Electronic App 1: Fly-by-wire control system

(FBW)
Fly-By-Wire provides a safer, precision controlled aircraft whilst reducing weight and
lowering maintenance costs relative to traditional mechanical (steel cables) systems.
Captain cntrls
stick
Transducer

Primary flight
computers

Controller
+ actuator Auto-pilot
computers

Actuator cntl
Controller electronics
+ actuator
Flaps • Digital FBW
• Fly-by-light - uses fibre-optics instead of wires
reducing weight, increasing safety (EM immunity)
• Fly-by-wireless – uses wireless technology to replace
wire, reduces maintenance
Summary Components
Passive
(no pwr source) Active
(need power source)
Resistor, R []
LED
(light emitting diode)

Transistor
Inductor, L [H] Diode

Capacitor, C [F] Power Sources

Vs [V] V

+
-
Wires +
Not
Connected
Connected
http://www.rapidtables.com/electric/electrical_symbols.htm
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What Happens in a Circuit

Light Bulb (off)
Filament wire e.g.
Tungsten or alloys
Battery:
Positive terminal
(no electrons) + Resistor
No current flow e.g. carbon film
Negative terminal I=0
(many electrons)
Wire
Usually Copper

EMF (Electro-motive Force) : V [ V, Volts]:

Energy required to transfer charge Q, from + to – terminals: U [J, Joules]

Energy per unit charge, V = U / Q Nb: 1 V = 1 J / C

Battery supplies energy to electrons, via chemical means, and populates the –ve
terminal.
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What Happens in a Circuit

Light Bulb (ON)
Electrical to Light energy.
Battery: Energy lost: VB
Gives energy to ‘tired’
electrons
Energy gained = Vs
+
Resistor
Vs e
Electrical to Heat energy
Energy lost: VR

I. Electric Field, E, set up in wire, resistor & bulb

II. Force, F = qE, pushes electrons around circuit (EMF)
III. Electrons lose energy by collisions with atoms in wire and other components

Energy supplied = Energy lost Conservation

Vs = VR + VB of Energy
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Worked Example
In the circuit below calculate:
i) the voltage across the bulb after the switch is closed.
ii) the energy lost per electron that is converted into heat in
the resistor VB = ?
+

VS = 6 V VR = 2 V

i) Using VS = VR + VB then VB = VS – VR
VB = 6 V – 2 V = 4 V

ii) VR = 2 V = 2 J converted to heat per coulomb of charge.

Each electron has charge qe = 1.6 10-19 C so energy lost per
electron = 2 qe = 2  1.6 10-19 = 3.2 10-19 J !
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Supply and Demand

In the circuit below calculate the supply voltage, Vs

+ VR1 = 2 V VR2 = 5 V

VS = ? VR3 = 3 V

Using VS = VR1 + VR2 + VR3

then VS = 2 V + 5 V + 3 V = 10 V

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Solid Matters !
I am
I want to free !
Bound break free!
Electrons
Free electron –
orbit in
Conduction
Shells
Nucleus: band
Protons &
Neutrons Cu atom at room
temperature
Cu atom below
room temperature Energy Diagram

Conduction
band
Energy

Valance
Band
Outer shell – Valance band
Bound Electrons Temperature
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Conductors vs Insulators:
 Conductor: Allows electrons inside it to move when an
electric field is applied across its ends.
random motion
free electrons
(Conduction Band) Drift motion, I

Electric Field, E
- +
 Insulator (dielectric): Does not allow electrons to move
when electrical field is applied across its ends.
bound electrons
(Valance Band) No Drift
motion, I = 0
Electric Field, E
- +
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Electric Current, I [Ampere, A]

 In good conductors (i.e. metals) electrons (charge qe) move
randomly at speeds approx. 106 ms-1.
 When an electric field E is applied (from a battery) an electric
force FE = qe E acts on the free electrons.
 This causes them to drift in the direction of the field at an
average velocity vav  ELECTRIC CURRENT

vav
velocity (v)
Electrons
I vav
A
- +
Electric Field
Time after field
(supplied by power source e.g. battery)
applied
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Electric Current, I [Ampere, A]

d = vav ∆t

Conventional Current:
Electrons n I “flow of +ve charge”
A

- + Electric Field
 Suppose there are n electrons per unit volume (density).
 After a time interval t they travel a distance d (= vav t).
 The amount of charge passing through area A in time t is:
Q = n x volume x charge on each electron = n( Avavt ) qe
Charge flowing per unit time or current is:

I =Q / t = nAvave Current:

“rate of flow of charge”

The unit of current is the Ampere or Amp: A = C s-1

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Worked Example
In a copper wire a current of I = 3 A flows. Given that
the free electron density in Cu is n = 8.46  1028 m-3
what is the drift velocity vav of the electrons?

