such evidence is suspect. A list of character witnesses becomes
a source for suspicion and further interrogation. To question the court is blasphemy. In times of political and
religious hysteria, everyone, including the witnesses, is on trial. Mary Warren, a young girl who strives to
act justly and responsibly, breaks down under the pressure of the court and the hysterical antics of Abigail.
Proctor tries to expose Abigail as a morally loose woman and openly implicates himself as an adulterer, but
his wife lies to protect him. Even though Governor Danforth can see that the accusations of witchcraft are
questionable, he continues to commit himself to a course of injustice rather than admit a mistake and
discredit the court.

Not being a saint like Rebecca Nurse, Proctor is willing to lie and confess to witchcraft so that he can live
and raise his family. However, when he is asked to name names and sign a public confession, his
conscience will not allow him to ruin the names of others or to have his name used to justify evil. Only if he
can retain his individual dignity can he pass on to his children anything of value. Proctor, an ordinary man,
takes extraordinary action and is resigned to dying for his convictions.

The Crucible opened on Broadway in 1953 to a lukewarm reception, but it was later revived Off-Broadway
with more success. Jean-Paul Sartre wrote the screenplay for the French film version of The Crucible, Les
Sorcieres de Salem (1955). In 1961, The Crucible was converted into an opera, and in 1967, it was
adapted for television with George C. Scott in the lead role. The Crucible is Miller’s most frequently
produced work both in the United States and abroad.

Summary

Act I The play opens in Salem, Massachusetts, 1692, with the Reverend Samuel Parris praying over the
bed of his daughter Betty. Abigail, his niece, enters with news from the Doctor that there is no explanation
for Betty's inertia and disturbed state of mind. As their conversation progresses and he questions her, it is
revealed that Betty has fallen into this state after her father found her in the woods dancing around a fire
with Abigail, Tituba (Parris's slave from the island of Barbados), and other young women from the town.
Parris warns Abigail that her reputation is already under suspicion as she has been dismissed from the
service of Goody Proctor and has not been hired since. With the arrival of Goody Putnam, it is further
revealed that her daughter Ruth is in a similar condition and that she was dancing in an attempt to
communicate with her dead sisters.

Parris leaves to lead the recital of a psalm. Abigail reveals to Mercy, the Putnams' servant, that Mercy was
seen naked. When Mary Warren, the Proctors' servant arrives, she suggests that they tell the truth and just
be whipped for dancing, rather than risk being hanged for witchcraft. Betty wakes and tries to fly out of the
window and then accuses Abigail of having drunk blood to make Goody Proctor die. Abigail warns them not
to say any more.

When the farmer John Proctor arrives, Abigail's flirtation with him (which he resists) suggests that she has
been sexually involved with him in the past. She tells him that it is all pretense and that Betty is just scared.
Meanwhile, a psalm can be heard from below and at the phrase "going up to Jesus," Betty cries out. Parris
and the others rush into the room, interpreting Betty's outburst as a sign that witchcraft is at work in the
young woman. Rebecca Nurse, a wise old woman, comforts Betty. Parris has sent for Reverend Hale, who
has past experience with witchcraft; Hale arrives with his many books. Tituba is questioned, and after a
considerable amount of pressure, names women who she has seen with the Devil. Joining in the hysterical
atmosphere, which is beginning to prevail, Abigail adds more names to the list, as does Betty.

Act II The setting shifts to the home of the Proctors. Elizabeth Proctor teils John that Mary, their servant,
keeps going to the court to take part in the trial proceedings which have begun in the eight days that have
elapsed between Acts I and 2. Elizabeth begs John to reveal to the investigators what Abigail told him
about it all being pretense, but he is unwilling. She is suspicious that this is because he has feelings for
Abigail. The servant Mary returns from the court and gives Elizabeth a rag doll which she made while at the
court. In the following angry conversation between Mary and John (who threatens to whip her), she reveals
that Elizabeth has been accused but says that she spoke against the accusation.

Hale arrives and questions the Proctors. To prove that they are Christian people, he asks John to recite the
Ten Commandments. Revealingly, given his recent liaison with Abigail, John can remember them all except
"Thou shalt not commit adultery," which Elizabeth supplies for him. Giles Corey and Francis Nurse arrive
and report that their wives have been taken to prison. Ezekiel Cheever, the clerk of the court, arrives and,
seeing the doll, lifts up its skirt to reveal the needle which Mary left in the stomach after knitting. This he
connects with Abigail's recent falling to the floor with stomach pains which were found to be caused by a
needle. Mary notes that Abigail sat next to her in court while she made the puppet. When the others have
gone, Proctor insists that Mary must tell the court what Abigail has been doing, but she refuses, saying that
she is too scared. Proctor throws her onto the ground.

Act III In the courtroom, tensions and long-standing battles among members of the Salem community are
brought to the fore, as Corey accuses Putnam of trying to take his land (which, were he convicted, he
would be forced to

sell and which Putnam would gladly purchase). Later in the scene Corey accuses Putnam of persuading his
daughter to make accusations against George Jacobs so that his land would also be forfeited.

Proctor and Mary arrive and Mary confesses that the testimonies were a fabrication. Proctor is told that
Elizabeth is pregnant and cannot be sentenced. Proctor presents a petition from members of the town
supporting Elizabeth, Rebecca Nurse, and Martha Corey, but he is accused by Governor Danforth of
undermining the court. Danforth then demands that all the people who have signed the petition be arrested.
Abigail, with her friends, denies lying and acts as if she is being bewitched by Mary. Proctor angrily pulls
her by the hair and, to avoid her having any hold over him, confesses to adultery with her. Abigail denies
this, and when Elizabeth is brought in, she does the same, thinking to protect her husband. Hale believes
Proctor, but Danforth does not. To distract the proceedings when they seem to be turning against her,
Abigail points upwards and claims to see a great bird in the rafters which she interprets as Mary trying to
hurt her. The other girls join in the accusation and Mary gives in and takes their side, accusing Proctor of
being on the side of the devil. He is arrested along with Giles Corey. Hale leaves after denouncing the
entire proceedings.

Act IV Parris informs the investigators that Abigail has taken money from his safe and left town. He fears
rebellion among his congregation, only a few of whom came to the church to hear John Proctor's
excommunication. Hale reasons that the accused must be pardoned since they have not confessed and
describes how: "There are orphans wandering from house to house; abandoned cattle bellow on the
highroads, the stink of rotting crops hangs everywhere, and no man knows when the harlot's cry will end his
life." However, Danforth refuses to give in as twelve people have already been hanged; he speaks of his
determination to extract a confession from Proctor.

Proctor and Elizabeth are left to talk alone. She informs him that while many have confessed, Rebecca
Nurse still refuses to do so. She also reveals that Giles Corey refused to answer the charge and died under
the pressure of huge stones that were placed on his chest in an effort to torture him into confessing. His
final words were "more weight." In the presence of the investigators who then return, Proctor is on the brink
of confessing. When Rebecca is brought in to hear him and, the investigators hope, learn from his example,
he changes his mind, refusing to name others and finally tearing up his confession. As the prisoners are
taken away to be hanged, Parris rushes after them, and Hale pleads with Elizabeth to intervene. But she
will not. The play ends with Hale weeping.

Act Summary and Analysis

Act I, Scene 1 Summary and Analysis New Characters Reverend Samuel Parris: minister of Salem who is
not popular with everyone in town. He gave up a prosperous business in Barbados to become a minister.

Betty Parris: Reverend Parris’ daughter and an accuser in the court

Tituba: slave of Reverend Parris. She is from Barbados and practices island rituals.

Abigail Williams: niece of Reverend Parris. Parris took her in after her parents were murdered by Indians in
a raid.

Susanna Walcott: an accuser in the court

Ann Putnam: townswoman who spreads the rumors of witchcraft

Thomas Putnam: husband of Ann and a prosperous landowner

Mercy Lewis: servant of the Putnam’s and an accuser in the court

Mary Warren: an accuser in the court, and servant of the Proctors

Summary The play begins with a narrative section that introduces Reverend Parris and discusses life in
Salem at the time the events took place. Act One opens in the bedroom of Betty Parris, daughter of
Reverend Samuel Parris, minister of Salem. It is the spring of 1692. The curtain rises on Reverend Parris
on his knees by his daughter’s bed, in prayer. Betty herself lies motionless in her bed. As more characters
come and go from the stage and speak with Reverend Parris, the events of the previous night are slowly
revealed. We learn that several of the teenage girls of Salem were caught dancing naked in the woods with
Tituba, Parris’ slave from Barbados. The girls were discovered by Reverend Parris, who had seen Tituba
“waving her arms over the fire” and had heard “a screeching and gibberish coming from her mouth.”

Upon seeing her father, Parris’ daughter Betty fell into a kind of trance that doctors cannot explain
medically. Although his niece Abigail vehemently denies it, Parris strongly suspects the girls are involved
with witchcraft. He knows not only that witchcraft is punishable by death, but also that the consequences of
such news getting out in the town are dire to his own reputation. For these reasons, he attempts to keep
the rumors of witchcraft from spreading throughout the town. News from townspeople who come to speak
with Parris suggests that it is already too late.

Ann and Thomas Putnam’s daughter Ruth is in a trance similar to Betty’s. Goody Putnam admits that she
sent her daughter Ruth to Tituba to ask her to speak to the souls of her seven children who died in
childbirth. She hoped to learn through this who had murdered her babies. Parris is horrified by this news.
His voiced concern, however, is for himself rather than for the girls being involved with evil. Abigail and the
Putnams convince him to go downstairs and address the crowd that has gathered, denouncing the devil.

While they are gone, Abigail confers with Mercy Lewis, the Putnam’s servant who was also in the woods.
Abigail attempts to put together a story they can tell the adults; however, another of the girls, Mary Warren,

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enters and argues for telling the truth. She is terrified of the punishment for witchcraft and would prefer to
be whipped for merely dancing. Suddenly Betty begins to whimper and darts off the bed. She is convinced
that she can fly to her mother, who has been dead for some time. Betty then reveals that Abigail drank
blood in the woods as part of a charm to kill Elizabeth Proctor. This accusation infuriates Abigail, and she
forcefully insists that the girls stick to the story that they were only dancing and that Tituba and Ruth alone
conjured her dead sisters. She threatens great harm to anyone who breathes a word of the other things.

Discussion and Analysis In the written version of this play Arthur Miller chose to add several narrative
sections that were not included in the live performance. These sections give the reader a broader
knowledge of characters’ past actions and motivations. The opening narrative gives an introduction to
Reverend Parris and his idiosyncrasies, which include a distorted view of other people’s opinions of him
and a driving need to be in control. These facts will go a long way toward explaining the minister’s future
behavior.

We also learn something about Salem’s attitude toward children. Miller tells us that Paris, “like the rest of
Salem, never conceived that the children were anything but thankful for being permitted to walk straight,
eyes slightly lowered, arms at the sides, and mouths shut until bidden to speak.” This is important because
it leads us to believe that the children would welcome a respite from such a strict life, as well as a bit of
attention from the adults of the town.

The third important point in the opening narrative is the fact that the people of Salem had a “predilection for
minding other people’s business.” They believed very strongly that their way was the only right way, and
they persecuted anyone who questioned their ideas. Because of this, it was very dangerous in Salem to be
caught doing anything that could be construed as contrary to accepted behavior. The community saw, and
could not explain, the sickness of the two girls, Betty and Ruth. Having a world view heavily weighted with
devils and witches, it was perfectly reasonable in their minds to call anything unexplainable by earthly
means the work of the devil.

The dramatic action of this opening sequence sets up many of the themes and conflicts central to the play.
The defining metaphor of the play is a symbol that does not appear anywhere but in the title: The Crucible.
A crucible is a container used to heat metal to extremely high temperatures, refining it to its barest essence
and melting away any foreign substances or impurities. A crucible is also defined as a “severe test or trial,
especially one that causes a lasting change or influence.” The events of the previous night will eventually
test the entire community’s moral fiber. The court will test those accused to see if their essence is
essentially good or evil. The historic episode will test the character and belief system of everyone involved.

When the girls are discovered in the woods, they know that they will be judged, and judged harshly. The
details of what actually happened build slowly as new characters add to the story. We know that the girls
were dancing and that Parris believes he saw at least one girl dancing naked. We know that Tituba chanted
over a cauldron of some type, and we later find out that she was attempting to conjure the souls of the
Putnum’s dead babies. We then discover that Abigail drank the blood of a chicken in an effort to put a curse
on Elizabeth Proctor, her former employer. While to us these antics may seem harmless and rather silly,
they added up to serious charges in Salem. The girls certainly knew the consequences, as is clear by their
comments. Why then, would they engage in such behavior?

One theory is simple adolescent rebellion. The rules of such a strict society, with so little room for
enjoyment, wore down their adolescent spirits until an outlet was sought. Tituba, with her relatively
uninhibited island background, offered an opportunity for a freeing of their spirits. Another theory is that
they were actually looking for attention. In a world in which children were typically ignored, they wanted to
cause a ruckus that would briefly put them in the spotlight. Whatever the reason, two of the girls were so
shocked at being discovered, and at the ultimate consequence of that discovery, that they immediately
feigned illness. The

11

failure of their illness to respond to medical attention is what begins all of the rumors of witchcraft.

It is interesting to note Parris’ reaction to the situation. While his daughter lies gravely ill, beyond the help of
medical science, and while rumors of demonic possession circulate through the town, his thoughts are only
for himself. Obviously if witchcraft is evil, witchcraft in the home of the minister—the pillar of the society and
its moral leader—is doubly evil. Parris focuses all of his attention on saving his own reputation. To the
citizens of Salem, a good reputation is an outward sign of rightness with God. This emphasis on a good
name is a central theme of the play. The minister’s first thought is to deny any element of witchcraft and
hope the problem goes away. Unfortunately, Salem is a town full of people minding other people’s
business, and the gossip of witchcraft has already spread like wildfire. Many of the townspeople are already
downstairs in the common room of Parris’ house.

Parris suffers from a crucial lack of conviction. Although he is hesitant to call the events that have taken
place witchcraft, he is easily convinced by the Putnams to go downstairs and denounce the evil in their
midst. He is unable to tell his congregation that they are wrong about witchcraft. He prefers, instead, to do
what he believes they want him to do. He goes along with the mounting hysteria and propels it forward by
calling in Reverend Hale. This action paves the way for the absurdity that will follow.

The Putnams themselves set up a central conflict of the play, defining some of the suspicion, jealousy, and
resentment simmering below the surface of this outwardly ordered and repressed society. When Ann
Putnam admits to sending her daughter, Ruth, to conjure up the spirits of her dead babies, she reveals a
strong suspicion and resentment. It occurs to her that there must be an explanation for seven of her
children dying in childbirth, and she is looking for a scapegoat. She sent her daughter to get a name on
which to attach blame. A narrative aside also tells us that Thomas Putnam still harbors resentment against
those who voted against his brother-in-law as minister of Salem. The Putnams exemplify the feelings that
must have existed throughout this society.

These feelings are echoed in the conflict between Abigail and Elizabeth Proctor, which is hinted at early in
the play. When Parris questions Abigail’s character, he mentions that she was dismissed as the Proctor’s
house servant. Rumor has obviously circulated in Salem that she was dismissed for unseemly behavior
and that Elizabeth will not come to church and sit near “something soiled.” Abigail’s denial holds venomous
words for her former employer, whom she calls “a bitter woman, a lying, cold, sniveling woman.” Elizabeth
had made her life unpleasant in several ways, and Abigail’s attempt to put a curse on the woman by
drinking chicken blood is a vivid manifestation of her feelings.

The exchange that takes place between the girls while the adults are gone is also telling. They argue
amongst themselves between admitting the truth and denying everything. The sequence sets up the
conflict between Abigail and Mary Warren, who argues for telling the truth. Mary is seen as weak and as
the one who is most likely to tell on the others. The truth is obviously something less than dabbling in
witchcraft, and to admit it and take the punishment would save them from being hanged as witches. Abigail,
however, asserts herself as the strongest of the girls, bullying the others into admitting nothing other than
the fact that they were dancing in the woods. This much is indisputable since they were caught in the act by
Parris. Her intimidation of the others and the threats she makes should they disobey her orders show her
unfeeling response to their fears. Abigail will have her way, whatever it takes to get it. This bit of evil in her
character will be magnified as the play unfolds.

