SBFS1103 Thinking Skills and Prob Solving (RS) - Caug17 (Bookmark)

SBFS1103
Thinking Skills and Problem Solving
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

SBFS1103
THINKING SKILLS AND
PROBLEM SOLVING
Dr Haresh Kumar Kantilal
Dr Anton Espira

Project Director: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Haresh Kumar Kantilal

MAHSA University College Malaysia
Dr Anton Espira
Moderators: Assoc Prof Dr Arifin Hj Zainal

Dr P Rajesh Kumar K Parameswaran Nair
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2008

Second Edition, December 2011
Third Edition, December 2013 (rs)
Fourth Edition, August 2017 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia, August 2017, SBFS1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvii
Topic 1 Thinking Skills 1

1.1 Definition of Thinking 3
1.2 Importance of Thinking 6
1.3 Increasing Thinking Power 8
1.3.1 Production Phase 8
1.3.2 Judgement Phase 8
1.4 Roles and Functions of the Right and Left Brain 11
Summary 13
Key Terms 13
Self-Assessment 14
References 15
Topic 2 Critical and Creative Thinking 16

2.1 Critical Thinking 17
2.1.1 Eight Characteristics of Critical Thinking 18
2.1.2 Classification Games in Teaching Critical Thinking 22
2.1.3 Barriers to Critical Thinking 23
2.1.4 Importance of Critical Thinking 24
2.2 Creative Thinking 24
2.2.1 Five Characteristics of Creative Thinking 26
2.2.2 Applying Creativity to Problems and Issues 29
2.3 Lateral Thinking 31
2.4 Right and Left Brain Crossover 33
Summary 35
Key Terms 36
Self-Assessment 36
References 37
Topic 3 Identifying Reasons and Conclusions 40

3.1 Deciding when Reasoning is Present 41
3.2 Examples of Reasoning 43
3.3 Language of Reasoning 45
3.4 Thinking Map for Understanding and Evaluating 47
Reasoning
3.5 Acceptability of Reasons 50
3.6 Judging Acceptability of a Claim 52
3.7 Judging Credibility of Sources 54

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.8 Evaluating Inferences 56

Summary 60
Key Terms 62
Self-Assessment 62
References 62
Topic 4 Problem Solving 63

4.1 What is a Problem? 64
4.2 What is Problem Solving? 66
4.2.1 Stages in Problem Solving 67
4.3 Importance of Goals in Problem Solving 70
4.4 General Guidelines for Problem Solving 72
4.4.1 Explore the Problem 73
4.4.2 Establish Your Goals 78
4.4.3 Generate Ideas 78
4.4.4 Select Your Ideas 79
4.4.5 Implement Your Action Plan 80
4.4.6 Evaluate and Follow up 80
4.5 Root Cause Analysis 81
4.6 Constraints 82
4.7 What is a Solution? 83
4.7.1 The „Stop It‰ Approach 83
4.7.2 The „Mop It‰ Approach 85
4.8 Identifying Possible Solutions 86
4.9 Planning the Solution 86
4.10 Taking Responsibility 87
Summary 88
Key Terms 89
Self-Assessment 89
References 91
Topic 5 Development of Problem Solving 92

5.1 The Developement of Problem Solving 93
5.1.1 Strategic Development 94
5.1.2 Representational Development 97
5.1.3 Self-regulation 102
Summary 106
Key Terms 107
Self-Assessment 107
References 108

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 6 Problem-solving Strategies 114

6.1 Conceptualisation in Problem Solving 115
6.2 Problem-solving Strategies 116
6.2.1 Decomposition or Subgoaling 117
6.2.2 Working Backwards 118
6.2.3 Hill Climbing 119
6.2.4 Means-end Analysis 120
6.2.5 Forward Chaining 121
6.3 Other Problem-solving Strategies 122
6.3.1 Analogy in Problem Solving 122
6.3.2 Specialisation and Generalisation 123
6.3.3 Use of Extreme Cases 124
Summary 126
Key Terms 127
Self-Assessment 128
References 128
Topic 7 Problem-solving Tools 130

7.1 Brainstorming 131
7.2 Benchmarking 134
7.3 Cause and Effect Diagrams 135
7.4 Flow Charts 137
7.5 SWOT Analysis 140
7.6 Prioritisation Matrix 142
Summary 144
Key Terms 145
Self-Assessment 146
References 146
Topic 8 Decision Making 147

8.1 What is Decision Making? 148
8.2 Types of Decisions 149
8.3 Decision Making is a Recursive Process 150
8.4 Factors Influencing Decision-making Processes 150
8.5 Four Quadrants of the Brain and Our Different 152
Thinking Styles
8.6 Decision Making in Everyday Life 155
8.7 Evidence-driven Decision-making Cycle 156
8.8 Effects of Quantity on Decision Making 161
8.9 Decision Streams 162
8.10 Decision Quality 162

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.11 Risk 163

Summary 164
Key Terms 165
Self-Assessment 165
References 166
Topic 9 Strategies and Tools for Making the Final Decision 168
9.1 Approaches to Decision Making 169
9.2 Decision-making Strategies 170
9.3 Group Decision Making: Methods 171
9.4 Decision-making Tools 173
9.4.1 Grid Analysis: Making a Choice Whereby 173
Many Factors Must be Considered
9.4.2 Decision Tree Analysis: Choosing Among 175
Options by Projecting Likely Outcomes
9.4.3 PMI: Weighing the Pros and Cons of a Decision 176
9.5 Some Final Decision-making Tips 178
Summary 179
Key Terms 180
Self-Assessment 181
References 181
Topic 10 Research on Thinking and Problem Solving 183

10.1 Major Antecedents of the Science of Psychology 184
10.1.1 Associationism 184
10.1.2 Faculties of the Mind 186
10.2 The Psychology of Thinking 187
10.2.1 William James 187
10.2.2 Functionalism 188
10.2.3 Later Functionalism 189
10.2.4 Behaviourism 190
10.2.5 Gestalt Psychology 191
10.3 Research on Concepts 194
10.3.1 Common-element Concepts 194
10.3.2 Mediational Processes and Hypotheses 194
10.3.3 Strategies and Kinds of Concepts 195
10.4 Research on Problem Solving 197
10.4.1 Trial and Error 198
10.4.2 Insight 199
10.4.3 Problem-solving Set 200
10.4.4 Transfer of Principles 202

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
10.5 Research on Reasoning 203

10.5.1 Atmosphere Effect 203
10.5.2 Content Effects 205
10.6 Transition to the New Cognitive Era 207
Summary 207
Key Terms 209
Self-Assessment 209
References 210

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
SBFS1103 Thinking Skills and Problem Solving is one of the courses offered at
Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three credit hours and
should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is designed for students taking Bachelor programmes in OUM.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 2
Study the module 60
Attend 4 tutorial sessions 8
Online Participation 12
Revision 18
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the meaning of thinking skills and what comprises the thinking
process;
2. Demonstrate the ability to think critically to solve problems in many

different ways;
3. Evaluate the credibility of the statement or information and to make

decisions; and
4. Apply higher level thinking skills to analyse relevant information to make

decisions and solve the problems.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course will provide knowledge on thinking skills and problem solving,
focusing mainly on the thinking process, its importance and the phases involved,
the roles and functions of the left and right brain, the characteristics and
applications of both critical thinking and creative thinking, identifying reasoning,
the acceptability of reasons and claims, and evaluating inferences. In addition,
there is focus on problem-solving strategies, common tools and techniques. The
final section of this course covers decision making process and strategies.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 1 discusses the definition and importance of thinking, ways to increase

thinking power, the two phases of the thinking process and the roles and
functions of the right and left parts of the brain.
Topic 2 discusses the critical thinking process which includes its characteristics,
examples, barriers and importance. It also describes the creative thinking process,
its characteristics and how to apply creativity to problems and issues. The topic
concludes by describing lateral thinking and the crossover between the right and
left brain.
Topic 3 discusses how to identify reasons and conclusions, examples of

reasoning, language of reasoning, the thinking map of understanding and
evaluating reasoning, the acceptability of reasons, judging acceptability of claims,
judging the credibility of sources, evaluating inferences and deductive validity.
Topic 4 presents alternative conceptual approaches to define a problem and

introduces both the process and stages involved in problem solving. The
importance of goal setting and the generation of the right questions to ask when
faced with a problem is also discussed. It also introduces root cause analysis and
constraints faced in problem solving. The topic concludes by defining solution
and introducing the stop it and mop it approach in problem solving.
Topic 5 introduces the development of problem solving that includes strategic

development, representational development and self-regulation development. It
also presents the various theories, models and conceptual framework in problem
solving. The topic concludes by describing the stepwise conception of problem
solving.
Topic 6 presents both the employment of different strategies on its own and
combination of strategies in problems solving. It also introduces other concepts
such as consideration of analogous problems, specialisation and generalisation
and consideration of extreme cases.
Topic 7 introduces common tools and techniques used in the process of problem
solving.
Topic 8 introduces the decision making process and describes different kinds of
decisions and the various factors that affect decision making. It introduces the
Four Quadrants of the Brain Theory and explains how this relates to our ability
to make decisions. The topic includes the Evidence-driven Decision-making
Cycle and the effects of quantity on decision making. The topic concludes by
describing decision streams, decision quality and risking.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 introduces the different approaches to decision making and identifies

some decision-making strategies. It introduces the Group Decision-Making
Process and concludes by describing some basic tools and techniques that can aid
the decision-making process.
Topic 10 introduces the major antecedents in the science of psychology and

psychology of thinking. It also elaborates on the research carried out on concepts,
problem solving and reasoning. The topic concludes by describing the transition
to the cognitive era.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There are no pre-requisites for this course. Students are required to understand
this course guide well before starting with the topics in this module.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Adair, J. (2010). Decision making and problem solving strategies: Learn key
problem solving strategies; Sharpen your creative thinking strategies; Make
effective decisions (2nd ed.). London, UK: Kogan Page.
Bedell, J. R., & Lennox, S. S. (1997). Handbook for communication and problem-
solving skills training: A cognitive-behavioural approach (1st ed). New
York: John Wiley.
Butterworth, J., & Thwaites, G. (2005). Thinking skills. Cambridge International

Examinations (Paperback).

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
De Bono, E. (1985). Six thinking skills. London: Penguin Books.
De Bono, E. (2005). Thinking course. (Revised ed.). Barnes & Noble Books.
De Bono, E. (2014). Lateral thinking. London: Penguin Books.
Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional
and personal life. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.
Harrison, A. F., & Bramson, R. M. (2002). The art of thinking. New York, NY: The
Berkley Publishing Group (Paperback).
Hurson, T. (2007). Think better: An innovatorÊs guide to productive thinking

(1st ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill.
John, C. (2006). Thinking critically. Houghton Mifflin Co.
Lumsdaine, E., & Lumsdaine, M. (1995). Creative problem solving. McGraw-Hill,

Inc.
Meador, K. S. (1997). Creative thinking and problem solving for young learners.
Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (2005). Critical thinking (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Paul, R., & Linda, E. (2002). Critical thinking. Pearson Education Inc.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Thinking and problem solving: Handbook of perception

and cognition (2nd ed.). London: Academic Press.
Vaughn, L. (2004). The power of critical thinking: Effective reasoning about

ordinary and extraordinary claims. USA: Oxford University Press.
Wright L. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction to analytical reading and

reasoning. New York: Oxford University Press.

ordinary and extraordinary claims. (Paperback).
Wright L. (2001). Critical thinking: An Introduction to analytical reading and


COURSE GUIDE  xvii
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xviii  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Thinking Skills
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define thinking;
2. Explain the different thinking styles;
3. Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker;
4. Describe the importance of thinking;
5. Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and
6. Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.
 INTRODUCTION
William James (1842ă1910), often referred to as the father of American psychology,
once stated that, „A great many people think they are thinking when they are
merely rearranging their prejudices.‰ According to him, the fact that there is
mental activity taking place in the minds of individuals does not mean that they
are thinking. In his book, entitled „You Were Born Rich,‰ Bob Proctor (1997) wrote,
„Thinking is the highest function of which a human being is capable.‰ He added
that many people link thinking to simple mind activities like refreshing of the
faculty of memory, playing old movies and remembering events in the past.
Obviously, this is not what RodinÊs great work of art portrays.

2  TOPIC 1 THINKING SKILLS
We are all constantly thinking almost involuntarily and compulsively. The reason
many people donÊt delve deeper into their thought processes because it requires
us to be receptive and to be challenged to reach further depths of our thinking.
This is the reason why so few people actually think. Edison once stated, „There is
no expedient to which a man will go to avoid the real labour of thinking,‰ and
according to Emerson, the hardest task in the world is to think.
One of the main reasons why people do not think more or in depth is because they
are so busy with other things that they do not have time to conceive, cogitate and
consider. Human beings today are so used to being entertained and bombarded
with so much information that they hardly have any time to reflect on even just a
fraction of their thoughts.
„Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. There is
an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions. Nothing
pains some people more than having to think.‰
(Martin Luther King)
It is a natural process to think. We are constantly reminded by authoritative figures

to think and to „use our brains‰ when in fact what we really have to know how to
do is to engage deeper into our thinking processes, to be thinking skilfully and
reflectively. Since, individuals today are so used to quick answers and ready-made
solutions when in fact, the problems and challenges of our lives are difficult and
complex. Thus, these problems actually require fostering a more thoughtful
reflection that goes beyond thinking on a surface level.
It should be understood that the greatest value of reading is not the information
but rather what we think and how we process this information while reading,
which makes the choice of reading material an important factor to take into
account. A person should understand that the main objective of reading is not to
fill the mind with information but to arouse the mind to think and ponder. A
reader should pause from time to time to contemplate and reflect on what has been
read. This will help in stimulating the thinking process, as well as in applying what
has been read in everyday life. Clarity is power, and it emerges from thinking.
Human beings do not just need to think but should think carefully about the
choices and direction of their lives. Time is the most precious resource that
individuals have and it is believed that the life of a person is the sum total of what
he does with that time. Hence, it would be definitely worth it to spend more of our
time in constructive and in-depth thought processes.

TOPIC 1 THINKING SKILLS  3
1.1 DEFINITION OF THINKING

Thinking is defined by Ruggiero. V. R. (2008) as a purposeful mental activity over
which we have some power or control. This can be understood by looking at the
scenario where a person sitting in the driverÊs seat of a car is driving only when he
holds the steering wheel in his hands and controls the movements of the car. Thus,
the activity in the minds of individuals becomes thinking only when it is being
directed such as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: The activity of the humanÊs mind becomes thinking only when it is directed
Source: http://www.sonic.net
SELF-CHECK 1.1
„A mental activity must be purposeful, directed and controlled, and must

be carried out by the conscious exercise of will before it is considered as
ÂthinkingÊ.‰
Do you agree with the statement above? To answer this, ask yourself
whether a mental activity can be purposeful, directed and controlled, and
yet be carried out subconsciously.
There are as many different purposes of thinking as there are of travelling. Many
times, we may be on a relaxing drive through a scenic road without any particular
destination in mind. In the same way, we may travel in different conditions and
with different degrees of competence. Although we may be travelling in darkness
or light, slowly or fast, in the correct or wrong path, as long as we are navigating
in our minds, we are thinking.

However, this does not suggest that thinking must always be carried out in a
conscious state of mind. Evidence shows that the sub-conscious or non-conscious
thinking can also produce great results. As many of us have experienced,
constructive thoughts and ideas come to us when we are in the midst of doing
something not related to the problem under investigation. There may have been
times when we faced a particular problem but chose not to solve it then and
shelved it for a few days, even though we could see glimpses of the solution. Then
one fine morning, while walking or jogging, the solution to the problem suddenly
emerges out of nowhere. This is indeed an example of sub-conscious thinking.
According to a study, decisions made intuitively or by instinct go through the
brain. Such intuitive decisions depend on past experiences and external signals
and are regarded as sub-conscious thinking. Reflex actions, however, are fast and
done without thinking. They involve signals that bypass the brain and are carried
out on a non-conscious level.
Ruggiero, V. (2008) has formally defined thinking as „any mental activity that
helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision or fulfil a desire to
understand.‰
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Consider the formal definition of thinking in the preceding paragraph.
How is this different from the definition that thinking is a „purposeful

mental activity over which we have some power or control„? Discuss.
Among the most important mental activities included in the thinking process are:
(a) Careful observation;
(b) Remembering;
(c) Wondering;
(d) Inquiring;
(e) Imagining;

(f) Evaluating;
(g) Judging; and
(h) Interpreting.
In solving a problem or making a decision, a combination of the abovementioned

activities is normally required. When dealing with problems, we often question
ourselves and carefully analyse the situation before arriving at a conclusion or
decision.
Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking. The most
popular view (currently regarded as unimportant) is that thinking is completely
verbal. This theory suggests that individuals arrange words in their minds or
silently whisper to themselves when they think. However, if this is true, then
Albert Einstein could not be considered a thinker, as his thinking comprised
mostly images rather than words. Many current authorities believe that the form
of thought that occurs in the minds of individuals is usually verbal, although it
may not be necessarily so. These experts feel that just as an idea can be expressed
in mathematical symbols or diagrams besides words, individuals may also
conceive thoughts in the same ways.
Figure 1.2: Albert Einstein

Source: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert-einstein,2644,9.html
Albert Einstein (1879ă1955), (Figure 1.2) was a German-born American physicist

who developed the special and general theories of relativity and received the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. He said, „Imagination is more important than
knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while
imagination embraces the entire world and all there ever will be to know and
understand.‰

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF THINKING

To successfully analyse a problem or issue, one requires factual knowledge (which
includes knowing the historical context of the problem or issue) and an
understanding of the relevant principles and concepts.
Factual knowledge is something that is already known, while in most cases, the
solutions are not only unknown to the individual facing the problem but are also
brand new and specifically designed to fit a particular issue. Thus, it can be
concluded that having factual knowledge does not mean that a person is
guaranteed of being able to solve the problem. Many of us may regard ourselves
as „walking encyclopaedias‰ but when the time comes, we may not be able to solve
a particular problem. To become a successful problem solver, an individual has to
possess both factual knowledge and good thinking skills.
The importance of having the ability to think well can only be appreciated when
an individual is faced with various situations in his life where the circumstances
require skills like analysing, solving problems and making the correct decisions.
For instance, these include deciding and evaluating on aspects such as:
(a) What degree to pursue in University;
(b) How to invest wisely;
(c) How to handle children in certain situations;
(d) How to work with difficult bosses;
(e) What to do when parents are incapable of taking care of themselves; and
(f) Which political candidate to vote for in the elections.
Today, individuals with skills in problem solving, issue analysis and decision
making have a better chance at employment and are regarded as assets within the
organisation they are working for. In the past, most of the thinking was carried out
by executives and other employees had only to execute the tasks assigned to them.
Now, however, employees with thinking power who are capable of generating
ideas for the improvement of the organisation are greatly valued by their
employers.

This has become so because of the following three developments:

 Knowledge explosion;
 Communications technology; and
 Rise in the global economy.
(a) Knowledge Explosion

Increase in research findings has increased the amount of information
available in all fields, making it impossible for any individual to completely
master a single discipline.
(b) Communication Technology

Likewise, in the area of communications, technology is developing so fast
that within less than two decades after the invention of the personal
computer, thousands of different software and hardware products have been
launched in the market. The growth of organisations such as Microsoft, Intel,
Dell and several „dot.coms‰ has brought instability to many companies,
including established and successful ones. In such an era, individuals who
possess problem solving and good decision making skills will survive and
less likely become victims of downsizing. Even if they are retrenched, they
will be able to find other employment.
(c) Rise in the Global Economy

Many changes have led to the development of global economy. This include
the satellite transmission of television programmes, the rise in business
competition from different countries, the opening of former Soviet countries
to trade and the signing of a new generation of trade agreements such as the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In order to meet challenges and
grab opportunities offered by global economy, expertise in critical and
creative thinking is vital. This means that individuals with those skills will
be in higher demand than those without them.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. State the formal definition of thinking.
2. List the mental activities included in the thinking process.
3. Explain the importance of the thinking process.
4. Do you agree with Einstein that „Imagination is more important
than knowledge‰? Why?

1.3 INCREASING THINKING POWER

As far as the thinking process is concerned, the human mind has two distinct
phases, namely, the production phase and the judgement phase (Figure 1.3).
Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each phase,
and the skill to move back and forth between them.
Figure 1.3: The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases
1.3.1 Production Phase

The production phase is closely linked with creative thinking. At this stage, the
mind generates different conceptions of a problem, various methods of handling
it and possible solutions to it. In short, this phase refers to thinking out-of-the-box.
It is believed that good thinkers are capable of producing more and better ideas
compared to poor thinkers. This is because good thinkers are more innovative,
which enables them to produce more ideas. Moreover, good thinkers tend to view
a problem from different angles before choosing an appropriate one and consider
many different approaches to a problem. They are able to generate many ideas
before making a decision. Better still, they are also more prepared to take
intellectual risks, are more adventurous and imaginative.
On the other hand, poor thinkers view a problem from a limited number of
standpoints, hastily adopt the first approach their minds perceive as a solution, make
hurried judgements and rarely think of more ideas. Most of the time, they make
decisions that would be expected.
1.3.2 Judgement Phase

The judgement phase is more closely linked with critical thinking, where the mind
studies and evaluates what it has generated, makes its decision, and where
necessary, modifies it.

At this phase, good thinkers are very careful and analytical. They assess their first
impressions, make important distinctions and support their conclusions based on
facts instead of emotions and feelings. Since they are aware of their limitations and
predispositions, they re-check the logic of their thinking and the workability of
their solutions. They refine their ideas by identifying any imperfection and
complication, and predict any negative response that may arise from their
decision.
Conversely, poor thinkers are known to make judgements too fast without
thinking critically and to make decisions based on emotions and feelings rather
than on evidence. They are also unaware of their limitations and predispositions,
thus creating a possibility that there may be several flaws in their thought
processes.
All thinkers have their own share of confusions, mental blocks and failures.
However, good thinkers have mastered ways to face their frustrations while poor
thinkers have the habit of mourning over their situation and allowing failure to
make them feel incapable and incompetent.
Table 1.1 lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers.
Table 1.1: Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers
Good Thinkers Poor Thinkers

Study a problem thoroughly and Uncertain on how to approach a problem.
implement constructive plans to solve it.
Apply their knowledge in solving the Have the notion that their knowledge is
problem accordingly. insufficient.
Are reflective and research extensively Are overly confident of the correctness of
where needed. initial ideas.
Solve a problem systematically and Jump from one stage of a problem to
analytically. another without thorough planning and
thinking.
Have faith and trust in their reasoning Have no faith in their reasoning power and
power and confidence level. lack in confidence.
Are determined and focused throughout Lack a serious attitude and take things
the period of problem solving. lightly and for granted.
Revise goals when necessary. Do not revise goals.
Are open to different possibilities and Do not seek alternative routes to solutions
outcomes. or those that are different from the initial
ones.

Did you know...
Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable. They
can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement. They value
rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems, reaching
decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, need certainty,
avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily on intuition.
Adapted from Kjos, B. (1995)
Many people believe that good thinkers are born rather than made. However, this
is not entirely factual for several reasons. Many a time, we come across people who
have better thinking abilities than others. However, an individual can improve his
or her thinking capability within a period of time. Thinking effectively is a skill
that anyone can develop progressively if guided and trained accordingly.
In order to be a good thinker, you do not need a high IQ. In fact, it was proven by
E. Paul Torrance that 70% of creative people actually have an IQ score of below
135 (as quoted in Mackall, D. D. (1998)).
ACTIVITY 1.2
Do you agree or disagree with the statement, „Good thinkers are born
rather than made„? Justify your argument.
People trying to increase their thinking skills face the problem of changing their
old ways and mindset. However, if an individual has a burning desire to improve
himself and is eager to apply the knowledge he has so far obtained, thinking
becomes interesting and achievable. We must understand that nothing is
impossible in life.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Identify the two phases involved in the thinking process. Give an

example of activity found at each phase.
2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of a good and a poor

thinker in both the phases involved in the thinking process.

1.4 ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RIGHT

AND LEFT BRAIN
Brain research carried out by medical scientists revealed that the structure of the
brain is actually more complex than imagined. The first breakthrough was when a
neurosurgeon started to treat patients with epilepsy in a new manner. In the
treatment, he cut the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibres that connected
the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, in order to relieve the symptoms of the
disease. This separation of the two hemispheres was important because it allowed
scientists to study the respective roles played by the right and left hemispheres
(Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Right and left hemispheres of the human brain

Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif
ACTIVITY 1.4
Surf the web and find out as much as you can about the human brainÊs
anatomy. Discuss your findings with your classmates.
Neuroscientists believe that the right hemisphere is involved in the learning

process and controls non-verbal, symbolic and intuitive responses. In contrast, the
left hemisphere controls the use of language, logical reasoning, analytical power
and the performance of sequential tasks (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5: It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphere
include imaginative and intuitive features while the left hemisphere relates to
organisational and analytical skills
Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/
This led to the idea that there are individuals who are „left-brained‰ and those
who are „right-brained.‰ So far, the data obtained suggest that no individuals use
only one side of the brain at a particular time and the presence of corpus callosum
reinforces the fact that there is a significant integration between these two
hemispheres.
Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain are capable of reasoning out
a problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be dominant
compared to the other. In solving a particular problem, the left brain uses the
analytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach. A
left brain user, who is also known as a successive processor, tends to learn in a
step-by-step sequential manner beginning with details and arriving at a
conceptual understanding of a skill. In contrast, a right brain user (a simultaneous
processor) tends to master a skill starting with the general concept and then
moving on to the details.

