DNV 30.5

CLASSIFICATION NOTES
No. 30.5
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND

ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
MARCH 2000
DET NORSKE VERITAS

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FOREWORD
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and the environment at sea and ashore.
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Classification Notes
Classification Notes are publications which give practical information on classification of ships and other objects. Examples of
design solutions, calculation methods, specifications of test procedures, as well as acceptable repair methods for some
components are given as interpretations of the more general rule requirements.
An updated list of Classification Notes is available on request. The list is also given in the latest edition of the Introduction-
booklets to the "Rules for Classification of Ships", the "Rules for Classification of Mobile Offshore Units" and the "Rules for
Classification of High Speed and Light Craft".
In "Rules for Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations", only those Classification Notes which are relevant for this type of
structure have been listed.
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CONTENTS
1. Introduction........................................................4 5.4 Wind effects on helidecks ....................................20
1.1 General .................................................................4 5.5 Dynamic analysis of wind sensitive structures.....20
1.2 Environmental conditions ....................................4 5.6 Model tests ...........................................................21
1.3 Environmental loads.............................................4 6. Wave and current loads.....................................21
2. Wind conditions..................................................4 6.1 Wave and current loads on slender members .......21
2.1 Average wind .......................................................4 6.2 Wave loads on large volume structures................28
2.2 Gust wind .............................................................5 6.3 Second order wave loads on large volume
3. Wave conditions .................................................6 structures ..............................................................28
3.1 Wave theories.......................................................6 6.4 Slamming loads from waves ................................29
3.2 Short term wave conditions..................................7 6.5 Shock pressure from breaking waves...................30
3.3 Long-term wave statistics.....................................10 7. Vortex induced oscillations................................30
4. Current and tide.................................................15 7.1 General .................................................................30
4.1 Current .................................................................15 7.2 Wind induced vortex shedding.............................34
4.2 Tide ......................................................................15 7.3 Current induced vortex shedding .........................34
5. Wind loads ..........................................................16 7.4 Wave induced vortex shedding ............................36
5.1 Wind pressure ......................................................16 7.5 Methods for reducing vortex-induced
5.2 Wind forces ..........................................................16 oscillations ...........................................................38
5.3 The shape coefficient ...........................................17 8. References ...........................................................40
DET NORSKE VERITAS

4 Classification Notes No. 30.5
March 2000
1. Introduction 1.2.4
Empirical, statistical data used as a basis for evaluation of
1.1 General operation and design must cover a sufficiently long time
period. For operations of a limited duration, seasonal
1.1.1 variations must be taken into account. For meteorological
This Classification Note gives guidance for description of and oceanographical data 20 years of recordings should be
important environmental conditions as well as giving available. If the data record is shorter the climatic uncertainty
guidance for arriving at environmental loads. should be included in the analysis. Earthquakes must be
based on long-term historical data.
Environmental conditions are described in clauses 2-4 while
environmental loads are described in clauses 5-7.
1.3 Environmental loads
1.2 Environmental conditions 1.3.1
Environmental loads are loads caused by environmental
1.2.1
phenomena.
Environmental conditions cover natural phenomena which
may contribute to structural damages, operation disturbances Environmental loads to be used for design are to be based on
or navigation failures. Phenomena of general importance are: environmental data for the specific location and operation in
question, and are to be determined by use of relevant
· Wind methods applicable for the location/operation taking into
· Waves account type of structure, size, shape and response
· Current. characteristics.
Phenomena which may be important in specific cases are:

2. Wind conditions
· Ice
· Earthquake 2.1 Average wind
· Soil conditions
· Temperature 2.1.1
· Fouling Wind velocity changes both with time and with height above
· Visibility the sea surface. For this reason the averaging time and height
· Tides must always be specified.
Common reference height level is z = 10 metres. Common

1.2.2 averaging times are 1 minute, 10 minutes or 1 hour.
The phenomena are usually described by physical variables
of statistical nature. The statistical description should reveal Wind velocity averaged over 1 minute is often referred to as
the extreme conditions as well as the long- and short-term sustained wind velocity.
variations. If a reliable simultaneous database exists the
environmental phenomena can be described by joint 2.1.2
probabilities. The average wind speed and the wind height profile may be
estimated by the formula
1.2.3
The environmental design data should be representative for æ z t ö
U ( z , t ) = U ( z r , t r ) çç 1 + 0 . 137 ln - 0 . 047 ln ÷÷
the geographical areas where the structure will be situated, or è zr tr ø
where the operation will take place. For ships and other
mobile units which operate world-wide, environmental data where
for particularly hostile areas, such as the North Atlantic
Ocean, may be considered. z = height above the still water sea surface level.
zr = reference height = 10m.
t = averaging time (minutes).
tr = reference time = 10 minutes.
U (z, t) = average wind speed by specified z and t.
U (zr, tr) = reference wind speed.
The ratio U (z, t)/ U (zr, tr) is given in Table 2.1:
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Classification Notes No. 30.5 5
March 2000
Table 2.1 Wind speed ratios.

z (metres) Time
3 seconds 5 seconds 15 seconds 1 minute 10 minutes 60 minutes

1.0 0.934 0.910 0.858 0.793 0.685 0.600
5.0 1.154 1.130 1.078 1.013 0.905 0.821
10.0 1.249 1.225 1.173 1.108 1.000 0.916
20.0 1.344 1.320 1.268 1.203 1.095 1.011
30.0 1.399 1.375 1.324 1.259 1.151 1.066
40.0 1.439 1.415 1.363 1.298 1.190 1.106
50.0 1.469 1.445 1.394 1.329 1.220 1.136
100.0 1.564 1.540 1.489 1.424 1.315 1.231
2.1.3
2.2 Gust wind
The statistical behavior of the average wind speed U (z, t)
referred to a fixed height and averaging time may be 2.2.1
described by the Weibull distribution given as:
In the short time range the wind may be considered as a
random gust wind component with zero mean value,
é æ cù
U ö÷ ú superposed upon the constant, average wind component.
Pr ( U) = 1 - exp ê- çç
ê è U o ÷ø ú
ë û
2.2.2
where Gust wind cycles with a period shorter than about 1 minute,
may be described by the Harris gust spectrum:
Pr (U) = cumulative probability of U
~
U = U (z, t) = wind speed f
f × S(f ) = 4 kU 2 (z, t )
Uo = Weibull scale parameter ( ~2
2+f )
5/ 6
c = Weibull slope parameter S(f ) = power spectral density (m2/Hz)
f = frequency (Hz)
2.1.4 ~ = non-dimensional frequency,
f
The most probable largest wind speed for an exposure time, ~
f = f × L / U ( z, t )
T, may be obtained by:
L = length scale dimension (m); may be
1/ c
æ Tö chosen equal to 1800 m
U max (z, t ) = U o çç ln ÷
÷
è Ta ø = surface drag coefficient; may be chosen
k
equal to 0.0020 for rough sea and 0.0015
where
for moderate sea.
Ta = average time period of constant wind speed,
U ( z, t ) = average wind velocity.
usually 3 hours.
This gust spectrum should not be applied for f < 10 -2 Hz .
2.2.3
Gust wind velocity, defined for instance as the average wind
velocity during an interval of 3 seconds, may normally be
assumed to follow the Weibull distribution, see 2.1.3 - 2.1.4.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
3. Wave conditions 3.1.4

The maximum waveheight, peak to trough, may in absence
3.1 Wave theories of other data be taken as a function of the wave period as:
3.1.1 ì 0.22T 2 for T £ 6s
ï
Wave conditions which are to be considered for design ï
H max = í
purposes, may be described either by deterministic design ï T2
for T > 6s
wave methods or by stochastic methods applying wave ï 4.5 + 0.02(T 2 - 36)
î
spectra.
Hmax = design wave height in m
By deterministic methods the seas are described by regular,
periodic wave cycles, characterized by wave length (period), T = design wave period in s
wave height, wave direction and possible shape parameters.
The deterministic wave parameters may, however, be 3.1.5

predicted by statistical methods.
The limiting average wave steepness S for short term
irregular seastates may in absence of other reliable sources
3.1.2 be taken as:
The kinematics of regular waves may be described by
analytical or numerical wave theories. Among these may be ì1
for T £ 6s
mentioned: 2 p HS ïï10 Z
S= =í
g T2 ï 1
Z ï for T > 12s
î15 Z
· Linear wave theory, by which the wave profile is
described as a sine function
with
· Stokes wave theories for high waves
s= 1/10 for Tz £ 6 s
· Stream-function waves which are based on numerical
methods and accurately describe the wave kinematics s= 1/15 for Tz £ 12³ s
over a broad range of water depths and interpolated linearly between the boundaries. Expressed
· Solitary wave theory for particulary shallow water in terms of significant wave height as:
Solitary wave theory: ì0.156 TZ2 for T £ 6s
ï Z
ï
h 2 3
H S = í0.206 TZ - 0.008 6 TZ for 6s < T < 12s
£ 0 .1 ï
Z
l ïî0.104 TZ
2
for T ³ 12s
Z
Stokes’ 5th order or Stream function wave theories:
3.1.6
h Stretching of wave kinematics to the instantaneous sea
0 .1 < £ 0 .3
l surface should be performed. When linear wave theory is
applied, the extrapolation of the wave kinematics to the free
Linear wave theory (or Stokes’ 5th): surface is most appropriately carried out by substituting the
true elevation at which the kinematics are required with one
h which is at the same proportion of the still water depth as the
0.3 £ true elevation is of the instantaneous water depth. This can
l be expressed as follows
where
z -h
zS =
h = water depth h
1+
l = wave length d
where:
3.1.3
For most practical purposes an appropriate order of Dean’s Zs = The modified coordinate to be used in particle
Stream Function or Stokes’ 5th is applicable for regular wave velocity formulation
analysis. The wave height specified for such analysis may be
taken as the peak-to-trough height according to 3.2.9, when z = The elevation at which the kinematics are
using hydrodynamic coefficients according to 6.1.9. required (coordinate measured vertically upward
from the still water surface)
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March 2000
h = The instantaneous water level (same axis system 3.2.3

as z) Moderate and low sea states in open sea areas, not dominated
by limited fetch, are often composed of both wind sea and
d = The still, or undisturbed water depth (positive).
swell. A two peak spectrum may be used to account for swell
if of importance. This may for example be described by a bi-
This method ensures that the kinematics at the instantaneous modal spectrum, the Torsethaugen spectrum, derived from
water surface are always evaluated from the linear wave North Sea data. The spectrum is defined as a summation of
theory expressions as if they were at the still water level wind sea and swell as:
(Wheeler 1969).
S ( f ) = S G ( f | H Sw , T Pw , g , N , M ) + S G ( f | H Ssw , T Psw , g , N , M )
3.1.7
The design wave data are represented by the maximum wave where the spectrum is defined below
height as well as the maximum wave steepness. The wave
lengths are selected which are the most critical to the (
é æ f / f -1 ) 2 ö÷ ùú
structure or structural part to be investigated. Breaking wave -N é - M ù exp ê - ç p
H2 æ f ö æ N öæç f ö÷ ú ê ç 2s 2 ÷ú
SG ( f ) = S G 0 A g ç ÷ ê
exp - ç ÷ g ë è øû
height limitation of crest to trough wave height Hmax as a 16f p ç fp ÷ ê è M øç f ÷ ú
function of still water depth is given in Figure 3.3. è ø ëê è p ø ûú
-1
é ( N -1) ù
3.2 Short term wave conditions ê 1 æ N ö - M æ ( N -1) öú
G0 = ê ç ÷ Gç ÷ú
3.2.1 êM è M ø è M øú
Short term stationary irregular sea states may be described by ë û
a wave spectrum; that is, the power spectral density function
of the vertical sea surface displacement. Regression analysis shows that Ag can be approximated as:
Wave spectra may be given on table form, as measured

spectra, or on parametrized, analytic form. (
A g g - 1 = 4.1 N - 2M 0.28 + 5.3 )(0.96 -1.45 M 0.1 ) [ln(g )]f 2
3.2.2
The Jonswap spectrum and the Pierson-Moskowitz
spectrum are most frequently applied. Both spectra are
( )
f 2 = 2.2M -3.3 + 0.57 N 0.53- 0.58M
0.37
+ 0.94 - 1.04M -1.9
describing wind sea conditions that are reasonable for the

most severe seastates. The spectral density function is: Simplified for M = 4 and g ¹ 1:
A g g - 1 = 4.1(N + 2.35)-0.71[ln (g )] 0.87 + 0.59 N