Vav
I  nAvavqe Wire radius
0. 5 mm

A  r 2  7.855 107 m2 qe  1.6 1019 C

I 3
vav  
nAqe 8.46 1028  7.855 107 1.6 1019
 vav  2.8 104  0.28 mm / s !
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Ohm’s Law (1826)

 The electrical characteristic of a material is
the plot of voltage applied (V the cause)
and current through it (I, the effect).
 Different materials have different
characteristics.
 Ohm discovered that a linear
characteristic is common to a large class
Georg Simon Ohm
of conductors: Cu, Al, carbon etc. (1789 – 1854)

V Resistance: R
Gradient: V / I = R
Defined by: R = V / I.
I Units: Ohms 
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Ohm’s Law (1826)

Vir latin man, hero

V V
R I
I R
V

I
V  IR
‘Provided physical conditions (e.g.Temperature T) do not
alter then over a wide range of potential differences: V  I
or V = I R for many materials, particularly metals and
alloys’

Resistors that obey Linear circuits or components

Ohm’s law are said to are those that have a linear
be Ohmic resistors electrical characteristic
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Ohmmmmmm
In the circuit below if a current of 5 mA flows what is
the resistance of R.
VR1 = 4 V
+

Vs = 6 V R

From Ohm’s Law:

VR  Vs  VR1  6  4  2 V

V 2
R  3
 0.4  10 3
 400 
I 5 10
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Ohmmmmmm
a) In each part (branch) the circuit below:
i) draw the direction of conventional current
ii) draw the direction of electron flow
b) If VAB = 16 V what current is flowing in the 8  resistor?

6 A
From Ohm’s Law:

20  30  8
V 16
I  2A
R 8
+
B
36 V Electron flow
Conventional Current
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Quiz
1) How many electrons are there in 1 C of charge?
2) How many electrons are on the –ve terminal of a 6 V battery if
3.2 C of charge is transferred between its terminals?
3) If 0.5 C of charge is to transferred between the terminals of a
12V battery how much energy is needed?
4) In the circuit below if VAB = 4 V what is the current in the i)15
 resistor ? ii) the 10  resistor? iii) 3  resistor?
5) What do you notice about the sum of the 15  and 10 
resistor currents?
A
6) A very long metal rod, of 1 mm
3 diameter, has a free electron density of
5.23  1022 cm-3. When the rod is placed
15  10  in a region of electric field the electrons
move with a drift velocity of 0.14 mm s-1.
What current is flowing through the rod?
+ B
6V
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Summary
I =Q / t = nAVave Ohm’s Law:
V=IR
Current:
rate of flow of charge
I [A] V
Fundamentals I

Conductors: Free
electrons move when
an electric field is Insulator (Dielectric):
applied Bound electrons can’t
move when an electric
No current! I = 0 field is applied.
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Quiz - Answers
1) 6.25  1018 electrons!
2) Number of electrons = 3.2 C  6.25  1018 electrons in 1 C.
Answer is 2  1019 electrons.
3) 12 V = 12 J /C so energy required is 12  0.5 = 6 J.
4) i) I15 = V / R = 4 / 15 = 0.267 A. ii) ) I10 = 4 /10 = 0.4 A.
iii) I3 = (6 - 4) / 3 = 0.67 A.
I3 = I15 + I10
6) I = nAvave

A Cross-sectional area, A = d2 /4

A = 7.8610-7 m2
3 n = 5.23  1022 cm-3 = 5.23  1028 m-3
vav = 0.14 mm s-1 = 1.4  10-4 m/s
15  10 
e = 1.6  10-19 C
I = 0.92 A
+ B
6V
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