Act I, Scene 2 Summary and Analysis New Characters John Proctor: husband of Elizabeth, one of the few
townspeople who try to stop the court

Rebecca Nurse: wife of Francis, accused of being a witch

12

Giles Corey: landowner of Salem who tries to save his wife, who is accused

Summary Mary and Mercy take their leave as John Proctor enters the stage. As he and Abigail speak
alone, it becomes obvious that the two have had an affair. Abigail had been a housekeeper for the Proctors
until John’s wife, Elizabeth, became aware of the situation between the two and dismissed her. Abigail’s
attempts to revive the spark are rebuffed by Proctor, who has put the episode behind him. Abby tells
Proctor that the rumors of witchcraft are ridiculous and that they were merely dancing in the woods.
Meanwhile, as a psalm is sung in the room downstairs, Betty claps her hands over her ears and begins
whining loudly. Parris and several others come rushing upstairs to see what has happened. Betty’s
behavior is taken as a sign of witchcraft, which has made it impossible for the girl to hear the Lord’s name.

Next to enter are Rebecca Nurse and Giles Corey. A short narrative at this point gives a description of
Rebecca’s character, which is impeccable, and of the reasons why some of the townspeople might resent
her. Rebecca’s gentle presence calms Betty instantly; however, the adults are soon quarreling over the
proper course of action. Rebecca and John Proctor provide the voice of reason, as the others call for an all-
out witch-hunt. Both believe that the girls are just going through a short rebellious stage that they will soon
outgrow. As they speak, it becomes clear that there is a division in the church’s congregation between
those who support Reverend Parris and those who feel he is out of line. Angry words pass between Parris
and Proctor about what the minister can expect from the citizens of Salem. Shortly after, angry words are
exchanged between Proctor and Putnam, who accuses him of taking lumber off land he does not own.
Proctor and Corey are about to leave as Reverend John Hale enters.

Discussion and Analysis The exchange between Abigail and John Proctor in this section sets up what is,
perhaps, the central theme of the play. The knowledge that the two have had an affair, and that Elizabeth
discovered it and dismissed Abby, constitutes the conflict between Abigail and Elizabeth. John clearly feels
that what he did was wrong and has tried to put the affair behind him. Abigail, however, wishes their
relationship would continue. She becomes the woman scorned. Perhaps more importantly, Abby reveals
the truth of the events in the woods to John. She candidly admits to him that they were merely dancing and
that there was no witchcraft involved. The possession of this truth, coupled with his guilt over his crime of
lechery with Abby, will later put John in the compromising position that ultimately leads to his death.

Some critics read The Crucible as the tragedy of John Proctor. Proctor committed a tragic error and lost his
soul when he had the affair with Abby. The drama then becomes an attempt to find moral absolution,
integrity, and self-respect. Other critics have argued with this interpretation on the grounds that Proctor is
not a sufficient tragic hero. He can succumb to temptation as well as stand up for decency. Not a
particularly good man, he is hardheaded, argumentative, and biting in his criticism. He does not attend
church regularly. These characteristics, along with his thinly veiled contempt of the minister, mark him as
different from the rest of the community. Proctor is a far more modern figure than any other character in the
play; skeptical and ruled by common sense rather than accepted norms. Whether or not The Crucible is
correctly viewed as the tragedy of Proctor, a central theme of the play is certainly Proctor’s search for his
soul.

Betty’s crying out at the Lord’s name is just one more shred of evidence for a community already convinced
of witchcraft. Of course her outburst also immediately followed John and Abby’s discussion of their
infidelity. Her adverse reaction could just as easily have stemmed from this newly gained knowledge,
coupled with her remembrance of Abby’s attempt to put a curse on Elizabeth. Betty Parris is already
suffering from fear and guilt, and her desire to go to her mother is logical. The townspeople, however, are
convinced that they are facing great evil, and everything that can possibly be twisted to lend credence to
their conclusion will be used. Significantly, it is Rebecca Nurse who is instantly able to calm her.

13

Goody Nurse serves as a symbol of goodness and reason. Her character is impeccable, and her reputation
flawless. Soon after her entrance, she dismisses the behavior of the girls as part of their “silly season” that
they will soon outgrow. She sees the events of the night before as a natural outlet for adolescent emotions.
Rebecca makes it quite clear that any searching for the devil in Salem based on the behavior of the girls is,
in itself, an evil. Throughout the play, she and Proctor will represent the few consistent voices speaking
reason and denouncing the proceedings as preposterous. In this scene Miller draws the conflict of Rebecca
Nurse and John Proctor, two individual voices, against the voices of the rest of the society, a community
caught up in the mass hysteria of the witch-hunt. Rebecca, however, is not as quick as Proctor to condemn
the social order. While she agrees that there are problems with Salem’s theocracy—and especially with its
minister—she urges Proctor to keep peace with Parris.

Several other conflicts are set up in this scene as well. We learn that the Nurses have been involved in a
land war with their neighbors, one of whom is Putnam. The Nurse family was also among those who kept
Putnam’s candidate for minister out of office in Salem. Further, a group of people related to, or friendly with,
the Nurses had broken away from the authority of Salem and set up their own independently governed
town. The split was resented by many of the older members of the Salem community. The Nurses, in short,
had many silent enemies in Salem. It is important to note that prior to the witch-hunt, there was no socially
sanctioned means for expressing such ill will against a neighbor. The religious code required each citizen to
love his neighbor as himself. Any outward expression of hostility would have been severely frowned upon.
This led to a situation in which a great deal of resentment was seething below the surface, with no outlet.

When the participants in this scene exchange angry words, it is further apparent that the cause of the
tension in Salem has very little to do with witchcraft. Proctor’s conflict with Parris stems from what he sees
to be the minister’s hypocrisy of wanting more than his due. Parris, in return, resents Proctor for arguing
against his having a higher salary. Nearly everyone else in town seems caught up in the battle over land
ownership, which represents status and power in the community. The witch trials will become a convenient
forum in which to address these real or imagined wrongs.

Act I, Scene 3 Summary and Analysis New Character Reverend John Hale: minister from Boston, who is
summoned to determine if there is witchcraft in Salem

Summary A short narrative section discusses Reverend Hale’s arrival and some theology involving the
devil. Hale then listens to an account of the events that have taken place and consults the large books
about witchcraft that he has brought with him. Rebecca makes it clear that she strongly disapproves of this
effort to seek the devil, and exits. Giles, however, is caught up in the appearance of greatness. He asks
Hale why his wife reads strange books and why the reading of them seems to stop his prayers. Another
narrative points out that Giles has only recently learned any prayers and that he is a crank and a nuisance
in the town. Hale promises to look into the matter.

Hale presses Abigail for details of the night’s events. Abigail admits that there was a frog in the cauldron
that Tituba tended and that Tituba called the devil. Tituba is summoned, and Abigail immediately points to
her and accuses, “She made me do it. She made Betty do it.” Then Abigail accuses Tituba of making her
drink chicken blood. Tituba denies involvement with the devil, but Abigail persists in her accusations. Soon
she is saying that Tituba sends her spirit on her in church and makes her laugh during prayer and that she
comes to her at night and makes her drink blood and remove her clothes.

Tituba is terrified and tells Hale that the devil has many witches and it must be someone else that is
affecting the children. The two ministers press her to identify townspeople who were with the devil. Tituba,
in her fear, is pushed to name Sarah Good and Goody Osburn. After seeing all the praise and
encouragement given to

14

Tituba, Abigail joins in as well. She says she saw Sarah Good, Goody Osburn, and Bridget Bishop with the
devil. Then Betty rises from her bed and joins the chant. The curtain falls on the two young girls calling out
name after name, as the ministers praise God for this revelation of evil in their midst.

Discussion and Analysis The introductory narrative section at Hale’s entrance helps us understand his
motivation. Hale has studied the matter of witchcraft intensively and is regarded as an expert on the spirit
world. We know that Hale is proud of his position as the authority on witches and that he will zealously seek
an opportunity to make use of his knowledge. Miller tells us that there was once an encounter with a
suspected witch in Hale’s parish; however, on closer examination, it turned out that the woman was not a
witch at all. It was simply her annoying behavior that caused a child to act “afflicted.” Hale never has then
encountered a substantiated case of witchcraft. Hale’s previous experience, as well as his intellectual
nature, should lead him first to look for a natural and logical explanation for the behavior of the Salem girls.
Instead, he begins with the supernatural, trying to fit the events he finds before him into his definition of
deviltry.

Miller explains in this narrative passage the history of diabolism and the world’s long history of fear and
hatred of opposites. A natural outgrowth of this is aligning one’s enemies with the devil. In a world in which
actions and ideas are attributable either to God or to Satan, he says, the devil can be used as a weapon.
This particular phrasing foreshadows the development of the witch-hunt, where many people will be
accused for personal gain or satisfaction. Witchcraft is not an act that can be documented, such as stealing
or murder. Its evidence is by nature circumstantial, and it therefore lends itself to such misuse.

The timing of Hale’s entrance is significant. He arrives immediately after the heated discussion that
revealed the many conflicts among town residents. Hale is an outsider in Salem. He knows nothing of the
land wars, the behavior of the minister, or the numerous secret animosities harbored by the townspeople.
The discussion prior to his entrance would have supplied him with ample reason to suspect explanations
other than witchcraft. Hale appears to be a likable man—well respected and trying his best to lend his
assistance to a troubled community. Miller compares him to a doctor on his first call, armed with his
knowledge and eager to use it. He attempts, however, to apply the authority of his books, along with the
authority of scripture, to a situation about which he knows frightfully little. He is like a doctor who has no
knowledge of the greatest and most telling symptom.

The introductions made when Hale arrives are also important. From them we learn that Rebecca Nurse’s
good name is known well beyond the town limits of Salem. Hale’s knowledge of her good character is what
will later lead him to question his involvement in the trial proceedings. As John Proctor is introduced to
Hale, Giles Corey tells the visitor that he does not believe in witches. Proctor has been set up as the
skeptic; the individual who refuses to be involved with what he believes to be unreasonable behavior.
Although Proctor shrugs off the remark and takes no position, the thought has been planted in Hale’s mind.
It will later be used against Proctor when is wife is accused.

Both Proctor and Rebecca remove themselves from the proceedings before the actual questioning begins.
Both have made it clear that they believe talk of witchcraft is nonsense. Rebecca has also implied that it is
the actual searching for the devil that is evil. Proctor knows from his discussion with Abigail that there was
nothing supernatural occurring in the woods. Both choose to alienate themselves from the struggle that
consumes the rest of Salem. This decision will later prove to be costly. Miller explores here the issue of an
individual’s responsibility to the community in crisis. Merely by keeping themselves removed from the
hysteria, these two characters bring suspicion upon themselves. They are a threat to the unity of the
community.

When Hale begins to question Betty, Abigail, and Tituba, it is clear that he knows what he is looking for.
The girls do not offer information; it is suggested to them. As soon as Abby becomes uncomfortable with
the

15

questioning, she attempts to remove the blame from herself and pin it on Tituba. Suddenly she admits all of
her “anti-Puritan” behavior, but claims that it was Tituba who forced her to act. Tituba is a natural choice for
a scapegoat. She is exotic in Salem, a native of Barbados where strange and incomprehensible customs
are practiced. She is a far more believable “witch” than any of the others.

Tituba is understandably terrified at the accusations. While at first she denies all connection with the devil,
she soon sees that her only way out is to come up with another explanation. She tells the interrogators that
the devil has many witches. While Tituba has denied involvement with the devil, Hale is so sure of what he
will find that he begins to question her about it anyway. Tituba can endure such bullying and confusion for
only so long. The men are so kind to her when she finally says that there are women in Salem who are
witches that she suddenly begins to cooperate with them, inventing conversations with the devil and
indicating the name Sarah Good. Abigail sees the enthusiasm with which Tituba’s accusations are received
and decides to try the tactic herself. She, too, begins to name names. Finally, Betty also rises and joins in.
The three women have discovered a way out of their predicament. Far from being punished for their
behavior, they are now heroes of the community, chosen to help cleanse Salem. The naming of names is
taken as an outward sign of their repentance and desire to be better Christians.

It is important to realize that while the girls are confessing to things that were not done, they are, indeed,
guilty of something. While they were not performing witchcraft, they were involved with actions that were
serious sins in the Puritan tradition. Dancing alone would bring serious punishment. The witch-hunt does
not create guilt, it merely unleashes what is already there. The girls are attempting to hide their very real
guilt by complying with the witch-hunt. The theme of guilt is strong throughout the play and will be even
more important in the actions of John Proctor.

Act II, Scene 1 Summary and Analysis New Character Elizabeth Proctor: wife of John Proctor, accused of
witchcraft

Summary Act Two is set in John Proctor’s house, in the common room downstairs, several days after the
events of Act One. As the curtain opens, Elizabeth is heard singing to the children upstairs. John enters,
tastes the soup in the pot over the fireplace, and re-seasons it. Elizabeth comes downstairs and the two sit
down to dinner, making small talk about the crops. It is apparent that there is a tension between them.
Elizabeth informs John that their housekeeper, Mary Warren, is now an official of the newly-formed court in
Salem. Four judges have been sent from Boston, headed by Deputy Governor Danforth. Fourteen people
have been jailed for witchcraft, and the court has the power to hang them if they do not -confess.

Elizabeth attempts to persuade John to go to Salem and tell the court that the witchcraft accusations are a
fraud. After all, Abigail herself, who is now chief of the accusers, told John that the matter had nothing to do
with witchcraft. John, however, hesitates to go. He is not sure that he can prove what Abigail said to him.
There are no witnesses; the two were alone. On learning that John was alone with Abby, Elizabeth is
deeply hurt and an argument is sparked between them over his involvement with the girl.

Discussion and Analysis John’s simple act of re-seasoning the soup is symbolic of the nature of the
relationship between John and Elizabeth. As the soup has little flavor, so does their marriage. While
Elizabeth is quiet and virtuous, she has none of the individual spirit associated with her husband. She
appears to be, and has been accused by Abigail of being, a cold woman. She “receives” John’s kiss, rather
than returning it, and she fails to enliven the house with flowers. It is not hard to imagine that John could be
attracted to the daring, individualist spirit of Abigail and her raw sexuality. Elizabeth is a sharp contrast to
such a girl.

16

The tension between John and Elizabeth is thick as they sit down to dinner. While unfailingly polite, their
relationship is visibly strained. John’s previous indiscretions with Abby have not yet been forgiven, despite
his attempts to make amends. John has clearly tried to put the issue in his past. He has shown in Parris’
house that he will no longer entertain thoughts of a relationship with Abby. Elizabeth, however, continues to
interrogate and to accuse. Her judgment of her husband lacks mercy and understanding. This lack of mercy
will be mirrored later in the play in the proceedings of the court.

The issue of guilt is strong in this sequence. John is clearly guilty of his infidelity. However willing he may
be to repent, his position offers him no opportunity for absolution. He is not denying that he has sinned. He
has clearly violated his own sense of honor by behaving as he did. John has suffered greatly for his sin,
both internally and externally in Elizabeth’s reaction. He has already questioned his identity in light of his
actions. Elizabeth’s harsh judgment of him makes his search for his soul and his “name” throughout the
play all the more difficult. She stubbornly insists on the reality of his guilt. This atmosphere of guilt will later
be obvious to Hale and lead to dire consequences.

Through Elizabeth we learn how far the girls’ “confessions” have gone. A court system has been newly
established in Salem, headed by Deputy Governor Danforth. It is significant that such a court has not
existed before in Salem. Up to this point, the social fabric of the community was so tightly woven that an
official court was unnecessary. Anything not sanctioned by scripture was, without question, a violation of
the moral code, and punishments were set and accepted. The witch-hunt, however, goes far beyond any
accusation seen in Salem up to that point. Because the evidence is circumstantial, a court must be
established to weigh the evidence and attempt to make fair and honest judgments. Elizabeth knows that
the foundation of the court itself is not genuine.

In trying to convince John to go to the court and convince the others that the trials are a fraud, Elizabeth is
imposing a sense of duty on her husband. John has no patience for authority of any sort, and he strongly
resents Elizabeth telling him what to do. He is caught in the dilemma of knowing the truth and being
unwilling to tell it. Abby’s confession was offered to him alone. There were no witnesses. He knows that it
will be his word against Abby’s. John knows what Abby is capable of, and he fears for his name. Should the
knowledge of his affair with Abigail become public, his reputation in Salem will be destroyed. John is
beginning to discover that he cannot escape the implications of his past actions. He struggles with these
issues, as well as with his desire to remain uninvolved.

The conflict between Mary Warren and the Proctors is also established in this sequence. While the girl has
not yet entered the house, Elizabeth describes how her meek and timid manner has changed. Mary’s
association with the court has given her power and attention she has not previously known. She has
become openly defiant of her employers’ orders and has neglected her duties at the house. This change in
Mary, alluded to here, will be developed in the next sequence.

Act II, Scene 2 Summary and Analysis Summary As John and Elizabeth wrangle over John’s guilt, Mary
Warren enters. John grabs her immediately, furious that she should shirk her duties and go to Salem
without his permission. Mary responds by offering Elizabeth a doll that she sewed for her during the trials
that day. Elizabeth is puzzled by the gift, but accepts it. Mary then reveals that there are now 39 arrested,
and that Goody Osburn will be hanged. Sarah Good, however, confessed to making a pact with the devil
and will not hang. Mary also reveals that Sarah is pregnant, and the court will surely spare her to save her
unborn child.