ACTIVITY 1.5
Consider the activities (sports, hobbies etc) that you enjoy doing. List the
thinking processes required of you to carry out these activities. From that,
explore which side of your brain is more dominant.
(To confirm your answer, try the quiz at this website address:
http://web-us.com/brain/braindominance.htm).
ACTIVITY 1.6
1. State the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the human
brain.
2. Compare and contrast the approaches employed by right and left

brain users in solving a problem.
3. Are you a left or right brain user?
 Thinking is a purposeful mental activity over which we have power and

control. Evidence shows that thinking can still be carried out in a
sub-conscious and non-conscious state of mind.
 Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking, and the
most popular view that is currently regarded unimportant is that thinking is
completely verbal.
 The importance of thinking is appreciated only when an individual faces

situations in life which require them of skills such as analysing, solving
problems and making correct decisions.
 The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and judgement.

 Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each

phase and the skill to move back and forth between them.
 Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their frustrations whereas
poor thinkers mourn their situation and allow failure to make them feel
incapable and incompetent.
 Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could reason out a
problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be the dominant
one compared to the other.
 In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical approach whereas the
right brain uses the holistic or global approach.
Cerebral Mental blocks

Communications technology Neuroscientists
Corpus callosum Non-conscious
Creative thinking Poor thinkers
Distinct phases Production phase
Factual knowledge Reflex actions
Good thinkers Simultaneous processor
Intuitive Sub-conscious
Judgement phase Successive processor
Knowledge explosions
1. Analyse the following statement and decide whether it is reasonable and, if

so, to what degree. Explain your thinking thoroughly.
„The results of a recent national examination revealed that 75% of AmericaÊs

high school students are below average in reading ability.‰

2. Read the following dialogue carefully. Then decide whether what is stated
(or implied) makes sense. Explain your reasoning thoroughly.
John : Do you think the masses really have any power in the Unites
States today?
Bill : That depends on what groups you include in „the masses.‰ Would
you include professional people ă doctors, lawyers, teachers⁄⁄?
John : Teachers? They donÊt make that much money.
Butterworth, J., & Thwaites, G. (2005). Thinking skills. Cambridge International

Examinations (Paperback).
De Bono, E. (2005). Thinking course. Revised Edition (Hardcover).
Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional and
personal life. Kindle Edition.
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
Kjos, B. (1995). Brave new schools. Harvest House Publishers.
King, M. L. (2011). Brainy Quote. Thinking quotes. Retrieved from

http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/thinking.html.
Mackall, D. D. (1998). Problem solving (2nd. ed.). Ferguson Publishing.
Paul, R. W., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your
professional and personal life. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Proctor, B. (1997). You were born rich. LifeSuccess Productions.
Ruggiero. V. R. (2008). The art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought
(9th ed.). Essex, UK: Longman Publishing Group.

Topic  Critical and
Creative
2 Thinking
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define critical thinking, creative thinking and lateral thinking;
2. Explain the characteristics of critical and creative thinking;
3. Give examples of critical and creative thinking respectively;
4. Describe the barriers of critical thinking;
5. Identify the application of creative thinking in problem solving;
6. Describe the six techniques of lateral thinking; and
7. Describe right and left brain crossover.
 INTRODUCTION
There are two basic thinking skills (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Two basic thinking skills

TOPIC 2 CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING  17
The first skill emphasises on analytical ability: how to logically follow an

argument, how to compare, classify and sequence, and how to use deductive and
inductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion. This thinking skill is called critical
thinking.
The second skill focuses on exploring ideas, generating new possibilities, looking
for flexibility in answers and developing leads worthy of elaboration. This
thinking skill is called creative thinking.
Both critical and creative thinking skills are essential for solving problems and
acquiring knowledge.
In this topic, we will explore both thinking skills, examine their characteristics and
see how they are applied in solving problems in the real world.
ACTIVITY 2.1
In Topic 1, we learned about the functions of the right and left
hemispheres of the human brain. Given the brief descriptions of critical
and creative thinking in the Introduction above, how do you think these
two thinking skills fit in the model of the „right-brain, left-brain‰
functionalities?
2.1 CRITICAL THINKING

Whenever the word „critical‰ is used, it often has a negative connotation.
„Critical‰ is often taken to mean „the tendency to find and call attention to errors
and flaws,‰ such as when a person is „critical‰ of what we do or say.
However, critical also means „involving or exercising skilled judgement or

observation.‰ It is in this sense that the word „critical‰ in „critical thinking‰ is used.
Thus, when we say „critical thinking,‰ we mean thinking clearly and intellectually.
Critical thinking encompasses a wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual
characteristics needed to effectively identify, analyse and assess arguments or
truth of claims. To think critically means to discover and overcome personal
prejudices and biases, to prepare and come up with convincing reasons in support
of conclusions and to make rational, smart decisions about what to believe and
what to do.

18  TOPIC 2 CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING
In other words, critical thinking can be defined as, „disciplined thinking regulated
by clear intellectual standards. The most important intellectual standards
identified are clarity, accuracy, relevance, consistency, logical correctness and
fairness‰ (Bassham, 2000, p. 7).
We will briefly look at each of these important intellectual standards in order to

understand them better.
2.1.1 Eight Characteristics of Critical Thinking

Now, let us look into eight characteristics of critical thinking.
(a) Clarity
The first step involved before assessing an argument or claim of a person is
to understand clearly what he or she is saying. However, many a time this
can be rather challenging because people often fail to express themselves
clearly and articulately. This may be due to several reasons which can
include laziness, carelessness or lack of assertive skill. There are also
instances where this may be due to a misguided effort to appear smart,
intelligent or profound. Thus, by paying close attention to language, we can
save ourselves from unnecessary miscommunications and disappointments.
Wittgenstein (2001) once remarked, „Everything that can be said can be said
clearly.‰
Besides searching for clarity of language, critical thinkers also look for
maximum clearness of thought. As motivational writers constantly remind
us to accomplish our personal goals in life, we require a clear conception of
our goals and priorities, a realistic grip of our abilities and a clear
understanding of the problems and opportunities we encounter. However,
such self-understanding can only be accomplished if we value and practise
clarity of thought. Charles Larmore (The National Post, July 29, 2000) once
expressed that „clarity is not mere embellishment of the intellect; it is the very
heart of intellectual virtue.‰
(b) Precision
Some of the best examples of critical thinking are seen in detective stories
such as those of Sherlock Holmes, the immortal creation of British writer Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle. An important element of these stories is precision:
through careful observation, Holmes is able to find clues that are overlooked
by others. A process of logical inference follows, by which he is able to use
the available clues to solve the mystery.

Precision is required in various specialised fields such as medicine,

mathematics, architecture and engineering. Critical thinkers are aware of the
importance of precise thinking in everyday life where in order to dissect the
confusions and uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and
issues. It is a must to obtain precise answers to precise questions. According
to Peirce (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011), „Really valuable ideas can only be
had at the price of close attention.‰
(c) Accuracy
A well-known tagline on input-output systems states, „Garbage in, garbage
out.‰ The human mind works on the same concept. A person can be
considered very intelligent but if he or she makes a decision based on false
information, it is very likely that the decision would be a bad one. Critical
thinkers not only value truth but also have an obsession for accurate and
timely information. They try hard to make decisions that are as informed as
possible.
To quote Socrates (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011): „An unexamined life is
not worth living if an individual stops learning, growing and inquiring.‰
SELF-CHECK 2.1
In scientific measurements, the difference between „precision‰ and
„accuracy‰ is well articulated. How would you differentiate between
these two terms in regard of critical thinking?
(d) Relevance
The moment we find ourselves in a situation where the environment and
people are boring, we begin to appreciate the importance of staying focused
on relevant ideas and information. Many a debater has successfully used the
technique of raising irrelevant issues to distract the attention of his or her
audience and opponents. The famous Abraham Lincoln, when he was a
lawyer, used jokes and stories to gain the favour of the jury and his opposing
counsel often complained to the judge that LincolnÊs stories were irrelevant
and distracting to the jury.
As Plato (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011) once said, „No tedious and
irrelevant discussion can be allowed; what is said should be pertinent.‰ This
clearly indicates that relevance is indeed an important factor in critical
thinking.

(e) Consistency
Logic tells us that if a person holds inconsistent beliefs, then at least one of
those beliefs must be untrue. Critical thinkers value truth, thus, they are
always on the lookout for inconsistencies, both in their own thoughts and in
the arguments and assertions of others.
Logical inconsistency, which involves saying or believing inconsistent

things, is the first type of inconsistency that we should avoid. The second
type is practical inconsistency, which involves mentioning one thing but
doing another.
Many a time people realise that when their words conflict with their actions,
they are labelled as hypocrites. However, such examples are not especially
interesting from the critical thinking point of view. More interesting are
situations in which people do not realise that their words conflict with their
deeds. What is important in such situations is that human beings often
exhibit a remarkable capacity for self-deception. As the saying of Morpheus
goes, „There is a difference between knowing the path and walking the path‰
(as cited in Bassham et al., 2011).
Critical thinking helps us from being caught in the trap of logical and
practical inconsistencies. Practical inconsistency may be unconscious but it is
borne out through our actions and critical thinking helps us realise that. As
for logical inconsistency, Socrates had already recognised that unconscious
logical inconsistency is far more frequent than most individuals suspect.
With critical thinking, this can be identified and avoided altogether.
(f) Logical Correctness

To think logically is to reason correctly; in other words, it means to draw
well-founded conclusions from the beliefs we hold. In order to think
critically, we not only require accurate and well-supported beliefs but we
also need to be able to use them to come up with logical conclusions. The
Talmud says, „Intelligence means a person who can see implications and
arrive at conclusions‰ (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011).
(g) Completeness
Most of the time, we opt for shallow and superficial thinking rather than deep
and complete thinking. We are often embroiled in superficial discussions:
condemning slipshod criminal investigations, hasty jury deliberations,
superficial news stories, unclear driving directions and incorrect medical
diagnoses. Thinking is better when it is in depth rather than shallow, and
thorough rather than superficial. Hsun Tzu (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011)
once stated, „It is only when there is completeness and exhaustiveness that
there is scholarship.‰
(h) Fairness
The final characteristic of critical thinking is fairness which includes being
open-minded, impartial and free of bias and preconceptions. However, this
is rather difficult to accomplish. According to H. G. Wells, „It is not much
good thinking of a thing unless you think it out‰ (as cited in Bassham et al.,
2011).
Study these two examples of situations where critical thinking is used.
(a) Critical Thinking in the Classroom

When students enrol in a college, they are taken aback to find out that their
professors are less interested in how they got their beliefs than they are in
whether those beliefs can survive critical inspection. In general, the focus is
on higher-order thinking, the active, intelligent evaluation of ideas and
information. Thus, critical thinking plays an important role in the college
curriculum.
In a critical thinking course, among the skills learned by students that can
greatly increase their classroom abilities are:
(i) Understanding the arguments and beliefs of others;
(ii) Assessing those arguments and beliefs critically; and
(iii) Developing and defending their own well-supported arguments and

beliefs.
John J. Mearsheimer once said, „We donÊt want you to just accept the
conventional wisdom on a particular subject. Indeed, your first instinct
should be to question it‰ (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011).
(b) Critical Thinking in the Workplace

Nowadays, employers are not only looking for skilful employees with high
academic qualifications but also individuals with an excellent ability to think
and communicate effectively in the workplace. They seek fast learners who
can solve problems, think creatively, gather and analyse information, come
up with appropriate conclusions from data and communicate their ideas
clearly and effectively. As stated by the Foundation for Critical Thinking,
„There is nothing more practical than sound thinking.‰

2.1.2 Classification Games in Teaching Critical

Thinking
It is believed that classification plays a vital role in the growth of logical thinking
and abstract concepts right from early childhood to adulthood. Gerhard (1975)
stated that the classification skill is vital to vocabulary-concept development and
thus, to reading and preservation of information. According to Furth and Wachs
(1974), all classification tasks require the identification of features and separation
into categories according to some rules.
There are a number of commercial materials with verbal analogies, figural and
symbolic problem solving, logic puzzles and feature games. Nevertheless,
application of a wide variety of environmental objects must follow. Incorporation
of classification activities into content areas is also important to determine their
usefulness. Currently, its applications to mathematics and science, in particular the
investigating approach to science, are indeed obvious.
According to the theory of Schema, information that needs to be stored must be

grouped with something already present in memory (Tonjes & Zintz, 1987).
Techniques involving brainstorming that help in the understanding process are
proposed to help students retrieve their past knowledge on a particular topic to be
read, and then categorise and save the new information in their memory.
Devine (1986) stated that it might be necessary to reorganise studentsÊ schemata

when past experience that was limited to a different perspective intervened with
the understanding of a new concept. He used the example of students who faced
problems understanding relationships between the concepts of social class and
caste system. In a word-related exercise, the students were required to list
everything they knew about each term individually. Then, they were asked to find
resemblance, for example, while categorising facts and events, identifying the
common traits among them and labelling them, hence developing new concepts
or schemata.

2.1.3 Barriers to Critical Thinking

Although critical thinking is important, many highly educated and intelligent
people find it rather a challenge to practise. Below are some common barriers to
critical thinking:
 Lack of relevant background  Relativistic thinking

information
 Stereotyping
 Poor reading skills
 Unwarranted assumptions
 Bias
 Scapegoating
 Prejudice
 Rationalisation
 Superstition
 Denial
 Self-centred thinking
 Wishful thinking
 Group-centred thinking
 Short-term thinking
 Peer pressure
 Selective perception
 Conformism
 Selective memory
 Provincialism
 Overpowering emotions
 Narrow-mindedness
 Self-deception
 Close-mindedness
 Face-saving
 Distrust in reason
 Fear of change
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Elaborate on any five of the barriers stated above.

2.1.4 Importance of Critical Thinking

Firstly, critical thinking prevents us from making foolish personal decisions by
teaching us to think about important life decisions more carefully, clearly and
logically. Secondly, it plays a crucial role in promoting democratic processes.
Albert Einstein (www.leadershipnow.com/probsolvingquotes.html) once stated
that „the significant problems we face cannot be solved at the level of thinking we
were when we created them.‰ Thirdly, critical thinking is believed to bring
personal enrichment to our lives.
Critical thinking can free mankind from the unexamined postulations and biases
of our upbringing and society.
Howard Kahane (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011) once remarked that „citizens
who think for themselves, rather than uncritically ingesting what their leaders tell
them, are the absolutely necessary ingredient of a society that is to remain truly
free.‰
ACTIVITY 2.2
In groups of three or four, define the following critical thinking traits:
intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, fair-mindedness, intellectual
courage and intellectual perseverance.
2.2 CREATIVE THINKING

It was found that before the mid-1950s, not much attention was given to creativity.
A researcher who examined more than 121,000 listings of articles in Psychological
Abstracts in the past 23 years found that only 186 articles, which translated to less
than two-tenths of 1% of the total, had any essence of creativity. From that point
onwards, attention towards creativity increased tremendously and many books
were written on the subject. Researchers have thoroughly investigated the lives of
creative achievers, explored the creative process and tested creative performance
in every conceivable situation and at every age level.

Their efforts helped to improve our understanding of creativity and solved the
many misconceptions that for so long went unchallenged. Replacing those false
impressions with facts is a vital step in developing oneÊs creative potential. The
facts that follow are among the most important ones:
(a) „Doing your own thing‰ is not necessarily a mark of creativity
(b) Creativity does not require special intellectual talent or high IQ
(c) The use of drugs hinders creativity
(d) Creativity is an expression of mental health
Creative thinking can be defined as „being in an optimal state of mind where new
ideas can be generated‰ (www.brainstorming.co.uk). In other words, creative
thinking is a purposeful thinking that improves the chances of new thoughts
transpiring. Some authors believe that creative thinking is thinking out of the box
where one comes about with original, diverse and elaborate ideas (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Creative thinking involves thinking outside of the box which can be difficult
at times

2.2.1 Five Characteristics of Creative Thinking

Now, let us read further about the five characteristics of creative thinking.
(a) Dynamism
In its simplest sense, dynamism implies the notion of change ă change in
response to, and possibly ahead of, circumstances or information. It implies
an active interaction, as opposed to passive acquiescence.
The mind of a critical thinker is never allowed to be passive, unquestioning

and accepting. On the other hand, a creative thinker always manages to keep
his or her curiosity burning, or at least rekindles it from time to time.
Playfulness is said to be an important element of this dynamism. Creative
people can be regarded as little children who love to rearrange their building
blocks in various combinations, viewing them from different perspectives.
Isaac Newton (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 6) once wrote, „I do not know
what I may appear to the world; but to myself, I seem to have been only like
a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding
⁄ a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary whilst the great ocean
of truth lay all undiscovered before me.‰
Einstein (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 6) speculated one step further: he saw
such playfulness as „the essential feature in productive thought.‰ One of the
most important contributions of playfulness among creative people is that it
provides these individuals with a richer and more varied collection of ideas
than an average person enjoys.
(b) Daringness
Thinking is an adventure for creative people. This is because they are free
from preconceived ideas and prejudiced views. Furthermore, creative
individuals are less prone to accepting existing views, wider in their
perspectives and less likely to agree with those around them. Creative people
can come up with bold ideas. They are willing to try out ideas that are not
accepted by others and also experiment with possibilities that are disliked by
others. This trait was shared by Galileo, Columbus, Edison and the Wright
brothers. These individuals were more willing to embrace new creative ideas
than their contemporaries.
Daringness is a virtue because it makes individuals who possess this trait less
susceptible to face-saving than others. Daring individuals accept bad
experiences, apply their curiosity and learn from those experiences. Thus,
they are less likely than others to repeat the same failures.

(c) Resourcefulness
Resourcefulness can be defined as the ability to act effectively and
conceptualise the approach that solves the problem. In addition, being
resourceful also means being able to solve a problem that perplexes others
when the resources at hand are insufficient.
Although this ability is not measured by IQ tests, it is one of the most

important aspects of practical intelligence. The best example that explains
this trait is one that was published in Scientific American more than 50 years
ago. In this article, a prisoner in a western state prison escaped but was
recaptured after a few weeks. The prison officers grilled him for days and
repeatedly questioned him on where he obtained the saw to cut through the
bars. Finally, he answered that he had gathered bits of twine in the machine
shops, dipped them in glue and then in emery, and smuggled them back to
his cell. Every night for three months, he had sawed the one inch-thick steel
bars. The officers were satisfied with his explanation, locked him up and
ensured that he never visited the machine shop again.
However, after three and a half years, the prisoner escaped again during the
night. The prison officers found the bars cut in exactly the same manner as
in the previous escape. However, he was never recaptured, and the way he
escaped remained an unsolved puzzle.
In fact, he had lied about using material from the machine shop the first time.
He had been much more resourceful than that. He had used woollen strings
from his socks, moistened them with spit, and rubbed them in dirt on his cell
floor.
(d) Diligence
William Gordon (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 7) once said, „All problems
present themselves to the mind as threats of failure.‰ Only individuals who
are not frightened by the prospects of failure and have an unwavering desire
to succeed no matter what the effort required, have the opportunity to
succeed‰.
Creative individuals are ready to make the required commitment. Thomas

Edison (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 7) had commitment in mind when he
said, „Genius is 99 percent perspiration and 1 percent inspiration.‰ Another
great personality, George Bernard Shaw (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 7), once
stated: „When I was a young man, I observed that nine out of ten things I did
were failures. I did not want to be a failure, so I did ten times more work.‰

One important trait present in creative people is their ability to be thoroughly

engrossed in a problem and give it their full attention. In addition, creative
people, due to their competitiveness, pay more attention to their ideas rather
than to other people. One good example is Lester Pfister, who conceived the
idea of inbreeding stalks and worked by hand, season after season. After five
years, he had only four stalks left and he was poor. Less determined souls
would probably have given up in frustration and disappointment under such
circumstances but Pfister was unwilling to accept defeat. He persevered and
was finally rewarded with an improved strain.
(e) Independence
Every time we think of a new idea, we separate ourselves from other people.
The mere expression of the idea increases this separation ten-fold.
For most people, especially those who obtain their power from
communicating with others and those who depend on others for their
identity, such separation is frightening. Sad to say, such people do not feel
comfortable entertaining and expressing new ideas. This is due to their fear
of rejection.
Creative individuals are different. Although they accept friendship and

support from others, they are not entirely dependent on them. They look
within themselves for strength and are thus more self-confident, more
independent in the way they speak and act and less afraid of appearing
strange or out of place (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Creative individuals are said to be more independent comparatively

Source: http://www.h2euro.org/latest-news/eu-policy-news/fch-ju-independent-
as-of-november-15th-2010
Understanding and knowing these five characteristics can help you build up
your creative abilities if you are willing to make the effort to develop them.
However, if you already have them, it will help you to improve and
strengthen them. This is a difficult but possible task ă as the saying goes, „Old
habits die hard.‰ Nevertheless, even modest progress will bring a change in
the quality of your thinking.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
List five important traits of creative individuals and explain each one of
them in your own words.
2.2.2 Applying Creativity to Problems and Issues

Two extensive applications of creativity that are of special interest to most
individuals are solving problems and resolving controversial issues. Both refer to
unpleasant situations that challenge our intelligence, or situations that have no
available or suitable solutions. Such situations tend to divide people into opposing
groups, each with the notion that they are right and the other party is wrong.
The most important methods to apply creativity to problems and issues include:
(a) Taking an innovative and new approach;
(b) Devising or changing a process or system;
(c) Coming up with a new product or service;
(d) Searching for new uses for existing things;
(e) Improvising on existing things; and
(f) Discovering or redefining a concept.
Now, let us read about each of the methods together with their example to fully
understand them.
(a) Taking an Innovative and New Approach

Humane Society inspectors who came across two dogs in a closed car in
brutal 92C heat used a new approach to punish the dogsÊ owners. They
offered the owners an alternative to being charged with cruelty to animals:
spend an hour inside the closed car themselves at the same temperature that
the dogs were exposed to while the dogs spend the hour in the air-
conditioned Humane Society building [„Couple Learns Golden Rule⁄..,‰
Oneonta Star, 29 August 1981].
Another good example of taking an innovative approach is the story of

D. B. Kaplan, who was given the task of coming up with new ways of writing
menus for restaurants. He took up the challenge with a tongue-in-cheek
approach. Items that he came up with included Tongue Fu, the Italian

Scallion, Chive Turkey, Ike and Tina Tuna, Dr Pepperoni, the Breadless
Horseman, Annette Spinachello, and Quiche and Tell. The ingredients were
as creative as the names.
(b) Devising or Changing a Process or System

The Dewey decimal system and the Library of Congress system are two
techniques that were created for classifying books.
Other brilliant examples are the procedures devised in the past one
or two decades to investigate the health of a foetus. Procedures such as
amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling involve the extraction of
amniotic fluid, while ultrasound imaging involves the bouncing of sound
waves off the foetus to form an image.
DNA fingerprinting is another example of creativity. This technique is based

on the fact that every individual who ever lived has his own unique genetic
makeup. A strand of hair or a spot of urine, saliva or semen found at a crime
scene can be compared with a DNA sample of a suspect and be a significant
factor in finding out the identity of the guilty individual or criminal.
(c) Coming Up With a New Product or Service

In 1845, a man needed money to pay a debt. He was thinking of what he
could invent in order to pay off his debt. Three hours later, he came up with
the safety pin, an idea which he sold for $400.
Other surprising examples are Graffiti Gobbler, a chemical compound that

can remove ink or paint from wood, brick or steel, and the Moto-Stand, a
three-wheeled, upholstered, motorised truck invented by a man paralysed
from chest down. This vehicle allowed him to manoeuvre around the house
in standing position [Crippled Inventor is Standing Proud, Oneonta Star,
30 November 1981].
(d) Searching for New Uses for Existing Things

Agricultural crops have long been used for unusual purposes. For example,
cotton lint is used to manufacture explosives while ground-up tobacco is
used to make insecticide.
Scientists found new ways to use the largest surplus crop in the United
States, which was corn. For example, corn was used in making de-icing
materials, adhesives, disposable bottles and biodegradable garbage bags.
[„New inventions from the Cornfield,‰ New York Times, 10 January 1988].