-0.45
æ æ w-wp ö
2ö
ç ÷
æ -4 ö expç - 0.5ç ÷
÷
çs w ÷
ç 5 æ w ö÷ ÷ ç è p ø ÷
S(w) = ag 2w-5 expç - ç ÷ g
è ø and when N = 4:
ç 4 çè wp ÷ø ÷
è ø
A g g - 1 = 1.1 [ln (g )] 1.19
where
and when N = 5:
w = angular wave frequency, w=2p/Tw
Tw = wave period A g g - 1 = 1.0[ln (g )]1.16
TP = peak period
wp = angular spectral peak frequency Common parameters:
wp=2p/TP
g = acceleration of gravity N = 0.5 HS + 3.2
a = generalised Phillips’ constant,
= (5/16) · (HS2 wp4/g2) · (1-0.287ln(g))
Tf = 6.6H1S/ 3
s = spectral width parameter
= 0.07 if w £ wp
1. The parameters of wind sea dominated range (TP< Tf)
= 0.09 if w > wp
g = peakness parameter 1.1 Primary peak
The Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum appears for g = 1.0. HSw = rpw HS
TPw = TP
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
0.857 1/ 2
é 2p HSw ù æ 5+ g ö
g = 35(1 + 3.5 exp(- HS ))ê 2 ú
TZ = Tp çç ÷÷
ëê g TP ûú è 11 + g ø
M=4 If no particular values are given for the peakedness

parameter γ, the following value may be applied:
1.2 Secondary peak
Tp
g =5 for £ 3.6
2 HS
HSsw = 1 - rpw HS
Tp
TPsw = Tf + 2 g = exp 5.75 - 1.15Tp / H s for 3.6 £ £5
Hs
g =1
TP
g =1 for 5£
M=4 Hs
The parameter rpw is defined by: where TP is in seconds and HS is in metres.

æ æ ö
2ö
If the period is not given for a particular sea state, a tentative
ç ç ÷ ÷
Tf - TP estimate is
rpw = 0.7 + 0.3 expç - ç 2 ÷ ÷
ç ç T - 0.5 H ÷ ÷
ç è f S ø ÷
è ø TZ = 6 H S
0.3
2. The parameters of the swell dominated range (TP³ Tf)

3.2.5
2.1 Primary peak The spectral moments Mn of general order n is defined as
HSsw = rps HS ¥
Mn =
ò
0
wn S (w) dw
TPsw = TP
where
0.857
é 2 p HS ù æ T - Tf ö
g = 35 (1 + 3.5 exp (- HS )) ê 2ú
ç1 + 6 P
ç
÷
÷ n = 0, 1, 2, ...
êë g Tf úû è 25 - Tf ø
M=4 The Jonswap spectrum above has approximately
2.2 Secondary peak

1 2
2
HSw = 1 - rps HS
M0 = HS
16
1
-
é 1.28(0.4) N æ æ H ö öù N -1 1 2 6.8 + g
TPw =ê çç1 - expç - S ÷ ÷÷ú M1 = HS w p
2
ëê G 0 ( N, M )HSw è è 3 ø øúû 16 5+g
g =1
1 2 2 11 + g
æ æ 1 öö
M = 4 çç1 - 0.7 exp ç - HS ÷ ÷÷
M2 = HS w p
è è 3 øø 16 5+g
Where: Quantities that may be defined in terms of spectral moments

are among others:
æ æ 2ö
ç TP - Tf ö ÷ · Significant wave height:
rps = 0.6 + 0.4 exp ç - çç ÷
ç è 0.3 (25 - Tf ) ÷ø ÷÷
è ø HS = 4 M0
3.2.4 · Average zero crossing wave period:

The peak period TP may be related to the average zero-
crossing wave period TZ by
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March 2000
æM ö
1/ 2 3.2.8
TZ = 2p çç 0 ÷÷ The statistical distribution of individual wave crests Z in an
è M2 ø irregular short-term stationary seastate may usually be
described by the Rayleigh distribution. The cummulative
· Significant wave slope: probability function P(Z), that is the probability that a crest
2 M2 g shall be equal or lower than a value Z, is
S= »
pg M 0 p
é æ Z ö 2
ù
· Spectral width: P(Z) = 1 - exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
êë è A Z ø úû
1/ 2
æ M M - M12 ö
h = ç 0 22 ÷
ç M ÷ where
è 1 ø
3.2.6
AZ = HS / 8
If the power spectral density S(f) is given as a function of the
frequency f rather than as the function S (ω) of ω, the The highest wavecrest Zmax within a time t is
relationship is
1
S(f ) = 2p S (w) Z max = HS ln N
8
Similarly, if the moments of the circular frequency spectrum
where
S(f) are denoted Mn (f), the relationship to Mn in 3.2.5 is
¥
N = t/TZ.
ò
n -n
M n (f ) = f S(f ) df = (2p) Mn
0
To the first approximation one may put
3.2.7 Z max » H S
Directional short-crested wave spectra may be derived from
the uni-directional wave spectra above as follows:
3.2.9
S(w, a ) = S(w)f (a ) The peak-to-trough wave height H of a wave cycle is the
difference between the highest crest and the deepest trough
where between two successive zero-upcrossings.
a = angle between direction of elementary wave The wave heights are Rayleigh distributed with cumulative
trains and the main direction of the short- probability function
crested wave system.
é æ H ö
2
ù
S(w, a ) = directional short-crested wave power P( H ) = 1 - exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
êë è A H ø úû
density spectrum.
f (a ) = directional function. where
HS
AH = 2 (1 - c 2 h 2 )1 / 2
Energy conservation requires that the directionality function 8
fulfils the requirement c = a constant » 1.0
a max
ò f (a)da = 1
a min
The highest crest-to-trough wave height Hmax within a time t
is
The directional function f (a ) may have the general form

1
H max = H S (1 - c 2 h 2 ) ln N
s
f (a ) = const × cos a where 2 £ s £ 10 2
Due consideration is to be taken to reflect an accurate where
correlation between the actual seastate and the power
constant, s. N = t/TZ.
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March 2000
To the first approximation one may put For a waterdepth less than 30m the regular wave analysis
techniques according to 3.1.3 are normally preferred. For
h = 0.43 structures where drag forces are not dominating the above
correction should not be applied.
c = 1.0
3.2.12
H max » 1.8 Z max
Based on experience from Jack-Up structures, the following
guidance can be given for checking the generation of
3.2.10 irregular time traces:
In evaluation of the foundation's resistance against cyclic
wave loading, the temporal evolution of the storm should be The duration of the simulation should normally not be less
taken into account. This should cover a sufficient part of the than 60 minutes and not less than 300 response cycles. The
growth and decay phases of the storm. time step should normally be in the range of the smallest of
Tn/20 and TZ/20. (Tn is the natural period of a significant
If data for the particular site is not available, the storm resonance).
profile in Fig. 3.1 may be applied.
Check validity of wave simulation by:
· correct mean wave elevation

· standard deviation = HS/4 +- 1%
· -0.03 < skewness < 0.03
· 2.9 < kurtosis < 3.1
· maximum crest elevation = (HS/4) 2 ln( N ) -5% to
+7.5% where N is the average number of cycles in the
time series.
3.3 Long-term wave statistics
Figure 3.1 Significant wave height relative to maximum 3.3.1
value as a function of time during a storm
The long-term variation of the seas may conveniently be
3.2.11 described by a set of seastates, each characterized by the
Linear wave theory does not account for finite waterdepth wave spectrum parameters, that are, (HS , TZ) or ( a , TP, g )
and effect of steepness, introducing a skewness in the wave defined in 3.2.5 and 3.2.4 respectively.
process towards higher peaks than troughs. When the limits
of application given in 3.1.2 is violated, a correction should 3.3.2
be applied in simulation of irregular waves for slender
The marginal long-term probability distribution of significant
structures in cases wave asymmetry has a significant impact
wave height is normally described by the three-parameter
on the resulting forces.
Weibull distribution with probability density:
Based on calibration of drag dominated Jack-up structures, j -1
j
ref. SNAME, and in absence of better methods, the j æ HS - H0 ö æ H - H0 ö
f (H S ) = çç ÷÷ exp çç - S ÷÷ ;H0 < HS
correction may, only when used in connection with the H1 - H 0 è H1 - H 0 ø è H1 - H 0 ø
kinematics model of 3.1.6, be performed on the significant
wave height as: 3.3.3
HSs = (1 + 0.5 e (-d/30)
) HS (d > 30m) To establish an extreme design storm in a time period t
(order of 20 years), it is convenient to agree upon a design
where: storm duration t, usually 6, alternatively 3 or 12 hours, in
advance. The number of short-term intervals in the time
d = water depth period t, is then
HSs = the significant wave height to be used in t
simulation of the waves. m=
t
HS = the significant wave height with a given The significant wave height in the extreme design storm is
return period. then, by the three parameter Weibull distribution:
HS, max = H 0 + (H1 - H 0 )[ln (m )]1 / j
The other spectral parameters of the extreme seastate may be

chosen as advised in 3.2.
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March 2000
3.3.4 Parameters for H1 and j are given in Table 3.2 for the ocean
If the time t covers a total of N wave cycles, long-term areas defined in Figure 3.2.
marginal distribution of the individual wave crests z may be
The wave crest elevation should be calculated from H max, c by
obtained in terms of a general gamma distribution. The
probability density is a wave theory as described in 3.1.2, e.g. Stokes’ fifth order
theory. As a first estimate the wave crest may be taken as
k æZö
k -1
æ Zö
k Zmax = H max,c / 1.8
f ( Z) = ç ÷ exp ç - ÷
G )D
(d èDø è Dø
The period for the largest wave may be taken as 1.16TZ,
A two parameter Weibull distribution is obtained for d=1. K where TZ is determined from 3.3.7.
and D are Weibull parameters.
3.3.6 Wave data for the North Atlantic for use in calculation
of ship responses and world wide trade for use in fatigue
3.3.5
calculations are given in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
For areas where sufficient data are not available, the
characteristic significant wave height for the exposure period
may be taken as defined in 3.3.3. 3.3.7 Equivalent to the scatter diagram given in Tables 3.3
and 3.4, a combined Weibull/Log-Normal distribution is
Maximum characteristic wave height, Hmax,c, for a defined described by the density function (H0 =0)
exposure period may in load calculations using regular
waves as described in 3.1.2, be taken as (Longuet-Higgins): j æH ö
j-1
æ æH jö
ö
f HS ( H S ) = H1
ç S
çH
÷
÷ exp çç - çç S ÷÷ ÷
÷
è 1 ø è è H1 ø ø
H max, c = D (f1 ) 1/ k
where and Log-Normal density function