Mary then tells John and Elizabeth that she must go to Salem every day to sit on the court. John forbids her
and takes out the whip to give her a beating. She saves herself, however, by revealing that Elizabeth
herself was accused that day but was saved by Mary’s testimony that she had never seen any signs of
witchcraft in

17

the house. Mary uses this bit of power to assert herself before a disgusted John Proctor. Mary then goes to
bed.

Elizabeth and John are shocked by the news. Elizabeth knows that Abigail is jealous that she has John and
that this is a perfect opportunity to pry Elizabeth from her husband. She asks John to talk to Abby and
break the unspoken spell between them. John grudgingly agrees to go.

Discussion and Analysis The rapid escalation of hysteria in Salem is subtly revealed here in the news from
Mary Warren. Where the girl reported 14 were arrested the previous day, the total now stands at 39. The
mere quantity of citizens involved should surely have alerted someone to the absurdity of the charges. The
evidence against the “witches” is unreasonable enough to be ridiculous. Even actions such as mumbling
have been interpreted as witchcraft. At this point, however, the court has already extracted a confession
from Sarah Good. Put in the untenable position of confessing to witchcraft and being warmly welcomed
back into the community or not confessing and hanging for it, Goody Good chose to save her life. The
effect of her confession will have broad-reaching consequences for the others. Had she not confessed, it
would have been far more difficult for the court to hang anyone. Now that the court has at least one
confession, the guilt of the others is far more sure in the court’s eyes. With Sarah’s confession, the court
has reached a point of no return.

The gift of the poppet is significant. Elizabeth is perplexed by the gift, as she is a grown woman. Puritan
society was not given to frivolousness. In a community where even children were expected to act like
adults, such an item would not be expected to grace a woman’s home. It will later be quite significant that
Mary Warren brought the doll into the house. Mary’s strange declaration that “We must all love each other
now” as she hands the gift to Elizabeth is in strong contrast to the intensified conflict between the girl and
the Proctors shortly thereafter. Not only is Mary defiant to Elizabeth, she now stands up to John as well.
John’s temper is apparent as he attempts to beat her for her arrogance.

As disturbing as this news of the courts is to the Proctors, the truly shocking revelation is yet to come. Mary
reveals that Elizabeth herself had been named as a possible witch that day. The girl escapes a beating by
telling her employers that she put in a good word for Elizabeth, telling them that she told the court she
never witnessed any witchcraft in the house. Elizabeth immediately recognizes the accusation against her
as a plot by Abigail to remove her from John’s side. The animosity between the two women has now
become dangerous. Abigail is the chief accuser of the court and is now calling the shots. Whatever she
says is being taken as gospel, however bizarre. She is in a position to take revenge on Elizabeth for
dismissing her and on John for ending their affair. Elizabeth sees that Abigail is still under John’s spell, and
she begs her husband to break it.

Proctor was already reluctant to approach the court and reveal the fraud. Despite the danger to Elizabeth,
he remains unwilling to do so. At this point John is still able to believe in the ultimate justice of the court.
Sure that her innocence will be easily proven, he hesitates to take orders from his wife. While he does
ultimately decide to go, it is not by his own choice, but through pressure from Elizabeth. He stubbornly
maintains his individuality and refusal to be involved until he is nagged into doing otherwise. John despises
the court and all it stands for, but his family has been dragged into the crisis despite all his attempts to
remain aloof. His failure to respond to the crisis represents an abnegation of his personal responsibility.

Act II, Scene 3 Summary and Analysis New Character Francis Nurse: husband of Rebecca Nurse

Summary Reverend Hale appears at the door as John is about to leave to talk to Abby. He tells the
Proctors that

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Elizabeth’s name has been mentioned in the court. His mission is to determine the Christian character of
the Proctors. Hale is concerned that John does not attend every Sunday and asks him for a reason. At first
John offers the reason that Elizabeth had been sick. Soon, however, he cannot keep from telling Hale of his
differences with Reverend Parris, who is always looking for more money. When Hale asks why one of his
sons is not baptized, John tells him that he does not want the minister’s hand on his baby. He “does not
see the light of God” in Parris.

Hale is still a bit unsure of the Proctor’s religion. He asks them to repeat their commandments. John
nervously gets through nine, but cannot think of the tenth. Elizabeth gently indicates that he has left out
adultery. John is uneasy, and Hale is obviously concerned by this lapse. As Hale is about to leave,
obviously unconvinced of Elizabeth’s innocence, she suddenly begs John to tell Hale what Abby told him.
John haltingly tells Hale that the sickness of the children has nothing to do with witchcraft. He suggests that
those who have confessed may have done so only to save themselves from hanging. This suggestion
strikes a cord with Hale, who has obviously entertained the thought himself. He then questions the Proctors
on their belief in witches. When Elizabeth asserts that she cannot believe in witches, Hale is shocked.

Giles Corey and Francis Nurse then arrive with the news that both of their wives have been taken to jail.
Martha Corey’s charge is bewitching a farmer so that he cannot keep pigs alive; Rebecca’s is murdering
Goody Putnam’s babies. While Hale was able to doubt Elizabeth, whom he did not know, he is truly shaken
by the news that Rebecca Nurse has been charged. Her good character and deeds of charity were known
far from Salem; however, he asserts his faith in the court and his belief that Rebecca’s innocence will be
proved.

Discussion and Analysis The issue of John’s not attending church regularly is larger than it might seem. Not
only is it expected of a good Christian, it also represents a sense of community. His failure to attend church
regularly is an outward manifestation of his dangerous nonconformity that threatens the foundation of the
society. John is openly hostile to Salem’s obsession with sin. For that he will be punished.

The matter of not baptizing one of his sons is a far more serious offense. To the Puritans, a baby would not
enter heaven if it had not been baptized and thus accepted as a child of God. Whether or not John believes
this, his failure to baptize his son indicates the depth of his negative feelings toward the minister. This act in
itself would surely bring the community to question his reputation. Proctor’s open criticism of the
materialism of the minister is a challenge to the minister’s authority.

Hale’s questioning of the Proctors is another example of the string of interrogations in Act Two that began
with Elizabeth’s interrogation of her husband. When John reveals his conflict with the minister, Hale should
begin to see underlying causes for the accusations of witchcraft. Instead, he allows his ideology to hide the
evidence presented to his reason. John’s explanations for his failure to attend services and to baptize his
son are reasonable and complete. There is no reason his faith should be tested further.

Hale, however, persists in pressing the Proctors. When asked to repeat the commandments, John
noticeably forgets adultery. This “Freudian slip” shows that John has not yet come to terms with his guilt
over the affair with Abigail. John’s visible discomfort is due to his overwhelming sense of his own sin.
Elizabeth has created an atmosphere of guilt that could be felt by Hale. His suspicion aroused, he presses
for details, knowing the commandments were a frequent sign of faith. It is often offered as a defense of
character, and in Sarah Good’s case, her failure to repeat them eventually led to her conviction as a witch.
John’s hesitation is taken as a significant sign by Hale.

Giles Corey’s offhanded comment about John’s belief in witches now surfaces as another accusation
against him. Hale is, after all, the authority on witches. He takes them very seriously. Elizabeth’s assertion
that she cannot believe if she herself is accused of being one is a significant breach of Christian behavior. It
shows an

19

alienation from the community more typical of John than of herself.

The first realization that something is amiss in the witch-hunt proceedings comes to Hale when he learns
that Rebecca Nurse has now been accused. As an outsider, he is unfamiliar with nearly everyone in Salem.
Rebecca, however, has a reputation for devoutness and charity that has reached him in Boston. Surely
such a woman could not be a witch! While this bit of news does shake Hale, it is not enough to convince
him that the court is a fraud. As he had said earlier, the most pious members of the community are far more
valuable and challenging targets for the devil. He points out that Lucifer himself was as beautiful as any
other angel before he fell. Hale still has faith that the truth will win out, and Rebecca will be released if she
is innocent. The incident is important, though, in that up to this point Hale has refused to admit any thought
that the trials may not be just.

Act II, Scene 4 Summary and Analysis New Characters Ezekiel Cheever: clerk of the court, responsible for
serving warrants to the accused

Marshal Herrick: an officer of the court, charged with chaining the accused to bring them to the prison

Summary Shortly after the disturbing news that Goody Nurse and Goody Corey have been charged,
Ezekiel Cheever and Marshal Herrick enter the room. Cheever bears a warrant for Elizabeth’s arrest and
has been ordered to search the house for poppets. The two men are uncomfortable with their position and
a bit afraid of John Proctor. Cheever spots the poppet that Mary made for Elizabeth that day in court. Upon
examining the doll, a long needle is found stuck in its stomach. A horrified Cheever explains to the others
that Abigail Williams had collapsed screaming at dinner, a needle stuck into her belly. When asked how she
had been stabbed, Abby testified that it was Elizabeth’s spirit. Mary is summoned to explain how the poppet
came to be in the house and admits that she probably left the needle there herself. Her assertion, however,
does not convince the others. John is so enraged at their behavior that he tears up the warrant and orders
them to leave, asserting that it is not witchcraft that has taken hold of Salem, but vengeance.

All of John’s anger, however, cannot prevent the men from taking Elizabeth away. Neither can he prevent
them from chaining her for the journey. After the others leave, Proctor orders Mary to come with him to the
court the next day and tell the truth about the poppet and how the needle came to be stuck in it. He cannot
bear for Elizabeth to suffer for his own indiscretion. Mary, however, warns Proctor that if she goes against
Abby, Abby will charge him with lechery and ruin him. The terrified girl is afraid that if she tells the truth, the
others will turn on her. She insists until the curtain closes that she cannot.

Discussion and Analysis The poppet represents the lengths to which Abigail is willing to go to seek
vengeance. It is now clear that the doll was planted in the house by Mary Warren. Abigail has stuck her
own belly with a long needle. She was simulating the voodoo practice of sewing a doll in someone’s
likeness, which is then used to inflict pain on that person. Abigail knows that there is no evidence of
witchcraft in the Proctor household. The only way to implicate Elizabeth is to manufacture evidence. The
hysteria in Salem has reached such a fevered pitch that even Mary’s admission that she left the needle in
the doll herself will not clear Elizabeth’s name. At this point Abby is deliberately giving false evidence for
her own personal gratification. She need not have legitimate proof. The court will believe only what it
desires to believe. Their fanaticism has overcome their common sense and has created a new, subjective
reality.
Cheever and Herrick represent the kind of blind loyalty to the social order that Proctor so despises. While
they are decent men and have known the people they are arresting for years, they are bound by the law to
take them unquestioningly. It is precisely this handing over of conscience to the state that Proctor strives to
avoid.

20

Cheever and Herrick have lost their sense of individual identity. They find it easier to conform than to think
about their actions.

Proctor vividly shows his abhorrence of the court by tearing up the warrant for Elizabeth’s arrest. He has
correctly identified the cause of the hysteria as vengeance rather than justice, and he refuses to comply.
Proctor believes that he is not bound to obey an unjust law. Why, he asks, has no one thought to question
whether Parris or Abigail are being honest? Now, he says, “the little crazy children are jangling the keys of
the kingdom, and common vengeance writes the law!” The accusers are always right, no matter how
absurd the charge.

Proctor is still trying desperately to remain uninvolved in the witch-hunt procedures. When Elizabeth is
taken away, however, he realizes that he can no longer remain on the sidelines. His wife’s arrest has
shown him the goodness of her character. He must do anything he can to clear her name. Still believing,
however, that his own testimony will not convince the court, he enlists a terrified Mary Warren to tell her
story. Mary gives him the ominous warning that should he attempt to interfere, Abigail will charge him with
lechery and destroy his name. Proctor is being blackmailed. Once Proctor has made up his mind to stand
up for his principles, however, this will not stop him.

Act III, Scene 1 Summary and Analysis New Characters Judge Hathorne: one of the judges in the witch
trials

Deputy Governor Danforth: the chief judge of the witch trials

Summary Act Three is set in the side room of the Salem meeting house, which has now become the
General Court. The proceedings of the court, taking place in the next room, are audible. Judge Hathorne
questions Martha Corey, who has been accused of reading fortunes and harming the accusing children.
She denies the charges, and her husband Giles speaks out that he has evidence to present, accusing
Thomas Putnam of attempting to acquire more land.

Giles is promptly thrown physically out of the courtroom and into the side room by Herrick. Hale soon
follows, and then Judge Hathorne, Deputy Governor Danforth, Ezekiel Cheever, Francis Nurse, and
Reverend Parris. Giles is soundly rebuffed for his disruption of the court proceedings, yet persists in
claiming his wife’s innocence. He feels enormous guilt for mentioning Martha’s fascination with books and
thereby possibly bringing this trouble upon her.

Francis Nurse then shocks the judges by asserting that the girls are a fraud. He is promptly denounced as
being in contempt of court. John Proctor escorts Mary Warren into the room to speak to Danforth and to
hand him her signed deposition saying she saw no spirits. Danforth, however, refuses to accept any
depositions. Mary openly admits that the behavior of all the girls is mere pretense. This admission calls into
question the very foundation of the court, and Danforth suspects that this group is trying to undermine the
court and, by extension, his authority.

Discussion and Analysis The stage directions to Act Three indicate that sunlight streams into the room from
two high windows in the back wall. Similarly, the lighting in Act Four will be moonlight seeping through the
bars of a high window. Miller’s use of lighting adds another dimension to the symbolism of the novel. In an
atmosphere of darkness, ignorance, and evil, a few shafts of pure light are visible coming from above,
symbolizing goodness and truth. Unfortunately, while the light burns brightly, it is not enough to overcome
the overwhelming darkness of the witch-hunts.
21

The subjective reality created in Salem is so strong at this point that the leaders feel no need to prove
themselves to the world of reason and experience. Miller states in Act One that these were a people who
felt “that they held in their steady hands the candle that would light the world.” The Puritans clung to
principles, and they attempted to live and die by them. This system of moral absolutes and life values is
not, however, corrupt in itself. Characters like Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor value both reason and
religion and lead a balanced life. It is the perversion of these values that becomes dangerous and even evil;
the rejection of reality in favor of a system. The false accusation of witches where no witches exist is a
mockery of the spiritual values the Puritans upheld. The play’s strong emphasis on truth, as seen in the
characters of Rebecca and the Proctors, shows a sympathy for the Puritan beliefs, rightly and reasonably
applied.

The character of Danforth embodies the wrongful application of these values. Like Hale, Danforth is an
outsider in Salem. While Hale at least attempted to investigate those accused, Danforth has no interest in
the defendants as people. He measures his worth by the number of people he has jailed and sentenced to
death. The Salem trials will bring him recognition and further his position as a judge. These selfish motives
are mixed with a strong desire to maintain the status quo. Danforth is so strongly committed to maintaining
the order created by the belief system that the ends justify the means. Political authority and religious
authority are one and the same in Salem, and Danforth upholds what he strongly believes is the
unarguable truth.

The precariousness of goodness in this world is underlined by the court’s actions in Act Three. When Giles
Corey attempts to offer a reasonable explanation for the accusations of the girls, he is removed from the
court. Clearly the proceedings are taking place in a realm far beyond reason. Corey has put his finger on
the truth. Putnam has been having his daughter name names of those whose land he wishes to obtain.
According to the laws of Salem, a convicted witch must forfeit his or her land. Anyone with enough capital is
then given the opportunity to buy it. Corey’s accusation offers a convincing, though cold-blooded, motive; a
rational explanation to replace the supernatural one. The court, though, is unwilling to consider that it may
be mistaken.

The second attempt to sway the judges is offered by Francis Nurse, who openly accuses Danforth of being
deceived. Judge Hathorne would have both Corey and Nurse arrested for contempt of court. Any evidence
that conflicts with the girls will not be heard. It becomes clear that only the girls themselves can save the
victims of this madness. When Mary Warren arrives and denounces the proceedings as mere pretense,
she undermines the very foundation of the court system. Rather than believe the girl, the entire group is
charged with attempting to overthrow the power of the court, which is entirely based on the contention that
“the voice of Heaven is speaking through the children.”

The significance of Mary’s arrival is not lost on Parris. His position at the center of the proceedings is in
jeopardy and he is not pleased. He attempts to undermine the effect of any testimony by warning the
judges that Proctor is “mischief.” The trials have become a means for Parris to solidify his shaky position in
Salem. Where at first he was only a commentator, in Act Three he takes on the role of accuser, making
sure no possible charge is missed. While issues such as church attendance and plowing on Sunday have
no bearing whatsoever on the testimony Proctor attempts to make to the court, Parris mentions them to
shed doubt on Proctor’s character. It is a desperate attempt to hold on to the power he has achieved
through the proceedings. Parris becomes increasingly malicious and unbalanced as the act continues.