(e) Improvising on Existing Things

Some good examples of existing things that have been improvised are the
recent developments in the telephone, such as call block, call trace, priority
call, return call, repeat call and caller ID. Each of these features was devised
in response to a particular need that was not fulfilled by the existing device
or equipment.
(f) Discovering or Redefining a Concept

Most of us have this notion that the many concepts that help us think and
deal with reality are permanent and last forever. However, this may not be
true. Just as products and services are invented, so are concepts. The concepts
of taxation and punishing criminals, for example, may be very old, but they
were once upon a time new.
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. „The more formal education a person has, the more he is able to

analyse, but the less he is able to improvise.‰
Discuss this statement in the context of critical and creative

thinking.
2. Being creative does not only mean possessing certain characteristics

but also behaving creatively; approaching the challenges we face
with imagination and originality. In short, it means exhibiting skill
in applying the creative process. Do an Internet search to determine
the stages involved in the creative process. Elaborate on each stage.
2.3 LATERAL THINKING

Edward de Bono (www.generations.gs/TQ11/Creativity/sites/vs.html)
(a leading authority in the field of creative thinking) defined lateral thinking as
„exploring multiple possibilities and approaches instead of pursuing a single
approach.‰ Besides teaching you to think in a creative manner, lateral thinking has
the ability of transforming problems into opportunity, search for alternative
solutions and significantly increase your number of original and practical ideas
employing unusual thinking techniques that are normally not within the ability of
our normal methods of thinking.

Lateral thinking is usually employed by individuals who are given the

responsibility of coming up with new strategies in the R & D sector. Nevertheless,
any individual who is in a lookout for innovativeness, idea generation, concept
development, creative problem solving or a strategy to challenge the present
situation can gain from lateral thinking. Generally, in the modern world,
individuals who are facing fast-changing trends, intense competition and who are
required to come up with extraordinary results could benefit from lateral thinking.
Table 2.1 summarises the six different lateral thinking techniques.
Table 2.1: Six Techniques in Lateral Thinking
Technique Description
1. Alternatives/Concept Employing concepts to come up with new ideas.
Extraction
2. Focus Changing or sharpening on your focus to improve your
creative effort.
3. Challenge Thinking beyond the accepted ways of operating.
4. Random entry Employing unrelated input to widen the horizon of
thinking.
5. Harvesting Choosing of the most suitable early ideas and moulding
them into usable approaches.
6. Treatment of ideas Expanding ideas in order to incorporate them into any
particular situations or organisations.
Lateral thinking may be useful when applied in the following:
(a) Challenging of a present situation in a positive manner to allow room for

new ideas.
(b) Search and build on the concept behind an idea in order to generate more
ideas.
(c) Resolve problems in methods that were not thought of initially.
(d) Utilise alternatives to produce and harness the creative energy of an

organisation.
(e) Transform problems into opportunities.
(f) Choose the optimum alternate ideas and put them into operation.

SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. The following questions are designed to test your ability to practise
lateral thinking.
(a) What can you hold in your right hand, but not in your left?
(b) A man and his son were in a car crash. The father was killed
and the son was taken to hospital with serious injuries. The
examining doctor exclaims: „But, this is my son!‰.
How can this be?
(c) Name three consecutive days in English without using the
words Tuesday, Thursday, or Saturday.
2. Describe the six lateral thinking techniques.
2.4 RIGHT AND LEFT BRAIN CROSSOVER

In general, an individual uses both sides of the brain when making a decision. This
is due to the fact that when you use only one side of your brain, you are basically
denying yourself the opportunity to use your full power in the decision making
process.
The crossover of right and left brain crossover produces a sound, rational and
logical decision that gives you satisfaction. The right hemisphere of the brain is
responsible for intuitive, subjective and holistic thinking. Thus an individual who
uses only the right brain may end up making a decision that lacks the logical and
objective reasoning. On the other hand, the left brain is in charge of logical,
analytical, rational and objective reasoning. Hence, a left brain user who works
with facts, data and logic without the feeling component in making decisions
usually fail to notice the importance of using their emotions. These individuals
believe that facts, data and logic are not only superior than emotions when making
a particular decision but also always produce better decisions. Feelings are an
important component of the human existence. It is essential that you embrace and
accept feelings during a decision making process in order to ensure that you will
feel satisfied with the final decision that you have made.

Alan Bean [Figure 2.4(a)] and Florence Nightingale [Figure 2.4(b)] are among the
individuals who have achieved a lot in their lives with a strong right and left brain
crossover. Alan Bean was a Navy test pilot, and the fourth man to set his foot on
the moon. His job required strong left brain to utilise logical, analytical, rational
and objective reasoning. Upon his resignation from NASA, Alan Bean became a
full time artist who painted ApolloÊs human adventure that is both visionary and
historic; a task that requires a strong right brain to employ intuitive, subjective and
holistic thinking. Florence Nightingale, a nurse by profession, exhibited the use of
both her right and left brain. She proved the importance of sanitary conditions in
healing the sick and wounded patients. She employed her left brain for this while
her nurturing qualities demonstrated the powers of her right brain.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4: Alan Bean (a) and Florence Nightingale (b) both demonstrated strong right
and left brain crossover attributes
Sources: http://www.talentbookingusa.com/speakers/alan-bean.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale
SELF-CHECK 2.5
1. „The choices of which brain is in control of which situations is what
forges our personalities and determines our character.‰ Discuss the
above statement.
2. In your opinion, does our current education system place higher

importance on the right or left brain? Suggest ways and steps that
can be taken to improve this situation.

 Critical thinking is a general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills and
intellectual characters required to effectively identify, analyse and evaluate
arguments and truth claims; to uncover and overcome personal prejudices and
biases; to devise and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and
to come up with reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and
what to do. It is disciplined thinking controlled by clear intellectual
benchmarks that have proven their values over the course of human history.
 The important characteristics of critical thinking are: clarity; precision;

accuracy; relevance; consistency; logical; correctness; completeness; and
fairness.
 Creative thinking is important in todayÊs competitive world. Creative people

share a number of important characteristics, among which are: dynamism;
daringness; resourcefulness; diligence; and independence.
 The most important ways to apply creativity to problems and issues are: taking
an innovative approach; formulating a process or system; devising a new
product or service; finding new uses for existing things; improvising on
existing things; and inventing or redefining a concept.
 Lateral thinking employs the utilisation of inspiration and imagination to solve

problems by looking at them from unexpected perspectives; it also involves
discarding the obvious, leaving behind traditional modes of thought, and
throwing away preconceptions.
 The crossover of right and left brain produces a sound, rational and logical
decision as both hemispheres of the brain are responsible for different
functions and approaches in a decision making process.

Acquilescence Diligence
Brain Crossover Dynamism
Completeness Fairness
Creative thinking Lateral thinking
Critical thinking Logical correctness
Daringness Resourcefulness
1. How many uses can you think of for an old pair of socks, stockings or panty
hose? Be sure to guard against setting unconscious restrictions on your
thinking and to resist the temptation to settle for too few ideas.
2. To what extent has your education prepared you to think clearly, precisely,
accurately, logically and so forth? Have you known a person who strongly
modelled the critical thinking standards discussed in this topic? If so, how
did he or she do that?
3. Think of the most unpleasant task you ever had to do. Use your creativity to
make it more pleasant. Use the knowledge that you have gained from this
topic to answer this question.
4. A woman lives on the tenth floor of a block of flats. Every morning she takes
the lift down to the ground floor and goes to work. In the evening, she gets
into the lift, and, if there is someone else in the lift she goes back to her floor
directly. Otherwise, she goes to the eighth floor and walks up two flights of
stairs to her flat. How do you explain this using the concept of lateral
thinking?

5. Categorise the characteristics listed according to the right and left side of the
brain.
Uses feeling Philosophy Acknowledges Appreciates Believes

and religion
„Big picture‰ Oriented Words and Symbols and Knowing
language images
Risk taking Safe Uses logic Facts rule Fantasy
based
Imagination Reality based Detail oriented Practical Can
rules comprehend
Bassham, G. (2000). Critical thinking: A student introduction. Chapter 1:

Introduction to Critical Thinking, pp 7. East Tennessee State University-
ETSU. (2006). Seven Step Decision-Making Model. Retrieved from:
http://www.etsu.edu/acadvantage/acadv/decision.htm
Bassham, G., Irwin, W., Nardone, H., & Wallace, J. M. (2011). Critical thinking ă A
studentÊs introduction (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
Devine, T. G. (1986). Teaching reading comprehension: From theory to practice.

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: Heath.
Edward de Bono. Unleash Your Creativity. Retrieved from

http://www.generations.gs/TQ11/Creativity/sites/vs.html
Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction. London: Cambridge

University Press.
Furth, H. G., & Wachs, H. (1974). Thinking goes to school. PiagetÊs theory in
practice. New York: Oxford University Press.

Gerhard, C. (1975). Making sense: Reading comprehension improved through

categorizing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Harrison, A. F., & Bramson, R. M. (2002). The art of thinking. New York: The
Berkley Publishing Group.
Kahane, H., & Cavender, N. (2006). Logic and contemporary rhetoric: The use of
reason in everyday life (10th ed.). USA: Thomson Learning.
Larmore, C. (2000). Robert FulfordÊs review of Hegel: A Biography, by Terry

Pinkard. Retrieved from http://www.Robertfulford .com/Hegel.html
Meador, K. S. (1997). Creative thinking and problem solving for young learners.
Colorado: Teacher Ideas Press.
Ruggiero, V. V. (2009). The art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought
(9th ed.). USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Tonjes, M. J., & Zintz, M. V. (1987). Teaching reading, thinking, study skills in
content classrooms. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
Definitions. (1997ă2011). Retrieved from

http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/tutorials/definitions.html
Wittgenstein, L. (2001). Verfall und Ende des öffentlichen Lebens. Die Tyrannei
Der Intimität (12th ed.). Frankfurt/M.: Fischer.
Leading Thoughts: Quotes on Problem Solving. Retrieved from

http://www.leadershipnow.com/probsolvingquotes.html
Reed, S., Pisaniello, D., Benke, G., & Burton, K. (eds). (2013). Principles of
occupational health and hygiene ă An introduction. Sydney, Australia: Allen
& Unwin.
Nims, D. K. (1999). Basics of industrial hygiene. New York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons.
Singh, H. (2004). Decades of occupational safety and health in Malaysia. Malaysia:

NIOSH.
Sadhra, S. S., & Rampal, K. G. (1999). Occupational health ă Risk assessment and
management. London, England: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Harrington, J. M., & Gill, F. S. (1987). Occupational health ă Pocket consultant.

London, England: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Winder, C., & Stacey, N. (eds). (2004). Occupational toxicology (2nd ed.). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia. (2017). Occupational

safety and health act, regulations, industrial code of practices and guidelines.
Retrieved from http://www.dosh.gov.my/index.php/en/
Cralley, L. J., & Cralley, L. V. (eds). (1993). PattyÊs industrial hygiene and
toxicology, Volume III: Theory and rationale of industrial hygiene practice,
Part A: The work environment and Part B: Biological responses (4th ed.).
New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
DiNardi, S. R. (ed). (1998). The occupational environment ă Its evaluation and

control. Fairfax, VA: American Industrial Hygiene Association.
Plog, B. A. (ed). (1996). Fundamentals of industrial hygiene (4th ed.). Chicago, IL:
National Safety Council.

Topic  Identifying
Reasons and
3 Conclusions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Determine if reasoning is present in an argument;
2. Identify words used in the language of reasoning;
3. Use the Thinking Map to analyse and evaluate arguments;
4. Apply tests to evaluate the validity and acceptability of claims; and
5. Identify assumptions and evaluate inferences in an argument.
 INTRODUCTION
Many a time we face situations where someone tries to convince us of a viewpoint
in the hope that we would accept it. This is often known as „arguing a case‰ or
„presenting an argument‰. Sometimes, the reasoning is simple to understand but
at other times it can be rather difficult. Likewise, when we present a case, at certain
times it can be easy for the other person to understand it and at other times it can
be difficult. We will explain the method to identify what reasoning is being
presented when someone is arguing a case and how to present reasoning in a clear
manner ourselves.

TOPIC 3 IDENTIFYING REASONS AND CONCLUSIONS  41
There are basic critical thinking skills we must practise if we want to excel at critical
thinking in real circumstances. You cannot assess a case presented in support of
some belief or decision unless you are very clear on what the case is.
3.1 DECIDING WHEN REASONING IS PRESENT

First of all, it must be realised that we use language for many purposes besides
trying to influence others of a standpoint. We use language for descriptive and
informative purposes, such as to report an event, describe things, tell stories, tell
jokes, make promises and many other things.
While language has an important role in conveying such information for the
purpose of this discourse, however, we are interested in how language is used in
reasoning. Reasoning is the process of making inferences from the information
given.
The following passages are provided to see if you can tell which contain reasoning
and which do not.
Scenario 1
James burst out of Customs, diamonds and expensive watches falling from his bag
as he ran. As he reached the taxi stand, customers were sitting in all of the waiting
taxis. James ran towards the nearest taxi and leaped into it as it was beginning to
move. He pointed a gun at the driver and said, „Downtown!‰ The taxi turned
towards the motorway. (Morton, 1988)
The above passage is simply a descriptive passage, and it does not provide reasons
for a conclusion, although we naturally make several inferences as we read it.
Scenario 2
Many substantial environmental problems cannot be solved by individual or local
action; for example, the pollution caused by automobile exhaust gases is a world-
wide problem, and so such problems can only be addressed by international
action.
Scenario 2 provides reasons for the conclusion that certain problems can only be
addressed by international action.

42  TOPIC 3 IDENTIFYING REASONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Scenario 3
The 19th century English theologian and biologist Gosse (1810 ă 1888) (Figure 3.1)
had a problem. He was a devout Christian who accepted the Creation story as set
out in the Bible, but he was also a practising scientist. He was well aware that the
geological and fossil studies by other scientists seemed to show that the Earth was
very old, perhaps millions of years old. How could he resolve this conflict?
Figure 3.1: Philip Henry Gosse

Source: http://www.parlouraquariums.org.uk/
Scenario 3 does not provide reasons for a conclusion. It only describes a possible
„solution‰ to a problem but there is no reasoning.
Thus, it is evident that at certain times, we use language to describe some state of
affairs, and at other times, we use it to reason and arrive at a conclusion. There are
also times when we use language to ridicule, insult or offend. Most articles in
newspapers report events but the leading articles and letters to the editor will often
contain reasoning in support of a conclusion. As for novels, they rarely contain
much reasoning. Textbooks, on the other hand, often seek both to pass on
information and to present the authorsÊ arguments. Finally, parliamentary debates
many a time contain reasoning as well as verbal abuse.

3.2 EXAMPLES OF REASONING

In order to understand reasoning, we shall thoroughly study the following
example. Let us imagine a student, Peter, who has just completed a critical thinking
course and has failed the test which was set at the end of the course. Let us imagine
that he sends this note to his teacher:
„That test was unfair. I studied for days, reading the material four times,
underlining important details and then studying them. After doing all
these I should obtain a good grade. That test was unfair.‰
From this note, it is clear that Peter argues that „the test was unfair‰ and this is
basically his conclusion. Notice that the conclusion in this example has been
provided at the beginning of a piece of reasoning and it comes again at the end of
the note, perhaps to strongly stress the complaint. You may also think that PeterÊs
conclusion is that the teacher should look again at the test or at PeterÊs answers, or
that PeterÊs answers should be regarded favourably by the teacher or by any other
teacher competent in this field. The main allegation is that something should be
done to rectify a mistake, and in this situation, it goes beyond what is actually said.
Thus, you might say that this is his conclusion. At times, people do not express, or
do not completely express, their conclusions.
Peter provided several reasons for his conclusion when he said, „I studied for days,
reading the material four times, underlining important details and then studying
them.‰ These are his reasons for coming up with the conclusion that the test was
unfair.
Among the lessons learned from the above example are:
(a) It is rather easy to see which reasons are presented for which conclusions. All
that is needed is an understanding of our normal use of the language.
(b) You now understand what the words „conclusion‰ and „reason‰ mean, in a
simple context as shown above. We use these words in their ordinary,
everyday sense.
(c) Conclusions can come at the beginning as well as the end of an argument,
and although they may be unexpressed, they may be „implied‰ by what is
mentioned.
(d) The task of judging whether an argument is good or not is rather difficult.
What is really required is an understanding of what is said, what is assumed
and what the context is.

SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Read the following passage which is adapted from a letter to an

American newspaper published a few years ago.
„We should bring most of our troops home from Europe. The threat
from Russia has gone now that the Evil Empire has collapsed; the
Europeans can defend themselves now that the threat to their
security is less and they are so rich; and we must reduce our federal
deficit fast, if our economy is not to collapse.‰
(a) What is the conclusion of this argument?
(b) What is the author trying to persuade us of?
(c) What reasons are given in support of the conclusion?
(d) Is anything assumed (something not actually stated in the
text)?
(e) Again, you might like to comment briefly on whether the
argument is a good one.
2. We need to make rail travel more attractive to travellers. There are

so many cars on the road that the environment and human safety
are under threat. Rail travel should be made cheaper. Everyone
wants the roads to be less crowded but they still want the
convenience of being able to travel by road themselves. People will
not abandon the car in favour of the train without some new
incentive.
(a) What is the conclusion of the argument?
(b) What is the author trying to persuade us of?
(c) What reasons are given in support of the conclusion?
(d) Is anything assumed (that is, implicit but not actually stated)?

3.3 LANGUAGE OF REASONING

There are several words and phrases that are normally used characteristically to
indicate that an individual is arguing a case or is presenting reasons for a
conclusion. Among the words or phrases used to show that the claim indicated is
a conclusion for which reasons have been presented are:
 therefore  justifies the belief/view that
 so  it can be concluded that
 hence  from which we can infer
 thus  it follows that/it demonstrates that
 consequently  must
 which proves/establishes that
However, it is not necessary that the utilisation of such phrases always indicate the
occurrence of a conclusion to an argument, just that it often does and that, taken
in concurrence with the context, such language often provides you with an
important clue about the structure of the reasoning. These phrases are commonly
called „conclusion indicators‰ because they signal the presence of a conclusion, for
which reasons have been presented.
In addition, there are also words or phrases that are commonly utilised to signal
the presence of reasons, and are usually known as „reason indicators‰. Among the
common reason indicators used are:
 because  the reasons are
 since  firstly
 for  secondly
 follows from the fact that

When we intend to refer to both „conclusion indicators‰ and „reason indicators,‰

we commonly speak of „argument indicators,‰ which are signs that help us
understand whether a reasoning is present and what the authorÊs argument is.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. In the following examples, identify which words and phrases are

„argument indicators‰. Also, identify the sentences that indicate
reasons and its corresponding conclusions:
(a) During a football game, John Terry committed a serious foul,

so he deserved a sending off.
(b) The butler was in the pantry. In that case, he couldnÊt have
shot the master, who was in his study. Hence, the butler
couldnÊt have done it.
(c) The Green Movement is mistaken in thinking that we should

recycle materials like paper and glass because paper comes
from trees, an easily renewable resource, and glass is made
from sand, which is plentiful and cheap. Furthermore, in
some American cities recycling schemes have been abandoned
because they are too expensive.
2. In the following passage, state which of the words marked in bold

are reason indicators and which are conclusion indicators, and then
state which sentences are reasons and which are conclusions.
Finally, state the reasons you think are presented by the author in
support of the corresponding conclusions.
„Most parents want their children to have successful careers.

Since education is essential to success, it is the duty of parents
to give children the best possible education. Because it is also in
the countryÊs economic interest to have a highly educated
population, the Government should help parents to provide for
their childrenÊs education. Therefore, all parents should receive
financial help towards the cost of their childrenÊs education, so
the lowly paid should receive tax credits and those who are
better off should receive tax relief.‰

3.4 THINKING MAP FOR UNDERSTANDING

AND EVALUATING REASONING
So far, we have seen many different pieces of reasoning and explained how to best
understand and evaluate them. We have been looking at small pieces of reasoning,
pondering how to handle them and paying attention to some of the common
mistakes we commit in responding to reasoning. In the absence of such assistance,
most individuals tend to react by immediately challenging any claim they disagree
with or by presenting their own opinion without reflecting on the arguments
presented and so on.
The key to effective critical thinking is asking the right questions. We now present
a basic model or „thinking map‰ ă a tool that can help us evaluate reasoning as
seen in Table 3.1. Basically, the thinking map is a list of key questions you should
ask when analysing an argument ă be it your own or someone elseÊs.
Table 3.1: Thinking Map ă Skillful Analysis and Evaluation of Arguments
Analysis
1. What is/are the main conclusion(s)?
(May be stated or unstated; may be in the forms of recommendations, or
explanations and so on. The presence of conclusion indicator words such as
„therefore‰ may help.)
[Aim: It helps in organising your thinking about a piece of reasoning if you know
what the author is trying to persuade and/or convince you of]
2. What are the reasons (data, evidence, etc) and their structure?
3. What is assumed (that is, implicit or taken for granted, perhaps in the context)?
4. Clarify the meaning (by the terms, claims or arguments) which needs it.

Evaluation
5. Are the reasons acceptable to you?
(These include explicit reasons and unstated assumptions ă these may also involve
evaluating factual claims, definitions and value judgments and judging the
credibility of the source.)
(a) Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s)?
(For example, is the supporting argument strong as „beyond reasonable
doubt‰ or weak)?
(b) Are there other relevant considerations/arguments which strengthen or
weaken the case?
(You may already know these or may have to construct them)
[Aim: Also called critico-creative thinking, which requires us to consider any other
relevant ideas we know or can think up which will help us to arrive at a good
judgment for the case in hand].
6. What is your overall evaluation based on what you have obtained above?
The first set of questions is based on analysis. You cannot respond reasonably to
an argument without understanding it. Thus, the above given analytical questions
help you to understand what is being stated and argued. This is followed by the
evaluative questions, which will assist you in deciding whether or not you should
be convinced of the argument.
The Thinking Map should be used not only when you are considering other
peopleÊs reasoning but also when you are constructing your own. If you have a
good case, you should be able to organise it so that your readers or listeners will
be able to clearly understand what you are trying to state in terms of how you
carry it out. It helps to use the „language of reasoning‰ in order to make your
conclusion and reasoning clear and unambiguous.

SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Sometimes, we may be led astray by flawed but persuasive

„reasoning‰. Consider the following:
Three friends had dinner at a restaurant. The bill came up to

RM25. Since RM25 is not easily divisible by 3, they decided to
put up RM10 each. They gave RM30 to the waiter, who
subsequently returned them RM5 change. From the change,
they took RM1 each, and tipped the waiter the remaining RM2.
So, for their dinner, they actually paid RM9 each (RM10 less the
RM1 returned).
Three times RM9 is RM27. The waiter took RM2. This adds up
to RM29. What happened to the remaining RM1?
Though it may not appear to be so, this is really a problem of logic

rather than arithmetic. You are led to the wrong conclusion that the
remaining RM1 cannot accounted for, because of flawed reasoning.
Where is the flaw in this reasoning? Can applying the Thinking
Map expose it? If so, please elaborate your answer.
2. For the following passages, use the thinking map to help you
analyse the argument (noting any important assumptions) and
write a brief evaluative response:
Big art exhibitions, which collect paintings from all over the
world, are bad for the paintings. Whenever they are
transported, there is a danger of accidents and resultant damage
or destruction, and it cannot be good to subject paintings to the
changes of pressure and humidity that even carefully controlled
travel is likely to bring.
The number of crimes committed by people under the age of 17

has almost doubled in the last seven years. The Criminal Justice
Act which becomes law this year should have the effect of
reversing this trend. Children who commit crimes know that
the penalties are minimal. But the new Act will make it possible
for parents to be made liable for fines and compensations, and
for them to be compelled to appear in court alongside offspring
who are under 17. The level of fines will be related to parental
income and wealthy parents may have to pay up to $5,000 for
their childrenÊs crime.

3.5 ACCEPTABILITY OF REASONS

We have already looked at some techniques required to understand what authors
mean, especially in the process of reasoning. Next, we will continue with the
process of evaluating authorsÊ reasonings. This is vital because when someone
provides reasons which aim to persuade us to agree with a certain point of view,
we not only want to understand what they are saying but we may also be in a
position to evaluate their claims. In other words, we want to decide whether it is a
good reasoning and whether we should be persuaded by it. In order to do this
skillfully, we have to ask the right questions.
Generally, people commonly react in two ways towards a conclusion made by

another. If they agree with the conclusion, they say, „Yes, I agree with that,‰
without considering the details of the argument. If they disagree with it, they say,
„I do not agree with that,‰ and may say something against the conclusion, such as
denying it, rejecting the argument or providing a contradictory or opposing
argument. It is very uncommon for listeners to take the argument seriously and
analyse it for its validity. In order to obtain the truth about substantial issues, one
has to be systematic and skillful. We will look at how to go about this in more
detail here.
To set the context for our present work, let us look at an example, and use it to
explain the questions to be asked, and how they work:
In general context, most prospective parents would prefer to have sons. So

if people can choose the sex of their child, it is likely that there will
eventually be more males than females in our population. This could
produce serious social problems; therefore we should prohibit the use of
techniques which enable people to choose the sex of their children.
If we were to evaluate this systematically, we need to ask the following questions:
(a) Are the reasons acceptable (true, valid, factual, etc.)?
(b) Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s)?
(c) Are there other relevant considerations/arguments?
(d) What is your overall evaluation on this topic?