1/ k 1/ j
æ2ö æ 1 æ ln T - m ö 2 ö
ækö çç ÷÷ f T Z ( TZ 1
exp çç - ç ÷ ÷÷
D = 0 . 6718 H 1 ç ÷ | HS ) =
2 p s TZ
z
s
è2ø è 2è ø ø
è jø
f 1 = ln (R × N ) + (d - 1 ) ln (ln (R × N )) where
1
d -1 d-
2p æ2ö æ j ö 2 a2
R = ç ÷ çç ÷÷ m = E éêë ln T Z ùúû = a 0 + a 1H
æ 1 ö çè j ÷ø è j+ 2ø s
Gç d - ÷
è 2ø [
s 2 = E (ln T Z - m ) 2 ]
2j s = b 0 + b 1 exp (b 2 H S )
k =
2+ j
The cumulative distribution for HS is given by:
1
d = 1 .5 - æ jö
2j FHS ( H S ) = 1 -expçç -æçç HSH- H 0 ö÷÷ ÷
÷
è è 1 ø ø
æ 1ö
Gç d - ÷ = Gamma function The parameters for North Atlantic and World wide operation
è 2ø
of ships are given in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. For other areas the
H1 and j = Weibull parameters for the probability parameters are given in Table 3.2 using H0=0 and
function of the observed significant wave a
m = 0.70 + a1H s 2
heights.
s = 0.07 + b1 exp(b 2 H s )
N = 14400 dn where dn is the number of days
within the design operation period.
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March 2000
Figure 3.2 Nautic zones for estimation of long-term wave distribution parameters
Figure 3.3 Breaking wave height dependent on still water depth
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 3.2 Weibull parameters and Log-Normal distribtion parameters for HS and TZ
Area H1 j a1 a2 b1 b2 Area H1 j a1 a2 b1 b2
1 2.33 1.33 0.974 0.205 0.1263 -0.0201 53 2.56 1.93 1.188 0.129 0.1041 -0.0091
2 1.96 1.34 0.994 0.175 0.1414 -0.0238 54 2.45 2.19 1.176 0.168 0.1097 -0.0091
3 2.74 1.35 1.127 0.160 0.1255 -0.0912 55 1.83 1.96 1.046 0.143 0.1542 -0.0191
4 2.84 1.53 1.125 0.150 0.0978 -0.0074 56 2.40 2.18 1.157 0.157 0.1067 -0.0169
5 1.76 1.59 0.828 0.167 0.3449 -0.2073 57 2.17 2.19 1.083 0.214 0.1202 -0.0173
6 2.76 1.45 1.128 0.154 0.0964 -0.0066 58 1.85 2.08 1.013 0.165 0.1578 -0.0248
7 3.39 1.75 1.256 0.118 0.0809 -0.0069 59 2.02 1.76 1.025 0.159 0.1432 -0.0254
8 3.47 1.57 1.272 0.114 0.0728 -0.0015 60 1.93 1.39 1.057 0.145 0.1349 -0.0215
9 3.56 1.61 1.260 0.119 0.0755 -0.0054 61 2.10 1.82 1.080 0.132 0.1300 -0.0261
10 2.45 1.37 1.036 0.181 0.1166 -0.0137 62 1.73 1.39 0.871 0.214 0.1941 -0.0266
11 2.19 1.26 0.935 0.222 0.1386 -0.0208 63 1.88 1.70 1.026 0.155 0.1477 -0.0224
12 3.31 1.56 1.150 0.150 0.0934 -0.0409 64 2.34 2.16 1.138 0.186 0.1134 -0.0062
13 3.18 1.64 1.257 0.111 0.0850 -0.0032 65 2.02 1.90 1.132 0.169 0.1187 -0.0125
14 2.62 1.46 1.215 0.115 0.0976 -0.0111 66 2.33 2.15 1.115 0.183 0.1192 -0.0203
15 3.09 1.50 1.207 0.134 0.0855 -0.0124 67 2.43 2.21 1.159 0.155 0.1056 -0.0194
16 3.42 1.56 1.243 0.126 0.0898 -0.0528 68 2.42 2.16 1.121 0.155 0.1243 -0.0151
17 2.77 1.41 1.197 0.135 0.0954 -0.0083 69 2.23 1.89 1.177 0.124 0.1176 -0.0101
18 1.66 1.14 1.310 0.121 0.4006 -0.2123 70 2.32 1.84 1.170 0.167 0.1659 -0.2086
19 2.48 1.35 1.085 0.166 0.1071 -0.0096 71 1.79 1.69 1.005 0.147 0.1602 -0.0309
20 3.15 1.48 1.196 0.139 0.0914 -0.0248 72 2.44 1.93 1.158 0.187 0.1068 -0.011
21 2.97 1.69 1.249 0.111 0.1044 -0.0452 73 2.80 2.26 1.174 0.182 0.1050 -0.0493
22 2.29 1.72 1.139 0.117 0.1160 -0.0177 74 2.23 1.69 1.143 0.148 0.1148 -0.0087
23 2.23 1.39 1.039 0.167 0.1248 -0.0131 75 2.69 1.67 1.216 0.118 0.0991 -0.0103
24 2.95 1.48 1.211 0.131 0.0859 -0.0059 76 2.86 1.77 1.218 0.143 0.1016 -0.0251
25 2.90 1.61 1.268 0.096 0.1055 -0.0521 77 3.04 1.83 1.213 0.152 0.0844 0
26 1.81 1.30 0.858 0.232 0.1955 -0.0497 78 2.60 1.70 1.244 0.073 0.1060 -0.0059
27 1.76 1.30 0.880 0.218 0.1879 -0.0419 79 2.18 1.53 1.069 0.131 0.1286 -0.0173
28 1.81 1.28 0.841 0.241 0.1977 -0.0498 80 2.54 1.70 1.201 0.131 0.1019 -0.0101
29 2.31 1.38 0.976 0.197 0.1288 -0.0184 81 2.83 1.71 1.218 0.144 0.1017 -0.0258
30 3.14 1.56 1.243 0.118 0.0861 -0.0122 82 2.84 1.94 1.209 0.146 0.0911 0
31 2.62 1.79 1.219 0.126 0.1022 -0.0116 83 2.60 1.83 1.214 0.132 0.1076 -0.008
32 1.81 1.47 0.950 0.158 0.1685 -0.0312 84 2.92 2.10 1.190 0.170 0.1018 -0.0972
33 2.17 1.66 1.111 0.135 0.1191 -0.0147 85 3.32 1.94 1.226 0.145 0.0947 -0.0505
34 2.46 1.70 1.189 0.141 0.1059 -0.0055 86 2.91 1.54 1.261 0.111 0.0865 -0.0031
35 2.74 2.05 1.219 0.128 0.1097 -0.0101 87 2.43 1.40 1.203 0.129 0.1009 -0.0072
36 2.32 1.82 1.111 0.143 0.1165 -0.0189 88 3.35 1.75 1.248 0.128 0.0842 -0.0194
37 1.66 1.53 0.815 0.199 0.2754 -0.1051 89 3.02 1.45 1.249 0.124 0.0938 -0.0444
38 1.23 1.24 0.616 0.332 0.3204 -0.0054 90 3.35 1.59 1.266 0.116 0.0766 -0.0051
39 1.74 1.37 0.798 0.239 0.2571 -0.0908 91 3.54 1.68 1.281 0.110 0.0829 -0.04
40 2.36 1.42 0.975 0.195 0.1288 -0.0214 92 3.42 1.71 1.283 0.105 0.0831 -0.023
41 2.47 1.50 1.044 0.161 0.1166 -0.0158 93 2.66 1.45 1.233 0.119 0.1011 -0.0198
42 2.32 1.41 1.121 0.128 0.1159 -0.0118 94 3.89 1.69 1.296 0.112 0.0632 0
43 2.78 1.78 1.222 0.124 0.1029 -0.0078 95 3.71 1.93 1.256 0.131 0.0726 -0.0022
44 2.83 2.17 1.181 0.149 0.1005 -0.0124 96 2.65 1.47 1.200 0.110 0.0986 -0.0103
45 2.60 2.07 1.177 0.173 0.1017 -0.0258 97 3.61 1.63 1.279 0.114 0.0733 -0.0029
46 1.76 1.44 1.070 0.139 0.1365 -0.0306 98 3.53 1.70 1.248 0.135 0.0744 -0.0025
47 2.30 1.78 1.058 0.149 0.1301 -0.025 99 4.07 1.77 1.305 0.106 0.0614 -0.0011
48 2.55 2.20 1.160 0.172 0.1048 -0.0233 100 3.76 1.54 1.279 0.120 0.0636 -0.0006
49 2.50 2.13 1.141 0.149 0.1223 -0.0123 101 3.21 1.57 1.261 0.116 0.0934 -0.0049
50 2.05 1.28 0.879 0.237 0.1651 -0.0344 102 3.08 1.60 1.243 0.130 0.0833 -0.0046
51 1.78 1.44 0.952 0.159 0.1763 -0.0544 103 3.52 1.58 1.253 0.122 0.0758 -0.0056
52 2.14 1.50 1.072 0.133 0.1271 -0.0245 104 2.97 1.57 1.267 0.108 0.0847 -0.0049
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 3.3 Scatter diagram for the North Atlantic.

TZ (s) 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 Sum
Hs (m)
1.0 0 72 1416 4594 4937 2590 839 195 36 5 1 0 0 0 0 14685
2.0 0 5 356 3299 8001 8022 4393 1571 414 87 16 3 0 0 0 26167
3.0 0 0 62 1084 4428 6920 5567 2791 993 274 63 12 2 0 0 22196
4.0 0 0 12 318 1898 4126 4440 2889 1301 445 124 30 6 1 0 15590
5.0 0 0 2 89 721 2039 2772 2225 1212 494 162 45 11 2 1 9775
6.0 0 0 1 25 254 896 1482 1418 907 428 160 50 14 3 1 5639
7.0 0 0 0 7 85 363 709 791 580 311 131 46 14 4 1 3042
8.0 0 0 0 2 27 138 312 398 330 197 92 35 12 3 1 1547
9.0 0 0 0 1 8 50 128 184 171 113 58 24 9 3 1 750
10.0 0 0 0 0 3 17 50 80 82 59 33 15 6 2 1 348
11.0 0 0 0 0 1 6 18 33 37 29 17 8 3 1 0 153
12.0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 13 15 13 8 4 2 1 0 65
13.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 5 6 6 4 2 1 0 0 27
14.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 11
15.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 4
16.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Sum 0 77 1849 9419 20363 25170 20720 12596 6087 2465 872 275 81 20 6 100000
Table 3.4 Scatter diagram for the World Wide trade.

TZ(s) 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 Sum
Hs (m)
1.0 311 2734 6402 7132 5071 2711 1202 470 169 57 19 6 2 1 0 26287
2.0 20 764 4453 8841 9045 6020 3000 1225 435 140 42 12 3 1 0 34001
3.0 0 57 902 3474 5549 4973 3004 1377 518 169 50 14 4 1 0 20092
4.0 0 4 150 1007 2401 2881 2156 1154 485 171 53 15 4 1 0 10482
5.0 0 0 25 258 859 1338 1230 776 372 146 49 15 4 1 0 5073
6.0 0 0 4 63 277 540 597 440 240 105 39 13 4 1 0 2323
7.0 0 0 1 15 84 198 258 219 136 66 27 10 3 1 0 1018
8.0 0 0 0 4 25 69 103 99 69 37 17 6 2 1 0 432
9.0 0 0 0 1 7 23 39 42 32 19 9 4 1 1 0 178
10.0 0 0 0 0 2 7 14 16 14 9 5 2 1 0 0 70
11.0 0 0 0 0 1 2 5 6 6 4 2 1 1 0 0 28
12.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 11
13.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 4
14.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Sum 331 3559 11937 20795 23321 18763 11611 5827 2489 926 313 99 29 9 0 100000
Table 3.5 North Atlantic Table 3.6 Average World Wide operation of ships
H1 j H0 H1 j H0
2.721 1.401 0.866 1.798 1.214 0.856
a0 a1 a2 a0 a1 a2
0.623 1.356 0.123 -1.010 2.847 0.075
b0 b1 b3 b0 b1 b3
0.146 0.044 -1.711 0.161 0.146 -0.683
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
4. Current and tide 4.1.3

In open areas wind-generated current velocities at the still
4.1 Current water level may, if statistical data are not available, be taken
as follows:
4.1.1
When detailed field measurements are not available the v wind = 0 . 015 U ( z , t ) z = 10 metres , t = 1 hour
variation in current velocity with depth may be taken as:
U(z,t) are given in 2.1.2.
v(z) = v tide (z ) + v wind (z)
4.2 Tide
1/ 7
æh+zö
v tide (z) = v tide ç ÷ for z £ 0 4.2.1
è h ø
The tidal range is defined as the range between the highest
æ h0 + z ö astronomical tide (HAT) and the lowest astronomical tide
v wind (z) = v wind ç ÷
ç h ÷ for - h 0 £ z £ 0 (LAT), see Figure 4.2.
è 0 ø
v wind (z) = 0 for z < - h 0 4.2.2

Mean water level (MWL) is defined as the mean level
where between the highest astronomical tide and the lowest
astronomical tide, see Figure 4.2.
v(z) = total current velocity at level z
z = distance from still water level, positive upwards 4.2.3
vtide = tidal current velocity at the still water level The storm surge includes wind-induced and pressure-induced
effects.
vwind = wind-generated current velocity at the still water
level 4.2.4
h = water depth to still water level (taken positive) Still water level (SWL) is defined as the highest astronomical
h0 = reference depth for wind generated current tide including storm surge, see Figure 4.2.
h0=50m.
MAX STILL WATER LEVEL