Hale, however, has begun to turn around. He is beginning to see the error of his earlier judgments and now
attempts to allow the truth to be heard. As Act Three progresses, Hale will become further shaken by the
injustice of the hearings until he finally denounces them. At this early point in his transformation, however, it
is already clear that he has lost his influence with the court. He is all but ignored by Danforth and Hathorne.
His revelation has come too late.

Act III, Scene 2 Summary and Analysis

22

Summary As Danforth considers the claim, he tells Proctor that his wife asserts she is pregnant. The men
at first suspect Elizabeth has said this to prevent hanging. John, however, insists that Elizabeth would
never lie. On this basis, Danforth offers to let Elizabeth go free until she has delivered. Even so, John
cannot in good conscience drop his charge of fraudulence against the court. Danforth reads a deposition
stating the good characters of Elizabeth, Rebecca, and Martha, which has been signed by 91 landholding
Salem farmers. He then orders all 91 arrested for examination by the court.

Giles Corey has also written a deposition accusing Putnam of having his daughter cry witchery against
George Jacobs, who is now jailed. If Jacobs is found to be a witch, he must, by law, give up his property.
Putnam is brought in and denounces the accusation as a lie. As doubt is placed on the proceedings,
Danforth becomes more adamant in his assertion that the innocent have nothing to fear in the court.

Proctor again presents Mary Warren’s deposition, which states that “she never saw Satan; nor any spirit,
vague or clear, that Satan may have sent to hurt her. And she declares her friends are lying now.” At this
point, realizing the seriousness of the statement, Hale suggests that Proctor return with a lawyer to present
this claim. Hale has begun to see how uncertain the evidence is against those who have been condemned
to die. Danforth retorts that there is no need for a lawyer, since witchcraft is an invisible crime that can have
no witnesses other than the victim and the witch.

Discussion and Analysis Elizabeth’s claim that she is pregnant brings the theme of truth to the foreground
of the play. Elizabeth is one of the beacons of truth that has not been overcome by the darkness of the
lying all around her. Proctor insists, “if she say she is pregnant, then she must be! That woman will never
lie, Mr. Danforth.” For all the coldness and disappointment of the Proctor’s relationship, Elizabeth’s honesty
is unquestioned by her husband. Elizabeth’s unfailing honesty is sharply contrasted with John’s original
unwillingness to let the truth be known to the court.

Elizabeth’s pregnancy presents John with a decision. Danforth offers to let her live another year and have
the child. The offer will save her life; however, in making the offer, Danforth is asking him to give up any
further attempt to show that the proceedings are fraudulent. Proctor must again make the difficult decision
to either remain uninvolved or do what he can to make the truth known. Admirably, he chooses to fight for
the truth and thus recognizes his responsibility to the society of which he is a part.

Danforth states that “no uncorrupted man may fear this court.” We have, however, just witnessed several
uncorrupted men attempting to present evidence to the court and being charged with contempt. The
ridiculousness of this behavior is magnified when all 91 people who signed the deposition in favor of
Elizabeth, Martha, and Rebecca are arrested for questioning. Their crime was to attest to the virtue of three
upstanding citizens of the community. As Danforth puts it, “a person is either with this court or he must be
counted against it, there be no road between.” Being with the court, in this case, means closing one’s mind
to the evidence of reason and submitting to the mass hysteria that has stopped all business in Salem, save
for the trials. No wonder the vast majority of citizens in Salem are afraid to speak against the proceedings.
The innocent do, indeed, have much to fear.

Corey’s deposition accusing Putnam of “killing his neighbors for their land,” shows just how difficult it is to
prove what motivates anyone. When Putnam soundly denounces the accusation as a lie, it is his word
against Corey’s. While Putnam conveniently uses the machinery of the court to further his own ends, Corey
is challenging the system with thoughts they prefer not to entertain. Just as there is no definitive proof of
witchcraft, there can be no definitive proof that Putnam is responsible for charging innocent people.

23

Hale’s assertion that Proctor should return to the court with a lawyer to present his evidence properly
shows that he has growing sympathies for the charges of fraud. When he first interrogated Proctor in his
home, there was no room for any evidence save the condition of Proctor’s soul. He wholeheartedly
assumed that he could make a sound judgment based on his Christian character alone. Now, however, he
is beginning to see that the truth of the matter is beyond the scope of such issues as knowing the
catechism and plowing on Sunday. He recommends that Proctor get a lawyer to protect him from the
unreasonable judgments of Danforth. Where Hale had once been suspicious of the Proctors, he is now
attempting to help them. Danforth’s assertion that there is no need for lawyers shows how far from actual
justice the court has strayed.

Act III, Scene 3 Summary and Analysis Summary Danforth studies the deposition and calls for the other
girls to be brought in for questioning. Mary, meanwhile, is questioned by the judge and asserts several
times that she has lied in court. Susanna Walcott, Mercy Lewis, Betty Parris, and Abigail are led into the
room and told of Mary’s confession. Abigail, asked if there is any truth to it, flatly denies it. As Abigail calmly
refutes all of Mary’s assertions, her character is called into question by Proctor, who tells the others that
she has led the girls to dance naked in the woods. Parris is forced to admit that he discovered them
dancing. Mary is then asked to fake fainting, as she says she did in the courtroom. She is unable to comply.

When Abby is questioned again, she turns against Mary, claiming that the girl has sent her spirit out. The
other girls react likewise. Proctor, in his anger and desperation, grabs Abby and calls her a whore. He then
admits that he has had an affair with her and that his wife put her out of their house for being a harlot.
Elizabeth is called in to corroborate the story; however, she senses that what she says will have profound
consequences for her husband. Elizabeth, not knowing that John has confessed, and allowed no help from
him, is torn. When forced to answer directly if John is a lecher, she denies it to save his name. John now
stands accused of falsehood.

Hale has been completely won over to John’s side and denounces Abby. Abby responds by pointing to the
ceiling and claiming she sees a bird there that wishes to tear her face. She accuses Mary of envy. Then the
girls begin to mimic all of Mary’s words as she frantically begs them to stop pretending. Caught between
the desire to tell the truth and the fear of hanging, Mary finally sides with the other girls and accuses
Proctor of doing devil’s work and of attempting to overthrow the court. The curtain falls as both John
Proctor and Giles Corey are taken away to jail.

Discussion and Analysis When Abby is confronted with Mary’s confession of pretense, we see another
case of one person’s word against another’s. Neither girl’s assertions can be proved definitively, one way or
another. Frustrated by his failure to convince with reason alone, Proctor realizes that the only way to
promote the truth is to play the judge’s own game. He therefore begins to illuminate weaknesses in Abby’s
Christian character. She laughs during prayer; she dances naked in the woods. From these offenses
against Puritanism, Proctor hopes to show that Abby is not above lying in the courtroom, and, worse yet,
scheming to murder those accused of witchcraft.

Parris reacts to these charges against his niece in a curious way. Rather than defend Abigail, he
immediately defends himself. “Excellency, since I come to Salem this man is blackening my name.” Parris’
involvement in the proceedings has been exclusively to protect his own reputation; his own good name. His
paranoia leads him to imagine insults where none are intended. Although in Act One Parris told Abby he
thought he saw one of the girls naked, here he flatly denies it. He is less interested in telling the truth than
in keeping any wrongdoing of his niece’s from surfacing.

24

Mary Warren, the weakest of the girls and the most likely to be intimidated, finds she cannot stand up to the
power of Abigail. Despite Proctor’s reassurance that no harm will come to those who tell the truth, she is
deathly afraid of Abby. Having been one of the accusers of the court, Mary witnessed many sentences of
death by hanging. When Abby turns against her and accuses her of sending her spirit out, she knows what
will become of her. She lacks the courage and the strength necessary to be an individual against a
powerful majority.
When Proctor sees Mary falter, he uses the one weapon he still holds. He admits to his lechery and
surrenders his good name. Proctor gives up his good reputation in Salem to stand up for what he believes
is right. He has finally become fully committed to the truth. Elizabeth, the very model of truth, believes she
can save her husband by lying. The woman who cannot lie tells a lie. She was doomed either way. To tell
the truth was to ruin her husband’s good name. To lie was to condemn him. In going against her own
nature, her own individuality, Elizabeth begins the sequence that will lead to her husband’s death.

Ironically, the one member of the community who tried so hard to remain uninvolved in the witch-hunt has
become its central focus. This is a turning point in the play. Proctor, the principle enemy of the witch-hunt,
has become its ultimate victim. He is dangerous to the proceedings precisely because he does not believe
in them. In order for the epidemic to continue, Proctor must be removed.

The sequence is also climactic for Hale. By the end of Act Three Hale has completely denounced the
hearings. Shaken by the injustice that he sees before him, he tries to right the wrong. By this point,
however, he has no influence. Danforth tells him “I will have nothing from you, Mr. Hale!” Danforth, while
close to perceiving the truth, has no epiphany. Faced with truths and lies, he is unable or unwilling to
distinguish between them.

Act IV, Scene 1 Summary and Analysis New Characters Sarah Good: an old beggar woman of Salem
accused of witchcraft

Hopkins: a prison guard

Summary Act Four is set in a cell at the Salem jail the following fall. Sarah Good lies sleeping on one
bench, and Tituba on another. Marshal Herrick enters and wakes them, ordering them to move to another
cell. Both women carry on about how the devil is coming to fly with them to Barbados.

Deputy Governor Danforth and Judge Hathorne enter, followed by Cheever. From their talk it is apparent
that there will be hangings the following day and that Reverend Hale is in the prison praying with those who
are to hang. As Herrick is sent to fetch Parris, the other men discuss the minister’s odd behavior. He seems
to have gone a bit mad, and when he enters it is apparent that he is gaunt and frightened. Parris
summoned the two judges back to Salem because his niece, Abigail, and Mercy Lewis have vanished after
robbing him of all of his money. Parris believes the girls may have been frightened by the rumors of the
rebellion in Andover against the court. Apparently, during a similar situation in Andover, the town banded
together and threw out the court, saying they wanted no part of witchcraft.

While the hangings in Salem have gone smoothly so far, Parris fears that the hanging of Rebecca Nurse
and John Proctor the next morning will change public sentiment. Unlike the others who have hung, these
two are good people who hold great weight in Salem. Parris argues for postponement to give Hale a
chance to bring more of the condemned to confess. Danforth denies any postponement. At this denial,
Parris reveals that his life has been threatened. He fears physical retaliation if these two die.

25

Hale has failed to move any of the prisoners to confession. Both Hale and Parris argue for pardon or
postponement of the hangings. Danforth refuses to reconsider on the grounds that he will look indecisive
and it would be unfair to those who have already hung.

Discussion and Analysis Act Four takes place in the Salem jail, dimly lit by moonlight seeping through the
bars. The light of goodness is still present, though it has been greatly dimmed. No longer the bright sunlight
of Act Three, we now see only the reflected light of the moon. While evil has managed to overpower good,
as is vividly portrayed in the apparent madness of Tituba and Sarah Good, it cannot be obliterated.

Tituba represents a distinctly different cultural view of the devil. In her native Barbados, the devil is not seen
as the embodiment of evil as he is in Puritan theology. Occult practices were, and still are, accepted in
many of the islands. The contrast is between the hatred of differentness exhibited by the Puritans, and the
acceptance of diversity seen in the island culture. To Tituba, the devil is not wicked. She says “Devil, him
be pleasureman in Barbados, him be singin’ and dancin’ in Barbados.” Where Tituba herself stands on the
issue is unclear. The mad ravings of Tituba and Sarah Good are more a reaction against the rigid
Puritanism that has condemned them than an embrace of the devil. They have been in jail for many months
and are reacting to their circumstances.

Time has passed since Act Three, and it is now fall. The symbolism of the season is apparent. Fall is the
time of fruition, when crops reach their fullness and are harvested. It also heralds a time of death and
decay. The hysteria of the witch trials has now reached its peak and is approaching its inevitable end. For
months the residents of Salem have done nothing but attend the proceedings of the court. There is a real
sense that the town is tiring of the spectacle.

Tituba and Sarah Good’s madness is mirrored in the madness of Reverend Parris. He has been reduced to
a shadow of the man in Act One, gaunt, frightened, and prone to sudden weeping. Parris has summoned
the judges back to Salem to discuss the disappearance of his niece, Abigail, and Mercy Lewis with all of his
money. While nothing to this point had convinced Parris of the error of his ways, the loss of his money
seems to have awakened him to the significance of the court’s actions. The rumors of Andover have also
begun to turn public opinion, and alliance with the witch-hunt is no longer politically advantageous for the
minister. He begins to argue for postponement of the hangings in order to bring more of the condemned to
confess and save their lives.

The situation in Andover is crucial. Apparently, a similar court set up there to condemn witches was thrown
out by the people of the town who rebelled against its authority. Danforth attempts to silence any talk about
the rebellion; however, the news has already spread through Salem. The rumor spread in this act parallels
the rumors of witchcraft spread in the beginning of the play. Just as the earlier rumors quickly took hold of
the town and led to the witch hysteria, so Danforth fears these new rumors will quickly undermine his
authority. The disappearance of Abigail and Mercy Lewis after the Andover rebellion casts serious doubt on
their testimony.

Parris fears that the hanging of two such upstanding citizens as Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor the next
morning will incite a rebellion in Salem similar to the one in Andover. Still, Danforth refuses to budge. The
reason he gives is that “postponement now speaks of floundering on my part.” He is not so much
concerned about the lives of those condemned as about his own reputation. He does not wish to appear
weak, opening himself up to criticism of the entire proceeding. Once again, the ends justify the means.
Miller himself has said of Danforth “there are people dedicated to evil in the world; that without their
perverse example we should not know the good.” While it may have been possible to excuse Danforth’s
earlier behavior as a necessary result of the authority he holds, this refusal to examine his actions for fear
of losing face is abominable.

26

Hale has now come full circle in his development. While he appeared in Salem bearing the weighty
authority of his books on the devil and witchcraft, he is now there to attempt to reverse the consequences
of that early behavior. Far from examining the souls of these men and women and judging their content, he
is now encouraging them to lie and save their lives. Hale is finally acting as an individual, and he attempts
to persuade others to do the same. The trials had been a farce, and Hale saw no sin in telling a lie to an
unjust authority to save one’s life. As Hale was fanatical in his zeal to find witches, he is now fanatical in his
zeal to save lives. His argument that the victims should all be pardoned is greatly weakened by the fact that
at least one of those condemned has already confessed. Danforth will no longer take him seriously. His
efforts are too late.

Act IV, Scene 2 Summary and Analysis Summary The judges decide to bring John and Elizabeth together,
hoping that his pregnant wife will soften John’s resolve. When Elizabeth arrives, Hale pleads with her to
convince her husband to confess and save his life. John is dragged in and the two are left alone.
Elizabeth reveals that a hundred or more of the accused have confessed and gone free. The two weigh the
merits of confession against the value of remaining in the truth. When Hathorne returns for his answer,
John asserts that he wants his life. As Hathorne cries out the news, John immediately doubts his decision,
struggling with the evil of the lie.

Discussion and Analysis By this point, Hale’s attempts to rectify the wrongs done to those condemned has
reached near hysteria. He has again let his emotion overpower his principle, this time in the very opposite
extreme. He is attempting to convince the prisoners that two wrongs will make a right. As he himself says, “I
come to do the Devil’s work. I come to counsel Christians they should belie themselves.” His assertion that
“there is blood on my head! Can you not see the blood on my head!” mimics Lady Macbeth as she attempts
to wash her bloodstained hands in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Hale tells Elizabeth “I would save your
husband’s life, for if he is taken I count myself his murderer.” The extent of the guilt that he feels is
enormous.

The short scene between Elizabeth and John Proctor in the jail is pivotal to the play. Hale counsels
Elizabeth to convince her husband to lie. Elizabeth, however, has seen the results of her own lie, which led
to John’s sentence to death. Her calmness in the face of tragedy astounds Danforth. The emotion between
husband and wife at first laying eyes on each other is powerful. Each had sacrificed to save the other: John
by offering up his reputation; Elizabeth by lying. Both attempts were a dismal failure. John’s death is just
hours away.

John Proctor’s choice does not come as easily as Rebecca Nurse’s. His good name—his identity—is
crucial to him. If he joins the mistaken majority and admits witchcraft, he will lose his identity. This is a much
deeper concept of a good name than mere reputation. The confession of his relationship with Abigail was
about his standing in the eyes of others. This confession will be about his own personal integrity. Proctor’s
name is threatened only by his fear of death and the knowledge of his own adultery. What the community
thinks of him is not his concern. His concern is to be true to himself. To confess is to be a fraud.