First, we have to decide whether it is true that „most prospective parents would
prefer to have sons.‰ Based on general knowledge, this claim may be true in some
societies and cultures across the world, for instance in India and China, but it may
be untrue in others. To find out, we need to carry out our research or look for
survey information on this matter to ascertain this statement.
The question that follows is: „Does this reasoning support its conclusion?‰ If it is
true that „most prospective parents would prefer to have sons,‰ then does it not
follow that if people can choose the sex of their child, it is likely that there will
eventually be more males than females in the population? If people prefer boys
and can get boys, does it not seem very likely that more boys than girls will be
born? It is definitely hard to see anything wrong with that inference of correlation.
The next reason is, „This could produce serious social problems,‰ and the question
is whether this claim is acceptable or not. It is not very easy to judge this reason
because it actually depends on whether there is a small or big surplus of boys in
society. Following this, the next question is, „Do the preceding claims support the
conclusion that we should prohibit the use of techniques which enable people to
choose the sex of their children?‰ Well, if allowing these techniques to be used does
produce a surplus of boys, which will in turn produce serious social problems,
maybe we should ban them.
However, there is another question that we should ask: „Are there other relevant
considerations or arguments in regards to this statement?‰ This is the point when
thinking about an issue requires us to be critical, creative and to think out-of-the-
box to arrive at the acceptance of an argument or claim.
Just why is this so important? It generally means, we have analysed the statement
constructively and are now more clear and ready to determine the validity and
credibility in support of a conclusion we can accept, and not only comprehend.
To summarise the above, once you are reasonably clear about what an author is
saying and what his reasons and conclusions are, you are in a position to evaluate
the reasoning.
ACTIVITY 3.1
State additional and further considerations and/or arguments that are
relevant to the question of banning the use of techniques for selecting the
sex of children.

3.6 JUDGING ACCEPTABILITY OF A CLAIM

There are several questions to be asked on the acceptability of a claim, which
would then lead into considerations about credibility. In general, to skilfully judge
the acceptability of a claim, six steps are involved as outlined in Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.2: Six steps in evaluating the acceptability of a claim
Now, let us explore each step in the process of evaluation of acceptability in detail.
(a) How Certain is the Claim?

Whether a claim is acceptable or not depends on the strength of commitment.
A provided claim may well be acceptable as a „guess‰ or a „possibility‰,
however, its acceptability will be judged by more thorough standards if it is
presented as being true or even assured.
(b) Does the Context of the Claim Influence Its Acceptability?

Whether a claim is acceptable or not depends on the context and manner in
which it is made.

(c) Does the Claim Require Expertise/Research to Decide?

There are cases in which reasons provided for selective conclusions require
specialised knowledge or expertise input in determining whether they are
acceptable or not. Sometimes, you may have this knowledge and at other
times, you may not for it may not be your field of forte. Thus, wherever such
an expertise is needed, it may be challenging or even impossible for you to
judge the strength of an argument.
(d) Is it Widely Known or Believed?

There are times when a reason presented is widely recognised or believed.
(e) How Well does the Claim Fit with Our Other Beliefs and Opinions?
Sometimes, the reason you are reflecting upon „fits well‰ with other beliefs
you have and sometimes it does not.
(f) Is It from a Credible Source?

We can accept or reject a claim based on the credibility, reliability and
validity of its source.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
From the following passage, discuss the acceptability of the claims.
The huge Norwegian company called Norsk Hydro wants to grow more
fish in the sea by spreading fertilisers over the ocean. The company,
which is the worldÊs biggest producer of fertilisers, believes that this will
grow more marine algae, which in turn will encourage the expansion of
fish stocks. Marine scientists from Sweden and Canada who reviewed
the plan at the request of the Norwegian Research Council say it is
unlikely to work. They say it ignores basic principles of marine ecology
and could do irreversible damage.
[Adapted from „NorwayÊs fish plan ă a recipe for disaster,‰ New
Scientist, 13 January 1996]

3.7 JUDGING CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES

Our beliefs and opinions are shaped by what we read in newspapers, what we see
on television or what we hear from the radio. When deciding whether or not to
believe a personÊs statement or a piece of information, these sources provide us
with some points of reference.
In this section, we will go through the criteria required to judge the credibility of
sources of claims. Among the criteria that we should pay close attention to are:
(a) The sourceÊs reputation for reliability;
(b) Whether the source has a vested interest;
(c) Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from independent

sources;
(d) Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
(e) The nature of the claim itself; and
(f) Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make.
To check the credibility of sources of claims, let us look into each question in
Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Five Criteria Required to Judge the Credibility of Sources of Claims
1. Questions on the person/source.

 Do they have relevant expertise/knowledge/training/experience?
 Do they have the capacity to observe accurately (includes all other abilities like
hearing, proximity to event, absence of distractions, appropriate machines, and
skill in handling machineries)?
 Does their reputation suggest they are dependable?
 Does the source have vested interest or show bias?
2. Questions on the circumstances/context in which the claim is made
3. Questions on the jurisdiction the source offers or can offer in support of the claim.
 Is the claim based on primary and secondary sources?
 Is the claim based on direct or on circumstantial evidence?
 Is the claim based on direct reference to credibility considerations?

4. Questions on the nature of the claim which influence its credibility.

 Is it very unlikely or is it easy to believe?
 Is it a basic observation statement or an inferred judgment?
5. Is there corroboration or validation from other sources?
In summary, we can categorise the above mentioned criteria into five sections
which contain questions pertaining to the:
(a) Person/source whose credibility we intend to judge;
(b) Circumstances/contexts in which the claim is made that affect its credibility;
(c) Justification the source offers or can offer in support of the claim which
affects its credibility;
(d) Nature of the claim which influences its credibility; and
(e) Whether there is corroboration/validation from other sources.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
You are listening to a court case in which Jason, who collided with
another car, is accused of driving at twice the speed limit in the city and
with three times the legal limit of alcohol in his blood. Jason denies the
charges but the doctor who attended to him tells the court that Jason
smelled very strongly of alcohol and blood tests showed alcohol in his
blood at three times the legal limit. Who is credible and why?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Think about several examples of people or "sources" (like the BBC or
TV3) you know and identify the areas in which they have a well-justified
reputation for reliability and areas in which they do not. Discuss with
your coursemates.

3.8 EVALUATING INFERENCES

When we argue on a certain case, we present reasons to support our conclusion,
interpretation and decision. In other words, we infer our conclusion from our
reasons. Normally, arguments contain both reasons and inferences, and
„inferences‰ are the ones that we use in order to move on from reasons to
conclusions. This can be seen in the following example.
Some people have solved their own unemployment problem by either

looking for a job or by willingness to work for less. So all the unemployed
could do the same.
In the above example, the inference is the move from „some people have solved
their own unemployment problem‰ to „all the unemployed could do the same.‰
However, reasons and inferences have to be evaluated rather differently. In most
circumstances, it is important to judge whether the reasons provided in some
argument are true or otherwise acceptable. On the other hand, to judge whether
the inference based upon those reasons are justified or not is a totally different
thing.
Let us look at the following example.
WomenÊs brains are on average smaller than menÊs, therefore women are
less intelligent than men.
Most people, when asked, say that they are unsure of why the brains of women
are smaller than those of men but they are very sure that the conclusion presented
is not true. Although the reason is true, there is no connection between brain size
and intelligence, so the reason does not support the conclusion.
The first response points to the fact that we expect to be able to see some reasonably
established connection between reason and conclusion if one is to justify the other
ă a link we can perceive and accept in the light of everything else we believe.

The second says that if the reason is true but there are reasons for thinking the
conclusion could be false, it cannot be a good inference. However, since the second
response has received more support in the history of thinking about inferences,
that is the one we will choose here. Thus, the fundamental idea is that the reason(s)
do not make you accept the conclusion, and if you can think of other ways in which
the reasons can be proven to be true and the conclusion false concurrently, then
the inference is false. The test to apply when judging an inference is:
Could the reason(s) be true (or otherwise acceptable) and the conclusion
false (or otherwise unacceptable) at the same time?
If the answer to the above question is „No,‰ then the inference, which is the
progress from reasons to conclusion, is a brilliant idea and forces you accept the
conclusion if the reasons are true. On the other hand, if the answer is „Yes,‰ then
the inference fails, or is not justified.
In the example above, we face a situation where the reason is true but the inference
from reason to conclusion is unjustified. In other words, the inference is unjustified
because the reason could be true and the conclusion untrue at the same time. Thus,
it is clear that the attempt to decide whether an inference is justified is very
different from the tests you should apply when trying to decide whether reasons
are accepted.
If you have memorised the key points of this book, you will do well in the
critical thinking examination, and you have memorised them so you will
do well in the exam.
In the above example, the reasons are true, thus, the conclusion must also be true,
and this makes it a good inference. However, the reason which says that you only
have to memorise the facts in order to do well in the examination is definitely false.
Thus, this argument fails to justify its conclusion not because it makes a poor
inference, but due to the fact that at least one of the reasons on which it is based is
not true.
In summary, for an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion it must meet

two important conditions:
(a) Its reasons must be true or otherwise acceptable; and
(b) The inferences which are then drawn from those reasons must be good ones.

SELF-CHECK 3.6
Apply the test we have just explained to decide whether the inferences
you identified in the passages given below are justified.
(a) The job of a driving instructor is challenging and rewarding. One

has great freedom in working for oneself and it is unnecessary to
have passed any „A‰ levels. Therefore, a suitable job for anyone
without „A‰ levels is that of a driving instructor.
(b) If the worldÊs climate is getting warmer, we would find that some
of the ice at both the North and South Pole would melt at an
unusually high rate. If the ice is melting, we would see its effect in
raising the level of the sea. There is evidence that this level is
increasing, so the worldÊs climate must be getting warmer.
Next, we would like to introduce the „deductively valid‰ concept, the highest
standard of all for judging inference. Can you think of any way the reason(s) could
be true and the conclusion false? If the answer to that question is „No,‰ then the
inference is deductively valid, and if the answer is „Yes,‰ then the inference is not
deductively valid.
Hence, if an argument is deductively valid, the truth of its reasons absolutely

guarantees the truth of its conclusion; if the reasons are true, the conclusion must
be true, there are no other possibilities. A good example would be that if it is true
that „all whales are mammals‰ and „all mammals give birth to their young,‰ then
it must be true that „all whales give birth to their young.‰ There is no way that the
reasons can be true and the conclusion false. Thus, this is a deductively valid
argument.

SELF-CHECK 3.7
1. Compare the following two syllogisms.
(a) All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
(b) All bird-watchers own binoculars.

Bob owns (a pair of) binoculars.
Therefore Bob is a bird-watcher.
What is the difference, if any, between the two? Do both

conclusions follow logically from their respective assertions? Are
both conclusions acceptable?
2. Judge which of the following arguments is deductively valid and

which is not. Explain in each case why you make your decision.
(a) Tom hates everyone Mary loves and Mary loves Tom. So Tom
must hate himself.
(b) The butler was in the pantry. In that case, he could not have
shot the master, who was in the study. So, the butler could
not have done it.
In most texts, it is rather easy to spot assumptions.
Driving instructor is a challenging and rewarding occupation. One has

great freedom in working for oneself, and it is unnecessary to have passed
any „A‰ levels. Therefore, a suitable job for anyone without „A‰ levels is
that of a driving instructor.

Anyone who reads the above passage would quickly assume that if a „challenging
and rewarding occupation with freedom to work for yourself‰ appeals to you, then
to be a driving instructor you require little more than to „have no A levels.‰ This
is called an implicit (hidden or unspoken) assumption. The inference made here is
rather weak because the reasons could be true but the conclusion false, judging by
any reasonable standard. Many a time, it is not so easy to tell what is being
assumed and in these circumstances, we proceed to elicit assumptions or
assumptions that are drawn out, especially when the quality of the inference is
important. Thus, the general strategy is that we should assign to arguments and
explanations those assumptions which:
(a) Seem likely in the context; or
(b) Make sense of what is said; or
(c) Seem necessary to make the reasoning as strong as possible (if true).
 A case presented cannot be assessed in support of some belief or decision

unless the individual is very clear on what the case is. One needs to identify
and ascertain reasons and conclusions made in the case.
 The language of reasoning uses various types of words and phrases, known as
„conclusion indicators‰, that indicate a conclusion is being made by the
particular claim.
 A thinking map used in the understanding and evaluating of a reasoning

includes a list of important questions such as:
 What are/is the main conclusion(s);
 What are the reasons and their structure;
 What is assumed;
 Clarifying what is required;
 Are the reasons acceptable or not; and
 What is the overall evaluation when the analysis of an argument is being

carried out.

 In the evaluation of acceptability of reasons, the important questions that need

to be asked include:
 Whether the reasons are acceptable or not;
 Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s);
 Are there other relevant considerations/arguments; and
 What is the overall evaluation.
 The six steps involved in judging acceptability of a claim skillfully are:
 How certain is the claim;
 Does the context of the claim influence its acceptability;
 Does the claim require the decision of an expert;
 Is the claim widely known or believed;
 How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs; and
 Is the claim made by a credible source.
 In judging the credibility of a source skillfully, the main criteria that require
close attention include the sourceÊs reputation for reliability:
 Whether the source has a vested interest;
 Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from independent

sources;
 Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
 The nature of the claim itself; and
 Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make.
 When we argue on a certain case, conclusions are inferred from the reasons.
 For an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion its reasons must be true
or otherwise acceptable and the inferences which are then drawn from those
reasons must be good ones.

Acceptability of claim Inferences

Acceptability of reasons Reasoning
Credibility of sources Thinking map
Deductive validity
1. If the worldÊs climate was getting warmer, we would find that some of the
ice at both the North and South Pole would be melting at an unusually high
rate. If the ice was melting, we would see its effect in the raising of the level
of the sea. There is evidence that this level is increasing, so the worldÊs
climate must be getting warmer. Do you think that this argument contains
an implicit assumption?
2. In each of the following examples, identify something which is implicitly

assumed and explain how assumptions affect the inference (does it make it
more acceptable or show that it is weak)?
(a) If the building burned to the ground, there will be only a pile of ashes
and rubble. There is now only a pile of ashes and rubble here.
Therefore, the building has been burned to the ground.
(b) A teacher is speaking to a colleague about a student, Jones, just before

an exam. She says that Jones has worked hard so he will pass the exam.
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (2005). Critical thinking (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

ordinary and extraordinary claims. USA: Oxford University Press.
Wright, L. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction to analytical reading and


Topic  Problem
Solving
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what a problem is;
2. Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for
improvement;
3. Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;
4. Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem-solving
process;
5. Establish the general guidelines to effective problem solving;
6. Discuss the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the
problem-solving process;
7. Examine the common constraints in the problem-solving process;
and
8. Compare and contrast the different approaches to problem solving.
 INTRODUCTION
Regardless of what we do for a living or where we are, we spend most of our
waking hours constantly trying to solve problems. For many students, problem
solving is a procedure they carry out on a task assigned by a teacher. They view
the problem as something to be completed within a set time so as to avoid punitive
consequences. Unfortunately, in their daily lives, students, and people in general,
have a tendency to overanalyse every action or event deemed problematic. The
problems we face can be small or complex, but they need to be solved in a

64  TOPIC 4 PROBLEM SOLVING
constructive manner. Hence, problem solving is an important skill. Whether we

arrive at an effective solution or not depends on how we confront the problem
(Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: How we view a problem is the key to determining its outcome
Source: http://beautybrainsnbeyond.blogspot.com/2010/05/thought-of- day_20.html
4.1 WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

Based on some dictionaries, a problem is defined as:
(a) A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet® 2.0, Princeton

University, 2003).
(b) A question to be considered, solved or answered (The American Heritage®

Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Updated in 2009).
(c) Anything, matter, person, etc, that is difficult to deal with, solve or overcome
(Collins English Dictionary: Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition, 2003).
(d) Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty

(Dictionary.com, Unabridged).

TOPIC 4 PROBLEM SOLVING  65
Depending on the context, some problems may be minor, personal or caused by

external factors. Some problems may be too big or too complex and need to be
passed on to people who are more capable of dealing with them. Figure 4.2
illustrates how NOT to go about it!
Figure 4.2: A negative approach to a problem: „If the problem is too big, just blame it on
someone else!‰
Different authors define a problem differently. Generally, we can define a problem

using three approaches:
(a) A problem is an opportunity for improvement.
(b) A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state.
(c) A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfection and the
belief in the possibility of a better future.
The definition that a problem is an opportunity for improvement will be the focus
of our discussion here. Thinking out of the box enables one to view a problem as
an opportunity ă a chance to open up new ways of looking at, and responding to,
the difficulties being faced. Seen from this perspective, problems are not
necessarily the result of external factors or to be perceived as negative or „bad‰
events. This shift in perspective creates a new viewpoint or awareness of the
problem. New opportunities for improvement will present themselves to you, and
as they do, they bring about new challenges that demand a solution from you.

Such a situation requires flexibility in approaching the problem at hand. This

requirement for flexibility offers a distinct advantage to creative people in the
course of problem solving, since changes in the problem necessitate innovative and
inventive adjustments in how it is solved. Perceiving problems as opportunities
for improvement nurtures a positive mindset, which can transform you into a
more confident person with more control of your life.
At times, a problem can manifest itself in different ways. An example is a situation

where we see ourselves in conflict with where we are at present and where we
want to be. When we can identify the difference between the situation we are in at
present and the situation we desire, we can define the problem, which we can
thereafter attempt to resolve in order to achieve our goal.
„Each problem has hidden in it an opportunity so powerful that it literally

dwarfs the problem. The greatest success stories were created by people who
recognised a problem and turned it into an opportunity.‰
Joseph Sugarman (Inglish, P. 2011)
ACTIVITY 4.1
„There is so far no limit to the rise in food and oil prices, a situation that
is leading many consumers and producers to a point where they are
carrying an unbearable burden.‰ (The Star, 23 June 2008)
Identify one consumer-related problem that can result from the situation
reported above. Can you approach this problem as an opportunity?
Explain your answer.
4.2 WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving and the techniques associated with it are domain-independent
reasoning components which specify patterns of behaviour that can be reused
across applications (Fensel and Motta, 1997). This simply means that problem
solving is a series of techniques, both cognitive and behavioural, that can be
applied in various fields or areas to generate solutions.

As Woods (1975) and colleagues suggested, „Problem solving is the process of

obtaining a satisfactory solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which
the problem solver has not seen before.‰
As a whole, problem solving involves a series of steps, from the identification of a

problem leading to the development of a solution. Problem solving can be seen as
a structured, directional-oriented process. However, in determining the direction
for the solution, we need to define the problem first, followed by the desired goal
or the changes we want.
4.2.1 Stages in Problem Solving

As highlighted in the previous subtopic, to better understand problem solving and
to improve our personal problem-solving capabilities, we should view problem
solving as a process that leads to a positive result. The importance of this approach
is that it focuses on the process of attaining the solution rather than the solution
itself. This means more emphasis is placed on the steps in reaching the solution
than the end result. Thus, it is vital that we understand the various stages involved.
The four stages involved are presented in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Stages in problem solving
(a) Recognising and Defining a Problem

A problem can only be solved when its existence is recognised. However, in
certain situations, a problem is only recognised when it becomes a serious
matter. After recognising a problem, the next action will be to thoroughly
define it. A problem can be referred to as a closed-ended problem or an open-
ended problem. A closed-ended problem involves all circumstances
surrounding the deviation from the norm that need to be defined. On the

other hand, an open-ended problem involves both identifying and defining

your objectives and any hindrance that can stop you from attaining them.
The main differences between closed-ended and open-ended problems are
summarised in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Differences between Closed- and Open-ended Problems
Closed-ended Problems Open-ended Problems

Have one or a limited number of Can be solved using many different
possible solutions. methods.
Problem analysis involves identifying Problem analysis involves looking for
all the possible causes before looking information which will help to suggest
for a solution. a range of possible ways to solve the
problem.
Analysing a problem thoroughly is important in order for you to fully

understand it and subsequently come up with various solutions that can help
in achieving your goals. Analysing a problem involves identifying and
bringing together relevant information, and presenting it in a meaningful
way. It eventually helps you to decide what the best solution would be.
(b) Finding Possible Solutions

Generally, coming up with various actions to solve a problem involves
finding out what appropriate actions to take, what the hindrances are and
finally working towards achieving your goals. It may be necessary to modify
and combine ideas using any creative technique available in order to devise
a workable solution. In truth, the more ideas you have to choose from, the
higher the probability of finding an effective solution.
(c) Selecting the Best Solution

This is a decision-making process that is based on a comparison of the
potential outcomes of alternative solutions. This stage involves:
(i) Identifying the characteristics of the possible solutions, including any

limitations that might be encountered;
(ii) Eliminating the solutions that cannot overcome the limitations;
(iii) Evaluating the remaining solutions;
(iv) Evaluating the risks linked to arriving at the best solution; and
(v) Coming up with a decision to implement the chosen solution.

It is believed that a problem is considered solved when a solution has been

implemented. However, in certain circumstances, the selected solution has
to be accepted or authorised by other individuals in order for it to be
implemented, and this may involve several strategies of persuasion.
(d) Implementing the Solution

Three steps are involved in this stage, as presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Steps Involved in the Implementation of a Solution
Step Description
Planning and preparing to Involves the conclusion of all efforts and thorough
implement the solution. planning that describes the sequence of actions
needed to fulfil the objective, timescale and
resources required at each stage.
Taking the appropriate Problems or potential problems have to be dealt
action and monitoring its with immediately in order to ensure that things
effect. run smoothly.
Reviewing the success of the This is important to estimate the efficacy of the
action. action in solving future similar problems and to
make sure that the problem has been solved.
To sum up, the emphasis of a closed-ended problem is on defining and

analysing the problem to indicate possible causes, whereas the focus of an
open-ended problem is on the idea generation stage to come up with a
broader range of possible solutions. It may be necessary to recalibrate the
work done earlier, during any stage in problem solving.
In all the four stages discussed, we need to use our reasoning and thinking
skills. These will be discussed in later topics.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Explain the four stages involved in problem solving.
2. Explain briefly the differences between open-ended and closed-

ended problems.

4.3 IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN PROBLEM

SOLVING
Problem solving centres on thinking about goals and ideal states that one would
like to achieve. Usually, when a goal is reached, the problem is considered settled.
However, this will only happen if the goal originally set is appropriate. Defining a
goal is essential to determine how much of a problem exists or whether or not there
is a problem in the first place. There are, of course, innumerable problems that
need solutions. Do not get carried away by trying to solve every problem you
identify and do not let others set goals for you that you will not be able to achieve
(as illustrated in Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Set yourself realistic goals; do not try to solve all problems and do not let
others set goals for you that you know you cannot meet

Robert Harris (1998), in the following excerpt, gives a very good example to
illustrate the need for a goal to identify whether a problem exists:
LetÊs say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlour and it
is beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you
have a problem ă you may define it as how to keep the pizza from cooling,
how to heat it back up or how to eat it quickly. On the other hand, if you
like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a problem. Similarly, if
your friend comes over an hour later and you offer him a piece of leftover
pizza only to discover that your oven is on the blink, you have a problem:
how to heat up the pizza. But if your friend says, „I really like cold pizza
better than hot‰, you do not have a problem.
Source: http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm
As the above example illustrates, in order to determine whether or not a problem

exists, and to what extent it does, you must first consider:
(a) Your goal(s); and
(b) Your current state.
Your goals must be achievable within the boundaries of your capabilities and the
tools you possess. Take time to think about your goals and plan your strategy.
Remember, failing to plan is planning to fail.
Goals are never static. Your priorities will change over time, and so will your goals.
The changes may involve a major rethinking of your lifeÊs purpose, or they may
be small refinements to your holiday budget. Whatever the changes may be, it is
essential that you keep your problems and solutions in tandem with your goals.