4.1.2
POSITIVE STORM SURGE
The variation in current profile with variation in water depth HIGHEST ASTRONOMICAL TIDE (HAT)
due to wave action is to be accounted for.
MEAN STILL WATER LEVEL (MWL) ASTRONOMICAL
TIDE RANGE
In such cases the current profile may be stretched or
compressed vertically, but the current velocity at any LOWEST ASTRONOMICAL TIDE (LAT)
proportion of the instantaneous depth is constant, see Figure NEGATIVE STORM SURGE
4.1. By this method the surface current component shall MIN. STILL WATER LEVEL
remain constant.
Figure 4.2 Definition of water levels
Figure 4.1 Recommended method for current profile

stretching with waves
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
5. Wind loads The most unfavourable wind direction in the horizontal plane
should be used when calculating the stresses in a member
5.1 Wind pressure due to wind. The spatial correlation of the wind may be taken
into consideration for large surfaces.
5.1.1
The basic wind pressure (q) may be calculated from the 5.2.2
following equation: If several members are located in a plane normal to the wind
direction, as in the case of a plane truss or a serie of columns,
1
q= r v 2tz the solidification effect f must be taken into account. The
2
wind force is
FWSOL = C e q A f sin a
where
q = the basic wind pressure or suction where

r = the mass density of air; to be taken as 1.225 kg/m3 Ce = the effective shape coefficient, see 5.3.7
for dry air
q = the basic wind pressure according to 5.1.1
vtz = the wind velocity averaged over a time interval t
at a height z m above the mean water level. A = as defined in 5.2.1. To be taken as the projected
area enclosed by the boundaries of the frame
5.1.2 f = solidity ratio, defined as the projected exposed

solid area of the frame normal to the direction of
Any external horizontal or vertical surfaces of closed the force divided by the area enclosed by the
structures, which are not efficiently shielded, should be boundary of the frame normal to the direction of
checked for local wind pressure or suction using the the force
following equation:
a = angle between the wind direction and the axis of
p = ± Cp q the exposed member, as defined in 5.2.1.
where 5.2.3
If two or more parallel frames are located behind each other
p = wind pressure or suction in the wind direction, the shielding effect may be taken into
q = basic wind pressure or suction, as defined in 5.1.1 account. The wind force on the shielded frame FWSHI may be
calculated as
Cp = pressure coefficient.
FWSHI = FW h (a)
(if Equation in 5.2.1 is applicable)

5.1.3
The pressure coefficient may be chosen equal to 1.0 for or as
horizontal and vertical surfaces.
FWSHI = FWSOL h (b)
5.2 Wind forces (if Equation in 5.2.2 is applicable)

5.2.1
where
The wind force FW on a structural member or surface acting
normal to the member axis or surface may be calculated h = shielding factor.
according to:
FW = C q A sin a The shielding factor h is dependent on the solidity ratio ( f )

of the windward frame, the type of member comprising the
where frame and the spacing ratio of the frames. The shielding
factor may be chosen according to Table 5.1.
C = shape coefficient
If more than two members or frames are located in line after
q = basic wind pressure or suction, as defined in 5.1.1 each other in the wind direction, the wind load on the rest of
A = projected area of the member normal to the the members or frames should be taken equal to the wind
direction of the force load on the second member or frame.
a = angle between the direction of the wind and the
axis of the exposed member or surface.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 5.1 The shielding factor h æ b ö

CS2 = çç1 + 2 ÷÷ K R cos a for b 2 £ b1 £ 2b 2
è b1 ø
Spa- Value of h for an aerodynamic solidity ratio b of
cing = 1.5 K R cos a for b1 > 2b 2
ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
a K R = 1 .0 for r / b £ 0 . 10
Up to 1.0 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.68 0.54 0.44 0.37 = ( 4 . 3 - 13 r / b ) / 3 for 0 . 10 < r / b < 0 . 25
1.0 = 0 . 35 for r / b ³ 0 . 25
2.0 1.0 0.97 0.91 0.82 0.71 0.58 0.49 0.43
b1 = longer side of rectangle in m
3.0 1.0 0.97 0.92 0.84 0.74 0.63 0.54 0.48
4.0 1.0 0.98 0.93 0.86 0.77 0.67 0.59 0.54 b2 = shorter side of rectangle in m
5.0 1.0 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.60
6.0 1.0 0.99 0.95 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.69 0.66 r = corner radius of the section in m
and
above a = angle between side b1 of the rectangle and the
Spacing ratio a : The distance, centre to centre, of the frames, flow component in the cross-sectional plane.
beams or girders divided by the least overall dimension of the
frame, beam or girder measured at right angles to the direction of
the wind. For triangular or rectangular framed structures diagonal to b1, b2 and a are also shown in Figure 5.1.
the wind, the spacing ratio should be calculated from the mean
distance between the frames in the direction of the wind.
For wide rectangular cross-sections it may be necessary to
Aerodynamic solidity ratio b = f a
take into account that the resultant drag force Pd1 is assumed
where
to be acting at a distance b1/3 from the leading edge of the
f = solidity ratio, see 5.2.2. surface. See Figure 5.1.
a = constant.
= 1.6 for flat-sided members.
= 1.2 for circular sections in subcritical range and for flat-
sided members in conjunction with such circular sections.
= 0.6 for circular sections in the supercritical range and for
flat-sided members in conjunction with such circular
sections.
5.3 The shape coefficient

5.3.1
The shape coefficient C ¥ for circular cylinders of infinite
length may be chosen according to Figure 6.2. Reynold's Figure 5.1 Drag forces on rectangular cross-sections
number Re is then defined as:
The shape coefficients and characteristic dimensions for
D v tz
Re = various smooth members with irregular cross-sections may
n be taken in accordance with Table 5.2 where dimensions
perpendicular to Pd1 and Pd2 are to be understood as b1 and b2
where respectively.
D = diameter of member
vtz = wind speed 5.3.3
n
The shape coefficient C for individual members of finite
= kinematic viscosity of air, may be taken as
length may be obtained as:
1.46 × 10-5 m2/s at 15ºC and standard atmospheric
pressure. C = k C¥
5.3.2 where
The shape coefficients for smooth members with rectangular k = the reduction factor as a function of the ratio l/d
cross-section ( b1 ³ b 2 , ref. Figure 5.1) may be taken as: (may be taken from Table 5.3, where d = the
cross-sectional dimension of a member normal
CS1 = 2 K R sin a to the wind direction and l = the length of the
member).
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 5.2 Shape coefficient C ¥ for irregular cross Table 5.3 Values of reduction factor k for member of
sections finite length and slenderness. (Ref. Figure 7.1)
l/d 2 5 10 20 40 50 100 ¥
Profile a (deg.) CS1 CS2
Circular 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.87 0.98 1.0
0 1.9 1.0 cylinder,
45 1.8 0.8 sub-
critical
90 2.0 1.7 flow
135 -1.8 -0.1 Circular 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 1.0 1.0
180 -2.0 0.1 cylinder,
super-
critical
0 1.8 1.8 flow
45 2.1 1.8 Flat 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.95 1.0
plate
90 -1.9 -1.0 perpen-
135 -2.0 0.3 dicular
180 -1.4 -1.4 to wind
5.3.4
0 1.7 0
45 0.8 0.8 For members with one end abuting on to another member or
a wall in such a way that free flow around that end of the
90 0 1.7
member is prevented, the ratio l/d should be doubled for the
135 -0.8 0.8
purpose of determining κ. When both ends are abuted as
180 -1.7 0 mentioned, the shape coefficient C should be taken equal to
that for an infinite long member.
0 2.0 0
45 1.2 0.9 5.3.5
90 -1.6 2.2 For spherical and parabolical structures like radar domes and
135 -1.1 -2.4 antennas, the shape coefficient C may be taken from Table
180 -1.7 0 5.4.
0 2.1 0
45 1.9 0.6 Table 5.4 Shape coefficients C for sphere-shaped structures
90 0 0.6 Structures Shape
135 -1.6 0.4 coefficient
180 -1.8 0 Hollow hemisphere, concavity to wind 1.4
0 2.1 0 Hollow hemisphere 0.35

45 2.0 0.6
Hollow or solid hemisphere, concavity 0.4
90 0.5 0.9 to leeward
Solid hemisphere and circular disc 1.2
Hemisphere on horizontal plane 0.5

0 1.6 0
45 1.5 1.5 Sphere Re £ 4.2 × 105 0.5
90 0 1.9 4.2 × 105 < Re < 106 0.15
Re ³ 106 0.20
For hollow spherical cupolas with a rise f less than the radius r, one
can interpolate linearly for the ratio f/r between the values for a
0 1.8 0 circular disc and a hemisphere.
180 -1.3 0
5.3.6
For three-dimensional bodies such as deck houses and
similar structures placed on a horizontal surface, the shape
coefficients may be taken from Table 5.5.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 5.5 Shape coefficient C for three-dimensional bodies placed on a horizontal surface
Plan shape l b h
C for height / breadth ratio
w d b
Up to 1 1 2 4 6
³4 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
³4
£ 1/ 4 0.7 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75
3 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.35 1.4
3
1/3 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.8
2 2 1.0 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
0.5 0.75 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
1.5 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.1 1.15
1.5
2/3 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0
Plan shape
l b h
C for height / breadth ratio
w d b
Up to 0.5 1 2 4 6 10 20
1 1 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.4
b = the dimension of the member normal to the wind.

d = the dimension of the member measured in the direction of the wind.
l = the greater horizontal dimension.
w = the lesser horizontal dimension of a member.
Example A: l = b, w = d. Example B: w = b, l = d.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
5.3.7 5.5.4
The effective shape coefficient Ce for single frames is given The instantaneous wind force on a wind exposed structure
in Table 5.6. can be calculated by summation of the instantaneous force on
each wind exposed member. The instantaneous wind
Table 5.6 Effective shape coefficient Ce for single frames pressure q can be calculated by utilizing:
Solidity ratio Effective shape coefficient Ce 1

q= r v z + u - x& ( v z + u - x& )
2
f Flat-side Circular sections
members where
R e < 4.2 × 105 R e ³ 4.2 × 105
u = the gust speed and direction variation
0.1 1.9 1.2 0.7
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.8 vz = the mean wind speed and direction
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8 x& = the instantaneous velocity of the structural
0.4 1.7 1.1 0.8 member.
0.5 1.6 1.1 0.8
0.75 1.6 1.5 1.4 5.5.5
1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 For time domain calculations, time histories of wind
velocities corresponding to spectra as given in clause 2 can
5.3.8 be used in combination with the force calculations given in
All shape coefficients given in 5.3.1 through 5.3.7 include 5.5.4 to establish time histories of the wind forces.
the effect of suction on the leeward side of the member.
5.5.6
5.4 Wind effects on helidecks When using a frequency domain calculation, the
instantaneous wind spectrum can normally be linearized to
5.4.1
The wind pressure acting on the surface of helidecks may be 1
q= r v 2z + r v z u
calculated using a pressure coefficient Cp = 2.0 at the leading 2
edge of the helideck, linearly reducing to Cp = 0 at the
trailing edge, taken in the direction of the wind. The pressure for structures where the structural velocity ( x& ) is negligible
may act both upward and downward. compared to the wind velocity.
5.5 Dynamic analysis of wind sensitive structures 5.5.7