Of course, to confess is also to save his life. Is it true, as Hale insists, that “life is God’s most precious gift”
and that “no principle, however glorious, may justify the taking of it”? Elizabeth would say it is not. To her
the goal should not be life at any price, but a life of moral integrity. To confess is too great a concession.
Curiously, Proctor struggles not with the telling of the lie that will save his life, but with the image he will
present if he chooses to die. He knows that Rebecca Nurse will be seen, deservedly, as a martyr. He feels
that he has not earned such a death; he is unworthy of that appellation. Proctor has not lived up to his own
moral standards. The calm demeanor of his wife only serves to emphasize his unworthiness. He is tempted
to agree with Hale and avoid a meaningless death.

27

Proctor has decided to sign a confession; however, he is not secure in his decision, and he seeks the
approval of his wife. He admits that he has only waited this long because “it is hard to give a lie to dogs.”
Elizabeth withholds her advice. She thinks this decision must be made by John deeply searching his own
conscience. Elizabeth has changed. She has seen her coldness and the reasons for John’s adultery. She
has realized that neither she nor any other person on earth can be his judge. Her statement that “whatever
you will do, it is a good man does it” is a long way from comments in Act Two. Elizabeth has not attempted
to sway him, and John delivers his decision: he will have his life.

Act IV, Scene 3 Summary and Analysis Summary The others reenter the cell, and Cheever prepares to
take a statement. John begins to answer the questions put to him, agreeing that he saw the devil and that
he did the devil’s work on the earth. Soon after the formal confession is begun, however, Rebecca Nurse is
brought in to witness it in the hope that it will, in turn, cause her own confession. Rebecca is astonished
that John would do such a thing. When John is pressed to name those he has seen with the devil, he
refuses to taint their good names. Danforth finally asks him to sign his confession and he at first refuses,
then signs. Afterward, however, he snatches up the paper and refuses to give it back to be posted on the
door of the church.
At this point, John begins to act irrationally. He believes he has confessed before God and that there is no
need for the piece of paper bearing his signature. If it is posted, he knows he will cast doubt on the
innocence of those who refuse to confess and are hanged. He finally breaks down and tells Danforth he
has signed his name to a lie. As Danforth asks one last time for the paper, John tears it up and crumples it.
He has found the resolve to stand by the truth and to hang for it. Rebecca and John are led out to their
deaths, while Hale and Parris plead with Elizabeth to attempt to sway her husband’s decision. The play
ends with the final statement from Elizabeth: “He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him!”

Discussion and Analysis The theme of the good name is critically important in this last scene of the play.
While Proctor verbally confesses to witchcraft, he refuses to name others who are involved. He is refusing
to spoil anyone’s good name or reputation in the community. Proctor realizes that one’s name is everything.
His refusal is taken as a sign that he is not truly repentant. Of course he is not repentant. He has done
nothing wrong; however, slandering the names of others is perversely seen as a sign of rightness with God.

Proctor, after much protest, proceeds to sign a written confession. He refuses, however, to surrender it to
the judge. The written evidence of his dishonesty is more than he can bear. Proctor also knows that his
signature will be posted publicly on the church doors and used to force others to confess, thereby losing
their own identities. He refuses to incriminate others or to serve as an example of submission. It is enough
that he has offered the lie. God knows his soul and should be its only judge. The reason that he gives to
Danforth in the climax of the play comes back to the idea of a good name: “Because it is my name! . . . How
may I live without my name? I have given you my soul; leave me my name!”

Proctor finally asserts his individuality and claims his name by denouncing his confession as a lie. In a vivid
gesture, he tears and crumples the paper before the judges. Proctor is honest, above all, with himself. To
confess is to align himself with what he believes to be evil. The prosecution is the real example of the devil.
All who consort with them, then, become true witches. For Proctor, to confess is to admit the truth of the
court’s charge against him. In the end he refuses to surrender his unique beliefs. He makes the choice that
costs him his life but restores his soul. Proctor surprises himself with this new strength. “You have made
your magic now,” he says, “for now I do think I see some shred of goodness in John Proctor.” Proctor has
earned his death in his final act. His achievement is heralded by his wife, who says to Hale: “He have his
goodness now. God forbid I take it from him!”

28

Miller has stated that he was drawn to this subject by the “moral size” of the people involved. “They knew
who they were.” Each of the 20 who died in Salem believed so strongly in themselves and in the rightness
of their consciences as to die rather than belie themselves. In a situation where “men were handing their
conscience to other men and thanking them for the opportunity to do so,” they refused to give in. While the
parallel to the McCarthy era is striking, the lessons of the play are applicable to any situation that allows the
accuser to be always right. It is similarly applicable to any conflict between the individual and authority. The
final authority must always rest not with the majority, but with the individual conscience.

29

Themes Themes and Meanings (Comprehensive Guide to Drama)

The Crucible is a play about a man’s refusal to lie in order to satisfy phony claims enforced by the
establishment; it portrays mass paranoia and the struggle to maintain human dignity in the face of a
universe bereft of reason and order. The play’s attitude to the specific topic of witchcraft, however, is
thoroughly naturalistic. Characters are motivated by rational economic concerns, jealousy, or a juvenile
passion for the forbidden; even the religious zeal of Parris has its deeper roots in the minister’s wish that he
could continue to “preach nothin’ but golden candlesticks until he had them.”

In this climate, The Crucible focuses on how man can deal with a fierce authority which demands that he
perform immoral acts in order to maintain a hypocritical status quo. The “theocracy” of the Puritan
settlement will not allow any cracks to appear in the facade of traditional religion behind which the powerful
guard their position of advantage. In the key scene of Proctor’s confrontation with Deputy Governor
Danforth, the playwright shows that, like the Roman Catholic inquisitors of Giordano Bruno and Galileo,
Danforth has an inkling that to reverse the court’s judgment would be to open the door to broader
implications, since “the entire contention of the state in these trials is that the voice of Heaven is speaking
through the children.” Repeatedly, Danforth asks Proctor, “There lurks nowhere in your heart . . . any desire
to undermine this court?” By an ironic twist, however, the undermining is done by Danforth himself, when
he violates due process by ordering the summary arrest of certain petitioners or by depriving Proctor and
Mary of all legal counsel.

In the final scene in jail, Proctor achieves heroic stature when he decides that his life is worth less than his
duty to the truth. His claim to personal happiness is less important than the truth that the whole
community—and history—needs, and he overcomes his previous, somewhat contrived flaw (adulterous
lust). Because of Proctor’s act, Arthur Miller implies in an epilogue to the printed play entitled “Echoes down
the Corridor,” “the power of theocracy in Massachusetts was broken.”

Themes

Politics In the early 1950s, hearings at Senator Joseph McCarthy's powerful House Un-American Activities
Committee had decided that the American Communist Party, a legal political party, was compromising the
security of the nation by encouraging connections with Russia (America's ally during the Second World War
but its enemy afterwards). Those who were sympathetic to the communist cause, or those who had
connections with Russia, were summoned before the committee to explain their involvement, recant their
beliefs, and name their former friends and associates in the communist cause. Miller himself had to attend
a Senate hearing in 1957. He admitted that he had been to communist meetings—of writers—but refused
to name anyone else. He denied having been a member of the Party and was eventually found guilty of
contempt.

The McCarthy Committee's antagonism of innocent (and in most cases harmless) citizens—and politically-
motivated persecution in general—is explored in The Crucible through the subject of witchcraft. Particularly,
through the dramatization of events which took place in Salem, Massachusetts, in the seventeenth century.
The town's hysteria at the beginning of the play has a direct parallel in the frenzy that communist "witch-
hunting" caused in America in the 1950s. Further, John Proctor's trial, confession (obtained through
antagonism and threats), and ultimate recantation conjures a scene similar to the ones that were played out
in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee. By having his protagonist take a stand for his
beliefs and his personal integrity, Miller displays a clear sympathy for those persecuted in McCarthy's
inquisition. The playwright's message is one of personal and political freedom for every citizen.

The Crucible also examines political persecution as a tool for deflecting attention away from difficult
problem areas. McCarthy's persecution of communist sympathizers did little to strengthen the fiber of
American life (quite conversely, it added unwelcome suspicion and paranoia to many people's lives). To
many, however, his actions made McCarthy look like an avenging hero for capitalism and diverted the
American public's attention away from very real problems such as race and gender inequities. The
investigators in Miller's play act in a very similar manner: They refuse to face the idea that their strict way of
life may have led several young women to rebel (by, for example, dancing around a fire in the woods).
Instead they blame the wayward girls' actions on the Devil and witchcraft. With this action they bond the
community together in a battle against an outside evil that has corrupted their town. Unfortunately, in much
the same way that McCarthy's persecution ultimately unraveled many American communities, the Salem
Witch Trials end up destroying a way of life in the village.

Morals and Morality The issues which The Crucible raises have general moral relevance, as well as being
related directly to the situation in America at the time the play was written. As Dennis Welland has noted in
his Arthur Miller, the play's moral is similar to those often found in the works of George Bernard Shaw
(Pygmalion, Major Barbara). Shaw's morals often contend that wrong-headed actions—such as the witch
trials—are often motivated by a lack of personal responsibility rather than based upon deliberate cruelty or
malice. That is, rather than take a stand against proceedings they suspect are unjust, the townspeople of
Salem go along with the trials. Welland stated: "That is why Elizabeth quietly rejects as 'the Devil's
argument' Hale's impassioned plea to her to help Proctor save himself . . . Elizabeth, like [George Bernard]
Shaw's St Joan [in his play of that name], has learnt through suffering that 'God's most precious gift is not
rife at any price, but the life of spiritual freedom and moral integrity.' In Proctor's final recantation of his
confession and his refusal to put his principles aside to save his life, we see the triumph of personal
integrity in a world of moral uncertainty."

Society Paralleling Miller's exploration of individual morality is his portrayal of society's response to events
within its community. In the girls' initial accusations and the frenzy that ensues, Miller demonstrates how
peer pressure

can lead individuals into taking part in actions which they know are wrong. And in the community's reaction
to these accusations, he shows how easily stories can be taken out of context—and how people are
blamed for crimes they haven't committed. Miller links the mass hysteria of Salem to the community's
excessive religious zeal and very strict attitudes towards sex. Sexual relationships and other instances of
physical expression seem on the surface to be repressed and the fact that the girls fear being whipped for
dancing and singing suggests the strict codes of behavior under which they live.

Yet the town is not without its sexual scandal: Abigail and John Proctor's adulterous relationship is very
much in the foreground of the play and is a factor in the unfolding of the tragic events. It may be that Miller
is suggesting that such strict religious codes lead to the repression of feelings which eventually escape and
find expression in forbidden forms of behavior. The mass hysteria of the young girls could be seen as an
outbreak of sexual feelings and fantasies which have long been repressed.

Nicholas Hytner (The Madness of King George), the director of the 1996 film adaptation of The Crucible (for
which Miller wrote the screenplay) pointed out this element when he noted in his introduction to the
Penguin edition of the screenplay that "a community that denies to its young any outlet for the expression of
sexuality is asking for trouble." Through the events of the play, Miller seems to be warning against
excessive religious (as well as political) fanaticism by showing the potential outbursts of feelings—and the
disastrous results—which can occur if all forms of sexual expression are repressed
Characters

Mr. Jones

Mr. Jones, the owner of Manor Farm. After getting drunk on Midsummer’s Eve, Mr. Jones fails to return in
time to feed his animals. They have been thinking about rebellion anyway, and they take this opportunity to
chase away Mr. Jones, Mrs. Jones, and the human farmworkers. In his ineptness, Mr. Jones is analogous
to the czar of Russia, who was unable to hold Russia together during the stress of World War I.

Old Major

Old Major, a boar previously exhibited as Willingdon Beauty. He is the prize boar whose dream inspires the
Animalist Revolution on Manor Farm. Modeled on Vladimir Ilich Lenin, Old Major is highly respected in the
barnyard, a capable orator, and an uncompromising ideologue for the Animalist cause. He dies in his sleep
before the rebellion can take place.

Snowball

Snowball, a young boar whose chief rival is Napoleon. Snowball is modeled on Leon Trotsky and so
represents intelligence and organizational ability rather than brute force. It is Snowball, for example, who
writes the Seven Commandments on the barnyard wall, who has the idea of building the windmill, and who
studies the books left behind by Mr. Jones to see what practical benefit he can extract from them. Like
Trotsky, Snowball is exiled after the revolution and is falsely made out to be the chief villain of Animal Farm.

Napoleon

Napoleon, a young boar who ousts Snowball and assumes complete power over the other animals. While
Snowball is studying human science, Napoleon trains a litter of dogs to become his secret police force.
Napoleon corresponds to Joseph Stalin, who ousted Trotsky after the death of Lenin and who then led
bloody purges against possible and imagined dissenters.

Squealer

Squealer, also a young boar. Squealer is the most clever with language and is Napoleon’s propagandist
and chief misinformation officer. He is said to be able to turn black into white, meaning that he can convince
most animals of things that are patently false.

Boxer

Boxer, a cart horse who always works hard. His two mottos are “Napoleon is always right” and “I will work
harder.” When he gets a split hoof, he is sent off to the glue factory, though Squealer claims he is sent to a

hospital. He is a good friend of Benjamin.

Clover

Clover, a maternal, hardworking cart horse. Boxer and Clover are the most faithful disciples of the pigs who
run Animal Farm. They are not intelligent, and so they are easily fooled by Napoleon and Squealer. Boxer
and Clover represent both the main strengths and the main weaknesses of the working class.

Benjamin

Benjamin, a cynical donkey. He alone among Animal Farm animals is not fooled by Squealer’s lies.
Benjamin is not exactly an intellectual but rather represents the sort of barnyard wisdom that prefers not to
announce itself publicly. Benjamin, however, cries out when Boxer is taken to the glue factory.
Mollie

Mollie, a young, foolish mare. She cannot forget the niceties of farm life that were lost with the revolution;
she misses decorative ribbons and the occasional lump of sugar. She runs away to a farm where she is
pampered.

Moses

Moses, a raven who claims the existence of Sugarcandy Mountain. He is a spy for Mr. Jones and, in his
insistence on otherworldly rewards, appears to represent institutionalized religion.

Mr. Pilkington

Mr. Pilkington, a human enemy of Animal Farm who comes to do business with the animals.

Frederick

Frederick, a farmer from Pinchfield. Although he is an enemy of the farm, he comes to buy leftover timber.
He pays with forged currency. Frederick represents Adolf Hitler, who, despite much distrust, formed the
Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union and then broke it.

The Characters (Critical Guide to British Fiction)

By necessity, in allegory characters are two-dimensional figures who are created to serve the purposes of
the underlying conceptual framework. Because they must have a one-to-one relationship with the thematic
targets of the satiric thrust of the work, they cannot possess the complexity of real people in the real world.
Some of the minor figures in Animal Farm are clearly representative of simple human qualities. For
example, the sheep suggest mindless followers who are content to bleat the simplistic slogan, “Four legs
good, two legs bad,” which the pigs teach them. Mollie, the young mare, represents foolish vanity, content
to remain in harness as long as she is pampered and petted. Benjamin, the donkey, is the cynicism of one
who has seen everything and hopes for nothing. Boxer and Clover are well-meaning but stupid brute
workers, sensitive and caring but not intelligent enough to challenge authority.

In terms of the specific allegory Orwell seems to have in mind, however, it is the pigs who are most
specifically drawn and who bear the most pointed one-to-one relationship with real figures. Most critics
agree that Major is the chief theoretician of socialism, Karl Marx, whereas Snowball is Communism’s first
great leader and thinker, Leon Trotsky, and Napoleon is its first dictator, Joseph Stalin. The story thus
mirrors in satiric form the history of the Soviet Union from the Russian Revolution to World War II, when
Stalin entered into various deals with Germany and the Allies, presented in the allegory as neighboring
human farmers.

Themes and Characters

Modeled on a relatively simple premise, the novel begins as the animals of Manor Farm unite against
farmer Jones to overthrow his tyrannical rule. Understandably ecstatic over their sudden and rather
unexpected good fortune, the animals create a new order for the future based on equality and equity. The
paint is hardly dry on their barnyard manifesto, however, when the hated forces and attitudes that triggered
their revolt begin to reemerge, eventually to destroy their dream of emancipation. Orwell undoubtedly
passes judgement on the fate of revolution by comparing ideological promises with their practical
application.

All animals are created equal but some animals are more equal than others. In essence, Orwell does not
condemn revolution but agonizes over the betrayal of its ideals. Possessing superior knowledge, the pigs
assume leadership of the farm, taking a first step to replace the tyranny of the past with a new and more
terrifying threat for the future. The pigs learn to control the means of communication and literally create
their own truth to dispense to the inhabitants of the farm; this is perhaps the most pessimistic aspect of the
novel. In the end, pigs are indistinguishable from farmers and the ideals of the revolution seem distant in
the face of terror, manipulation, and despair.