4.4 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM

SOLVING
These guidelines are meant to help you analyse, define and solve problems in an
orderly way, and to give some structure to the various problem-solving activities
you encounter. When using these guidelines, it is important to keep in mind that
problem solving does not proceed through a predetermined sequence of steps at
all times, nor is it necessarily linear. Rather, problem solving is a recursive process
whereby you must continually go back and forth between steps, and repeat some
steps. This can best be viewed as a problem-solving cycle (illustrated in Figure 4.5)
whereby each process can feed into another process through feedback and
correction.
Figure 4.5: The problem-solving cycle

Whenever we are faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can
be developed using the six steps, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: The six steps in problem solving and decision making
These steps can each be broken down into smaller steps to better enable you to
carry out the problem-solving process. We will look further into each step in the
following subsections.
4.4.1 Explore the Problem

This is the first step in the process of effective problem solving. The problem is
investigated and broken down into sub-problems; the terms are defined and the
nature of the problem is determined. Some research should be done on whether
the problem has been encountered in the past, and if so, how it was resolved, if at
all.

Obviously, the nature of the problem will determine how much time is spent on
problem exploration. Simple problems may not need extensive exploration while
complex problems may require extensive exploration. Compare, for example, the
amount of exploration needed to determine why a little bulb is not working in
your house and why a car is not working properly. Problem exploration may
involve some steps which include:
(a) Problem Statement
(i) What is the problem?
 Is the problem multi-faceted? If so, what are its various facets or

aspects?
 If the problem was passed on to you from someone else (another

individual or another department, for example), it might be useful
to have a statement stating the problem as was given to you and
another statement stating the problem in your own words.
 In any problem definition or statement, it is useful to state what the

problem is not. By doing this, you will have a clearer idea of what
it is.
(ii) Restate it differently.
 Restate the problem in a completely different way.
 Do this several different times.
 This helps to separate the real problem from our verbal

representations of it.
(iii) Make a broad statement about the problem.
 State the problem in abstract terms, perhaps even with a

philosophical slant. Often, how a problem is worded reflects a
specific instance of a broader issue. By restating the problem in
more general terms, one is able to determine if this is so.
 Using general statements allows the issues surrounding the

problem to be argued from different perspectives; thereby
suggesting solutions that would not otherwise be considered.

(b) Problem Clarification
(i) What are the key terms of the problem?
 Use words with similar meanings.
 Define the terms recursively, making them more general or more

specific, until the problem is articulated as best as can be.
 With this technique, the problem is broken down into its attributes,
components and general features, so that possible solutions can be
more readily apparent.
 Anything that is ambiguous or uncertain about the problem must

be clarified. It is not uncommon that problem statements originally
written are vague and fuzzy, and need to be fine-tuned.
(ii) What are the assumptions made about the problem? Under what
circumstances would a solution work?
 This step involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can
be identified. The listing must be impartial, without prejudice or
judgement.
 It is important to list the obvious assumptions because often it is

those that later turn out to be alterable.
 Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.
(iii) Obtain further information about the problem.
 Get ideas for solving the problem by researching how similar

problems were approached or solved in the past.
 Often, you may discover alternative solutions used previously to

solve very similar problems faced at present.
(c) Explanation of the Problem
(i) Brainstorm with others the issues surrounding the problem.
 Articulate the problem carefully and listen to your own

explanation; then, try to visualise how someone else may see the
problem.

 Discussion may help you find a solution from someone else who
has encountered a similar problem or has a different perspective.
 Generally, when discussing a problem or idea, listen to yourself as

well as to others you talk to.
(ii) View the problem from different perspectives.
 Would your problem look different to different people? How

would the issue you consider a problem look like when viewed
from a different perspective?
 To get the best perspective, the problem should be looked at from

the points of view of those who cause it, those who suffer from it,
those who have to fix it, those who have to pay for it, etc.
(iii) Ask a series of clarifying „Whys?‰
 Asking „Why?‰ can serve a purpose similar to that of broadening

the definition of the problem, which can lead to new ways of
looking at the problem and at possible solutions.
 You can also ask yourself if the problem is a symptom or result of

another problem. For example, at first glance, the production of
low-quality cars appears to be a problem of quality control. A
deeper analysis, however, may reveal it to be a symptom of a bigger
underlying problem, such as poor management, sloppy work
habits, unreliable parts and materials, old machinery, bad
maintenance and so on.
(d) Put the Problem in Context
(i) What is the history and historical context of the problem?
 It helps to know the history of a problem. By knowing what has

worked and not worked before, you can concentrate your efforts on
solutions that are more likely to succeed.
 Even if the problem appears to be the same, the context in which

the solution worked (or not worked) previously will put a different
spin to the solution now.

(ii) What is the problem environment?
 What are the contexts surrounding the problem?
 What factors contribute to the cause of the problem and cause it to

continue being a problem?
 By understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors, you will

be able to take steps to prevent a problem from recurring.
(iii) What are the circumstances affecting the problem?
 Is the problem affected by specific conditions?
 Would different conditions or circumstances worsen the problem

or reduce it?
 Would removing the conditions or circumstances eliminate the

problem?
(iv) What are the constraints?
 Constraints are the limitations imposed or the requirements that

must be observed in solving the problem. They are part of the
solution framework that must be kept in mind. It is therefore
important to identify the constraints.
 Examples of constraints are legal obligations, contractual

requirements, environmental concerns, physical circumstances,
financial and budgetary considerations, factors beyond your
control and so on.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Problems constrained by budgetary or legal realities are constantly
encountered by governments and large industries. Can you think of a
few examples from real life? Can you find one or two examples in the
newspapers?

4.4.2 Establish Your Goals

Now, let us look at the second step of problem solving ă goal setting.
(a) What Goals would you Consider Ideal?
(i) Very often, instead of considering what an ideal solution to a problem

would be, we simply settle for a quick solution.
(ii) We may reduce our expectation for practical reasons like the
constraints discussed above but we need not do this until we have
envisioned the ideal scenario.
(iii) Sometimes the ideal scenario, after discussion and analysis, may seem
more achievable than previously thought.
(b) Establish Realistic and Practical Goals
(i) In order for goals to be measured, they must be clear, definite and
precise. A list of such goals can be used to monitor the progress of
problem-solving attempts.
(ii) Setting up goals gives direction to problem-solving tasks and gives the
problem-solver an objective to aim for.
(iii) The goals must be realistic, otherwise achieving the goals will seem an
insurmountable task.
(iv) Try to be as specific as possible in describing your goal; do not hesitate

if your goals remain vague or unquantifiable.
4.4.3 Generate Ideas

For problems to be solved, we need to generate ideas to look for possible solutions.
The following will give you ideas on how to find possible solutions.
Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions
(a) Read, research, think, ask questions and discuss.
 Start by gathering information about your problem, and this includes

reading, discussing, brainstorming, asking questions and seeking
opinions. Be curious, look for ideas and learn as much as you can about
the problem.

(b) Use idea generation techniques such as brainstorming, forced relationships,

random stimulation and so on (these will be discussed in detail in the next
topic).
 Generate as many ideas of all kinds as possible. This will give you a vast
pool of ideas from which you can choose, adapt or stimulate other ideas.
(c) Allow time for ideas to develop during various stages of idea generation.
 The major cycle of creativity has several stages, namely:
 Preparation: Initial thought, research, study, work;
 Incubation: Time to let the unconscious work;
 Insight: The flash of recognition of a solution path, also called the

eureka experience or the eureka moment;
 Implementation: Working out the solution; and
 Evaluation.
4.4.4 Select Your Ideas

Now, based on the ideas you have found, evaluate and choose the best solution.
(a) Evaluate the Possible Solutions for Likelihood of Success
(i) Evaluate the ideas and possible solutions that you have collected so far.
(ii) Set up another possible solution that can be implemented („Plan B‰) in
case your main plan does not work.
(iii) Your evaluation will involve finding the solution that will be the most
effective (works best), efficient (costs the least, in terms of money, time,
etc), and has the fewest side effects.
(iv) Establish a ranking order for the possible solutions.
(b) Choose the Solution(s)
(i) Select one or more solutions to try.
 From the solutions ranked near the top of your evaluation list,
choose one or more to try. (The solution chosen for implementation
is not always, or even necessarily, the very top-ranked one).

(ii) Allow others to see and criticise your selected solution and to suggest
improvements or alternatives.
 It is important to let others criticise and evaluate your solution

because you will then have a chance to improve it.
 Do not let criticisms affect your confidence in ideas you believe are
good, but also do not be blind to criticisms that legitimately point
out your weaknesses. Always be willing to incorporate new ideas.
4.4.5 Implement Your Action Plan

Once you have selected a solution, you can implement the action plan. However,
it is best for you to try out the solution and make necessary changes before the
actual implementation.
(a) Try Out the Solution(s)

Experiment with the idea; test it on something closely resembling the real-
life scenario you are facing. This is especially vital in solutions that may affect
peopleÊs health or life.
(b) Make Adjustments or Changes as Needed During Implementation
(i) Always remain flexible in this application phase. Practically every

solution needs some modification when put into effect.
(ii) Remember that the goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the
solution; donÊt expect that your solution will be exactly as you
originally proposed.
4.4.6 Evaluate and Follow Up

Now, after you have completed all the earlier steps in problem solving, it is time
for you to evaluate whether or not the steps that you have taken are effective.
(a) Investigate Whether the Solution(s) Worked and to What Extent
(i) Do you require modifications? Do other solutions need to be tested? Is

a different approach needed?
(ii) One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of
evaluation of the implemented solution. The solution may not have
worked or not worked completely or it may have caused other
problems in the process.

(b) Do Not Deal in Absolutes (Success or Failure Only)
(i) Remember that many solutions are better described as partially

successful or unsuccessful, rather than a total success or failure.
(ii) In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all.
Next, let us learn about a popular mechanism in exploring a problem.
4.5 ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and frequently employed technique that
assists individuals in finding out why the particular problem happened in the first
place. Basically, its main aim is to investigate the origin of a problem which is
carried out using a specific set of steps together with associated tools. By
identifying the main cause of the problem, you can determine what happened,
why it happened and also find out the steps that should be taken to avoid its
recurrence in the future.
In general, RCA works on the principle that systems and events are interrelated.
According to this technique, a symptom can be traced back right to the initial
action that had actually triggered the cascade of events leading to the current
problem. The three basics types of causes that are usually looked at include:
(a) Physical causes ă tangible, material items that failed in certain ways.
(b) Human causes ă a mistake committed by an individual, or a certain task that

was not carried out accordingly by an individual.
(c) Organisational causes ă a faulty system, process, or policy that people

employ to make decisions.
RCA has been found to be effective in investigating the patterns of negative effects,
identifying hidden flaws in a particular system, and also uncovering specific
actions that have contributed to the problem. Thus RCA can be applied to
practically all types of problems as long as one is determined to go far in his or her
investigation with a good judgment and common sense. The steps involved in the
RCA process include:
(a) Defining the problem ă in this step you are to observe what is happening and
at the same time look out for specific symptoms.

(b) Collection of data ă this step is important to prove that the problem exists, or
that the problem has been there for a period of time and has created a
particular impact. In this step, assistance from individuals who understand
the situation and are most familiar with the problem will help you in tackling
the problem better. CATWOE is a useful tool that can be employed at this
stage in order for you to look at the problem from different perspectives
[the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the solutions, the
Transformation process affected, the World view, the process Owner, and
Environmental constraints].
(c) Identification of possible causal factors ă this stage allows you to recognise
the sequence of events that led to the problem, the conditions that permitted
the problem to occur and the other problems that surrounded the occurrence
of the main problem. The most important fact is that one should always look
for as many causal factors as possible.
(d) Identification of the root cause(s) ă this step is carried out to find out the
reason behind the existence of the causal factor and the occurrence of the
problem.
(e) Recommendation and implementation of solutions ă in this final step, you

are supposed to come up with ideas to prevent the problem from occurring
again, planning the implementation of a solution by the assigned
individuals, and identifying the risks that may arise with the implementation
of the chosen solution.
You are encouraged to plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution in order
for potential failures to be spotted even before they occur using tools such as
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Impact Analysis and Kaizen.
4.6 CONSTRAINTS
According to Dörner & Wearing (1995) and Funke (1991) some of the constraints
faced in solving difficult problems include:
(a) Lack of clarity of the situation ă in this case, one may face difficulty in either
initiating or continuing in the problem solving.
(b) Polytely ă this involves complex problem-solving characterised by the

presence of several goals or endings.
(c) Complexity ă problems with a large number of items, interrelations and

decisions.

(d) Dynamics ă problems that cannot be solved due the insufficient time frame
provided. In certain cases, the exact time required to solve the problem is
unpredictable.
Finally, we will explore the term solution again and relook at planning of the
solution.
4.7 WHAT IS A SOLUTION?

In everyday life, our understanding of solving a problem is by eliminating the
problem. This is just one approach to solving problems. There are problems,
however, that cannot simply be eliminated. These include things like waste, wear
and tear, or the occurrence of illness. Often, such „problems‰ are related to the
laws of nature and are therefore an integral part of our existence. When faced with
such problems, our main task is to make them less disruptive to the process of
reaching our goals. For this purpose, Harris, R. (1998) defines „solution‰ as the
management of a problem that successfully meets the goals established for treating
that problem. Harris goes on to clarify that sometimes the goal will be to eliminate
the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects of the
problem. As such, it is vital to realise that your goal as a problem solver will be
shaped by various factors that include your ambitiousness, resources, values and
expectations, as well as the possibilities inherent in the problem itself.
Problems can be solved by applying two basic approaches:
(a) Addressing the cause or source of the problem; and
(b) Addressing the effects or symptoms of the problem.
Harris conveniently calls these the „stop it‰ and the „mop it‰ approaches
respectively. Each of these approaches has three basic forms.
4.7.1 The “Stop It” Approach

When we use the stop-it approach, we tackle the problem in such a way that, for
all intents and purposes, the problem no longer exists. There are three ways in
which the problem may be tackled:
 Prevent the problem
 Eliminate the problem
 Reduce the problem

(a) Prevent the Problem
(i) Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) in the first place is
probably the ideal solution.
(ii) This is often done by approaching any task with the desire for utmost
quality, regardless of cost or time.
(iii) The prevention approach is often difficult to apply because it requires

predictive foresight (the ability to foresee a problem before it occurs).
(iv) However, most problems appear unexpectedly.
(v) Similarly, by preventing misunderstandings, the need for lots of

damage control and emotional healing can be avoided.
(b) Eliminate the Problem
(i) An excellent way of dealing with a problem is to eliminate it.
(ii) There is no recurrence of the problem if elimination is properly done.
(iii) You should always consider elimination solutions as possible

solutions.
(iv) Elimination solutions, however may not always be feasible. For

example, the AIDS problem might be solved by eliminating unwanted
social behaviours, such as sexual practices and drug use. Parties with
vested interests would expectedly resist the implementation of such a
solution. Therefore, the mop-it approach is the usual approach taken to
solve the AIDS problem.
(c) Reduce the Problem
(i) There are problems, such as garbage production, that cannot be

eliminated entirely. When faced with such a situation, reducing the
problem can prove to be highly effective.
(ii) We can lessen the impact of practically any problem by reducing its
size. A real-life example is the current approach to the flow of illegal
drugs into many countries. Most governments use reduction strategies
to approach the illegal drug problem. The flow of drugs cannot be
eliminated as long as demand continues, so law enforcement agencies
work to reduce as much as possible the routes of entry, the middlemen
dealing the drugs on the street and the number of end-users.

4.7.2 The “Mop It” Approach

A mop it approach focuses on the effects of a problem rather than on the problem
itself. There are three forms of the mop it approach:
 Treat the problem
 Redirect the problem
 Tolerate the problem
(a) Treat the Problem
(i) In this form, the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated.
(ii) Note, however, that by itself, a „treat it‰ solution is not going to be
nearly as effective as some form of „stop it‰ solution.
(b) Redirect the Problem
(i) In this approach, the problem is deflected, either physically by moving

it to another locality (a common solution in garbage problems) or by
postponing its solution by redefining it as not a problem.
(ii) Remember that a problem is a problem only when someone defines it

as such.
(c) Tolerate the Problem

In this form, the effects of the problem are tolerated. It is debatable whether
this can be considered a form of „problem solving‰ but for the sake of
completion, we will leave it in the list. Basically, in this scenario, the effects
are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.
The best approach is, of course, the stop-it approach. However, this is not always
possible in all cases, and it may be that the only solution to a problem at hand is
the mop-it one. Nevertheless, an effective problem-solver will always consider
stop-it solutions before exploring mop-it alternatives. It is also important that
problems be solved by treating the root (or underlying) causes rather than merely
addressing the symptoms.

4.8 IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

It is believed that „the best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas‰. Thus,
identifying possible solutions to a particular problem is also known as looking out
for „optional solution‰ due to the fact that the main objective is to bring to an end
the list of all possible alternatives to the particular problem. A wide range of
conceivable solutions can be generated using a variety of creative techniques.
This works best where a team is concerned. Every team member should contribute
one or more suggestions in order for all ideas to be taken into account. This is
important because when all viewpoints are thoroughly considered by the team,
members have a sense of direct ownership in the decision making process.
Eventually, this can assist the team in coming up with a consensus later in the
decision making process.
4.9 PLANNING THE SOLUTION

It is often vital to plan the solution before you can proceed to solve it or choose the
most suitable tool for it.
Planning your solution can be approached in the following way:
(a) Defining four or five key causes of the problem, followed by identifying the
intervention needed to resolve them.
(b) There may be several alternatives, with the best one depending on the cost,
effectiveness and forces that favour or impede it.
(c) You can determine the best approach in the following manner:
(i) Write down clearly what you expect your results to be.
(ii) Evaluate possible alternatives. Are the alternatives doable, practical

and feasible? The following techniques are helpful:
 Generate ideas by brainstorming.
 Identify how forces can affect the viability of alternatives by using

the force field analysis.

 Identify and explore the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and

Threats of the alternative solutions using the SWOT analysis.
 Benchmark your processes with another similar organisation and

look for learning opportunities.
(iii) Follow the analysis process to resolve the most important causes of the
problem:
 Compare the effectiveness and viability of the alternative solutions

by using the prioritization matrix.
 For the strategies selected, use the hierarchical flow chart to

determine which activities are the major focus, and what the
chronological order of their execution is.
(iv) As part of your implementation plan, use the programme matrix to

define your goals and allocate the resources (human, material,
financial, time) that you need.
These techniques are explored again in later topics.
4.10 TAKING RESPONSIBILITY

Finally, it is crucial to take responsibility of a problem should we want to bring
about constructive change to the situation. When we deflect ownership and blame
only external circumstances for the problems we face, it can lead to a feeling of
helplessness which will undermine our capability to find a way out of the problem.
„External locus of control‰ refers to a person who believes that his problems are
caused and determined by external stimulus, which are beyond their own personal
control and hence there is nothing he or she can do to change a situation. This
mindset can be unhealthy in the context of positive thinking.
We should not succumb to defeat with the belief that forces outside of ourselves
affect our ability to succeed.

 A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens

with what we want or expect to have happened.
 A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.
 Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution, preferably

in a novel way.
 Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages in

problem solving are:
 Recognising and defining a problem;
 Finding possible solutions;
 Selecting the best solution; and
 Implementing the solution.
 Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem exists or

whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital to realise that goals
change with time and so do the problems you face.
 Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed by

following these steps:
 Problem Exploration;
 Goal Establishment;
 Idea Generation;
 Idea Selection;
 Implementation; and
 Evaluation or Follow Up.

 Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;
 Defining the problem;
 Collection of data;
 Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and
 Recommendation and implementation of solutions.
 Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polytely,

complexity and dynamics.
 Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or

tackling its symptoms or effects.
 It is important to plan the solution for the problem before proceeding to the
actual process of solving it.
Closed-ended problems Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

External Locus of Control „Stop It‰ Approach
„Mop It‰ Approach SWOT Analysis
Open-ended problems Thinking out of the box
Problem-solving cycle
1. Based on your understanding, explain what constitutes a problem.
2. A problem can be seen as both an opportunity for improvement and a

yardstick showing the difference between your current state and your ideal
state. Can you elaborate on both of these states?

3. Elaborate on the process of problem solving.
4. Explain briefly the steps involved in implementing the solution to a problem.
5. Problem solving centres on thinking about ideal states that one would like to
achieve. How is goal setting useful in enhancing the problem-solving
process?
6. Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can be

developed by following these steps:
(a) Problem Exploration
(b) Goal Establishment
(c) Idea Generation
(d) Idea Selection
(e) Implementation
(f) Evaluation or Follow Up
Briefly explain the processes involved in each of these steps.
7. What are the three types of causes that are usually looked at in the Root
Cause Analysis (RCA) technique?
8. List the common constraints faced in difficult problems.
9. There are two basic approaches to solving problems:
(a) Where the cause or source of the problem is attacked;
(b) Where the effects or symptoms of the problem are attacked.
Can you elaborate on these approaches?
10. Describe briefly how to use the SWOT Analysis approach in solution
planning.

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Society for Engineering Education. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

Topic  Development
of Problem
5 Solving
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain what is meant by strategic development in problem solving;
2. Describe representational development in problem solving;
3. Explain the use of external representations as tools for problem
solving;
4. Describe the role of language and planning in problem solving;
5. Identify the various specialised representations employed in
problem solving;
6. Explain the role of interaction in problem solving;
7. Describe the importance of self-monitoring in problem solving; and
8. Compare and contrast problem-solving abilities between children
and adolescents.
 INTRODUCTION
Georgie (a two-year old) wants to throw rocks out of the kitchen window. The
lawnmower is outside. Dad says that Georgie canÊt throw rocks out of the window
because he might break the lawnmower with the rocks. Georgie says „IÊve got an
idea.‰ He goes outside, brings in some green peaches that he had been playing
with, and says: „They wonÊt break the lawnmower‰.
(Waters, 1989, p. 7)

TOPIC 5 DEVELOPMENT OF PROBLEM SOLVING  93
The example above as quoted from Sternberg, R. J. (1998), explains the

fundamental nature of problem solving where you have a goal, an obstacle and
achievement of the goal. Problem solving in social contexts have indeed become
an important field of interest of cognitive psychologists in the recent years. An
increase in the amount of research on the way children think about other
individualÊs reasoning (Wellman, 1990; Feinman, 1992; Siegler, 1993), on how
children solve problems together (Brown et al., 1989; Resnick et al., 1991) and how
social relationships impact thinking development (Azmitia & Perlmuter, 1989;
Rogoff, 1990). In this topic, three different aspects of the development of
problem solving will be discussed ă formation strategies, representation and
self-regulation.
5.1 THE DEVELOPEMENT OF PROBLEM

SOLVING
We will now focus on three aspects of the development of problem solving:
(a) Formation of strategies;
(b) Representation; and
(c) Self-regulation.
It is found that different aspects are more significant at different stages of life, as
Table 5.1: Significant Stage in Life for the Three Aspects in the Development of
Problem Solving
Aspect Significant Stage in Life

Formation strategies Plays a vital role from infancy (birth to
12 months)
Employment of varied representations Shows more prominence during
(such as language, maps and models) toddlerhood (one through three years)
Cognitive self-regulation Becomes more important during the
pre-school years (three to five years) as
children have more varied strategies and
representations from which to select and
greater cognitive resources to dedicate to
planning, self-monitoring, and other
regulatory processes.

94  TOPIC 5 DEVELOPMENT OF PROBLEM SOLVING
5.1.1 Strategic Development

Problem-solving strategies can be defined as procedures that overcome obstacles
and achieve goals. According to researchers, such strategies exist since birth
(Butterworth & Hopkins, 1988; Willats, 1990). This can be observed when young
babies communicate their desires to draw caregivers closer to obtain comfort and
food. Nevertheless, the above observation may be difficult to be told in the absence
of language or other behavioural criteria, whether their actions imply intention to
achieve goals or the actions are merely carried out without any intentions.
One of the most promising evidence for representation of goals in the first six
months of life is illustrated in the experiment carried out by Rovee-Collier (1987).
In her experiment (Figure 5.1), infants learned very quickly that the act of kicking
made the mobile (attached to their leg by a string) move in different ways. Various
ways of evaluating the infantsÊ thinking abilities included varying the
characteristics of the mobile as well as the setting in which the mobile was
presented, and the amount of time between the sessions.
Figure 5.1: Rovee-CollierÊs experiment

Source: http://psycnet.apa.org
The study carried out by Mast et al. (1980) revealed that infants as young as
three months maintain a representation of a reinforcement contingency for up to
24 hours, and at the same time become emotionally disturbed when they could
only obtain a poor estimation of their original goal. In a separate study, Tronick
(1989) reported that the behaviours of infants are a kind of problem solving
strategy, and that the degree to which they engage in them indicate how successful
they are likely to be. Case (1985) suggested that the ability to represent how an
action meets a goal affects attainment of novel strategies. Although when there is
a model to copy and the actions are within the infantsÊ range of tasks, infants are
able to use other individuals, especially their mothers, to help them as tools in
problem solving (Papousek & Papousek, 1987). This is in line with the findings of

Rogoff et al. (1992) where infants exhibited strategies to obtain the help of adults
in manipulating objects in ways that would have been impossible for the infants
themselves to do. Infants have the ability to use simple forms of means-end
analysis in the second half of the first year as reported by Wilats (1989).
It has been found that the development of problem-solving strategies follows

marked different courses when children have extensive experience with a task
than when they do not. Tasks or problems in which children have little experience
are usually accomplished by employing a single strategy. On the other hand,
multiple strategies are used in tasks in which children have considerable experience.
Inhelder & Piaget (1958) employed the balance scale model as a means of
examining formal operation reasoning (Figure 5.2). One reason for the widespread
interest in balance scales is the simple, hierarchically related sequence of rules
through which children of different ages progress on the task (Siegler, 1976),
Figure 5.2: The balance scale ă the problem shown is a distance problem, with equal
numbers of weights placed at different distances from the fulcrum
Source: Inhelder & Piaget, 1958
Table 5.2: Rules Employed by Children at Different Ages on the Balancing of the Scale
Rule Description
No rule used The majority of the 3-year-olds do not employ any systematic rule; they
either guess or switch frequently among alternative approaches.
I A few 3-year-olds and more 4-year-olds employ a partially systematic
approach (Richard & Siegler, 1981).
More advanced 4-year-olds and a majority of 5-year-olds employ a
consistently systematic approach (Siegler, 1976).
II Most 8 or 9-year-old children employ more sophisticated rules that take
into account of the weight on each side as well as the distance from the
fulcrum (Siegler, 1976).
III An approach whereby only the distance is considered when the weight
on both the sides is equal.
IV An approach whereby understanding of the relative weight and distance
of both the weights from the fulcrum has been achieved.