In direct frequency domain analysis, the solution can be
5.5.1 obtained by multiplication of the cross spectral density for
A detailed dynamic wind analysis considering the time the dynamic wind load with the transfer function of response.
variation of wind forces should be performed for wind
exposed equipment and objects sensitive to varying wind 5.5.8
loads. Typically, high towers, flare booms, compliant
In a frequency domain analysis a modal formulation may be
platforms like tension leg platforms and catenary anchored
applied.
platforms etc. should be considered for such analysis.
The modal responses may be combined with the Square-
5.5.2 Root-of-Sum-of-Squares (SRSS) method if the modes are not
The gust variation of the wind field can be described as the too closely related. In case of modes having periods close to
sum of a sustained wind component (see 2.1.1) and a gust each other, the Complete-Quadratic-Combination (CQC)
component. The fluctuating gust velocity can be described by method can be applied.
a gust spectrum as given in 2.2.
5.5.9
5.5.3 All relevant effects as structural damping, aerodynamic
The spatial correlation (or distribution) of the gust in a plane damping and hydrodynamic damping should normally be
normal to the sustained wind direction can be described by a considered in the analysis.
coherence function using a horizontal decay factor, normal to
the sustained wind direction, and a vertical decay factor. 5.5.10
For the structural design, the extreme load effect due to static
and dynamic wind can be assessed by:
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Fe = Fs + g s(f ) Fm = r V a + r Cm VR a r
where where
Fs = the static response due to the design average Fm = inertia force acting normal to the axis of the
wind speed member. If sectional hydrodynamic added mass
coefficient and volume per unit length are used
s (f ) = the standard deviation of the dynamic structural
Fm is a force per unit length. If three-dimensional
responses
hydrodynamic added mass coefficient and
g = wind response peak factor. complete volume of member are used Fm is the
total force on the member
r = mass density of fluid
5.6 Model tests Cm = two- or three-dimensional added mass
coefficient. In general Cm is a function of cross-
5.6.1
sectional shape and orientation of body,
Data obtained from reliable and adequate model tests are Reynold's number, Keulegan-Carpenter number
recommended for the determination of pressures and and roughness. Cm values as function of the
resulting loads on structures of complex shape. former two factors are usually accepted
a = particle acceleration normal to member axis
6. Wave and current loads ar = relative acceleration between liquid particle and
member normal to the member axis
6.1 Wave and current loads on slender members
V = volume or sectional volume (volume per unit
6.1.1 length) of the liquid displaced by the member
Wave loads on slender members having cross-sectional VR = a reference volume (total or sectional) to which
dimensions sufficiently small to allow the gradients of liquid the hydrodynamic added mass coefficient may
particle accelerations and velocities in the direction normal be related.
to the member to be neglected, may be calculated using
Morison's equation. Normally, Morison's equation is
applicable when the following condition is satisfied: 6.1.3
Recommended values of Cm for different smooth cross-
l>5D sectional shapes are given in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 for two- and
three-dimensional bodies respectively. Values of added mass
where coefficients for a smooth circular cylinder close to a wall are
given Table 6.1. and Figure 6.1. These values are based on
l = the wave length
potential theory and are thus only accounting for cross-
D = diameter or other projected cross-sectional sectional shapes and orientation. Other values for Cm may be
dimension of a structural member. used provided that the chosen values can be justified.
The values of Cm for circular cylinders with in-service

6.1.2 marine roughness should normally not be less than 0.8. The
In cases where Morison's equation is applicable, the inertia effect of marine growth and appurtenances as anodes etc.
force may be calculated by the formula: should be considered when selecting effective diameters (and
volumes) and added mass coefficients.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 6.1 Added mass coefficients for two-dimensional bodies, i.e. infinitely long cylinders
Section through body Direction of motion Cm VR
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
a/b=∞ 1.0
a / b = 10 1.14
a/b=5 1.21
a/b=2 Vertical 1.36 p a2
a/b=1 1.51
a / b = 0.5 1.70
a / b = 0.2 1.98
a / b = 0.1 2.23
d / a = 0.05 1.61
d / a = 0.10 Vertical 1.72 p a2
d / a = 0.25 2.19
a/b=2 0.85
a/b=1 Vertical 0.76 p a2
a / b = 0.5 0.67
a / b = 0.2 0.61
Horizontal 2.29 p a2
2
æ h 2a ö
Horizontal 1+ ç - ÷ p a2
è 2a h ø
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 6.2 Added mass coefficient for three-dimensional bodies
Direction of
Body shape Cm VR
motion
Circular disc
4
Vertical 0,64 p a3
3
b/a Cm
∞ 1.0
Elliptical disc
12.75 0.99
p 2
Vertical 7.0 0.97 a b
6
3.0 0.90
1.5 0.76
Flat plates 1.0 0.64
b/a Cm
Rectangular plates 1.0 0.58
1.5 0.69 p 2
Vertical a b
2.0 0.76 4
3.0 0.83
∞ 1.00
Triangular plates
1 a3
Vertical (tan q)3 / 2
p 3
Spheres
4
Any direction 0.5 p a3
3
Ellipsoids a/b Cm
Bodies of 1.5 Axial Lateral
revolution 2.0 0.30 0.62
2.51 0.21 0.70 4
Lateral or axial p a2 b
3.99 0.16 0.76 3
6.97 0.08 0.86
9.97 0.04 0.93
0.02 0.96
b/a Cm
1 0.68
2 0.36
3 0.24
Square prisms Vertical 4 0.19 a2 b
5 0.15
6 0.13
7 0.11
10 0.08
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
For varying member diameters, check the diameter in the

6.1.4 surface region. In case relative velocity is included in the
In cases where Morison’s equation is applicable the drag formulation, additional hydrodynamic damping should
force may be calculated by the formula: normally not be included.
1 6.1.5
FD = r C D v r |v r | A
2 The current induced drag forces are to be determined in
combination with the wave forces. This may be done by
where vector addition of wave and current induced particle
velocities. If available, computations of the total particle
FD = drag force normal to the axis of the member velocities and accelerations based on more exact theories of
wave/current will be preferred.
CD = drag coefficient for the flow normal to the
member axis For frame structures, the current may be reduced due to
interference from the structure on the flow field of the
r = mass density of liquid
current (Taylor 1991). The current may be reduced as
follows
vr = liquid particle velocity relative to the
member normal to the member axis -1
vr = absolute value of vr introduced to obtain uc ê

é
åC (i )
D Di
ù
ú
= ê1 + i ú but not less than 0.7
proper sign of FD uf ê 4D p ú
ê ú
ë û
A = area of member taken as the projection on a
plane normal to force direction.
uc = steady state current to be used in calculations
uf = the observed far field current.

Note: The use of relative velocity is valid if
C (Di ) = the drag coefficient of element i
x
>1
Di
Di = the element diameter of element i

where x is the member displacement amplitude and
Di is the member diameter. Dp = the width of the structure or cluster of
members considered.
Otherwise, the validity is depending on the value of
Ured = uTn/Di as follows:

This above reduction in velocity is a preferred alternative to
20 £ uTn/Di Relative velocity recommended the procedure in 6.1.15, and not to be applied
simultaneously.
10 £ uTn/Di < 20 Relative velocity may lead to an
overestimation of damping if the 6.1.6
displacement is less than the member When using Morison's equation to calculate the
diameter. hydrodynamic loads on a structure one should preferably
uTn/Di < 10 It is recommended to discard the take into account the variation of CD as function of Reynold's
velocity of the structure, when the number, the Keulegan-Carpenter number and the roughness
displacement is less than one diameter. number in addition to the variation of cross-sectional
geometry.
For the parameter Ured use
· Reynold's number ( R e = U D / n ).
u = uc + pHS/TZ approximation of particle velocity · Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC = Um T /D).
in surface region · Roughness (k/D).
· Gap ratio between the cylinder and a fixed boundary
uc = current velocity. (H/D).
Tn = period of structural oscillations
where
D = diameter
H = clearance between the cylinder and a fixed
boundary
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
T = wave period
k = roughness height
U = flow velocity
Um = maximum orbital particle velocity
n = kinematic viscosity of the water.
As a guidance for the surface roughness used for

determination of the drag coefficient, the following values
may be used:
k (metres)
Steel, new uncoated 5 × 10-5
Figure 6.2 Drag coefficient for circular cylinders for
Steel, painted 5 × 10-6 steady flow
Steel, highly rusted 3 × 10-3
Concrete 3 × 10-3
Marine growth 5 × 10-3 - 5 × 10-2
The effect of marine growth and appurtenances as anodes

etc. should be considered when selecting effective diameters
and drag coefficients.
Cm 2.0
1.9 -1
æ H ö
Cm = 1 + ç 10 + 1÷
1.8 è D ø
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4 Figure 6.3 Drag coefficient CD as function of KC for

1.3
cylinders in waves R e > 5 × 105
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Gap Ratio (H/D)
Figure 6.1 Recommended value for the added mass

coefficient, Cm of a circular cylinder. Influence of a fixed
boundary
6.1.7
Two-dimensional drag coefficients for smooth circular
cylinders and cylinders of various roughnesses in steady
uniform flow as a function of Reynold's number are given in
Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.4 Influence of a fixed boundary on the drag

coefficient of a circular cylinder in oscillatory
supercritical flow K C > 20, R e = 105 - 2 × 106
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
6.1.9
Hydrodynamic coefficients for circular cylinder in
oscillatory flow with in-service marine roughness, and for
high KC values, may normally be taken as:
Surface condition CD Cm
Multiyear roughness k/D > 1/100 1.05 0.8
Mobile unit (cleaned) k/D < 1/100 1.0 0.8
Smooth member k/D < 1/10000 0.65 1.0
Figure 6.5 Parameters of typical composite cylindrical
shapes The smooth values will normally apply above MWL+2m
and the rough values below MWL+2m, where MWL is as
defined in Figure 4.2. The roughness for a “mobile unit”
applies when marine growth roughness is removed between
submersion of members.
The dependence on roughness may be interpolated as
ì 0 . 65 ; k/D < 1/10000

ï
ï 0.65 (2.36 + 0.34 log 10 (k/D)) ; 1/10000 < k/D < 1/250
CD = C D (k / D ) = í
ï 1.0 ; 1/250 < k/D < 1/100
ï
î 1.05 ; 1/100 < k/D < 1/25
Figure 6.6 Drag coefficient as function of length solidity
ratio for smooth composite cylinder shapes ( R e = 6 × 105 ).
The above values apply for both stochastic and deterministic
wave analysis when the guidance given in 3.1.3 is followed.
6.1.10
Tentative values of the drag coefficient as a function of
Kulegan-Carpenter number for smooth and marine growth
covered circular cylinders for supercritical Reynolds
numbers are given in Figure 6.3, expressed as:
ì 1.45 for K C < 10

ï
ï 2
C D = C D ( k / D) í for 10 < K C < 37
Figure 6.7 Interference drag coefficient as function of ï C 5)
( K - 1/ 5
length solidy ratio ( R e = 6 × 105 ). ï 1 .0 for 37 < K C

î
The figure is valid for free flow field without any influence
of a fixed boundary. For KC<10 the formula is expected to
be conservative.
6.1.11
The drag coefficient for steady current is equal to the
asymptotic value for KC equal to infinity. For combined
wave and current action, the increase of KC due to the current
Figure 6.8 Area to be considered in evaluating the loads may be taken into account.
due to shock pressure on circular cylinders
6.1.12
6.1.8
To determine the drag coefficients for circular cylinders
Values for the hydrodynamic drag coefficient CD for other
close to a fixed boundary, the drag coefficients given in
smooth cross-sectional shapes in steady flow may be chosen
6.1.10 may be multiplied by a correction factor obtained
equal to the corresponding wind shape coefficients given in
from Figure 6.4.
Tables 5.2-5.6.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
6.1.13
For several cylinders close together, group effects may be
taken into account. If no adequate documentation of group 3
effects for the specific case is available, the drag coefficients
for the individual cylinder may be used. 2.5
C W/D=1.4
D 2
6.1.14
An increase in the drag coefficient due to cross flow vortex 1.5
shedding should be accounted, see 7.3.3. 1

W/D=1.1
6.1.15 0.5
Tentative values of drag (CD) and drag interference 0

coefficients (ID) for composite cylindrical shapes are given in 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Figure 6.6 and 6.7. The coefficients are based on a series of
Heading θ (deg)
model tests with shapes as defined in Figure 6.5 and given as
a function of length solidity SL in constant and oscillatory
flow. The Reynold's number and Keulegan-Carpenter
number are referred to pitch diameter, Dp.
Figure 6.9 Split tube chord and typical values for CD
The solidity ratio SL is defined as: (SNAME 1997)
For a split tube chord as shown in Figure 6.9, the drag