Appearing in a dream, the birth of revolution was the inspiration of old Major, a pig renowned for his
wisdom and benevolence. But as the dream becomes reality, the responsibility of the revolution falls on the
two most "preeminent" pigs, Snowball and Napoleon. Thinly disguised, these represent the principals
behind the emergence of Soviet Russia—Major and Snowball are Lenin and Trotsky, and Napoleon is
Stalin.

Although a clear distinction is made at the beginning of the novel between Jones, as the representative
human, and the community of animals inhabiting the farm, the focus quickly shifts to the animals once
Jones is overthrown and specifically to the rivalry that develops between Snowball and Napoleon.

The novel follows the ruthless Napoleon in his quest for individual power. Driving Snowball into exile,
Napoleon imposes his oppressive authority on the animals through his manipulation of language, as
demonstrated by Squealer, the voice of the revolution who is capable of turning "black into white," and the
menacing presence of a private army of fierce watchdogs capable of enforcing adherence to his regime.

The failure of the revolution is largely the result of self-defeatism, cynicism, and the inability of the animals
either to recognize or resist the oppression imposed on them by Napoleon. Even the basic goodness of the
animals, as characterized by the horse Boxer, the symbol of strength, self-sacrifice, and trust, cannot
overcome the demise of idealism into blind allegiance and delusion.

Characters

Appearing in a dream, the birth of revolution was the inspiration of old Major, a pig renowned for wisdom
and benevolence. However, as the dream becomes reality, the responsibility of the revolution falls on the
two most "pre-eminent" pigs, Snowball and Napoleon. Thinly disguised as the historical principals in the
emergence of Soviet Russia, Major and Snowball are Lenin and Trotsky, and Napoleon is Stalin.
Consequently, although a clear distinction is made at the beginning of the novel between Jones as the
representation of the human element and the community of animals inhabiting the farm, the focus quickly
shifts to the animals once Jones is overthrown and specifically to the rivalry that develops between
Snowball and Napoleon.

Simultaneously attempting to expose Soviet myth as well as the dangers of totalitarianism, the novel
follows the demonic and ruthless Napoleon in his quest for individual power. Driving Snowball into exile,
Napoleon imposes his oppressive authority on the animals through his manipulation of language, as
demonstrated by Squealer, the voice of the revolution capable of turning

"black into white," and the menacing presence of a private army of watchdogs capable of administering
brutal adherence to his regime.

The failure of the revolution is largely the result of self-defeatism, cynicism, and the inability of the animals
to either recognize or resist the oppression imposed on them by Napoleon. Even the basic goodness of the
animals, as characterized by Boxer, the representation of strength, self-sacrifice, and inherent trust in
leadership, cannot overcome the demise of idealism into blind allegiance and delusion.

Character Analysis
Napoleon A "large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar," Napoleon becomes the leader of the animals after
Snowball is chased off the farm. He, Snowball, and Squealer are the ones who organize the thoughts
proclaimed by Old Major into the principles of Animalism. Soon after the revolt of the animals, Napoleon
takes nine puppies from their mothers to "educate" them. The puppies end up being his personal
bodyguards and secret police force. He grows increasingly removed from the other animals, dining alone
and being addressed as "our Leader, Comrade Napoleon." Like Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader who had
negotiated with England while making a secret deal with Hitler, Napoleon negotiates with one of Jones's
neighbors, Mr. Pilkington, while making a secret agreement with Mr. Frederick, another one of Jones's
neighbors. Stalin had a reputation for arranging the death of anyone who stood in his way. After Napoleon
chases his former friend Snowball off the farm, he has countless animals killed who confess to being
Snowball's allies. Near the end of the novel, he stands on two legs, just like the men he had previously
denounced, and announces that Animal Farm's name will revert back to Manor Farm. His name is
reminiscent of the historical Napoleon, who became the all-powerful, autocratic Emperor of the French. Like
his French counterpart, Napoleon seems to embody the idea that with power comes corruption.

Snowball A "young boar" who, with Napoleon and Squealer, helps to codify Old Major's ideas into the
commandments of Animalism. Orwell describes him as "quicker in speech and more inventive" than
Napoleon. He is the one who organizes the animals into various committees: "the Egg Production
Committee for the hens, the Clean Tails League for the cows, ... the Whiter Wool Movement for the sheep",
and various others. He also plans the defense of the farm against the humans which proves useful when
Jones and his friends try to retake the farm. Snowball shows his expert use of military strategy during the
attack—which becomes known as the Battle of the Cowshed—and is later awarded a medal. Snowball also
comes up with the idea of building a windmill to produce electricity. He represents the historical figure of
Leon Trotsky. Like Trotsky, who was exiled from Russia by his former partner Stalin, Snowball is eventually
run off the farm by Napoleon. After he is gone, Napoleon uses him as a scapegoat, blaming him for
everything that goes wrong on the farm. In an allegory of the bloody purge trials that took place in the
Soviet Union during the 1930s, the animals confess to scheming in various ways with Snowball for the
downfall of the other pigs. Whoever confesses is slaughtered.

Squealer "A small, fat pig" known for being a smooth talker, Squealer reportedly "could turn black into
white." He is the propaganda chief for the pigs, the equivalent of the Soviet party newspaper Pravda (which
means "Truth" in Russian) in Orwell's allegory. Squealer has an explanation for everything, including why
the pigs need to drink the milk the cows produce, why the commandments of Animalism seem different,
and why the "ambulance" called to take Boxer to the hospital has a sign for a horse slaughterer on its side.
By the story's end, he is so fat that his eyes are mere slits. Always on the lookout for a new slogan, he
teaches the sheep a new song to explain why the pigs are suddenly walking on their hind legs. Like any
good propaganda boss, he is able to not only explain the present, he is also an expert at rewriting the past.
He makes the animals believe, for example, that Snowball never had received the order of "Animal Hero,
First Class." But, of course, he had.

Other Characters Benjamin Benjamin, a donkey, is "the oldest animal on the farm, and the worst
tempered." He is a sad cynic who believes that whatever the animals do, conditions on the farm will remain
equally as bad. Although he usually refuses to read, he is the one who reads the side of the truck that
comes to take Boxer away and realizes it belongs to the horse slaughterer. Benjamin is moved to action,
but he is too late to save his friend. Benjamin represents the cynical intellectual who refuses to get involved
in politics and so fails to affect meaningful

change. His cymcism is much like Orwell's own attitude toward life.

Boxer One of the two cart-horses on the farm, Boxer's biggest triumph is his work on the windmill. Despite
his strength, he is sensitive to the feelings of others. During the Battle of the Cowshed, when he
accidentally stuns a stable-boy with blows from his hoofs, he is remorseful: "I have no wish to take life, not
even human life." Boxer has such blind faith in Napoleon that he refuses to question anything the pig says,
reasoning, "If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right." He constantly repeats the slogans: "I will work
harder" and "Napoleon is always right." In the end, once Boxer's health fails and he is no longer able to
work, Napoleon sends him to the horse slaughterer. In Orwell's tale, he represents the common working
class who unwittingly accept their base existence, because they believe by hard work they will get ahead
and that their leaders will protect them. Boxer's lung trouble seems to refer to Orwell's own bouts with
tuberculosis.

Clover A "stout, motherly mare," Clover is one of the two cart-horses on the farm, and one of Boxer's
closest friends. She tries to lead the other animals to see events as they really are but is often frustrated in
her attempts. She questions the change in the fourth commandment of Animalism, yet she accepts
Squealer's explanation of why it seems different. When Benjamin sounds the alarm that Boxer is being
taken to the horse slaughterer, Clover runs after the van but is unable to stop it. Like Boxer, she represents
the working class, particularly those who should realize they are being exploited but do not because of their
own laziness or apathy.

Mr. Frederick Mr Frederick is a neighbor of Mr. Jones who runs the farm called Pinchfield. His farm is better
run than Pilkington's, but he is always involved in law suits. In Orwell's allegory, Frederick represents
Germany and its leader, Adolf Hitler. Like Hitler, Frederick is treacherous, and after signing an agreement
with Napoleon he attacks Animal Farm, destroying the animals' windmill.

Mr. Jones Mr. Jones, the owner of Manor Farm, gets the animals thinking about revolution when he gets
drunk and is unable to perform all of the chores around the farm. When, in his drunkenness, he stays
overnight away from the farm, and neither he nor his men feed the farm animals, the animals revolt and
chase the humans out of the farm. Jones tries to retake the farm but is unsuccessful. He vanishes "to
another part of the country" and dies there in "an inebriates' home." With his common surname Jones could
be any farmer, and his farm any, farm. In Orwell's political allegory, he represents Nicholas II, the last tsar
of Russia, before the communists took over the government.

Minimus Described only as "a poet," Minimus composes a poem in honor of Napoleon, and a patriotic song
that replaces "Beasts of England." Minimus represents artists who are used by totalitarian states for
propaganda purposes.

Mollie A vain, white mare whose main concerns when Old Major calls for a Rebellion are having sugar
lumps to chew and ribbons for her mane. She eventually flees the farm to work for humans. She represents
those whose lust for material things blinds them to the importance of freedom.

Moses A tame raven who belongs to Mr. Jones, Moses represents organized religion. He is tolerated by the
pigs because he takes the animals' minds off their troubles by preaching to them about a happy land called
the Sugarcandy Mountain.

Muriel A white goat (named after an actual animal that Orwell kept at his farm), Muriel reads better than
most of the other animals and is called on to read the Commandments for them.

Old Major A "prize Middle White boar," Old Major calls the animals together in the novel's opening scene to
explain to them his vision of a world ruled by animals. Although quite old for a pig, he is described as "still a
majestic-looking pig." He concludes his speech by teaching of the animals the song, "Beasts of England." It
becomes the rallying cry of the Rebellion. Three nights after the meeting he dies in his sleep. He represents
Karl Marx, the German political philosopher who wrote, with Friedrich Engels, the Communist Manifesto
(1848) that called the workers of the world to unite against the ruling classes.

Mr. Pilkington Mr. Pilkington is a neighbor of Mr. Jones who runs the farm called Foxwood. His farm is
overgrown with woodland, for he enjoys hunting and fishing over farming. In Orwell's allegory, Pilkington
represents England.
Sheep The sheep function as a group and, therefore, have no individual names. They are taught to bleat
the latest slogan for hours at a time: first, "four legs good, two legs bad," later, "four legs good, two legs
better." They are the "yes-men" in every society who blindly repeat party slogans without knowing what
they are saying.

Mr. Whymper An attorney, Mr. Whymper handles negotiations between the pigs and the outside world. He
represents an intermediary between warring countries who is only too happy to do what is expedient
without thinking about whether it is right.

Analysis

A prize-winning boar named Major has a dream that he shares with the other animals of Manor Farm one
night after the drunken farmer who owns the farm, Mr. Jones, has fallen asleep. Major advises the animals
to reject misery and slavery and to rebel against Man, “the only real enemy we have.” The rebellion, on
Midsummer’s Eve, drives Mr. Jones and his men off the farm.

Major draws up Seven Commandments of Animalism to govern the newly named Animal Farm, stipulating
that “whoever goes on two legs is our enemy,” that “all animals are equal,” and that they shall not wear
clothes, sleep in beds, drink alcohol, or kill any other animal. The pigs quickly assume a supervisory
position to run the farm, and two of them, Snowball and Napoleon, become leaders after the death of old
Major. Factions develop, and Napoleon conspires against Snowball after the animals defeat an attempt by
Mr. Jones and the neighboring farmers to recover the farm at the Battle of the Cowshed.

Snowball is a brilliant debater and a visionary who wants to modernize the farm by building a windmill that
will provide electrification. Two parties are formed, supporting “Snowball and the three-day week” and
“Napoleon and the full manger.” Meanwhile, the pigs reserve special privileges for themselves, such as
consuming milk and apples that are not shared with the others.

Napoleon raises nine pups to become his guard dogs. After they have grown, his “palace guard” drives
Snowball into exile, clearing the way for Napoleon’s dictatorship. Napoleon simplifies the Seven
Commandments into one slogan: “Four legs good, two legs bad.” With the help of Squealer, his
propagandist, Napoleon discredits Snowball’s bravery and leadership in the Battle of the Cowshed and
claims as his own the scheme to build a windmill. Every subsequent misfortune is then blamed on
Snowball.

Thereafter, the animals work like slaves, with Napoleon as the tyrant in charge. Gradually the pigs take on
more human traits and move into the farmhouse. Before long, they begin sleeping in beds and consuming
alcohol. Napoleon organizes a purge, sets his dogs on four dissenting pigs who question his command,
and has them bear false witness against the absent Snowball. He then has the dogs kill them, violating one
of the Seven Commandments, which are slyly emended to cover the contingencies of Napoleon’s rule and
his desires for creature comforts.

Eventually, Napoleon enters into a political pact with one neighboring farmer, Pilkington, against the other,
Frederick, whose men invade Animal Farm with guns and blow up the windmill. Working to rebuild the
windmill, the brave workhorse Boxer collapses. He is sent heartlessly to the glue factory by Napoleon, who
could have allowed Boxer simply to retire. All the principles of the rebellion eventually are corrupted and
overturned. Finally, the pigs begin to walk on their hind legs, and all the Seven Commandments ultimately
are reduced to a single one: “All Animals Are Equal, but Some Animals Are More Equal Than Others.” The
pigs become indistinguishable from the men who own the neighboring farms, and the animals are no better
off than they were under human control.

Places Discussed (Critical Guide to Settings and Places in Literature)

Manor Farm

Manor Farm. English farm at which the entire novel is set. When the novel opens, it is called Manor Farm
and is run by a farmer named Jones. These names indicate that this farm stands for any farm, or any place,
and that the entire novel should be read as an allegory. However, since Orwell wrote in the introduction to
the Ukrainian edition that he wanted to expose the Soviet myth, Animal Farm also stands for the Soviet
Union in particular. When the animals take over the farm, they rename it Animal Farm; when the pigs revert
to the name Manor Farm in the final pages of the book, the complete failure of the animals’ revolution is
indicated. No animal leaves the farm unless it is a traitor (Molly), declared an enemy of the state
(Snowball), or sold to the enemy to be killed (Boxer). When they do leave, the animals rewrite history.
Animal Farm is like the Soviet Union in having its own official history that serves the purposes of its rulers.

Orwell’s love of animals and his practice of raising his own vegetables and animals are clear in his loving
description of the farm; his socialist politics come through in his sympathies with the animals as real
workers and in his descriptions of the barn.

Farmhouse

Farmhouse. House in which Jones originally lived. Like the farm, the farmhouse is perfectly ordinary, until
the animals drive the humans from what the humans see as their rightful place. The farmhouse symbolizes
the seat of government; no real work is done there. When the pigs move into the farmhouse, it is a sign that
the revolution will fail. The novel closes with the other animals, the workers, watching through the windows
of the farmhouse as the pigs meet with Mr. Pilkington to toast the renaming of Animal Farm as Manor Farm.
This symbolizes the tendency of rulers to ignore the abuses suffered by the common people in all
countries, British socialism’s betrayal of the worker in particular, and how the animals/workers are always
excluded from gatherings of their leaders.

Barn

Barn. Originally an ordinary barn used for work, shelter, and storage. Under the rule of the animals, the
barn becomes a meeting place, a place to resolve disputes, and the place where all legitimate political
decisions are made. The barn is where all the real work is done, and it is where the revolution is born. The
laws of Animal Farm are painted on the side of the barn.

Foxwood

Foxwood. One of farms bordering Manor Farm. Foxwood is described as large and neglected, with run-
down hedges. It represents England, with its substandard military and ill-kept borders. Its clumsy but
easygoing owner Mr. Pilkington symbolizes British politicians.

Pinchfield

Pinchfield. Another of the neighboring farms. Pinchfield is described as smaller and better kept than
Foxwood. It symbolizes Germany; its owner, Mr. Frederick, stands for Hitler. Pinchfield and Foxwood put
pressure on the animals’ revolution, are threatened by it, and threaten it in turn. Jones asks for help after
the animals’ rebellion, and the farmers reject his plea, as the nations of Europe rejected the pleas from the
displaced czars. The business deals between farms symbolize the political deals in which the Soviet

Communists sold out their own people.

Sugarcandy Mountain

Sugarcandy Mountain. Imaginary utopia in the preachings of Moses, the raven. Sugarcandy Mountain is
animal heaven. Moses is useful to Jones because he preaches a dream beyond this life and keeps the
animals pacified, but Moses leaves when the animals actually try to establish a utopia on earth. At the end
of the book, he is not only back, but actively supported by the pigs. This indicates that the idea of heaven is
threatening to real revolutionaries, but that tyrants find it useful for their subjects to have another realm
about which to dream.