In 1992, Trudge instructed children to work:
(a) Alone;
(b) With a partner who initially used a same rule; and
He concluded that:
(a) In the absence of feedback, pairs of beginners do not usually move to a more
advanced level.
(b) In the absence of feedback, the only children who make progress are
beginners that are paired with relative experts.
(c) When one partner is more expert than the other one, the highest rule
achieved is that of the more advanced partner.
(Miller & Brownel, 1975; Mugny & Doise, 1978; Mackie, 1983; Russell et al.,
1990; Radziszewska, 1993).
A majority of the studies involving collaborative problem solving did not furnish
children with feedback on the correct answer. Generally, feedback provides a basis
for choosing among alternative perspectives and also provides an attractive
method for children to adopt an approach without seeming to „give in‰ to the child
or children who generated it. Ellis et al. (1993) worked on the beneficial effects of
collaboration in combination with feedback that stressed on childrenÊs
comparisons of the relative sizes of decimal fractions. These researchers observed
that:
(a) About 50% of the children who worked with a partner and obtained feedback
constantly performed the post-test correctly.
(b) Less than 25% of those who worked on their own and received feedback did
similarly well.
(c) None of the children (either working alone or with a partner) who did not
receive feedback fared well.
Thus, students who worked with a partner and received feedback, performed best.
This translates to the fact that feedback may be critical both for the generation of
good ideas and their adoption. Ellis et al. (1993) also reported that children who
worked with a partner who employed the correct rule on both occasions were
expected to adopt the correct rule on their own during the post-test as compared
to those with a partner who used the correct rule only at a later opportunity (67%
versus 15%). This is due to the fact that partners who employed the correct rules
on both instances exhibited higher convincing arguments for it; whereas children

who used the correct rule only during the later occasion and also debated in favour
of it, however appeared less expressive and convincing in motivating the less
expert partner to adopt it. This indicates that feedback is not compulsory for
beginners to adopt a new, superior approach to solving mathematical problems.
In addition, it also points out that either external evidence of the validity of the
better approach (provided by feedback) or convincing arguments (made by
children who employed the correct rule on both occasions) appear important for
good strategies to constantly win out.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Carry out a search in the internet on the ability of infants to employ

simple forms of means-ends analysis in the second half of the first year.
Briefly explain this phenomenon.
5.1.2 Representational Development

A majority of the progress in problem solving among children after the first year
arises from improving ability to internally represent goals, actions, objects and
events. Improvement in representational skills allows toddlers to employ a wider
range of the resources of the social world. Generally, they come up with long-term
representations of the methods they have observed of other individualsÊ problem
solving. Subsequently, they employ these methods themselves later in life. In
addition, improved language ability, both expressive and receptive, also
contributes to the development of problem solving in this particular age group. It
is a rather surprising fact indeed that infants are able to alert their caretakers
regarding the problems they are facing and hope to solve, but the language skills
of toddlers provide them the opportunity to accurately indicate what they want to
achieve and why exactly they are unable to complete it themselves.
As they come closer to completing their first year of life, children show the ability
to walk or crawl to rooms or places that they cannot see at the beginning of their
journey, in order to get hold of toys or things that they are not able to see at the
beginning (Benson et al., 1989). Subsequently, by 18 months, they start taking steps
that help them maintain representations that otherwise may become inaccessible.
Allowing toddlers to remember goal-directed actions modelled by adults or peers
is one part of how increasing representation skills contribute to development of
problem solving (Meltzoff, 1985; Hannah & Meltzoff, 1993). Furthermore,
increasingly specific and durable representations permit toddlers to take on the
path to specific goals within an activity, rather than focusing on the activity as a
whole. It was found that positive affective reactions such as smiles and abrupt

movement of hands and arms to accomplishment of the tasks increased with age.
It appears that part of development of problem solving in the range of one and
three years of age include representing specific goals more prominently in
memory, and following the goals more single-mindedly.
The ability in solving problem improves as children become able to express

themselves using language in various circumstances and events. This is due to the
fact that language is a medium for transferring lessons gained on past encountered
problems to novel ones. This includes the improved understanding among
toddlers on what is being said to them by others. It has been found that children
as young as two years of age are already able to transfer strategies to new problems
similar to older ones and when children are reminded that the problems are similar
in nature (Crisafi & Brown, 1986).
Besides internal representations, toddlers also exhibit increasing ability to form

external representations as tools for solving problems. DeLoache (1987) reported
that young childrenÊs understanding of the correspondence between a scale model
and a larger space is dependent upon the degree of physical similarity between
both the spaces. These researchers carried out an experiment where children
between 2.5 and 3.5 years old observed as a miniature toy was hidden in a
particular location in a scale model of the room. Subsequently, they were asked to
find the similar toy in the actual room itself. Overall, the ability of children in
locating the toy increased as the degree of similarity between the scale model and
the room increased, even though younger children required a higher degree of
similarity to understand the model-room relationship as compared to older
children. They concluded that the level of similarity between the objects within the
two spaces and overall size of both spaces had profound effects on the childrenÊs
performance. Thus similarity may affect accessibility whereby the probability that
childrenÊs representation of one space will provide access to their representation
of the other space. Hence, toddlers can use scale models as tools for solving
problems, but have an affinity to confuse the representation as an object in its own
right with its role as symbol of another situation.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
In the experiment carried out by DeLoache (1987), the 2.5-year-olds
showed difficulties in translating between the model and the room. What
could be the source of young childrenÊs difficulty with the scale model?
Suggest other tools that may be easier to be used than the scale model as
a representation of another object.

The term „mental model‰ is used to refer to the representation of a body of

knowledge in long-term memory, which may have the same sort of structure as
the models used in reasoning. Psychologists have investigated mental models of
such physical systems as hand-held calculators, the solar system, and the flow of
electricity (Gentner and Stevens, 1983). They have studied how children develop
such models (Halford, 1993), how to design artefacts and computer systems for
which it is easy to acquire models (Ehrlich, 1996), and how models of one domain
may serve as an analogy for another domain. According to Halford (1993), the
central characteristic of mental models is that the model must accurately represent
the structure of the problem. On the other hand, the success of the mental model
is dependent upon whether the critical structural features of problems are
encoded. Children tend to form analogies in which the system of relations within
the target domain resembles the system of relations within the base. It is not
necessary for the objects within each domain to have any particular similarities. In
fact, the key to a good analogy is the similarity of the corresponding relations in
the two situations. The mental model for the classic analogy „Heat flow is like
water flow‰ stresses the parallels between the structural relations among variables
that affect the two types of flows (Gentner, 1989) (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Structural correspondences in the water/heat flow analogy

Adapted from: Gentner, 1989

Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations that are acquired
in the first two years of the childÊs life, specialised representations are acquired
much later in life. In addition, the acquisition of specialised representations has a
tendency to be less universal and more variable in timing than acquisition of the
broadly used ones. Speech, mental imagery and spatial representations observed
in all children are the results of the interaction between biological maturation and
general experience. On the other hand, the ability of a child to learn how to write;
to draw maps and diagrams; to understand graphs and number lines; to use
conventional measurement devices; and to perform controlled scientific
experiments are dependent upon the childÊs particular experiences.
Maps are one important specialised and often used representation. The functions
of maps include:
(a) A method of representing the locations and boundaries of political entities

such as cities, states and nations, or road systems.
(b) A representation of unperceivable aspects of the universe in perceivable

form.
(Liben & Downs, 1989)
A majority of children are able to understand simple maps drawn by other

individuals by the age of 5, and utilise these maps as a tool for finding objects
(Bluestone & Acredolo, 1979; Uttal & Wellman, 1989). As their age increases, their
ability for drawing maps and including important topological relations among the
landmarks, and the adoption of a consistent perspective come even later (Piaget &
Inhelder, 1956). Besides maps, other types of specialised representations that are
used by older children include rulers, scales, clocks, calendars and other cultural
artefacts. It was found that the main difficulty encountered by children with the
various measurement devices is not in using them but knowing how and when to
use them. In conclusion, measurement tools and other specialised representations
significantly increase childrenÊs potential in problem solving. However, their
usefulness naturally depends on the childÊs understanding and comprehension
ability.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
A group of children were instructed to give two turtles identical amounts

of food. They divided the food by giving one piece to one turtle, the next
piece to the other turtle, and so on. Discuss the strategy that was
employed by the children in fulfilling the objective of the experiment. As
an adult, how will you guide the children in improvising on the strategy
employed?
According to Brown et al. (1989), the main difference between school and „real-
world‰ problems is the frequent difficulty in school in identifying what exactly the
problem is. Children often reinterpret problems in ways that make sense to them
rather than solving the problem as originally presented. When children were
presented with a hypothesis that seemed intuitively unlikely, they circumvented
the suggestion that they test the hypothesis and instead produced a more
intuitively likely hypothesis and concentrated on collecting confirmatory evidence
for it. On the other hand, adults tested the hypothesis that was suggested,
regardless of its initial plausibility, and usually discovered that the seemingly
unlikely hypothesis was in actual fact correct. Hence, part of development of
problem solving among older children involves accepting goals set by the social
environment when the task calls for it (Klahr et al., 1993).
ACTIVITY 5.2
Search information about the goal sketch hypothesis proposed by Siegler

& Jenkins (1989) where children were able to make a discovery without
any trial and error. Discuss your findings with your coursemates.

5.1.3 Self-regulation
The ability of children in effectively regulating their thinking activities becomes
increasingly central to their problem solving as they attain both increasing
numbers of strategies and representational capacities. One of the key self-
regulatory processes is planning, as it can be employed in many different
circumstances to prevent potentially costly errors. The Tower of Hanoi puzzle was
invented by the French mathematician Edouard Lucas in 1883 where a child is
presented with a tower of five disks, initially stacked in increasing size on one of
three pegs. The main objective is to transfer the entire tower to one of the other
pegs (the rightmost one in Figure 5.4), moving only one disk at a time, never a
larger one onto a smaller and using the minimum number of steps as possible.
Knowing which first move is correct, nevertheless, demands working through the
problem from starting to the end. Hence, solving such a problem in a continuous
manner requires planning the entire sequence of events before carrying out any of
them.
Figure 5.4: The Tower of Hanoi

Source: http://www.labspaces.net
Most of the problem solving activities carried out by children in their day-to-day
lives take place with adults, rather than on their own. In these circumstances,
adults frequently plan the activities in such a way that remove the burden of
planning from the children, thus benefiting them. The term used to describe what
has been carried out by an adult to facilitate problem solving among children is
called „scaffolding‰ which involves the utilisation of specific strategies focused at
simultaneously allowing children to participate, maintaining their interest and at
the same time increasing their competence. (Wood et al., 1976). In general, adults
usually carry out the most crucial and difficult part of the tasks such as dividing
the tasks into sub-goals, coming up with the plans for achieving them and keeping
track of the success of different strategies whereas children are allowed to carry

out the parts of the task they can complete successfully (Wertsch, 1978). As the
child exhibits increasing skill on the particular task, the adult slowly lets go until
the child is carrying out the task independently both the actions and the self-
regulatory aspects of the task. Studies carried out have indicated that scaffolding
is both an all-encompassing activity in the daily environment and that it assists
children to learn planning and other self-regulative skills. Adults frequently
provide preschoolers with scaffolded instruction and modify the type of
instruction given according to the competence of the learner (Wertsch et al., 1980;
Rogoff et al., 1984; Gauvain, 1992). Moss (1992) found that parents, particularly
mothers, provide scaffolding where he observed three strategies:
(a) A mother instructs the child with strategies it would not otherwise know and
not able to actually manage unaided for some time.
(b) A mother encourages the child to keep using useful strategies that the child
has demonstrated.
(c) A mother persuades the child to not implement strategies they consider
developmentally immature.
In addition, Conner et al. (1997) found that fathers are as good as mothers at
scaffolding. They also found that children that have received scaffolding show
longer-term improvements in skills as well as immediate improvements.
Language plays an important role in regulating thinking activities and is used to

communicate to others as well as to direct childrenÊs problem solving. In general,
spontaneous self-directed speech appears in childrenÊs problem solving around
the age of 4 or 5. Prior to this age, children at times do talk to themselves, although,
self-directed speech is not coordinated with their problem-solving behaviour
(Luria, 1961). In contrast, older children also employ self-directed language to
regulate their thinking activity; however, theirs cannot be heard, unlike that of
preschoolers (Frauenglass & Diaz, 1985; Berk, 1986; Bivens & Berk, 1990). Children
usually talk to themselves while solving problems that are challenging but not
impossibly difficult (Berk & Garvin, 1984; Behrend et al., 1989). It happens most
often when children experience great difficulty in solving a problem or following
failure to solve a problem (Goodman, 1981). Self-directed speech plays a crucial
role in circumstances in which the childÊs problem is to resist a tempting, but non-
optimal, course of action. In other words, many problems are tough not because it
is difficult to identify what should be done but because it is difficult to prevent
oneself from employing a less desirable alternative path.

SELF-CHECK 5.3
Briefly discuss the reasons why self-directed speech may facilitate

problem solving.
When faced with several strategies in solving a problem, children use conscious,
explicit, metacognitive knowledge about problems they are presented, available
strategies and their own cognitive capacities (Flavell& Wellman, 1977). Generally,
strategies that worked in the past are also selected. As children grow up, they
become increasingly skilled at monitoring their plans and adjusting them
according to the circumstances (Gardner & Rogoff, 1990). In contrast, younger
children do not modify their plans according to the different instructions.
However, several researchers have reported the failure of school age children to
plan various tasks such as writing (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987) route planning
(Gauvain & Rogoff, 1989), instructing other children (Ellis & Rogoff, 1986) and
referential communication (Cosgrove & Patterson, 1977). Planning has both its
advantages and disadvantages, as shown Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Planning in Problem Solving
Advantages Disadvantages
Making accurate and direct solutions Time consuming and tedious.
possible.
Allows problem to be solved in a Does not directly bring goal attainment.
systematic manner.
Interaction with adults is one of the main factors that results in planning among
children. Hudson & Fivush (1991) found that children were more likely to plan
when they worked together with an adult as compared to when they worked on
their own. In addition, the experience of planning with adults also results in
more sophisticated planning when they later solve problems by themselves
(Radziszewska & Rogoff, 1988; Gauvain, 1992). On the other hand, experience with
peers and older children was found to be not as effective as experience with adults.
This may be due to the fact that adults discuss the strategies with the younger
children than peers, reminding them frequently about the goals of the task and
monitoring their progress more closely. Furthermore, adults are more sensitive in
modifying the type of help they provide according to the requirement of the child.
(Rogoff et al., 1984; Gauvain, 1992).

Blaye et al. (1991) reported that children working in pairs fared better in solving
problems as compared to peers who worked on their own, and performed better
on an individual post-test as well. This is because when children worked in pairs,
they realise the importance of dividing the problem into sub-goals, thus
channelling their thinking activity in fruitful directions. Nevertheless, children
below schooling age rarely collaborated successfully due to their difficulty in
thinking analytically about the other personÊs reasoning (Azmitia & Perlmutter,
1989; Perlmutter et al., 1989).
SELF-CHECK 5.4
„The effects of collaboration between young children who are beginners
and older children who are more expert tend to benefit the beginners less
than when they solved the problem with adults.‰ Discuss the above
statement.
Skilled problem solvers usually practise several self-monitoring activities

including questioning and elaborating their own knowledge, evaluating their
degree of understanding, and thinking of counter-examples and possible
generalisations (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching is a successful
example of this type of involvement and it emphasises four strategic activities
namely summarising, clarifying, questioning and anticipating future questions
(Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Brown & Palincsar, 1989).
SELF-CHECK 5.5
1. Discuss the rules employed by children of different ages on the

balancing of the scale.
2. State one benefit of feedback in collaborative problem solving.
3. Identify the factors which contribute to the success of mental

model.
4. State the functions of maps as a specialised representation.
5. What do you understand by the term „scaffolding‰?
6. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of planning in problem

solving.

 Problem-solving strategies can be defined as procedures that overcome

obstacles and achieve goals.
 Most of the studies involving collaborative problem solving have not furnished
children with feedback on the correct answers.
 The progress in problem solving among children after the first year arises from
the improved ability to internally represent goals, actions, objects and events.
 The ability to solve problems improves as children become able to express

themselves using language in various circumstances and events.
 Besides internal representations, toddlers also exhibit increasing ability to

external representations as tools for solving problems.
 Mental model refers to the representation of a body of knowledge in long-term

memory, which may have the same sort of structure as the models used in
reasoning.
 Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations that are
acquired in the first two years of the childrenÊs life, specialised representations
are acquired much later in life.
 Maps are one important specialised and often used representation.
 The main difference between school and „real-world‰ problems is the frequent
difficulty in school in identifying what exactly the problem is.
 The ability of children in effectively regulating their thinking activities become

increasingly central to their problem solving as they attain both increasing
numbers of strategies and representational capacities.
 Language plays an important role in regulating thinking, communicating with

others and directing the childÊs own problem solving.
 In solving their problems, children use conscious, explicit and metacognitive

knowledge about the problem as well as available strategies and their own
cognitive capacities.

 Effective planning requires the ability to formulate actions in advance, as well

as skill at monitoring and modifying plans; as circumstances and goals require.
 Regulation of cognitive activities is often accomplished through interaction

among people working together rather than through the efforts of a single
individual.
 Skilled problem solvers usually practise self-monitoring activities including

questioning and elaborating on their own knowledge; evaluating their degree
of understanding; and thinking of counterexamples and possible
generalisations.
Feedback Reciprocal teaching

Goal sketch hypothesis Representational development
Maps Scaffolding
Mental models Self-directed speech
Planning Self-monitoring
Problem solving Strategic development
1. State the three aspects of problem-solving development and the

corresponding significant stages in life.
2. Problem-solving strategies exist since birth. Explain this statement using the
Rovee-Collier experiment. In your explanation, illustrate what is meant by
representational skills.
3. The Tower of Hanoi design using a single peg and three pegs is used to create
toys for children of different age groups. Discuss the respective skill
development and the suitable age group for both toys.

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Topic  Problem-
Solving
6 Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe how problem solving can be conceptualised;
2. Describe the problem decomposition or subgoaling approach in
problem solving;
3. Explain the working backwards and hill climbing approach in
problem solving;
4. Describe the means-end analysis and forward chaining strategies in
problem solving;
5. Describe the other problem-solving methods such as use of analogy,
specialisation and generalisation; and
6. Explain the use of extreme cases method for problem solving.
 INTRODUCTION
In Topic 4, we have seen two different guidelines in solving a problem (refer sub-
topic 4.4). These guidelines are based on existing concepts. We will explore other
forms of conceptualisation before looking at a number of strategies in problem
solving. These strategies are meant for the most important step in the problem-
solving process; and concerns your action plan. This is an interesting topic that can
be very useful in your personal life as well.

TOPIC 6 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES  115
6.1 CONCEPTUALISATION IN PROBLEM

SOLVING
In general, most authors have conceptualised problem solving as a stepwise
process. Pólya (1957) identified four important steps in the method by which
problem solving should be done:
(a) Understanding the problem;
(b) Devising a plan;
(c) Carrying out the plan; and
(d) Looking back.
Subsequently, Hayes (1981) extended this conceptualisation by adding a specific

reference to representation and by further breaking down „looking back‰ into two
parts where one stressed on assessing the immediate problem-solving effort and
the second one on learning something that may be important in the future. Figure
6.1 illustrates these six steps.
Figure 6.1: Stepwise conceptions of problem solving (Hayes, 1981)

116  TOPIC 6 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
Bransford and Stein (1984) proposed another conceptualisation that is based on the
acronym below:
I : Identify the problem
D : Define and represent the problem
E : Explore possible strategies
A : Act on the strategies
L : Look back and evaluate the effects of your activities
However, many other authors have come up with comparable stepwise

conceptualisations of the problem-solving process which are variations of the
original proposal by Pólya (1954).
ACTIVITY 6.1
Make an Internet search and briefly explain George PólyaÊs list of mental
operations involved in problem solving called „PUPILS‰.
6.2 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Evidence suggests that there are many strategies that are specific to a particular
field. However, there are also some that can be effective in all fields as well. In
general, there appears to be a trade-off between range of applicability and power.
The more widely applicable a particular strategy is, the less field dependent it will
be. It is important to know strategies that can be employed to a certain advantage
across domains. In the following sub-topics, we will look into some of the
experiential methods that have been discovered by several researchers:
(a) Problem decomposition or subgoaling;
(b) Working backwards;
(c) Hill climbing;
(d) Means-end analysis;
(e) Forward chaining;
(f) Considering analogous problems;
(g) Specialisation and generalisation;

(h) Considering extreme cases; and
(i) Mixing strategies.
6.2.1 Decomposition or Subgoaling

At certain times, a problem may be too large to be solved. Another suitable
alternative would be to break a complex problem into a set of sequences of simpler
problems first. Then, solve the complex problem by combining the solutions to the
simpler sub-problems (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Hierarchy and decomposition of a problem into sub-problems

Adapted from: http://ccs.njit.edu/fadi/public/books/dissert.htm
This application is widely used by computer programmers where complex

programs can be considered as a collection of simpler programs. Thus, the process
of decomposition can be performed at several levels. When a big problem is broken
to smaller components, both the identification of solution becomes simpler and
furthermore an individual can understand a problem better (Pólya, 1957; Hayes,
1981). Nevertheless, a risk that may be faced in this approach is that the nature of
the problem may be changed perhaps by eliminating a critical aspect of it, either
while breaking the problem down or combining the sub-problem solutions.