SL =
åD i
coefficient CD related to the reference dimension D , the
Dp diameter of the tubular including marine growth may be
taken as:
The interference drag coefficient is defined as:
ìCD0 for 0o < q £ 20o
CD Dp ï
ID = CD = í
åC (i)
D Di
W 2æ 9
( o ö
) o
ïCD0 + (CD1 D - CD0 )sin ç 7 q - 20 ÷ for 20 < q £ 90
o
i î è ø
where where:
Di = diameter of individual cylinder, see Figure 6.5 q = angle in degrees, see Figure 6.9
Dp = pitch diameter, see Figure 6.5 C D0 = the drag coefficient for tubular with appropriate
roughness as defined in 6.1.9
C(Di ) = drag coefficients for the individual cylinders
without any interaction C D1 = the drag coefficient for flow normal to the rack
( q =90o), related to the projected diameter, W.
SL = length solidity ratio
C D1 is given by
ID = interference drag coefficient.
6.1.16 ì W
ï1.8 : < 1 .2
For split tube chords (Jack-up leg chords) the hydrodynamic D
ï
coefficients may, in lieu of more detailed information be ï W W
C D1 = í1.4 + : 1.2 < < 1 .8
taken in accordance with Figure 6.9 and corresponding ï 3D D
formulae, as appropriate. ï W
ï2 : 1.8 <
D
î
The added mass coefficient Cm = 1.0 may be applied for all

pD 2
headings, related to the equivalent volume per unit
4
q length.
6.1.17
For a triangular chord (Jack-up leg chords) the
hydrodynamic coefficients may, in lieu of more detailed
information be taken in accordance with Figure 6.10
corresponding formulae, as appropriate.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
The angle, q0 = arctan é

D ù , describes when half the
êë 2W úû
rackplate is hidden. The added mass coefficient Cm = 1.0
q may be applied for all headings, related to the equivalent
pD 2
volume per unit length.
4
6.2 Wave loads on large volume structures

6.2.1
The transfer function for linear wave loads on large bodies
should be determined by diffraction theory. The theories may
be based on sink-source methods or finite fluid elements. For
simple geometical shapes analytical solutions may be used.
The results from sink-source methods should be carefully
2.5
C checked for surface piercing bodies such that irregular
D2 W/D=1.1 frequences are avoided. If a new structural concept is
introduced and the loads can not adequately be described by
1. state of the art methods, model experiments are
CD related to D recommended.
1
CDpr related to
0.5 projected diameter 6.2.2

0
The wave loads on structures composed of large volume
0 45 90 135 180 parts and slender members may be computed by a
Heading angle from rack q combination of wave diffration theory and Morison's
equation. The modifications of velocities and acceleration
due to the large volume parts should however be accounted
Figure 6.10 Triangular chord and typical values of CD for when using Morison's equation.
The drag coefficient CD related to the reference dimension D 6.2.3

may be taken as
In the vicinity of large bodies the free surface elevations (i.e.
D pr wave height) may be increased. This should be accounted for
C D = C Dpr (q) in the wave load calculations as well as for estimates of deck
D clearances.
where the drag coefficient related to the projected diameter,
CDpr , is determined from 6.2.4
Hydrodynamic interaction between large volume parts
ì1.70 for q= 0 o should be accounted for.
ï
ï1.95 for q = 90 o
ï 6.3 Second order wave loads on large volume
C Dpr =í1.40 for q = 105 o structures
ï1.65 for q = 180 o - q 0
ï 6.3.1
ï2.00 for q = 180 o
î Second order hydrodynamic load effects may in many cases
be important for the design of large volume structures in
Linear interpolation is to be applied for intermediate
waves. Such load effects should be investigated. The
headings. The projected diameter, Dpr, may be determined
different effects are explained in 6.3.2-6.3.6.
from:
D cos (q) : 00 <q <q0 6.3.2

When a linear regular first order wave is interacting with
Dpr Wsin (q) + 0.5D| cos (q)| : q0 <q <1800 -q0 itself and an ocean platform, forces of different characters
are created. In addition to first order linear exciting forces,
D |cos (q)| : 1800 -q0 <q <1800 mean nonlinear second order forces (drift forces) and non-
linear forces varying in time with twice the first order wave
frequency act on the structure. In the present state of the art
effects of higher order than two are usually neglected.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
6.3.3 6.4.3
Irregular waves are assumed to be composed of an infinite Space average slamming pressure over a broader area
number of fundamental frequencies and amplitudes (a wave (several plate fields) can be calculated from:
spectrum). In irregular sea the resulting second order exciting
forces contain three components. These are the mean forces 1
ps = r Cp a v 2
(drift forces), forces varying in time with the difference 2
frequencies (often called slow drift forces) and with the sum
frequencies of the wave spectrum (high frequency forces). where
ps = space average slamming pressure

6.3.4
The difference frequency forces may in particular be r = mass density of the fluid
important for design of mooring and dynamic positioning of
offshore structures as well as for offshore loading systems. Cp
a
= space average slamming pressure coefficient
For large volume structures with a small waterplane area the
slow drift forces may create large vertical motions. v = relative normal velocity between water and
surface
6.3.5
The sum frequency forces may become an important 6.4.4
excitation source in considering wave load effects on certain
offshore platforms as for instance the tension leg concept and The space average slamming pressure coefficient should be
deep water gravity platforms. determined using recognised theoretical and/or experimental
methods. The values given below should not be mixed with
local pressure coefficients that can be considerably larger.
6.3.6
The second order forces should be determined by a For a smooth circular cylinder the slamming pressure
consistent second order theory or by model tests. coefficient should not be taken less than Cpa =3.0.
6.4 Slamming loads from waves For flat bottom slamming taking account cushioning and
three dimensional effects, the slamming pressure coefficient
6.4.1 should not be taken less than Cpa =2p.
Structural members near the water surface (splash zone) are
susceptible to forces caused by wave slamming when the For a wedge shaped body with deadrise angle b above 15
member is being submerged. An important example is a degrees (see Figure 6.11), taking account of three
horizontal member where dynamic response of the member dimensional effects the slamming pressure coefficient should
should be accounted for. not be taken less than:
6.4.2 2.5
Cpa =
For a cylindrical shaped structural member the slamming (tan b)1.1
force per unit length may be calculated as:
where
1
Fs = r Cs D v 2
2 b =wedge angle at the intersection between body and water
surface (see Fig. 6.11 for definition).
where
For a wedged shaped body with 0<b<15 degrees, taking
FS = slamming force per unit length in the direction of account of cushioning and three dimensional effects, a linear
the velocity interpolation between results for flat bottom ( Cpa =2p for
r = mass density of the fluid
b=0 degrees) and b=15 degrees can be applied.
CS = slamming coefficient
D = member diameter
v = relative velocity between water and member

normal to the member surface
For a smooth circular cylinder the slamming coefficient

should not be taken less than CS=3.0.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
R = reduction factor on number of waves. For a

b given element only waves within a sector of 10
degrees to each side of the normal direction to
the member have to be accounted for. In case of
an undirectional wave distribution, R equals 0.11
k = slope of the S-N curve (in log-log scale).
water surface
6.4.6
The calculated contribution to fatigue due to slamming has to
be added to the fatigue contribution from other variable
Figure 6.11 Description of symbol
loads.
6.4.5
The fatigue damage due to wave slamming may be 6.5 Shock pressure from breaking waves
determined according to the following procedure:
6.5.1
· Determine minimum wave height, Hmin, which can cause Breaking waves causing shock pressures on vertical surfaces
slamming should be considered.
· Divide the long term distribution of wave heights, in
excess of Hmin, into a reasonable number of blocks 6.5.2
· For each block the stress range may be taken as:
In absence of more reliable methods the procedure described
D s j = 2 [a sslam - (s b + s w )] in 6.4.2 may be used to calculate the shock pressure.
where 6.5.3
The coefficient Cs depends on the configuration of the area
sslam = stress in the element due to the slam load given exposed to shock pressure. A lower limit of Cs for circular
in 6.4.2 cylinders is 3.0.
sb = stress due to the net buoyancy force on the
element 6.5.4
sw = stress due to vertical wave forces on the element The area exposed to shock pressure may be taken as a sector
of 45 degrees with a height of 0.25 Hb , where Hb is the most
a = factor accounting for dynamic amplification. probable largest breaking wave heigh in n years, Figure 3.3.
The region from SWL (see 4.2.4) to the top of the wave crest
should be investigated for the effects of shock pressure.
· Each slam is associated with 20 approximate linear
decaying stress ranges. 6.5.5
· The contribution to fatigue from each wave block is The impact velocity (v) should be taken as that
given as: corresponding to the most probable largest breaking wave
height in n years. The most probable largest breaking wave
i = 20 k height may be taken as 1.4 times the most probable largest
nj
yj = R
Nj å
i = 20 - n i
æ i ö
ç ÷
è 20 ø
significant wave height in n years.
where 7. Vortex induced oscillations

nj = number of waves within block j 7.1 General
Nj = critical number of stress cycles (from relevant S- 7.1.1
N curve) associated with D s j Wind or any fluid flow past a member may cause unsteady
ni = number of stress ranges in excess of the limiting flow patterns due to vortex shedding. This may lead to
stress range associated with the cut off level of vibrations of the member normal to its longitudinal axis.
the S-N curve Such vibrations should be investigated.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
7.1.2 Rough surfaced cylinder or vibrating cylinders (both smooth

At certain critical flow velocities, the vortex shedding and rough surfaced) have Strouhal numbers which in practice
frequency may coincide with or be a multiple of the natural can be considered independent of the Reynolds number.
frequency of motion of the member, resulting in harmonic or
subharmonic resonance vibrations. The following provides
guidance on both methods for determining the motion
amplitude, the response and the forces on the member.
7.1.3
In the following the necessary criterion for presence of vortex
shedding is listed. The vortex shedding frequency in steady
current or flow with KC numbers greater than 40 may be
calculated as follows:
v
f = St
D
where Figure 7.1 Strouhals number for a circular cylinder as a

function of Reynolds number
f = vortex shedding frequency (Hz)
St = Strouhal's number
v = local flow velocity normal to the member axis
D = diameter of the member
Vortex shedding is related to the drag coefficient of the

member considered. High drag coefficients usually accompany
strong regular vortex shedding or vice versa. This means that
the Strouhal number (St) is a function of Reynolds number (Re)
for a smooth stationary cylinder. The relationship between St
and Re for a circular cylinder is given in Figure 7.1. For other
cross sectional shapes St may be taken from Table 7.1.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Table 7.1 Strouhal’s number for different cross section shapes
Wind Profile dimensions in mm Value of St Wind Profile dimensions in mm Value of St
0.120
0.147
0.137
0.120 0.150
0.145
0.142
0.144
0.147
0.131
0.134
0.145
0.137
0.140 0.121
0.153 0.143
0.145
0.135
0.168
0.156
0.180
0.145
0.114
0.200
0.145
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Classification Notes- No. 30.5 33
March 2000
7.1.4 me = effective virtual mass per unit length of the

element
For rounded hydrodynamic smooth members, the vortex
shedding phenomenon is strongly dependent on Reynolds
number for the flow, as given below. L 2
ò 0 m[y(x) ] dx + å M [y(x ) ]
j=1
j j
2
102 < Re < 0.6×106 For periodic shedding me =

d 2
6 6 ò 0 [y(x) ] dx
0.6×10 < Re < 3×10 Wide-band random shedding
6
3×10 < Re < 6×10 6
Narrow-band random shedding m = mass per unit length of the elevation including
structural mass, added mass, and the mass of
Re > 6×106 Quasi-periodic shedding any fluid contained within the element
d = submerged length of element
For rough members and for smooth vibrating members the
vortex shedding shall be considered strongly periodic in the d = the logarithmic decrement (=2px)
entire Reynolds number range.
x = the ratio between damping and critical damping
7.1.5
For determination of the velocity ranges where the vortex d = d s + d other + dh
shedding will be in resonance with the eigenfrequencies and
will lock-in to the eigenfrequency of the member, a parameter ds = the structural damping
vr, called the reduced velocity, is used. vr is defined as
dother = soil damping or other damping (rubbing wear)
v
vr = y(x) = normalized mode shape
fi D
Mj = lump mass at position xj
where
v = v(x) = instantaneous flow velocity normal to the

member axis The hydrodynamic mass entering into the expression for m can
be determined from the expressions in Section 6.1.3. The
fi = the i'th natural frequency of the member hydrodynamic mass will vary with the reduced velocity due to
the separation of flow behind the pipe. This variation can be
D = D(x) = member diameter
neglected for practical purposes.
x = distance along member axis.
The generalised logarithmic decrement for the hydrodynamic
damping
Lock-in to the eigenfrequencies can take place both parallel 2 L 2
l
with the flow and transverse with the flow. ò 01 r(x) CD D(x) | v(x) | y (x)dx + ò l1+D r(x) CD D(x) | v(x) | y (x)dx
dh »
4 f i Mi
7.1.6
Another parameter controlling the motions is the stability
parameter, Ks. The parameter is proportional to the damping dh = generalised logarithmic decrement of
and inversely proportional to the total exciting vortex shedding hydrodynamic damping outside the lock-in region
force. Hence the parameter is large when the damping is large for cross flow vibrations. The contribution to
or if the lock-in region on the member is small compared with hydrodynamic damping within the lock-in region
the general length of the pipe. shall be set to zero in the calculation Ks dh=dh(x);
For in-line vortex induced vibrations the
For uniform member diameter and uniform flow conditions contribution is double i.e. 2 d h .
over the member length the stability parameter is defined as
2 d
K s = m e2
rD
where
r = mass density of surrounding medium (air/gas or

liquid)
D = member diameter
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
M Lumped mass 7.2.6