Historical Context

Ever since Orwell wrote Animal Farm readers have enjoyed it as a simple animal story. While it is possible
to read the book without being aware of the historical background in which Orwell wrote it, knowing the
world's situation during the 1940s adds interest to the novel. The reader understands why the political
implications of the book were so important to Orwell, and is encouraged to read the book again, looking for
its less obvious political and societal references. As the date of the original publication of the work becomes
more remote, the historical events that preceded it lose their immediacy, but Orwell's story remains viable.
In fact, Orwell emphasized the universality and timelessness of his message by not setting the story in any
particular era, and, while placing the farm in England, not making that fact important.

World War II The target of Orwell's satire in Animal Farm was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the
U.S.S.R , or the Soviet Union), which at the time the work was written was a military ally of Great Britain
during World War II. The book's publication was delayed until after fighting had ended on the war's
European front in May 1945. When England declared war on Germany in September 1939, it would not
have seemed likely that by the war's end England and the U.S.S.R. would be allies. Just a week before, the
world community had been stunned by news of a Soviet-German nonaggression pact. Adolf Hitler and
Joseph Stalm secretly worked out the agreement, while the Soviet leader publicly pursued an alliance with
Great Britain and France against Germany. The pact called for the development of German and Russian
spheres of interest in Eastern Europe and the division of Poland between the two countries. The world,
which had for several years watched Germany's expansionist moves, was suddenly confronted with the
Soviet Union sending troops into eastern Poland and several other bordering countries. In his book, George
Orwell: The Ethical Imagination, Sant Singh Bal quotes Orwell on the situation: "Suddenly the scum of the
earth and the bloodstained butcher of the workers (for so they had described one another) were marching
arm in arm, their friendship 'cemented in blood,' as Stalin cheerily expressed it." Orwell portrays the Hitler-
Stalin pact in his novel as the agreement between Mr. Frederick and Napoleon.

When the war began, Orwell and his wife were living in a 300-year-old cottage in Wallington, a rural
community in southeastern England, where they raised animals and owned a store. When it appeared that
Germany was preparing to invade England, the couple moved to London. Disappointed that he was unable
to fight in the war against fascism, Orwell wanted to at least be in London where he might still be called on
to defend his country. The German Air Force, or Luftwaffe, tried in vain to bring about England's surrender
with nightly bombing raids over London that continued sporadically for nearly two years. The bombings and
shortages of practically every staple made life in London particularly difficult. Orwell felt compelled to stay
there. According to Peter Lewis in George Orwell: The Road to 1984, Orwell told a friend, "But you can't
leave when people are being bombed to hell." The writer, like most of his countrymen, suffered the loss of a
family member in the war; his wife's brother, Laurence, an Army surgeon, died during the battle of Dunkirk
in 1940.

The war changed when the Soviet Union was unexpectedly invaded by the Germans in June 1941. Still
stung by Stalin's betrayal just two years earlier, the Allies (France, England, and—after Pearl Harbor—the
United States) were nevertheless forced to join him in order to defeat Hitler. Orwell cringed at photographs
of the leaders of England and the United States—Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin
Roosevelt, respectively—and Stalin conferring with each other at the Tehran Conference held November
28 to December 1, 1943. Orwell sat down to write his book at exactly the same moment. In the preface to
the Ukrainian edition of the novel, Orwell wrote: "I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could
be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages." Orwell
knew he would have trouble publishing it because Stalin had become quite popular in England as the one
who saved England from an invasion. Orwell couldn't forgive the Soviet leader's complicity with Hitler, or his
bloody

reshaping of the Soviet Communist Party during the 1930s which resulted in the death or deportation of
hundreds of thousands of Russians. Orwell included these so-called purge trials in Animal Farm when the
animals confess to aiding Snowball in various ways after the pig is exiled from the farm.

Although finished in February 1944, Animal Farm wasn't published until 1945, a pivotal year in world
history. The war ended, but the year also included such disparate events as the first wartime use of a
nuclear bomb and the approval of the charter establishing the United Nations, an international organization
promoting peaceful economic cooperation. The cost of the war was staggering: estimates set the monetary
cost at one trillion dollars, while an estimated 60 million people lost their lives. Nearly sixty countries were
involved in the conflict, with daily life changed dramatically for those in the war zone. The war's end meant
the end of rationing, but it also meant an end to the economic machinery that had produced war materials,
the return of the soldiers who glutted the suddenly slackened employment market, and a dramatic increase
in births in the United States, called the "Baby Boom," that would affect American society until the end of
the century. The war had allowed only the United States and the Soviet Union to survive as world powers.
So the end of the war brought the beginning of a Cold War, an ideological conflict pitting the Soviet Union
and its allies against the United States and its allies, that persisted with varying degrees of intensity until
the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Setting

The novel takes place on Manor Farm, which is renamed Animal Farm after the animals expel Mr. Jones,
the farmer, from its grounds. It is a typical barnyard, except that the animals have assumed the farmer's
tasks. Their aspirations are high; they write seven commandments on the wall of the bam, including "All
animals are created equal," and "Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy," and thus stake their claim.
They build a windmill—an object of much contention—that is rebuilt several times after being destroyed by
a storm and then by a band of farmers with dynamite. Originally, the animals pledge to preserve the manor
house as a museum, but as the power structure becomes more unbalanced, the pigs move into the house,
which becomes their domain. The farmhouse symbolizes the new totalitarian rule of the pigs and is indeed
indicative of the "revised" commandment: "All animals are created equal but some animals are more equal
than others." Orwell, by restricting all the action to the farmyard, creates a microcosm of society.

Literary Style

Point of View The third-person point of view traditionally used for fables and fairy tales is the one Orwell
chooses for Animal Farm, his tale of an animal rebellion against humans in which the pigs become the
powerful elite. The storyteller in this case, as is also typical of the fable, tells the reader only what is needed
to follow the story and the bare minimum about each character, without overt commentary. Orwell focuses
on the bewilderment of the simple beasts—the horses, birds, and sheep—in the face of their manipulation
by the pigs, eliciting sympathy from the reader.

Setting Animal Farm takes place at an unspecified time on a British farm near Willingdon, a town that is
mentioned only in passing. The farm is first called Manor Farm, later renamed Animal Farm and, finally,
Manor Farm once more. Manor— which can mean the land overseen by a lord, the house of a lord, or a
mansion—associates the farm with the upper, or ruling, class. Orwell focuses entirely on activities taking
place at the farm, except for a brief scene in Willingdon when Jones asks his neighbors to help him. By
keeping a narrow focus, Orwell makes the location in England unimportant.
Narrator The narrator in the novel functions as a storyteller, telling a fable Orwell gives the fable ironic
overtones by using a naive narrator, one who refuses to comment on events in the novel that the reader
understands to be false. After Muriel tells Clover that the fourth commandment of Animalism reads, "No
animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets," the narrator declares: "Curiously enough, Clover had not
remembered that the Fourth Commandment mentioned sheets; but as it was there on the wall, it must have
done so." Both the reader and the narrator know the truth of the matter—that the words of the
commandment have been changed—but the narrator does not admit it. The tension between what the
narrator knows but does not say and what the reader knows is dramatic irony.

Dramatic Irony With dramatic irony an audience, or reader, understands the difference between the truth of
a situation and what the characters know about it, while the characters remain ignorant of the discrepancy.
For instance, Squealer explains that the van in which Boxer was taken to the hospital formerly belonged to
a horse slaughterer. He further explains that the veterinarian who now uses it did not have the time to paint
over the horse slaughterer's sign on its side, so the animals should not worry. The narrator says: "The
animals were enormously relieved to hear this." The reader, who assumed the truth when the van originally
appeared to carry the horse away, feels doubly outraged by Squealer's explanation

Fairy Tales The fairy story, or fairy tale, is a type of folk literature found all over the world. It involves a
highly imaginative narrative told in a simple manner easily understood and enjoyed even by children. While
they do not have a moral, fairy tales instruct by placing their characters in situations that they have to
overcome; children who hear the tales can imagine what they would do in a similar situation. Fairy tales,
also, often involve animals that can talk. Orwell gave his work the subtitle "A Fairy Story." The reader can
surmise that the story told in Animal Farm is universal, with implications for every culture or country, and
that it will be easily understood. Using "fairy story" to describe his novel is another bit of irony, because the
political story behind the tale is far from the light entertainment the term implies.

Satire A work that uses humor to criticize a weakness or defect is called a satire. The satirist makes
whatever he is criticizing look ridiculous by a variety of methods, often through irony or other types of biting
humor.

©eNotes.com. The satirist hopes to change the behavior he is satirizing. Orwell ridicules the so-called
achievements of the Russian revolution in a number of ways: by comparing its proponents to animals, by
developing irony through the use of the naive narrator, and by allowing each animal or group of animals to
stand for one human trait or tendency that he criticizes.

Fable A fable is a short, imaginative narrative, usually with animal characters, that illustrates a moral. The
characters often embody a specific human trait, like jealousy, to make fun of humans who act similarly.
Orwell uses details to make his animal characters seem like real animals: the cat vanishes for hours at a
lime; Molly the mare likes to have her nose stroked. The animals also represent human traits or
characteristics: the pigs are selfish power-grabbers, the sheep are dim-witted "yes-men," and the horses
are stout-hearted workers. Animal Farm, like the traditional fable, is told in a simple, straightforward style.

Allegory In an allegory, characters and events stand for something else. In this case, the characters in the
novel stand for significant figures in twentieth-century Russian history. Orwell makes the characters easily
identifiable for those who know the historic parallels, because he gives each one a trait, or has them
perform certain tasks, that are like that of a historical figure. Old Major is identified with Karl Marx because,
just as Old Major develops the teachings that fuel the Animal Rebellion, Marx formulated the ideas that
spawned the Russian revolution. Napoleon and Snowball, both pigs, stand for Russian leaders Joseph
Stalin and Leon Trotsky. Stalin and Trotsky had a falling out much like Napoleon and Snowball do. Events
from history— the revolution itself and the Moscow purge trials of the 1930s—also appear in allegorical
form in the novel.

8
Literary Techniques

Throughout his career, Orwell is generally considered to have matured both creatively and perceptively as
a writer, yet he never warranted nor received critical recognition as a literary innovator. His personalized
blend of moral commitment and social commentary distinguished Orwell as a major spokesperson for his
generation; however, his body of work is remarkably similar in structure and temperament. An extremely
disciplined writer, Orwell consistently utilized language to enhance the development of plot while providing
insight into thematic concerns. This is especially true in Animal Farm, an imaginative examination of the
interaction of language and political method.

Written in a pure, subtle, and simplistic form of narrative, Animal Farm evokes both descriptive imagery and
stunning clarity of purpose. As political allegory, Animal Farm was conceived as a beast fable, the ideal
form for Orwell to communicate his highly sensitive and unorthodox message. In so doing Orwell was able
to employ irony as the most effective means to articulate the embodiment of human traits in the animals of
the farm. Interspersed with religious overtones, the novel begins with a relatively light tone before
depreciating into a menacing and debilitating void. Coming full circle, the novel ends with a tremendous
sense of futility and loss as even the memory of the revolution fades into quiet and passive oblivion.
oLiterary Precedents

Created as an allegorical beast fable, Animal Farm stems from an artistic tradition attributed to Aesop and
dating from the seventh century B.C. Popular in almost every literary period, the beast fable is most often
designed to satirize human folly as well as to provide moral instruction. An avid reader, Orwell was
undoubtedly influenced by the work of the seventeenth-century French writer La Fontaine and in his own
century by Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Books and Just So Stories.

Of additional importance, Orwell clearly descends from an impressive lineage of English satirists,
particularly those of the eighteenth century, including Dryden, Swift, and Pope. Animal Farm is consistently
and appropriately compared to Swift's Gulliver's Travels as having the capacity to simultaneously delight
while pointing an accusing finger at the limitations of human kindness and decency. In the twentieth
century, satire is generally utilized in the fictional narrative as it is in Animal Farm to criticize with the
ultimate goal of improvement. In this capacity, Orwell joins company with such diverse writers as Evelyn
Waugh, Mark Twain, Sinclair Lewis, and Aldous Huxley.

Literary Qualities

An extremely disciplined writer, Orwell consistently used language to enhance the development of plot
while providing insight into thematic concerns. This is especially true in Animal Farm, an imaginative
examination of the interaction of language and political method. Written in a pure, subtle, and simplistic
style, Animal Farm evokes descriptive imagery and stunning clarity of purpose. Although the novel begins
with a relatively light tone, it gradually evolves into a menacing and debilitating void. Coming full circle, the
novel ends with a tremendous sense of futility and loss as even the memory of the revolution fades into
quiet and passive oblivion.

Orwell conceived of Animal Farm as an allegorical beast fable, drawing on a literary convention attributed
to Aesop and dating from the seventh century B.C. Popular in almost every literary period, the beast fable
is most often designed to satirize human folly as well as to provide moral instruction. An avid reader, Orwell
was undoubtedly influenced by the work of the seventeenth-century French writer La Fontaine and in his
own century by Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book and Just So Stories.

Orwell clearly descends from an impressive lineage of English satirists, particularly those of the eighteenth
century including Dryden, Swift, and Pope. Animal Farm is consistently and appropriately compared to
Swift's Gulliver's Travels as having the capacity to simultaneously delight while pointing an accusing finger
at the limitations of human kindness and decency. In the twentieth century, satire is generally utilized in the
fictional narrative as it is in Animal Farm to criticize with the ultimate goal of improvement. In this capacity,
Orwell joins company with such diverse writers as Evelyn Waugh, Mark Twain, Sinclair Lewis, and Aldous
Huxley. Integrating political and artistic purpose, Orwell's beast fable proved a radical departure from his
previous work but an extremely successful literary vehicle and quite possible his most distinguished
creative achievement.

10

Social Concerns

During the mid-1930s, Orwell like many of his literary contemporaries became increasingly aware of the
social and political concerns of the age. Clearly a turning point for Orwell, this period would ultimately
define his artistic purpose and direction as a writer and simultaneously crystallize his prophetic vision of the
future. Deeply affected as a young man by the social injustice he encountered in Burma, Orwell entered the
decade in direct opposition to the doctrine of imperialism which fostered aristocratic privilege at the
expense of the poor and disadvantaged. By 1936, this perspective would be radically altered, transforming
Orwell into one of England's most prominent political writers.

Commissioned by Victor Gollancz to write a book on the conditions of the unemployed in the industrial
north of England, Orwell began what was intended as a study on poverty. The result, however, was The
Road to Wigan Pier, published in 1937, which is best described as an expose of the English class structure
and the first significant identification of Orwell with the ideology of socialism. This was followed by Orwell's
investigative journey to Spain and his subsequent involvement in the Spanish Civil War. Undoubtedly, this
experience had a profound impact on Orwell, confirming his inherent belief in human decency and
community as well as deepening his political commitment to democratic socialism. Adversely, however,
Orwell returned from Spain with a fervent disillusionment with the Communist party and convinced of the
impending threat of totalitarianism to the survival of intellectual freedom.

Unquestionably a literary extension of Orwell's political development, Animal Farm is most often identified
as a satire on communism, or more specifically the totalitarian state of Soviet Russia and the dictatorship of
Joseph Stalin. Orwell early recognized the ability of emerging political regimes to replace poverty with a
form of security based on social and economic servitude. Committed to the preservation of intellectual
liberty, Orwell further realized the inherent danger of sacrificing this ideal to governmental control. Having
observed the process firsthand in Spain, Orwell understood all too well how suppression and distortion of
information could deny individual freedom and political truth. Orwell's primary concern by the close of the
decade was to discover the proper medium through which to communicate his message. Integrating
political and artistic purpose, the beast fable proved a radical departure from his previous work but an
extremely successful literary vehicle and quite possibly Orwell's most distinguished creative achievement.

Additional Commentary

During the mid-1930s, Orwell like many of his literary contemporaries became increasingly more perceptive
of the social and political concerns of the age. Clearly a turning point for Orwell, this period would ultimately
define his artistic purpose and direction as a writer and simultaneously crystalize his prophetic vision of the
future. Unquestionably a literary extension of Orwell's political development, Animal Farm is most often
identified as a satire on totalitarian communism and the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin. Orwell recognized the
ability of emerging political regimes to replace poverty with a form of security based on social and economic
servitude. Committed to the preservation of intellectual liberty, Orwell further realized the inherent danger of
sacrificing this ideal to governmental control. Orwell's primary concern by the close of the decade was to
discover the proper medium through which to communicate his message.

11

Ideas for Group Discussions

1. Discuss the pig's idea of "animalism." What happens to this theory as the novel progresses?
2. Why is the windmill such an important object?