ACTIVITY 6.2
There are several ways to do problem decompositions, the most well-
known probably being recursive decomposition, data decomposition,
functional decomposition, exploratory decomposition and speculative
decomposition. Carry out an Internet search and briefly explain the
various strategies.
6.2.2 Working Backwards

Some researchers believe that a problem should be characterised in terms of a
journey where one begins at point A (the initial state) and makes an attempt to
arrive at point B (the goal). The main challenge in this approach is to locate a path
that can bring the individual from the starting point to the end point.
There are two ways in solving the problem here:
(a) Find your way from point A to B; or
(b) Work out the journey backwards, from point B to A (as illustrated in
Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Working backwards strategy in problem solving

Adapted from: http://www.1000ventures. com/business_guide/
crosscuttings/problem_solving_workback.html

In addition, one can work backwards not only from the final goal but also from an
intermediate goal state, especially in circumstances where there is a way to identify
these intermediate states.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Joe forgot to check how much money he began the day with. During the
day, he spent $8.00 on breakfast, withdrew $40.00 from the ATM, got his
dry cleaning for $12.00, and bought 5 shirts for $22.00 a piece (plus 8%
sales tax). At the end of the day, he had $100.00, how much did he start
the day with? Use the working backwards strategy to solve this problem.
6.2.3 Hill Climbing

Climbing a hill is another approach in problem solving especially in cases where
oneÊs intention is to get to the top of a hill, but there is no apparent marked path to
follow. Hence, a strategy that can be employed is to move in such a way that an
individual is always moving upwards. The moment the individual realises that the
steps are descending in nature, one turns around and takes the opposite path. In
other words, when applied in problem solving, one is always taking steps that
bring one nearer to the particular goal. The main disadvantage of the hill climbing
approach is that one may get stranded on the top of a small hill in the vicinity or
sometimes on the slope of the large hill that the individual hopes to climb. At
times, it may be necessary to take a few steps downhill in order to reach the final
destination, the peak (Figure 6.4). In the same way, in problem solving, it is
sometimes essential to take steps that appear far from the goal in order to finally
reach the goal. However, in a real life scenario, many individuals find this difficult
to carry out (Anderson, 1990).
Figure 6.4: Hill climbing strategy

SELF-CHECK 6.2
You are required to use the hill climbing strategy in the river crossing
problem. There are a number of predators and prey on one side of the
river and there is a boat with a limited capacity. The goal state is to have
everyone on the opposite side of the river. Explain how you will employ
this strategy. You must be able to identify the initial state, the goal and
the fact that the boat used has a limited capacity for transporting
individuals. Will the „downhill‰ step be necessary in solving this
problem?
6.2.4 Means-end Analysis

In general, this approach is rather similar to hill climbing, however, it is more
flexible and adaptable to various types of problem solving. Newell & Simon (1972)
explained it thoroughly and used it widely in the development of problem-solving
computer programs. The first thing an individual should do when employing this
strategy is to identify the goal state followed by a thorough listing of the
differences between it and the current state. Finally, one should identify a
promising procedure in order to reduce the differences between the current state
and goal. Two main actions can be taken to reduce the distance between the
current state and goal:
(a) By taking a step that will cause the current state to be as similar to the goal;
or
(b) By working backward where one will bring the goal closer to the current
state.
One can be stranded if one sticks too obsessively to the rule of not taking a step
that decreases the disparity between the current state and the goal. According to
Anderson (1993), means-end analysis is a natural component of the thinking
machinery for both human beings as well as primates. Means-end analysis is vital
to solve daily problems such as getting the right train connection. Basically, first of
all, you have to figure out where you catch the first train and where you want to
arrive. Then you have to look for possible changes just in case you do not get a
direct connection. Finally, you have to figure out what are the most suitable times
of departure and arrival, on which platforms you leave and arrive and make it all
fit together.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Carry out a search in the Internet on the ability of infants to employ
simple forms of means-ends analysis in the second half of the first year.
Briefly explain this phenomenon.
6.2.5 Forward Chaining

In this strategy, one starts with the task and works directly towards the goal
(Figure 6.5). Forward chaining begins with the available data and uses inference
rules to extract more data until a goal is attained. However, forward chaining can
only be applied by an individual with adequate and thorough understanding of a
problem in order to be able to come up with its correct concrete representation
from the problem statement (Simon & Simon, 1978).
Figure 6.5: Forward chaining strategy

Source: http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mmk/Teaching/AI/l2.html
This strategy is usually used by experts and not beginners who are more inclined
to employ strategies such as means-end analysis and working backwards (Larkin
et al., 1980a, 1980b). This is due to the fact that experts have the ability to categorise
problems in terms of basic principles and their knowledge of strategies that work
for specific problem types that makes this possible. However, when individuals
were provided with more practice with problems of a particular type, they were
inclined to change spontaneously from a means-end strategy that they were using
to the forward-chaining strategy.

6.3 OTHER PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Apart from the five strategies you have learnt in the previous section, there several
other strategies that are based on some common concepts: anology, specialisation
and generalisation. Extremes cases could also be used as a strategy in problem
solving. We shall discovers more about these strategies in the following subtopic.
6.3.1 Analogy in Problem Solving

There are certain times when an individual may be able to obtain a solution for an
analogous but simpler problem. The analogous problem may be naturally easier
due to the fact that the problem solver may have solved a similar problem in the
past. The following example demonstrates this strategy.
Six people are in an elevator. Can you demonstrate that it must be the case that
either at least three of them are mutual acquaintances or at least three are
complete strangers to one another?
[Adapted from: Poundstone (1990)]
Poundstone uses a graphical analogue (Figure 6.6) to solve the above problem that
may look logically difficult at a first glance. According to his analogy, let the six
people in the elevator be represented by six different dots on a piece of paper. These
dots can be located in any fashion, except that no three of them should be on the
same line. Allow a solid line between any two dots to symbolise acquaintance
between the people represented by those dots, and let a dashed line indicate that the
individuals are strangers. Using this system, a solid triangle represents three mutual
acquaintances whereas a dashed triangle symbolises a trio of strangers. The main
question at this instance is, using either a solid or dashed line between any given
pairs of dots, is it possible to connect every dot with every other dot in such a fashion
that no solid triangles and no dashed triangles appear in the result? Basically, this
particular problem is indeed similar to the elevator problem and that the solution to
one will automatically reveal the solution to the other.
Figure 6.6: PoundstoneÊs graphical analogue

Thus, it can be clearly observed that the dot-connecting problem is much easier to
solve than the elevator problem, and this is the main principal of this strategy
where the former is a helpful analogue of the latter. The main disadvantage in
using this strategy lies in the fact that identification of an analogue to the problem
one wishes to solve in certain cases may seem to be analogous in the correct way(s)
but in actual fact it is not.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. State the three important features of a good analogy.
2. Analogies make it easier to grasp the underlying idea behind

anything. The pattern of understood things in our minds is like a
jigsaw puzzle. Analogies help in filling these pieces to make things
clear. Provide a suitable answer(s) to the following analogies:
(a) Just as the Earth revolves around the Sun,

________________________________.
(b) A doctor's diagnostic method is similar to

________________________________.
(c) Just as sword is the weapon of a warrior,

________________________________.
6.3.2 Specialisation and Generalisation

According to Mason et al. (1985), specialisation can be defined as considering a
concrete example of an abstract problem. In other words, if one is attempting to
solve a problem that has to do with the properties of parallelograms, then one may
find it important to start by considering a particular parallelogram, or several
particular parallelograms. On the other hand, these researchers stated that
generalisation reasoning involves focusing on certain aspects common to many
examples, and ignoring other aspects. They further elaborated that the process of
generalising is that of moving from a few instances to making informed guesses
about a wide class of cases.

SELF-CHECK 6.4
Two different descriptions are provided below. Identify which

description explains the concept of generalisation and specialisation
respectively.
(a) This particular concept is an important way to generate

propositional knowledge, by applying general knowledge, such as
the theory of gravity, to specific instances, such as „when I release
this apple, it will fall to the floor‰.
(b) It is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning and is

the essential basis of all valid deductive inferences. The process of
verification is necessary to determine whether this particular
concept holds true for any given situation.
6.3.3 Use of Extreme Cases

This approach is an example of specialisation and is explained well by Pólya
(1954). The traditional view of the method in which extreme cases contribute to
thinking is as a check on a problem solution where when the answer to a problem
is stated in the form of a mathematical function, the accuracy of the function can
be verified by putting in extreme values such as zero or infinity, for the
independent variable (Pólya, 1954). In most of the situations, one can deduce from
the physical situation what the answer should be in this case and see whether the
function provides the same prediction.
The comparison of the two lever situations shown in Figure 6.7 explains this point.
Generally, students based on their intuition, very well know that it will be much
simpler to lift the load in Case A as compared to Case B. Hence, it can be concluded
that as the distance from the load to the fulcrum decreases, the force required to
carry the load will also decrease.

Figure 6.7: Extreme cases providing data points

Source: Zietsman and Clement, 1997
It is believed that the extreme case can furnish one of the „data points‰ required to
deduce the more general direction of change relation. This function should be
more useful in mastering the basic ideas in science, in which such relations are
often present. In addition, it can be debated that such relations also give an
intuitive foundation for the understanding of mathematical relations in science.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Dave goes to a museum and meets a lovely lady. Wasting no time, Dave
asks the lady for her phone number. He copies the number down. But on
the walk home, the paper flies from DaveÊs pocket, blowing the phone
number, along with his hopes, into the East River. Dave ponders his
situation on the train ride home and manages to remember all seven
digits (4, 3, 7, 8, 2, 6, 5) of the womanÊs phone number. However, he does
not remember the sequence of the numbers. Dave is determined to sit in
front of the phone all night if necessary to contact this lovely lady. How
many telephone numbers must Dave dial?

Besides the strategies presented in this topic, there are various other strategies that
have been developed for problem solving. However, the ones mentioned here are
among those that have received the most amount of attention. Various writers
have emphasised on the importance of a particular strategy but none of them have
proposed that one specific strategy is sufficient to ensure successful problem
solving. In certain cases, it would be more beneficial if one could employ a
combination of strategies in problem solving. The following are examples of
combinations that complement one another:
(a) Working backward with means-end analysis; and
(b) Problem decomposition or subgoaling with any other problem-solving

strategy.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
1. State the risks that may be faced in the problem decomposition or

subgoaling approach.
2. Define the working backwards approach in problem solving.
3. What is the main disadvantage of the hill climbing approach?
4. Identify the two main actions that can be taken to reduce the
distance between the current state and goal in the means-end
analysis method.
5. State the main disadvantage of the considering analogous problem

approach.
6. Define the terms „specialisation‰ and generalisation‰ in problem

solving.
 The more widely applicable a particular strategy, the less field dependent the
strategy is.
 Problem decomposition or subgoaling involves breaking a complex problem

into a set of sequence of simpler problems and then solving the complex
problem by combining the solutions to the simpler sub-problems.

 Working backwards involves solving a problem from the goal to the initial
state.
 Climbing a hill is an approach in problem solving where an individual is

always moving upwards.
 In means-end analysis, an individual identifies the goal state followed by a

thorough listing of the differences between it and the current state, and finally,
employs a promising procedure in order to reduce the differences between the
current state and goal.
 In considering analogous problems, the problem may be naturally easier due

to the fact that the problem solver may have solved a similar problem in the
past.
 Specialisation can be defined as considering a concrete example of an abstract

problem whereas generalisation reasoning involves focusing on certain aspects
common to many examples, and ignoring other aspects.
 Considering extreme cases is a heuristic approach that is frequently used to

advantage in both mathematical and non-mathematical problem solving.
 In certain cases of problem solving, it is best to employ a combination of mixing

strategies rather than using a single approach in solving the problem.
Analogous problems Means-end analysis

Conceptions Problem decomposition
Extreme cases Specialisation
Forward chaining Subgoaling
Generalisation Theories
Hill climbing Working backwards

1. Discuss various concepts that can be used in problem solving.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the following problem-solving

strategies:
(a) Decomposition
(b) Working Backwards
(c) Hill Climbing
(d) Means-end Analysis
(e) Forward Chaining
3. Discuss the use of mixed strategies using an example.
Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications (3rd ed.).

New York: Freeman.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem solving and learning. American Psychologist, 48:

35ă44.
Bransford, J. D., & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guider for
improving thinking, learning and creativity. New York: Freeman.
Hayes, J. R. (1981). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute

Press.
Kerber, M. (2004). Introduction to AI. Retrieved from

http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mmk/Teaching/AI/l2.html
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980a). Expert and
novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208: 1335ă1342.
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980b). Modes of
competence in solving physics problems. Cognitive Science, 4: 317ă345.
Mason, J., Burton, L., & Stacey, K. (1985). Thinking mathematically. Menlo Park,
CA: Addison-Wesley Publishers.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice hall.
Pólya, G. (1954). Mathematics and plausible reasoning: Vol. 1. Induction and

analogy in mathematics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Pólya, G. (1957). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Garden
City, NY: Doubleday.
Poundstone, W. (1990). Labyrinths of reason. New York: Doubleday.
Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1978). Individual differences in solving problems.

In R. S. Siegler (Ed.), ChildrenÊs thinking: What develop? Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Zietsman, A., & Clement, J. (1997). The role of extreme case reasoning in
instruction for conceptual change. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 6(1):
61ă89. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Topic  Problem-
Solving Tools
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the most common tools used in problem solving;
2. Describe brainstorming, benchmarking, cause and effect diagrams,
flow charts, SWOT analysis and prioritisation matrix as problem-
solving tools;
3. Identify when and how each problem-solving tool is used; and
4. Apply appropriate tools effectively to problems you may encounter.
 INTRODUCTION
In this section, we will look at a set of tools often used to aid the process of problem
solving. These tools will help you understand complicated and difficult situations.
Without these tools, some problems might seem overwhelming and complex. If
used properly, these tools can help to break down problems into manageable
components and aid in the development of suitable solutions. We will start with
the simplest and probably most common tool used which is brainstorming, and
gradually move on to more complex tools such as benchmarking, cause and effect
diagrams, flow charts, SWOT analysis and prioritisation matrix.

TOPIC 7 PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOLS  131
7.1 BRAINSTORMING
(a) What is Brainstorming?
Brainstorming is a lively technique that helps a group to generate as many
ideas as possible in a short time. We actually use brainstorming in an
informal manner in many situations in our everyday life. LetÊs say you are
with a group of friends and are trying to decide where to go for a meal. You
might engage in a very rudimentary form of brainstorming whereby
everyone gives suggestions of where to eat and the one most of you agree
upon is chosen.
Brainstorming can be initiated by „seeding‰ the session with a randomly

selected word. This word acts as a catalyst for the generation of ideas.
Since the idea behind brainstorming is to open up a multitude of otherwise

unexpected possibilities and eliminate any preconceptions that may be
associated with the problem, it is essential that no criticism of ideas takes
place during the brainstorming session. The ideas should be critically
analysed to weed out the least effective or practical possibilities only after the
session has been completed.
(b) Who Uses It?

Anybody should be welcomed to participate in a brainstorming session.
Generally, there are practical limitations as to who can participate but with
the right tools (hardware), hundreds of people can be involved (such as an
online session). The more people involved, the longer it takes to gather ideas,
and the harder it is to determine which the best ideas are. The benefit of
having a large number of people involved in a brainstorming session , of
course, is that you are more likely to come up with new radical ideas. If you
invite people with different perspectives to brainstorm, you are more likely
to see innovative ideas generated by the group.
(c) How to Use It?

Brainstorming can be approached through the following series of steps:
(i) Define and agree on the objective. Explain to the members of the team
what the purpose of the session is.

132  TOPIC 7 PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOLS
(ii) Explain the method to be employed. Tell the team members that you
are open to any ideas and thoughts so that the team can come up with
many creative ideas.
(iii) Allow time to reflect on the purpose of the session. Ask the team
members to think about the proposed objective or topic in a given time
frame.
(iv) Generate ideas. This is the brainstorming portion of the session. The
team members shall pitch in ideas and possible solutions while you jot
down all of them on a flip chart.
(v) Discuss the ideas. Once the list is completed, confer with your team to:
 Explain the meaning of some ideas,
 Combine ideas with the same meaning, and
 Remove the ideas that are totally out from the topic.
(vi) Come to a consensus. As you discuss with others in the team, there will
be differing opinions about ideas and issues raised. Nevertheless, make
sure that the team agrees on what ideas are to be accepted from the
brainstorming session. Allow yourselves 5-15 minutes. Finally, the idea
that most of you agree on will be the best solution to your problem.
For brainstorming to be a useful and effective technique, a number of basic

guidelines should be followed:
(i) A leader should be nominated to control the brainstorming session. He

should define the problem, set criteria and keep track of the session. He
should also act as a catalyst to stimulate the discussion and encourage
enthusiastic and active participation from all those involved. As far as
possible, he should not give his own ideas as this may detract the others
from doing so.
(ii) Any brainstorming session should incorporate individuals from as

wide a range of expertise as it is practically possible and necessary.

(iii) An element of fun should be incorporated into the brainstorming

exercise. This can be done by encouraging creativity by allowing for the
generation of even wildly impractical ideas. Remember, there are no
„dumb ideas‰ during a brainstorming session. However, a leader must
still keep the group in perspective and within reasonable limits. For
example, if city planners are sitting down to decide what to do with
excess garbage, sending the garbage to Mars is not really a helpful or
practical idea, is it?
(iv) As mentioned earlier, it is essential that no criticism or evaluation of

ideas takes place during the session as it may stifle creativity.
(v) The session should be recorded for subsequent evaluation. This can be
done by taking notes but would ideally involve audio or visual
recordings to truly capture the creative atmosphere and help point out
the most creative individuals.
(d) Individual and Group Brainstorming:

A brainstorming exercise can be carried out either by discrete individuals, in
groups, or in a combination of the two:
(i) Individual brainstorming may yield a greater diversity of ideas but

does a poor job of developing these ideas.
(ii) In contrast, group brainstorming may generate fewer ideas but tends
to develop ideas in more depth as various levels of creativity and
knowledge among the group members tend to allow more exploration
of any ideas. One problem with group brainstorming is that highly
creative but quiet or shy individuals tend to under-contribute.
ACTIVITY 7.1
In brainstorming sessions, there is always a tendency to dismiss
seemingly „poor‰ ideas, even though there may be a conscious attempt
not to do so.
Think of rules that you can implement to discourage this from happening
during brainstorming sessions (e.g. idea-stoppers must stay back to clean
up the meeting room). You may even want to brainstorm for ideas on
this!

7.2 BENCHMARKING
(a) What is It?
Benchmarking is the process of measuring and comparing an organisationÊs
internal processes with those of another organisation that has outstanding
practices in order to study ways to improve those processes. It is a technique
used to develop new ideas for improvement by identifying, understanding,
and adapting the selected processes.
(b) Who Uses It?

Any party with a vested interest can use it. It is very important, however,
that a person who is knowledgeable in the process(es) you are analysing is
included in the team.
(c) How to Use It:
(i) Choose an organisation whose processes you want to benchmark.
(ii) Contact the benchmark organisation to clarify the intention of your

exercise.
(iii) If possible, visit the organisation to collect data:
 Establish in advance what information you want to gather.
 In order for the benchmark organisation to prepare for your visit,

send a list of questions in advance.
(iv) Confirm on an agenda for the visit.
(v) Decide a meeting, visit the benchmark organisation and gather the
answers to your questions.
(vi) Information sharing should be mutual, and you should be willing to

provide comparable data about your own organisation to the
benchmark organisation.
(vii) Analyse the differences in processes between your organisation and the
benchmark organisation.
(viii) Present the results to the team, set new targets and use the results in
the process of improvements.

7.3 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

(a) What are They?
Cause and effect diagrams combine brainstorming with the use of a concept
map. They are useful in helping us consider all possible causes of a problem
beyond the obvious ones that we may initially envision. There are a few
related variants of cause and effect diagrams including fish or fishbone
diagrams, and Ishikawa diagrams (as illustrated in Figures 7.1 and 7.2).
(b) How to Use the Tool

The steps below are guidelines for developing and using a cause and effect
diagram (use Figures 7.1 and 7.2 to visualise how these steps lead to the
development of a fishbone diagram):
(i) Identify the Problem

On the left-hand side of a sheet of paper, write down the problem and
then draw a line horizontally across the sheet of paper starting from the
problem.
(ii) Work Out the Major Factors Involved

Draw labelled lines coming from the centre line drawn above to
represent each of the factors that contribute to the problem. Explore all
the factors involved until all of them have been included. Factors to
consider may include people involvement, systems, equipments,
materials and so on.
(iii) Identify Possible Causes

Consider factors that may be related to the causes of the problem you
have identified above. Draw these as smaller horizontal lines coming
off the lines drawn in part (ii) above.
(iv) Analyse Your Diagram

Explore each of the factors in more detail. Investigate whether your
assessment is correct and whether you need to further expand your
search for the causes of the problem.

Figure 7.1: Main components of a Fishbone Diagram
Figure 7.2: An example of a complex fishbone diagram. Note the number of causes or
factors that can be included in such a diagram and how the diagram can help in
identifying the cause of a problem

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Problem: More schoolchildren are patronising cybercafés after school.
Use the fishbone diagram to identify the root causes of the problem. In
Figure 7.2, the causal factors are categorised under the 4 MÊs (Manpower,
Machines, Methods, Materials). Other major categories typically used
are:
Ć The 4 PÊs (Place, Procedure, People, Policies)
Ć The 4 SÊs (Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills)
You may use one of the four categories above, combine them in any
fashion or make up your own. The categories are not cast in stone; they
are to help you organise your ideas.
7.4 FLOW CHARTS

(a) What are They?
Flow charts are a simplified form of system diagrams that show how the
steps in a process relate to each other. They are a useful tool in problem
solving because they help us to define and analyse a problem as well as to
gain a clear step-by-step picture of the potential causes of the problem. The
step-by-step approach allows us to design solutions for specific areas that
may require improvement.
(b) How to Use the Tool
(i) A flow chart consists of symbols connected by arrows representing

steps in a process and their connectivity.
(ii) Three main symbols are used in drawing flowcharts, namely, elongated
circles that are used to represent the start or end of a process; rectangles
that show instructions or actions; and diamonds that represent
decisions to be made (see Figures 7.3 and 7.4).
(iii) Each of these symbols is labelled to show what it represents and all are
connected to one another by arrows to show the progression of a
process.

(c) To draw the Flow Chart:
(i) Begin by listing all the tasks associated with the process you are
examining;
(ii) Draw and label the START of the flowchart (an elongated circle shape);
(iii) Continue to develop the flowchart by drawing the appropriate actions

and decisions in the order that they occur and connecting all of these
by arrows. Remember to use the correct symbol for every task;
(iv) Continue making the flowchart until you reach the end. Label the last
task END (an elongated circle shape as used for the start); and
(v) Try your best to fit every process on only ONE piece of paper. If your
process is too complicated for this, consider revising it. However, if the
flowchart must continue beyond one sheet of paper, use symbols
known as connectors in the form of numbered circles to connect
separate flowcharts.
Figure 7.3: The component parts of a typical flow chart

Figure 7.4: A simple flow chart illustrating a process and identifying how it proceeds.
Note the use of the shapes

SELF-CHECK 7.2
Process: How to make three different cups of coffee: (i) With no milk or
sugar (ii) With milk and sugar (iii) With milk but no sugar.
Draw a single flow chart for the process above.
7.5 SWOT ANALYSIS

(a) What is SWOT?
Swot stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. This is a
technique often used in a business context to allow an organisation to
identify its niche in a market. It can also be used on a personal basis to
understand how best to take advantage of your abilities and gifts to become
successful.
SWOT analysis enables you to uncover opportunities that you may have
been unaware of and helps you to prepare to face any threats or dangers that
may lie ahead.
SWOT analysis can be used in many different contexts but is most effective
when used as a tool in a situation where there is competition from others.
This includes not only the business environment but also activities such as
sports (especially team sports like football). See Figure 7.5 for further
understanding about SWOT analysis.
Figure 7.5: Illustration of SWOT analysis, leading to a full analysis of the entire situation

(b) How to Use It
(i) Internal Analysis: By studying the strengths and weaknesses of your

organisation, assess the capabilities of your organisation.
(ii) External Analysis: From the main points in the environmental analysis,
identify the opportunities and threats open to your organisation.
Additional information may be obtained from your users or customers
by means of a survey or by using a tally sheet.
(iii) Determine if the collected data uncover external opportunities or

threats.
(iv) With the information gathered in the first two steps, enter the data into
a table.
(v) This information can be used to develop a strategy that:
Ć Maximises the strengths and opportunities of your organisation;
Ć Reduces its weaknesses; and
Ć Minimises the threats it faces in a way that the objectives of your

organisation can be met.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Find out more about SWOT analysis at the following website and discuss
with your coursemates:
http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm

7.6 PRIORITISATION MATRIX

(a) What is It?
A Prioritisation Matrix is a useful tool for reaching a consensus in a group
problem solving or decision making scenario. It works by allowing you to
rank issues based on their score in a particular criterion important to you or
your team. This makes it a very useful tool for prioritising problems.
(b) How to Use It
(i) Conduct a brainstorming session and fill out a prioritisation matrix.
(ii) In the first column, write down the problems that were mentioned in
the brainstorming session.
(iii) In the second to fourth columns, define your criteria. Examples of

typical criteria are:
Ć Frequency ă How often does the problem occur?
Ć Importance ă Which problems are the most important based on a

criterion of choice?
Ć Feasibility ă How practical and realistic are your attempts to solve

the selected problem?
(iv) You can develop any criterion you feel is vital for your problem. Other
criteria often used include cost, value, safety, timing and duration.
(v) Once you have completed defining the criteria, allow for a vote where
every individual participating in the development of a solution gets to
vote (usually three times) for each criterion. Totalling these votes
allows you to prioritise your problem.

Table 7.1 shows an example of a prioritisation matrix created by a group of

individuals to come up with a consensus to deal with common problems faced by
a particular hospital organisation.
Table 7.1: Prioritising Problems Using a Prioritisation Matrix
Total
Problems Frequency Importance Feasibility
Points
1. No appointments for the 5 0 0 5
afternoon
2. Delays in registration 6 1 5 12
3. Incomplete laboratory analysis 9 11 6 26
4. Insufficient care in dentistry 10 12 8 30
5. Not enough doctors 6 0 5 11
6. Not enough materials for the lab 3 0 0 3
7. Broken down ambulance 0 3 0 3
8. Segregation of patients 7 12 11 30
9. Long waiting time 7 14 15 36
10. Disrespect of patients 4 6 10 20
ACTIVITY 7.3
Develop a Prioritisation Matrix with your coursemates, colleagues or

family. Take any issue you want (contemporary and current issues are
always an interesting choice ă search the newspapers for issues or
problems that you think need addressing) and approach them through a
Prioritisation Matrix. Do you get any interesting results that you may not
have expected? What is the most important current issue for yourself and
your coursemates/colleagues?