Length of element L
The amplitude for fully developed cross-flow oscillations may
be found from Figure 7.3 and Table 7.2.
7.2.7
l1 +
For strongly turbulent wind flow, the given figures for
v(x)
amplitudes are conservative. A more accurate calculation
may be performed in accordance with the principles outlined
Locking-on in 7.4.
region
7.3 Current induced vortex shedding
l
7.3.1
1
Vortex shedding resonance or locking-on may occur as
D(x) Diameter follows:
In-line (flow parallel) excitations when:

CD(x) Drag coefficient
1.0 £ vr £ 3.5
m(x) mass pr. unit length KS £ 1.8

x
1.4
1.2
Figure 7.2 Definition of parameters
1
Ampl
7.2 Wind induced vortex shedding 0.8
gD Ampl 0.31
=
gD 0.062 + 0.077 K S2
0.6
7.2.1
Wind induced cyclic excitations of pipes may occur in two 0.4
planes, in-line with or perpendicular to the wind direction. 0.2
The amplitudes of the vortex shedding induced motions due 0

to wind may be derived according to the simplified approach 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
m e 2d
for vortex shedding in steady current given in 7.3, KS =
rD 2
substituting the mass density of the water with the mass
density of the air ( rair = 1.225 kg / m3 for dry air). Figure 7.3 Amplitude of crossflow motions as function of
KS
7.2.2
In-line excitations may occur when: Depending on the flow velocity the vortices will either be shed
symmetrically or alternatively from either side of the cylinder.
1.7 < v r < 3.2
For 1.0 < vr < 2.2 (first instability region), the shedding will be
symmetrical and the maximum amplitude relative to the
7.2.3 diameter of the oscillations is determined as a function of the
In-line excitations are not likely to occur unless there are stability parameter, KS, see Figure 7.4. In case of varying
large concentrated masses excited. diameter it is the average diameter D defined in section 7.1.6
that shall be used. For a given reduced velocity the motions will
7.2.4 be suppressed if the stability parameter is above a certain
threshold value.
Cross-flow excitations may occur when:
The criterion for onset of the motion in the first instability
4.7 < v r < 8.0 region is given in Figure 7.5.
7.2.5 The onset criteria is only valid when the reduced velocity vr is
increasing. In non-steady flow where vr may go from high
The upper limit of the stability parameter KS for cross-flow
values to low values lock-in vibrations will exist for all vr ³ 1.0.
excitations may be taken as 25 unless more accurate data
exist.
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For vr > 2.2 the shedding will be unsymmetric, the motion will The maximum amplitude of the cross-flow oscillations relative
take place in the second instability region (2.2 < vr < 3.5) for KS to the diameter D may be determined from Figure 7.3. In case
< 1.8. The maximum amplitude of the oscillation as function of of varying diameter, use the average diameter of the locking
KS is given in Figure 7.4. region. The mode shape parameter, g (see Table 7.2 for typical
values), used in this figure is defined as:
1/2
0.20 é ò L [ y 2 (x)]dx ù
g = y max ê 0L 4 ú
êë ò 0 [ y (x)]dx úû
0.16
where
Ampl
D y(x) = normalized mode shape
0.12
ymax = maximum value of the mode shape or the
max (Z/D) response
(1st inst region)
normalization value for the mode
0.08 L = length of the pipe.
0.04
max (Z/D) response
(2nd inst. region)
Table 7.2 The mode shape parameter of some typical
structural elements.
0.00
Structural element g
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00
Stability Parameter K S Rigid cylinder 1.00
Pivoted rod 1.29
String and cable 1.16
Figure 7.4 Amplitude of in-line motion as a function of Ks
Simply supported beam 1.16
5.00
Cantilever, 1st mode 1.31
Cantilever, 2nd mode 1.50
Reduced
velocity Cantilever, 3rd mode 1.56
end value
vr (2nd inst. region) Clamped-clamped, 1st mode 1.17
4.00
No Motion
Motion
Clamped-clamped, 2nd mode 1.16
Clamped-pinned, 1st mode 1.16
3.00 Clamped-pinned, 2nd mode 1.19
onset value
(1st inst. region) Motion
If the current is fluctuating due to turbulence moving in and out
2.00
No Motion
of the vortex shedding region the phenomenon will behave as
in waves.
1.00 7.3.2
For cables or for very long pipes the lock-in may also take
place with "travelling" waves in the cable or pipe. Both the
0.00
response in the stationary mode shape and in the travelling
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00
wave may be investigated by methods given in the literature,
Stability Parameter K S for instance Vandiver, 1991.
Figure 7.5 Criteria for onset of the motion in the first in- The result of the two analyses which gives the largest response
line instability region (1.0 < vr < 2.2) and end of second shall be used for design.
instability region
7.3.3
Cross-flow (flow perpendicular) excitations may occur when: In situations where the member is placed in shear flow and has
overlapping lock-in regions one vortex frequency will dominate
3 £ vr £ 16 for all Reynolds numbers, but the maximum and the other frequencies will be suppressed in the overlapping
response is found in the range 4.8 £ vr £ 8. region.
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March 2000
In general the frequency associated with the highest local for lc > D, l c /D » 1 (as approximation).
response will dominate. The investigation shall be made for all
the lock-in modes. The modes giving the largest response shall The above expressions are the forces on a fixed cylinder.
be used as the final result.
7.3.6
7.3.4
Vortex shedding in combination with composite pipe bundles.
In connection with strong transverse locking-on, an increase in
the (in-line) drag coefficient of the member takes place Vortex shedding takes place on combination of pipes or on pipe
bundles as global vortex shedding (on the total enclosed
é Y[y(x)] ù volume) or as local vortex shedding on individual members.
C D = C D 0 ê1 + ú
ë D(x) û
When the pipes are widely spaced the vortex shedding will be
where local on each member. However when pipes spaced so densely
that the drag coefficient for the total enclosed volume exceeds
Y = amplitude of cross-flow vibration 0.7 the total bundle can be exposed to global vortex shedding.
y(x) = normalized mode shape The vortex shedding excitation will grow with the total drag
coefficient on the bundle. For a circular pipe bundle the vortex
CD0 = the drag coefficient for the stationary cylinder shedding excitation will be the same as for a solid circular
cylinder when the total bundle drag coefficient rises above 1.2.
D(x) = member diameter. In this case a Cf = Cf0 defined in section 7.3.5 can be used
acting on the pitch diameter of the bundle. For total bundle drag
coefficients, CD, smaller than 1.2, as determined in 6.1.3, the
7.3.5
transverse lift coefficient, Cf, will depend on the total drag
The vortex shedding is shed in cells. A statistical measure for coefficient roughly as
the length of the cells is the correlation between forces for
sections at different length apart. This is formulated by the C - 0.7
C f @ Cf 0 D (C D > 0.7)
correlation length, lc. 1.2 - 0.7
Y(y(x)) D in which Cf0 is the transverse flow coefficient for the enclosed
l c = l c0 + l c1 for Y (y(x)) <
0.5D - Y(y(x)) 2 body if it is solid. In addition there may be local vortex
shedding on individual members.
D
lc = ¥ for Y(y(x)) ³ Pipes spaced so that the drag coefficient for the total enclosed
2
volume is below 0.7 will only be exposed to local vortex
The lack of correlation over the length of the cylinder shedding on members.
influences the transverse forces. The lengths lc0 and lc1 can be
taken as lc0 » 3D and lc1 » 35D. 7.4 Wave induced vortex shedding
In a vortex cell the transverse force, Fcell can be determined by 7.4.1
The orbital motions in waves may generate vortex shedding
1
Fcell = r C f v 2 D sin (2p f i t)sign(y(x)) on structural members. For certain critical velocities this may
2 lead to resonant vibrations normal to the member axis or to
vibrations parallel with the flow.
where
The alternating type of vortex shedding takes place in that part
Cf @ 0.9. of the wave motion where the acceleration is small.
Cf shall always be assigned this value irrespective of Reynolds
number, because even small vibrations will tune the vortex 7.4.2
shedding and separation points. The force will always work The vortex shedding in waves falls into two categories
together with the motion in the higher modes. This is the reason depending on the Keulegan-Carpenter number, KC, defined
for the sign(y(x)). by
For a long pipe where the correlation length is small compared 2
Tæ u c ö÷
with the length, D, over which the locking-on conditions are K C @ v m çç1 +
D è v m ÷ø
satisfied, i.e. (lc << D) the lack of correlation modifies the
average force per unit length, F, to be
where
1 2
F » lc /D Cf r v D sin (2p f i t) sign(y(x))
2
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March 2000
vm = maximum orbital velocity due to wave motion

perpendicular to member axis for stationary
cylinder. If the cylinder moves with the waves it
is the maximum relative velocity between the
wave motion and the member
T = wave period
uc = steady state current perpendicular to member axis Figure 7.6 Criterion for presence of vortex shedding in
waves (the time window for vortex shedding)
1) Vortex shedding of the same type as in steady currents. 7.4.4

This type exists for KC > 40. Resonance vibrations due to vortex shedding (locking-on)
2) Vortex shedding for 6 < KC < 40. In this range the vortex may occur as follows for KC > 40:
shedding frequency will be determined by the type of
wave motion. There will be two limiting cases In-line excitations:
- the frequency will be a multiple of the wave 1 < vr < 3.5
frequency if the wave motion is regular
- the frequencies will be the same as in steady current KS < 1.8
if the wave motion is very irregular (i.e. determined
by the Strouhal number St) Cross-flow:
For narrow band spectra the vortex shedding frequencies will 4 < vr < 8
be a combination of the two limiting cases.
vr = vr(x,t) and KS = KS(x,t) so the parameters will change in
the wave period. In wave motion these conditions will only be
7.4.3 present temporarily in a time slot.
Vortex shedding for KC > 40 only exists when the orbital
velocity component perpendicular changes less than 110% in 7.4.5
a vortex shedding cycle. When the velocity changes quickly
in a typical vortex period it can be difficult to distinguish any The maximum possible response which can exist in the time
alternating vortex shedding. A practical criterion for when slot where the locking-on criteria are present can be found from
alternating vortex shedding can be considered present and Figures 7.3 and 7.4. The time slot with lock-in conditions may,
when it can be considered not present is given below. In however, be too short for the development to this final value so
mathematical terms it will only develop partially, Figures 7.7.
·
u D < 1.1 K > 40
C
u 2 St
where
u = the instantaneous orbital velocity perpendicular to

pipe (including the steady current)
· = the instantaneous orbital acceleration perpendicular
u to pipe
Figure 7.7 Vortex shedding and vortex shedding response

From this expression the time window with alternating vortex cross-flow (locking-on) in wave motion
shedding is determined. An example is depicted in the middle
graph of Figure 7.6. The development of response in a lock-in period in unsteady
flow is usually so complicated that they must be calculated with
For a sine wave the limiting criterion for presence of vortex
mathematical models. For approximate calculations, however,
shedding corresponds to
one may assume fully developed motions.
2
æ u ö 2p 1 é æ u öù Between the time slots with locking-on conditions the vibration
çç ÷÷ > cos êArc sin çç ÷÷ú
è v m ø 1.1 St K C ë è v m øû amplitudes are reduced to
Y = Y max exp(-d n d )
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
where In practice it may be difficult to decide where the transition

from irregular to regular waves are present. Therefore the
nd = the number of cycles in the damped region analysis shall be made as for KC > 40 but with the modified
vortex shedding coefficient Cf shown in Figure 7.8. KC is in
Ymax = the maximum amplitude as derived from irregular flow defined by
Figures 7.3 and 7.4
= generalised logarithmic decrement as defined in T æç u c ö÷

d K C = 2 u rms
ç
1+
7.1.6. Dè 2 u rms ÷ø
The KC number is a function of depth. This variation shall be