3. Why is the song Beasts of England important to the animals in the beginning, and why do they abolish it
at the end?

4. What happens to the original seven commandments? Why are they later revised?

5. Discuss how the events of the Battle of the Cowshed are changed to present snowball in a bad light.

6. Why are the sheep taken to a corner of the farm at the end of the novel and kept there for a week?

7. Why do Snowball and Napoleon disagrees. Could the farm have functioned with both pigs as leaders?

8. Moses, the tame raven, speaks of Sugarcandy Mountain. What is the significance of this? Why do the
animals hate him?

13

Topics for Discussion

1. Discuss the pigs' idea of "animalism." What happens to this theory as the novel progresses?

2. Boxer and Clover, the two cart-horses, are described as the "most faithful disciples." What makes them
such?

3. Why is the windmill such an important object in the novel?

4. Examine the novel's ending and particularly the final paragraph. Has Napoleon compromised the
integrity of the farm?

5. Why is the song Beasts of England important to the animals in the beginning of the novel? Why is the
song later abolished?

6. What happens to the original Seven Commandments? Why are they later revised?

7. Discuss how the events of the Battle of the Cowshed are changed later in the novel in order to present
Snowball in a bad light.

8. Why are the sheep taken to a comer of the farm in the end of the novel and kept there for a week?

9. Compare Snowball and Napoleon. Why do they disagree? Do you think the farm could have functioned
with both pigs as leaders?

10. Moses, the tame raven, speaks of Sugarcandy Mountain. What is its significance? Why do the animals
hate him?

14

5. How do the pigs take advantage of the other animals' lack of intelligence. Explain some of the situations
where the pigs use this to their advantage. How is language important to the pigs and the novel in general?
Would the revolution have been more successful if all the animals were indeed equal?

15

Topics for Further Study

Research a current political scandal on the state, local, or national level, or one from the past (such as
Watergate or Tammany Hall). Develop a brief animal allegory of the main figures involved, using some of
the same animals found in Orwell's novel.
Using examples from classic animal fables, report on how Orwell's novel conforms and/or deviates from
features found in those you've investigated.

Analyze how Squealer manipulates language to get the animals to go along with him, then watch the
evening news or read periodicals to find similar uses of language in speeches or press releases from
contemporary politicians.

Sample Essay Outlines Sample Essay Outlines

Sample Analytical Paper Topics The following paper topics are designed to test your understanding of the
novel as a whole and to analyze important themes and literary devices. Following each question is a
sample outline to help get you started.

Topic #1 “Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” This statement by Lord Acton,
sent in a letter to Bishop Mandell Creighton on April 5, 1887, provides the basis for understanding the
effects of power on the heads of state, and it furnishes insight into one of the main themes in the novel
Animal Farm. Write a paper that shows how power affects the characters, the events and the outcome of
the book.

Outline I. Thesis Statement: Animal Farm is a historical novel, set in England but dealing with the events
leading up to and after the Russian Revolution of 1917. It illustrates the idea expressed by Lord Acton that
power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. This abuse of power can be demonstrated by
studying Napoleon’s actions in the book.

II. Power on Animal Farm before the Rebellion A. Man has absolute power, taking without producing B.
Jones operates the Manor Farm with no regard for his animals 1. Animals aren’t fed 2. Animals are
slaughtered 3. No animal lives its life to a natural end 4. Animal families are broken up by the sale of the
young

III.The Meeting A. Old Major holds the key to power: eliminate man B. The pigs are the leaders even before
the Rebellion 1. They are more clever than the others 2. They are assertive, sitting in the front at the
meeting 3. They teach themselves to read 4. They are the organizers forming various animal committees.

IV. The Rebellion A. Elimination of man creates a “power vacuum” B. Napoleon, Snowball and Squealer
become the new leaders that fill the vacuum C. Pigs get special privileges—milk and apples

V. The Harvest A. Pigs are the supervisors

B. They make the work schedules C. They move into the harness room D. Special privileges for the pigs
are said to be necessary to keep Jones away

VI. The Windmill A. Napoleon and Snowball vie for control of the farm B. Napoleon eliminates the
competition 1. He uses the dogs to expel Snowball 2. Squealer discredits Snowball C. Napoleon assumes
the power to run Animal Farm

VII. Changes on Animal Farm A. Trade with the humans 1. The arrival of Mr. Whymper 2. The sale of a
stack of hay 3. The sale of part of the wheat crop 4. Contract to sell eggs B. Pigs move into farmhouse C.
Change in the Fourth Commandment concerning beds by the addition of the phrase “with sheets.” D. An
end to voting at the Sunday meetings E. The pigs become responsible for making all the work decisions

VIII. Force Equals Power A. Mutiny of the Hens who object to the sale of their eggs 1. Starved out by
Napoleon 2. Ended by unleashing the dogs B. The “Great Purge” 1. Animal leaders opposed to Napoleon’s
policies are killed by the dogs 2. Boxer comes under attack for questioning Napoleon’s condemnation of
Snowball
IX. More Changes A. Changes in the Sixth Commandment allow Napoleon to kill other animals by adding
the words “without cause.” B. Fifth Commandment allows the pigs to drink by the addition of the phrase “to
excess” to the original Commandment

X. Napoleon Sells Boxer to the Knacker

XI. Return to “The Manor Farm” A. Pigs are in complete control B. They are the new aristocracy 1. They do
no physical labor 2. Pigs carry whips 3. School is built for the baby pigs C. Animals can’t tell the difference
between man and pig

Topic #2 Animal Farm presents a classic blueprint for an individual’s rise to power. It presents a step by
step recipe for dictatorship and control. Write a paper that outlines the methods used by Napoleon and the
pigs of their takeover of Animal Farm.

Outline I. Thesis Statement: Animal Farm presents a recipe for dictatorship and control. The steps taken by
Napoleon have been used by dictators from Julius Caesar to Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin to achieve their
ambitions.

II. Organization A. Develop a core of devout followers willing to die for the cause B. Develop a belief
system—Animalism C. Identify a common enemy—man

III. Education A. The pigs teach themselves to read and write B. The other animals are kept ignorant

IV. Blind Obedience A. The sheep—“Four legs good, two legs bad.” B. The dogs—They are devoted to
Napoleon C. Boxer—“Napoleon is always right.”

V. Propaganda A. Slanted and false information—Squealer’s ability to convince the animals—turn black
into white B. Rewriting history C. Campaign against Snowball D. Changing the rules E. Changing the
Seven Commandments

VI. Fear A. The fear of Jones’s return B. Fear of the dogs

VII. Eliminate the Competition A. Running Snowball off the farm B. Eliminating the troublemakers 1. Killing
the hen leaders of the mutiny 2. Killing the pigs who protest the end of the meetings

VIII. Scapegoating—Identify the cause of all the problems A. Man—Frederick and Pilkington B. Snowball—
Jones’s agent

IX . Force—Use of the dogs

Topic #3 Animal Farm is a study of a dream betrayed. It begins with hope and it ends with despair. And
although some things seem to change, the important things remain the same. Life for the animals only gets
worse. Write a report that shows how and why this statement is true.

Outline I. Thesis Statement: Animal Farm is the study of a dream betrayed. It begins with hope for the
animals and ends with their miserable lives getting even worse.

II. Old Major’s Dream A. Man is the enemy B. Eliminate man and life will be better C. Work for the Rebellion
D. Avoid becoming like man when the Rebellion is achieved

III. The Rules for Utopia A. Animalism B. Equality C. The unalterable Seven Commandments

IV. Cracks in the Dream A. Preferential treatment for the pigs B. Napoleon and Snowball struggle for power
C. Division of labor 1. The workers—Boxer and the others 2. The supervisors—the pigs
V. Abuses of Power A. The expulsion of Snowball B. Unleashing the dogs C. Creating fear D. Using force

VI. Changes in the Rules A. Altering the unalterable Commandments B. Rewriting history for Napoleon’s
personal glory C. Destroying Snowball’s contributions

VII. Selling out the Dream A. Engaging in trade B. Selling the eggs and murdering the chickens C. Selling
out Boxer for money to buy whiskey

VIII. The Pig-Men A. Walking on two legs B. Turning into men

Themes and Meanings (Critical Guide to British Fiction)

The animals are presented as illustrative of the utopian dream of socialism pitted against the vices of
capitalism represented by the humans in the story. Neither political ideology is presented in a favorable
light, but whereas the evils of capitalism are taken for granted, it is the futility of the socialist ideal on which
the work primarily focuses. Yet the means by which it levels this criticism at Communism—that is, in terms
of a relatively simple and two-dimensional beast fable—does little to illuminate either the virtues or the
vices of that complex ideology.

Animal Farm perhaps works best not as a specific allegory of the Russian Revolution but rather as a fable
about the basic nature of human beings, both in isolation and in groups, which militates against any utopian
ideal. What Orwell has seized upon is precisely those qualities of animals that humans share which make
such an ideal impossible—qualities such as sloth, stupidity, fear, and greed. The central irony of the fable is
that although the animals initially rebel against the humans because of behavior which humans usually call
“beastly,” the animals themselves, as the work progresses, become more and more like humans—that is,
more and more base and beastly.

What is most demoniacally human about the pigs is their use of language not only to manipulate the
immediate behavior of the animals through propaganda, emotive language, and meaningless doubletalk
but also to manipulate history, and thus challenge the nature of actuality itself. This manipulation, however,
is only one primary means of the pigs’ control; another, equally important, is the threat of brute force as
manifested by Napoleon’s pack of vicious trained dogs. In the final image of the allegory, the realization is
that humans prove to be no better than animals, and animals prove to be no better than humans.

The great ideal of the windmill, itself a Quixotic gesture of idealism, cannot be achieved because the
animals, like humans, are basically limited by their own natures, and because nature itself is blindly
indifferent to the aspirations of man. Orwell’s own pessimistic view in the work seems to be echoed by the
cynical donkey, Benjamin: “Things never had been, nor ever could be much better or worse—hunger,
hardship, disappointment being . . . the unalterable law of life.” The law of man is the law of the jungle after
all; the truth of “power corrupts” is the same as the truth of “the fittest shall survive.”

Themes

Language and Meaning In Animal Farm, his allegory of the Soviet Revolution, Orwell examines the use of
language and the subversion of the meaning of words by showing how the powerful manipulate words for
their own benefit. As a journalist, Orwell knew the power of words to serve whichever side the writer
backed. In the novel, Snowball is a quick talker who can always explain his way out of any situation. When
the birds object to the maxim, "Four legs good, two legs bad," that the pig teaches the sheep, he explains
that the bird's wing "is an organ of propulsion and not of manipulation. It should therefore be regarded as a
leg." The birds do not really understand this explanation, but they accept it. Orwell particularly comments on
the abuse of language with his character Squealer, "a brilliant talker," who acts as an unofficial head of
propaganda for the pigs. Like Joseph Goebbels, who bore the title of Nazi party minister of propaganda and
national enlightenment during World War II, Squealer "could turn black into white." This is also reminiscent
of the official newspaper of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Pravda, which was often used to
rewrite the past. (Ironically, its title means "Truth.") When a bad winter forces a reduction in food rations to
the animals, Squealer calls it a "readjustment." In a totalitarian state, language can be used to change even
the past. Squealer explains to the animals "that Snowball had never—as many of them had believed
hitherto—received the order of 'Animal Hero, First Class'."

God and Religion In the novel religion is represented by Moses, the tame raven. The clergy is presented as
a privileged class tolerated by those in power because of their ability to placate the masses with promises
of rewards in the after-life for suffering endured on Earth. Moses is afforded special treatment not available
to the other animals. For example, he is the only animal not present at the meeting called by Old Major as
the book opens. Later, the reader is told the other animals hate the raven because he does not do any
work, in fact, the pigs give him a daily ration of beer. Like Lenin, who proclaimed religion was the opiate of
the people, Orwell sees organized religion as another corruptible institution which serves to keep the
masses tranquil. Moses preaches "the existence of a mysterious country called Sugarcandy Mountain, to
which all animals went when they died;" in that distant land "it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was
in season all the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake grew on the hedges."

Human Rights In Animal Farm, Orwell comments on those who corrupt the idea of human rights by showing
how the animals deal with the issue of equality. In chapter one, Old Major interrupts his speech appealing
to the animals for a Rebellion against the humans by asking for a vote on whether "wild creatures, such as
rats and rabbits" should be included in the statement "All animals are comrades." Although at this point, the
animals vote to accept the rats, later distinctions between different types of animals become so
commonplace that the seventh commandment of Animalism is officially changed to read, "All animals are
equal, but some are more equal than others." A number of societies have historically "voted" that portions
of their populations were not equal because of their faith, their skin color, or their ancestry.

Class Conflict Orwell saw first-hand how being a member of a lower class singled him out for abuse at St.
Cyprian's, a school which attracted most of its students from the British upper class. He had also seen how
the British ruling class in Burma had abused the native population. In Animal Farm the animals begin by
proclaiming the equality of all animals. The classless society soon becomes divided as preferential
treatment is given to the pigs. First, they alone are allowed to consume the milk and the apples which
Squealer claims they do not really want to take, but must to preserve their strength. Later, the other animals
are told that they must "stand aside" if they meet a pig coming down a path, and that all pigs had "the
privilege of wearing green ribbons on their tails on Sundays." By this time, not even an explanation from
Squealer is necessary; the hierarchy in the

society is well-established. A pointed remark by Mr. Pilkington of Foxwood, who represents Great Britain in
Orwell's satire, puts the author's distaste for classes in perspective. When Mr. Pilkington and other farmers
meet with Napoleon in the novel's last scene, Pilkington chokes with amusement as he says to the pigs, "If
you have your lower animals to contend with, we have our lower classes." Orwell knew that with power
came the abuse of power and only a vigilant citizenry could prevent such abuses.

Politics Orwell uses Animal Farm to express his deeply held political convictions. He stated in his 1946
essay, "Why I Write," "every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or
indirectly, against totalitarianism and for Democratic socialism " Although the novel is written in direct
response to his bitter disappointment that the Russian Revolution, instead of establishing a people's
republic, established an essentially totalitarian state, its continued relevance is possible because his
criticism stands against any and all totalitarian regimes. The only protection the average citizen has against
a similar tyranny developing in his own country is his refusal to blindly follow the crowd (like the sheep), the
repudiation of all spurious explanations by propaganda sources (like Squealer), and diligent attention to all
government activity, instead of faithfully following those in power (like Boxer).

Truth and Falsehood In the novel, the animals are often forced to examine the meaning of truth in their
society. Again and again, truth becomes simply what Snowball, and later Squealer, tells them. Any
questions about past events that do not seem to match the pigs' version of those events are either
discounted or explained away. For example, when some of the animals are executed after they confess to
various crimes against Napoleon, some of those left alive remember that the Sixth Commandment of
Animalism was "No animal shall kill any other animal." When Clover asks Muriel to read the commandment,
however, it is discovered that it reads, "No animal shall kill any other animal without cause." "Somehow or
other," the narrator comments, "the last two words had slipped out of the animals' memory." Similarly, when
the pigs get into a case of whiskey and get drunk, Muriel looks up at the barn wall where the Seven
Commandments had been written and sees that the Fifth Commandment reads, "No animal shall drink
alcohol to excess." She thinks the animals must have forgotten the last two words of this commandment as
well. She comes to believe that the original event of the writing of the commandments on the wall did not
happen the way she and other animals remember it. With this theme Orwell challenges the Soviet state's—
and any totalitarian state's—method of controlling public opinion by manipulating the truth and, in particular,
rewriting history.

Themes

Conceived and written as satire. Animal Farm is generally acknowledged as possessing much of Orwell's
humanistic aspirations and political conviction. The novel develops as an allegorical fable contrasting man
and beast in a literary metaphor of the human condition. Clearly analogous to the political events in Russia
dating roughly from 1917 to the Second World War, Animal Farm is primarily an attack on Stalinism yet
beyond that serves as a biting commentary on the anatomy of revolution.

Modeled on a relatively simple premise, the novel begins as the animals of Manor Farm unite against their
master, the farmer Jones, and overthrow his tyrannical rule. Understandably ecstatic over their sudden and
unexpected good fortune, the animals create a new order for the future based on equality and equity.
However, the paint is hardly dry on their barnyard manifesto when the identical elements initiating the revolt
surface to tarnish and eventually destroy the dream of emancipation. Orwell is undoubtedly passing
judgment on the fate of revolution, juxtaposing ideological promise with practical application and realistic
demise of principle.

Of additional importance, however, Orwell is attempting to explore the parameters of intellectual

responsibility, cultural heritage, and moral integrity. In essence, Orwell is not condemning the revolution but
agonizing over its betrayal. Possessing superior knowledge, the pigs assume leadership of the farm and in
so doing take the first step in replacing the tyranny of the past with a new and more terrifying threat for
future existence. As demonstrated through Orwell's thematic concern involving the corruption of language,
the pigs learn to control the means of communication and literally create their own truth to dispense to the
inhabitants of the farm establishing perhaps the most pessimistic aspect of the novel. In the end, pigs are
indistinguishable from humans and the ideals of the revolution seem distant or forgotten in the face of
terror, manipulation, and despair.