7.4.6 considered in the calculations.
Locking-on conditions for KC < 40:
In-line:
3.5
vr > 1 Cf 3
2.5
Cross-flow (with associated in-line motion): 2
1.
3 < vr < 9
1
vr = vr(x,t) in wave motion so the locking-on region may 0.5

constantly change position. 0
0 1 20 30 40 50
KC
The maximum amplitude response of the cross-flow
Figure 7.8 Lift coefficient Cf as function of KC number.
component is around 1.5 diameter or less. The associated in-
N is the number of vortices shed per half wave period.
line amplitude component is less than 0.6 diameter.
Based on Bearman et al. 1981
The lift coefficient Cf from Figure 7.8 shall only be used in
areas where the vibration amplitude is smaller than 2 diameter. 7.5 Methods for reducing vortex-induced
If the vibration amplitude is greater than 2 diameters the oscillations
oscillating vortex shedding is destroyed and Cf=0.
7.5.1
7.4.7 There exist two ways for reducing the severity of flow-
induced oscillations due to vortex shedding, either a change
Vortex shedding for KC < 40. in the structural properties, or change of shape by addition of
aerodynamic devices such as strakes, shrouds or spoiling
For regular wave motion a kind of resonance between waves devices which partly prevent resonant vortex shedding from
vortex shedding take place. The vortex shedding frequency will occurring and partly reduces the strength of the vortex-
be a multiple of the wave frequency. The number of vortex induced forces.
shedding oscillations per wave period N is in regular wave
motion given by: 7.5.2
Change of structural properties means changing of natural
KC N frequency, mass or damping.
7-15 2 7.5.3
15-24 3 An increase in natural frequency will cause an increase in the
critical flow speed
24-32 4
ni D
v=
32-40 5 St
Thus v may become greater than the maximum design wind

The strength of the transverse forces are increased at the speed, or vr may come outside the range for onset of resonant
resonance conditions. Using the method of analysis defined in vortex shedding.
7.3.5 the vortex shedding coefficient Cf shall be modified as
shown in Figure 7.8. 7.5.4
In irregularly wave motion, vortex flow regimes undergo An increase in non-structural mass can be used to increase
substantial changes. The resonance between wave frequency KS and hence the amplitude of oscillations. Due attention has
and vortex frequency is not developed. Instead the vortex however to be paid to the decrease of natural frequency
shedding behaves as for KC > 40. which will follow from an increase of mass.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
7.5.5 7.5.6
Spoiling devices are often used to suppress vortex shedding For pipes closely spaced to a wall or to a greater pipe bumpers
locking-on. The principle in the spoiling is either a drag may be used to limit the maximum response. Besides reducing
reduction by streamlined fins and splitter plates (which break the amplitude it will break up the harmonic vibrations.
the oscillating pattern) or by making the member irregular
such that vortices over different length becomes uneven and 7.5.7
irregular. Examples of this may be ropes wrapped around the
Use of pretension guy wires has proven effective to eliminate
member, perforated cans, twisted fins, or helical strakes,
resonant vortex shedding.
Figure 7.9.
The guy wires should be attached close to the midpoint of the
Strakes member and pretensioned perpendicularly to prevent cross-
d flow oscillations. The effect can then be summarized as
follows:
Pitch D
- Increase member stiffness and hence natural frequency
(small effect)
- Hysteresis damping of wires (large effect)
- Geometrical stiffness and damping of wires (large
Wire effect) (due to transverse vibrations of wire)
d - Nonlinear stiffness is introduced which again restrains
resonance conditions to occur.
D
The wires have to be strapped and pretensioned in such a way
as to fully benefit from both hysteresis and geometrical
Figure 7.9 Helical strakes and wires damping as well as the non-linear stiffness. The pretension for
each guy wire should be chosen within the area indicated on
In order for the spoiling devices to work they shall be placed Figure 7.10.
closer than the correlation length for the vortex shedding. Total pretension and number of wires has to be chosen with due
The efficiency of the spoiling device should be determined consideration to member strength.
by testing. The graphs for in-line and cross-flow motion can An example is shown in Figure 7.10 where a 3/4 inch wire is
be directly applied for the spoiling system by multiplying used to pretension a member with 30 m between the member
with the efficiency factor. and the support point. A tension (force) of 2.5 kN will in this
Typical examples of the efficiency of helical strakes are case give maximum non-linear stiffness.
given in Table 7.3. Instead of monitoring the tension, the wire sagging may be
used to visually estimate the tension. In the example shown, a
Table 7.3 Efficiency of helical strakes and helical wires. sag of around 0.45 m corresponds to the wanted tension of 2.5
Jones & Lamb 1992. W. Weaver 1961, Chung et al. 1994 kN.
No. of Height Pitch Lift Drag
windings of Coeffi- Coeffi-
Strakes cient cient
CL CD
Helical 3 0.11 D 4.5 D 0.238 1.6
Strakes 3 0.11 D 15 D 0.124 1.7
Helical 3-4 0.118 D 5D 0.2 1.17
Wires 3-4 0.118 D 10 D 0.2 1.38
3-4 0.238 D 5D 0.2 -
3-4 0.238 D 10 D 0.2 -
No 0.9 0.7
spoilers
Using spoilers the marine growth may blur the shape and
may make them less effective. The changed shape shall be
taken into account in the analysis.
Figure 7.10 Force-deflection curve for 3/4 inch stranded

guy-wire with geometrical configuration as shown
DET NORSKE VERITAS

March 2000
Wave-include Currents", Proc. Third International

8. References Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
Symposium, 1984.
This Classification Note has primarily been based on the · Tsahalis, D.T.: "The Effect of Sea bottom Proximity on
following references in alphabetic order: the Vortex-induced Vibrations and Fatigue Life of
Offshore Pipelines", Proc. Second International Offshore
· Blevins, R.D.: "Flow-induced", Van Nostrand Reinhold
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symposium, 1983.
Company, New York 1977.
· Tsahalis, D.T.: "Vortex-induced Vibrations due to
· BSI Code of Practice No. 3, Chapter 5, Part 2: "Wind
Steady and Wave-induced Currents of a Flexible
Loads", September 1972.
Cylinder near a Plane Boundary".
· CIRIA Underwater Engineering Group, Report UR8:
· Taylor, P., ‘Current Blockage - Reduced Forces on Steel
"Dynamics of Marine Structures", London, June 1977.
Platforms in Regular and Irregular Waves with a Mean
· Fredsø, J., Sumer, B.M., Andersen, J., Hansen, E.A.: Current’, Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 6519,
"Transverse Vibrations of a Cylinder very close to a Houston, 1991.
Plane Wall", Proc. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
· Wheeler, J.D. ‘Method for Calculating Forces Produced
Engineering Symposium, 1985.
by Irregular Waves’, Proceedings 1st Offshore
· Gran, S.: "A course in Ocean Engineering", A/S Veritas Technology Conference, OTC 1006, Houston, 1969
Research, Report No. 88-2001.
· SNAME, Technical & Research Bulletin 5-5A, Site
· Heidemann, Olsen and Johansen: "Local Wave Force Specific Assessment fo Mobile Jack-up Units, The
Coefficients", ASCE Civil Engineering in the Ocean IV, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
September 1978. Jersey City, New York, May 1997.
· Jacobsen, V., Bryndum, M.B., Nielsen, R., Fines, S.: · Faltinsen, Odd, “Sea loads on ships and offshore
"Vibration of Offshore Pipelines exposed to Current and structures”, Cambridge University Press 1990
Wave Action", Proc. Third International Offshore
· Zhao, Rong and Faltinsen, Odd “Water entry of two-
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symposium, 1984.
dimensional bodies”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol.
· King, R., Prosser, M.J.: "On Vortex Excitation of Model 263 1993
Piles in Water", Journal of Sound and Vibrations, Vol.
29, No. 2, pp. 169_180, 1973.
· Løken, A.E., Torset, O.P., Mathiassen, S. and Arnesen,
T: "Aspects of Hydrodynamic Loading in Design of
Production Risers", OTC paper No. 3538, May 1979.
· Løken, A.E. and Faltinsen, O.M.: "Three dimensional
Second order Hydrodynamic effects on Ocean Structures
in Waves", Paper to be published in Applied Ocean
Research.
· Ottesen Hansen, N.E., Jacobsen, V. and Lundgren, H.:
"Hydrodynamic Forces on Composite Risers and
Individual Cylinders", OTC-paper 3541, May 1979.
· Ottesen Hansen, N.E.: "Vortex Shedding in Marine
Risers and Conductors in Directional Seas", Symposium
of Directional Seas in the Oceans, Copenhagen 1984.
· Sumer, B.M., Fredsø, J.: "Transverse Vibrations of a
Pipeline exposed to Waves", Proc. 5th International
Symposium on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering (OMAE 86), Tokyo, Japan 1986.
· Sarpkaya, T.: "Vortex Shedding and Resistance in
Harmonic Flow about Rough Circular Cylinders", BOSS
76-conference, Trondheim, Norway, August 1976.
· Sarpkaya, T.: "In-line and Transverse Force on
Cylinders near a Wall in Oscillatory Flow at High
Reynold's Numbers", OTC Paper No. OTC 2980, May
1977.
· Sarpkaya, T.: "Hydrodynamic Drag on Bottom mounted
Smooth and Rough Cylinder in Periodical Flow", OTC
Paper No. OTC 3761, May 1979.
· Sarpkaya, T. and Isaacson, M.: "Mechanics of Wave
Forces on Offshore Structures", Van Nostrand, Reinhold
Company, New York, 1981.
· Tsahalis, D.T.: "Vortex-induced Vibrations of a Flexible
Cylinder near a Plane Boundary exposed to Steady and
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CLASSIFICATION NOTES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND

DET NORSKE VERITAS

© Det Norske Veritas AS 2000

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Phenomena which may be important in specific cases are:

Common reference height level is z = 10 metres. Common

The ratio U (z, t)/ U (zr, tr) is given in Table 2.1:

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Table 2.1 Wind speed ratios.

3 seconds 5 seconds 15 seconds 1 minute 10 minutes 60 minutes

c = Weibull slope parameter S(f ) = power spectral density (m2/Hz)

DET NORSKE VERITAS

3. Wave conditions 3.1.4

The deterministic wave parameters may, however, be 3.1.5

DET NORSKE VERITAS

h = The instantaneous water level (same axis system 3.2.3

Wave spectra may be given on table form, as measured

describing wind sea conditions that are reasonable for the

A g g - 1 = 4.1(N + 2.35)-0.71[ln (g )] 0.87 + 0.59 N

The Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum appears for g = 1.0. HSw = rpw HS

DET NORSKE VERITAS

M=4 If no particular values are given for the peakedness

The parameter rpw is defined by: where TP is in seconds and HS is in metres.

2. The parameters of the swell dominated range (TP³ Tf)

M=4 The Jonswap spectrum above has approximately

2.2 Secondary peak

Where: Quantities that may be defined in terms of spectral moments

3.2.4 · Average zero crossing wave period:

DET NORSKE VERITAS

f (a ) = directional function. where

The directional function f (a ) may have the general form

DET NORSKE VERITAS

· correct mean wave elevation

HS, max = H 0 + (H1 - H 0 )[ln (m )]1 / j

The other spectral parameters of the extreme seastate may be

DET NORSKE VERITAS

where and Log-Normal density function

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Figure 3.3 Breaking wave height dependent on still water depth

DET NORSKE VERITAS

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Table 3.3 Scatter diagram for the North Atlantic.

Table 3.4 Scatter diagram for the World Wide trade.

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4. Current and tide 4.1.3

v wind (z) = 0 for z < - h 0 4.2.2

MAX STILL WATER LEVEL

Figure 4.1 Recommended method for current profile

DET NORSKE VERITAS

q = the basic wind pressure or suction where

5.1.2 f = solidity ratio, defined as the projected exposed

(if Equation in 5.2.1 is applicable)

5.2 Wind forces (if Equation in 5.2.2 is applicable)

FW = C q A sin a The shielding factor h is dependent on the solidity ratio ( f )

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Table 5.1 The shielding factor h æ b ö

5.3 The shape coefficient

DET NORSKE VERITAS

0 2.1 0 Hollow hemisphere 0.35

Hemisphere on horizontal plane 0.5

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3 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.35 1.4