Feel free to explore the Web for other problem-solving tools. Some interesting tools
that you might want to look up include:
(a) Appreciation (more at

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_01.htm);
(b) Drill Down (more at

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_02.htm); and
(c) Systems Diagrams (more at

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_04.htm).
These are some basic guidelines for solving problems.
(a) If the problem you are trying to solve has already been solved by others, by
all means learn that solution first, even if you intend to improve on it.
(b) Begin by solving the simplest version of the problem.
(c) Build your solution incrementally.
(d) Avoid focusing on a single solution.
(e) Avoid hidden assumptions.
(f) Be patient and persevere.
(g) DonÊt expect to find permanent answers.
Ć Problem-solving tools range from simple commonly used techniques like flow
diagrams to specific techniques like SWOT analysis.
Ć These tools are used to conduct a rigorous analysis of problems to help you
look at as many factors as possible in a structured and methodical way.
Ć Problem-solving tools can be divided into two categories. The first set
comprises general tools that can be used to resolve any situation. These
include: brainstorming; benchmarking; cause and effect diagrams; and flow
charts.

Ć The second set of tools is applied to specific situations. These include: SWOT
analysis; forecasting with spreadsheets; and risk analysis.
Ć Brainstorming is a method for developing creative solutions to problems by

coming up with as many solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far
as possible.
Ć Benchmarking is a technique by which you compare the processes of one

organisation with those of similar organisations to study ways to improve the
processes.
Ć Cause and Effect Diagrams help you to think through the causes of a problem
thoroughly. This approach combines brainstorming with the use of a concept
map. Cause and Effect Diagrams are also called Fishbone Diagrams and
Ishikawa Diagrams.
Ć Flow charts are diagrams showing how steps in a process fit together. This
makes them useful tools for communicating how processes work and for
clearly documenting how a particular job is done.
Ć SWOT Analysis is a powerful technique for understanding Strengths and

Weaknesses, and for looking at the Opportunities and Threats.
Ć A Prioritisation Matrix is a useful technique you can use with your team
members to achieve consensus about an issue. The Matrix helps you to rank
problems or issues (usually generated through brainstorming) by a particular
criterion that is important to you.
Benchmarking Prioritisation Matrix

Brainstorming Problem-solving tools
Cause and effect diagram SWOT analysis
Flowchart

1. Problem-solving tools can be divided into two categories. What are these
categories? Give some examples of tools in each category.
2. Before you can solve a problem and before you can select the most suitable
tool to solve the problem, you need to plan the solution. Why is it important
to plan the problem-solving process?
3. What is brainstorming and how often is it used?
4. For brainstorming to work effectively, some rules must be followed. What

are these rules?
5. Cause and Effect Diagrams help you to think through the causes of a problem
thoroughly. This approach combines brainstorming with the use of a concept
map. Their major benefit is that they push you to consider all possible causes
of the problem, rather than just the ones that are most obvious. These are
called Fishbone Diagrams and Ishikawa Diagrams. How are these diagrams
constructed? Briefly describe the steps involved and draw a diagram to
depict it.
6. What are flow charts? Can you develop a simple flow chart to show any basic
process of your choice?
7. What is SWOT analysis?
8. A Prioritisation Matrix is a useful technique you can use with your team
members to achieve consensus on an issue. How does it work in prioritising
issues that need to be addressed?
De Bono, E. (1992). Serious creativity. NY: Harper Business.
Harris, R. (1998). Introduction to problem solving. Retrieved from

MindTools.com. (2010). Problem solving techniques. Retrieved from

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TMC.htm

Topic  Decision
Making
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define decision making;
2. List the different kinds of decisions and the factors that influence the
decision-making process;
3. Describe the Four Quadrants of the Brain Theory and how it relates
to our ability to make decisions;
4. Examine the evidence-driven decision making cycle; and
5. Discuss the different approaches to decision making.
 INTRODUCTION
„Nothing is more difficult, and therefore more precious, than to be able to
decide.‰
(Napoleon)
Good decision making is an essential skill for personal and career success and is
also particularly useful for effective leadership. We are required to make decisions
daily and if we can learn to make timely and well-considered decisions, then we
can often lead ourselves or our team to success. However, if we make poor
decisions, we inevitably risk failure.
This topic introduces us to the process of decision making, helping us to develop

a deeper understanding of what good decision-making entails. With the
incorporation of effective techniques and relevant knowledge, we are on our way
to becoming effective decision makers.
148  TOPIC 8 DECISION MAKING
You will also be introduced to the concept of decision stream, as well as the role of
risk. Our discussion will conclude in Topic 10 where you will be introduced to
some decision-making tools.
8.1 WHAT IS DECISION MAKING?

A decision is commonly defined as being:
The act or process of deciding; determination, as of a question or doubt, by

making a judgement; the act of or need for making up oneÊs mind.
(http://english.stackexchange.com)
Something that is decided; resolution; a judgement, as one formally

pronounced by a court; the final score in any sport or contest.
(http://dictionary.reference.com/)
You will notice that these definitions share in common the finality of the decision
event. Decisions are often made at the culmination of debates, events, contests and
so on. In our case, decisions are made at the end of the problem-solving cycle.
Decision making can thus be regarded as a problem-solving activity which is
terminated when a satisfactory solution is found.
Logical decision making is an important part of all science-based professions,

where specialists apply their knowledge in a given area to make informed
decisions. Medical decision making, for example, often involves making a
diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment.
With the above in mind, two standard definitions of decision making that can be
accepted are as follows:
(a) Decision making is the process of choosing what to do by considering the

possible consequences of different choices.
(von Winterfeldt & Edwards, 1986; Beyth-Marom et al., 1991)

TOPIC 8 DECISION MAKING  149
When we make a decision, we make a wilful selection from a set of

alternatives. In order to make an informed evaluation, we need to identify as
many of these alternatives as possible and consider their possible
consequences, and then choose one that best fits our goals, desires, lifestyle,
values and so on.
(b) Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and

doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among
them (Harris, R. 2009).
In this definition, the focus is on making a choice based on risk-reduction

associated with uncertainty. It implies incomplete knowledge of the issues
surrounding the choices available, and judgement is based on how much of
the doubt and uncertainty can be mitigated.
8.2 TYPES OF DECISIONS

Decisions we make can be divided into three basic types:
(a) Decisions „whether‰ are basic: yes/no, either/or and neither/nor decisions
that must be made when we come to the selection between two alternatives.
This includes basic decisions we make daily such as, „Should I go to the
movies?‰ and „Should I buy a car?‰
(b) Decisions „which‰ are decisions involving a choice of one or more options
from a selection of possibilities.
(c) „Contingent‰ decisions are decisions where the outcome depends on a

certain condition being met or a certain criterion being fulfilled. Any decision
we put on hold until a certain time is a contingent decision. A good example
is your decision to buy a car if you get a salary increase, a promotion or a
good annual bonus. Contributing factors like time, cost, opinions of friends
and family, can influence the outcome of a contingent decision.

ACTIVITY 8.1
You are the chief executive of a large pharmaceutical company. You have
invested RM100 million of the companyÊs money in a research project to
develop an anti-HIV vaccine. When the project is 90% completed, another
firm starts marketing the very same type of vaccine that your company
is developing. Furthermore, your competitorÊs vaccine is more effective
and less expensive than the one being developed by your company.
You must decide on your next course of action, such as whether to

continue with the research, divert the funds to another project, embark
on an advertising campaign, etc.
Describe the circumstances under which category your decision will

be: a decision whether, a decision which or a contingent decision.
8.3 DECISION MAKING IS A RECURSIVE

PROCESS
Decision making is a recursive process whereby we make decisions by moving
back and forth repeatedly between the alternatives we have which are determined
by certain criteria. This simply means often coming back to the beginning to
reconsider a choice. Decision making is therefore not a linear process.
8.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING DECISION-

MAKING PROCESSES
Several studies have shown that the decision-making process is highly influenced
by a personÊs cognitive style. Studies also show evidence of cross-cultural
differences in decision-making styles. There are several alternative versions of this
cognitive style models.
Biases also influence our ability to make decisions. These biases constantly
contribute to our decision-making processes and often distort our decision-making
and judgemental processes. Biases can lead to falsified perceptions and
judgements which can seriously undermine the effectiveness of sound decision
making.

Behaviourist Isabel Briggs Myers cites some of the more common sources of bias
in our decision-making processes:
(a) Selective search for evidence: Tendency to gather facts that support certain
conclusions.
(b) Premature termination of search for evidence: Tendency to accept the first
alternative.
(c) Inertia: Unwillingness to change thought patterns.
(d) Choice-supportive bias: Tendency to distort our memories.
(e) Recency: Tendency to trust more recent information.
(f) Repetition bias: Bias to believe information that we hear most often.
(g) Group think: Tendency to conform to patterns held by others.
(h) Source credibility bias: Tendency to be biased towards people we know.
Now let us look at theories where decision making is affected by our thinking
processes:
(a) Ambiguity Effect: We prefer to choose an option of a favourable probability

over an unknown one.
(b) Bias Blind Spot: We do not compensate enough for our own bias whereby
we consider ourselves as being rather unbiased compared to others.
(c) Elaboration Likelihood Model: We either think logically and consciously or

we allow superficial characteristics that persuade our decisions.
(d) Heuristic-Systematic Persuasion Model: We either impulsively or logically

interpret arguments.
(e) Hyperbolic discounting: We want immediate rewards, choosing benefits for

the now or short-term over the future.
(f) Information Bias: Searching for facts even when they are irrelevant and
redundant when making decision.
(g) Information Processing Theory: Persuasion requires attention and

comparison with previous views; and focuses on external stimuli.
(h) Source Credibility: Who we are more likely to trust.
(i) Unconscious Thought Theory: Allowing our unconscious to do the thinking.

ACTIVITY 8.2
1. The process of deciding which candidate to vote for in an election
is never free of bias. Consider the results of the 2013 General
Elections. Discuss the likely sources of voter bias and how such bias
has influenced voting decisions.
2. There are a number of other sources of biases. Explore these on the

Internet and see which apply to you on a regular basis. In your own
opinion, which of these biases may be most damaging, and which
do you find to influence your own decision-making process the
most?
8.5 FOUR QUADRANTS OF THE BRAIN AND

OUR DIFFERENT THINKING STYLES
Some cognitive theorists believe that the human brain is divided into four
thinking-style quadrants. This idea was developed by Ned Herrmann and is
known as the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI). Herrmann
combined two models of brain function to form a model of the human brain with
two paired structures (four quadrants), namely, the two halves of the cerebral
system and the two halves of the limbic system (Figure 8.1). Note the four
quadrants as well as the thinking styles associated with each quadrant. What kind
of thinker are you?
These four quadrants may be characterised as:
A: Analytical/Logical (Upper Left)
B: Organisational (Lower Left)
C: Emotional/Interpersonal (Lower Right)
D: Conceptual/Imaginative (Upper Right)

Figure 8.1: The Four Quadrant Model of the Brain, also called Ned HerrmannÊs Whole
Brain Model
Adapted from: Models of the Brain: Theories of Brain Organisation by Charles Cave
The following examples illustrate how an individual dominated by each quadrant

might go about buying a computer:
(a) A person using the analytical quadrant A would think: „I want this computer
because for $2,000, I can get a 3 GHz processor, 10/100 Ethernet, 4 GB of
RAM, 80 GB hard drive, 2 GB of DDR2 memory, rewritable DVD drive and
a Vista operating system.‰

(b) A person using the organised quadrant B would think: „I want this computer
because it was voted best value by Consumer Reports; it has a three-year
limited warranty and it has lifetime technical support.‰
(c) A person using the emotional quadrant C would think: „I want this
computer because I like the colour. I also want to buy this because the
salesman was so nice and said I could always call him if I had a problem.‰
(d) A person using the conceptual quadrant D would think: „I want this
computer because I love this new design and the fact that the speakers
simulate holophonic sound which means I can meditate listening to my
meditation CDs without having to put on headphones.‰
The HBDI has proven quite useful in corporate business culture, fostering
communication between people with different mental preferences. When these
differences in workers are brought together, misunderstandings are decreased and
teamwork is enhanced. A synergy takes place and a much fuller potential in the
workplace is realised.
Learning which quadrant is dominant in your brain is vital in the decision-making

process. By understanding your strengths and weaknesses, you can anticipate
biases that may hinder your decision-making process. For example, if your
thinking style is dominated by the D-quadrant, you are more likely to see the big
picture at the expense of detail and you would be well-advised to consult a person
whose thinking style is dominated by the A-quadrant who might be able to see the
finer details of the situation to complement your large perspective.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Suppose you want to buy a new car. List your reasons for choosing that
particular car, and not some other car. Based on the reasons for your
decision, identify your thinking type according to the HBDI model.

8.6 DECISION MAKING IN EVERYDAY LIFE

We make decisions in everyday life and we are aware that most of our decisions,
especially important ones are made after significant mental effort. However, our
languages are full of expressions that point to decisions being made intuitively. In
the English language for example, you often hear people saying, „I have a gut
feeling that...‰ or „I can feel it in my heart that⁄‰ which all point to the knowing
sensation we feel from within.
Despite our propensity to attribute our decisions to various internal organs,

actually, consciously or sub-consciously, we use a number of simple tools or
techniques to make everyday decisions. These include:
(a) Analysing the advantages and disadvantages of our alternatives;
(b) Drawing a straw or flipping a coin;
(c) Turning to superstition, prayer or other forms of divination;
(d) Listening to an authoritative figure; and
(e) Accepting the easiest, the quickest or the first option.
Though these mechanisms for making decisions are effective, they do not allow us
to make optimal decisions and during the worst of times can result in us making a
very bad decision. As much as possible, a proper decision-making process should
be followed whenever possible.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Consider your decision to take the course you are now studying. List the
factors that influenced your decision. If you were given the chance to do
it all over again, write down the steps you would now take to arrive at
your decision this time. See if both decisions are the same.

8.7 EVIDENCE-DRIVEN DECISION-MAKING

CYCLE
As much as we would like to think that our everyday decisions are well made, we
often come to a decision without following due process. To make effective and
correct decisions, we need to follow an Evidence-driven Decision-making Cycle.
This cycle comprises a sequence of steps that must be followed to produce well-
made and effective decisions (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2: Decision Making Cycle
The steps of the Evidence-driven Decision-making Cycle can be grouped into three
main stages. We will now explore these stages in brief by looking at the steps
inherent in every stage.
(a) Getting Started ă The First Stage of the Process:
(i) Trigger: The trigger is what brings to your attention a problem or an

area which requires improvement. It includes any data, observation or
reports that set the process in action.

(ii) Explore: This is the exploration of whatever it is that triggered the

process to determine the best approach for the rest of the cycle.
(iii) Question: This is one of the most important points. It serves to

determine what decisions have to be made and what you hope to
achieve as well as to propose some potential solutions.
(b) Getting the Information ă The Middle Stage of the Process:
(i) Assembly: This is the process of getting together all the data and
evidence that you will use in the decision-making process.
(ii) Analysis: This is the processing of the data and information collected
above to search for trends and to answer questions you may have set.
(iii) Interpret: This is the gathering of answers from the analysis above.
What does your data tell you? What conclusions can you make? What
action can you propose based on the data you have gathered? At this
stage, it is vital to critically examine the information available to ensure
you reach accurate and reliable conclusions.
(c) Changing and Evaluating ă The Final Stage of the Process:
(i) Intervene or Implement: This stage involves the implementation of

your decisions or the beginning of action. Your actions must be based
on your decisions; they should be manageable and practical, given the
resources and the environment. More importantly, they must be
measurable so that you can evaluate them (see the next step).
(ii) Evaluate: This stage allows you to assess how good the decisions you
made were and whether the original trigger was addressed.
(iii) Reflect: This is the final step of the process and involves assessment of
errors, lessons learnt and future improvements. Reflection allows for
constant improvement of any process for better results if the same
situation is encountered in the future.

The process can be seen as a cycle as illustrated in Figures 8.3 and 8.4. Note that in
Figure 8.4, the trigger box and the subsequent steps including the exploration and
collection of data and the subsequent analysis, lead to intervention and
culmination in evaluation and reflection.
Figure 8.3: The evidence-driven decision-making cycle

Figure 8.4: An example of an actual evidence-driven decision-making cycle used to

decide when and how to improve teaching procedures to increase the number of students
who achieve required grades

ACTIVITY 8.5
Find out more on the Internet about Evidence-Driven Decision Making
and discuss it with your coursemates.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Can you give two standard definitions of decision making?
2. There are a few basic kinds of decisions ă decisions whether,
decisions which and contingent decisions. Differentiate between
the three kinds of decisions.
3. „Decision making is a recursive process.‰ What do you understand
by this statement?
4. Give some examples of biases that can influence our decision-
making processes.
5. List the four quadrants of the brain and briefly explain the thinking
characteristics of each quadrant. Use examples to help you illustrate
this. What kind of thinking style do you possess?
6. How do you make decisions in everyday life? Are your everyday
decisions generally effective or do you feel there is room for
improvement?
7. What is the Evidence-Driven Decision-Making Cycle? Briefly explain
the steps involved in this cycle. Make up an imaginary example,
possibly from your own real-life experience, where the evidence-
driven decision-making cycle was or could have been used for
effective decision making.

8.8 EFFECTS OF QUANTITY ON DECISION

MAKING
We are often tempted to gather more information than is actually required to make
a decision. This can sometimes be detrimental. If we have an over-abundance of
information, we can end up facing a number of possible problems, including:
(a) A delay in the decision-making process due to the time spent gathering
information or analysing excessive information;
(b) Information overload, resulting in the inability to manage and process the
information, and causing the decision-making process to be ineffective or
flawed;
(c) Mental fatigue due to many choices resulting in poor work;
(d) Selective use of information due to inability to objectively approach too much
information; and
(e) Decision fatigue or decision paralysis following too many decisions and too
many choices, resulting in rushed and poorly made decisions.
To imagine the effects of too much information on your decision-making process,

imagine having to choose a meal from a set of menus:
(a) Menu 1 includes 2 items, giving only the item names;
(b) Menu 2 includes 10 items giving only the item names;
(c) Menu 3 gives 10 items, giving the item names and ingredients; and
(d) Menu 4 includes 20 items, giving item names, ingredients, calorific counts,
recipes, time taken to cook, weight, colour, etc.
I think most of us would find Menu 1 extremely easy to use and Menu 4 absolutely
impossible to use. WouldnÊt you agree?

8.9 DECISION STREAMS

It is important to understand that decisions are not isolated mental processes but
are made in the context of other decisions. Every decision is based on a number of
previous decisions and will subsequently lead to a number of other decisions. This
interaction between decisions is termed a Decision Stream. Thus, it can be said that
every decision:
(a) Follows from previous decisions;
(b) Enables future decisions; and
(c) Rules out other decisions.
These factors often constrain us when making decisions. In particular, our

knowledge that one decision may rule out another decision can be mentally
paralysing and can impair our ability to make the correct choice. Imagine if you
like both chocolate cake and chocolate ice cream and are unable to choose between
the two since you are too embarrassed to order them both in front of your friends.
However, it is often more important to make a decision ă any decision ă as an
unmade decision may result in a decision by default or in a decision being made
for you, which is often worse than you making your own wrong decision.
8.10 DECISION QUALITY

Decision quality is a measure of whether a decision made was good or bad. It is
vital to note at this point that a good decision can have a bad outcome and decision
quality is not related to the outcome of a decision but rather is related to the steps
taken to come to a decision. We may, completely by chance, make a decision that
yields unexpectedly good results, but this would still be a bad decision if we did
not follow the proper decision making steps. A good example is given at
http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook5.htm: If you throw a dart at a listing of
stocks and buy the one the dart hits, your decision is a bad one, even though the
stock may go up in value.
The quality of a decision can be judged by considering the following factors:

(a) Does the decision meet the stated objectives better and more efficiently than
any alternatives?
(b) Does the decision take into account any side-effects, disadvantages or ethical
concerns?
(c) Is the decision acceptable to those on whom it has the greatest effect?
The third point is particularly important to consider when you are making
decisions that affect a lot of people. For a decision to be implemented, it is vital
that those who implement it or those on whom it will affect, accept the decision
both on an emotional and an intellectual level. A decision that is excellent on paper
may be completely impractical for a number of social reasons. It is because of this
reason that governments often make decisions that appear to be less than perfect
when viewed from our individual perspectives. Remember, a government often
has to please millions of people and what may appear to be obvious and
straightforward to them may not always be acceptable to all.
8.11 RISK
Risk is an important component of decision making because the outcome of a
decision inevitably involves some uncertainty. Do not seek to completely avoid
risk when making your decisions because if you do, you are likely to eliminate any
radical but potentially excellent options. Rather, aim to minimise risk as much as
possible while continuing to make decisions based on correct and logical steps.
Generally, before you jump into a dangerous and reckless situation, there are a few
points to remember regarding risk-taking:
(a) Decide whether the risk is necessary or desirable.
(b) Risk for the right reasons and when you are calm and thoughtful.
(c) Have a goal.
(d) Determine the possible loss as well as the gain.
(e) When possible, take one risk at a time.
(f) Use imaging or role-playing to work through the various possibilities.
(g) Use a plan.
(h) Act decisively.
(i) Do not expect complete success.
To minimise risk, there are a few risk management strategies to consider:
(a) Dismiss extremely remote or unrealistic possibilities.
(b) As far as possible, avoid catastrophes.
(c) Recognise the tradeoffs.
(d) Maximise expected values.

ACTIVITY 8.6
Most people have insurance. Insurance is a form of risk transfer, whereby
the insured transfers the risk of a contingent loss to the insurer for a
premium.
Does having insurance mitigate risk? How does being insured for a
particular risk affect decision making associated with that risk? Discuss.
Ć Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt

about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them.
Ć There are three basic kinds of decisions ă decisions whether, decisions which
and contingent decisions.
Ć Decision making is a non-linear, recursive process.
Ć Biases constantly creep into our decision-making processes. Some of the more
common sources of bias in our decision-making processes include selective
search for evidence, premature termination of search for evidence, inertia,
recency and repetition bias.
Ć Some cognitive theorists believe that the human brain is divided into four
thinking-style quadrants ă Analytical/Logical (Upper Left); Organisational
(Lower Left); Emotional/Interpersonal (Lower Right); and Conceptual/
Imaginative (Upper Right). Learning which quadrant is dominant in your
brain is vital to the decision-making process.
Ć To make effective and correct decisions, we need to follow an Evidence-Driven

Decision-Making Cycle. This cycle has the following sequential steps: trigger;
explore; question; assemble; analyse; interpret; intervene; evaluate; and reflect.
Ć Many decision makers tend to seek more information than required to make a
good decision. This leads to a delay in decision making.
Ć The quality of a decision is not related to its outcome: a good decision is a

logical one based on the available information and reflecting the preferences of
the decision maker.
Ć All decisions involve a certain amount of risk. This risk must be considered
and managed whenever possible.
Choice-supporting bias Inertia

Decision making Recency
Decision quality Repetition bias
Decision streams Risking
Group think Source credibility bias
Herrmann Brain Dominance
Instrument (HBDI)
1. How would you define decision making?
2. There are a few kinds of decisions ă decisions whether, decisions which, and
contingent decisions. Can you differentiate among these?
3. „Decision making is a non-linear, recursive process.‰ What do you

understand by this statement?
4. Biases constantly creep into our decision-making processes. These biases

often detract from our ability to make correct decisions or bias our decisions
into directions that may not be ideal. List and explain some common forms
of biases that affect our decision-making ability.
5. What are the four quadrants of the brain and what thinking characteristics
does a person dominated by any one of these quadrants possess?
6. The evidence-driven decision-making cycle is made up of sequential steps.

List and briefly explain each of these steps. Can you illustrate with an
example how an evidence-driven decision-making cycle can be followed to
conclusion?
7. „Decisions are actually made in the context of other decisions.‰ What does
this statement mean to you?
8. How would you define a good decision?
9. Every decision involves an element of risk. What are some of the points to
consider before jumping into a dangerous and reckless situation?

Bellamy, L., Evans, D. L., Linder, D. E., McNeill, B. W., & Raupp, G. (1994).
Team training workbook. Arizona State University. Retrieved from
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teamwkbk. pdf.
Beyth-Marom, R., Fischhoff, B., Jacobs-Quadrel, M., & Furby, L. (1991). Teaching
decision making to adolescents: A critical review. In J. Baron, & R. V. Brown
(Eds.), Teaching Decision Making to Adolescents, (pp. 19ă60). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Butler, G. A. (2007). Whole brain thinking. Retrieved from http://holistic-

personal-development.com/2007/11/13/whole-brain-thinking/
Changing Minds. (2011). Theories about decision making. Retrieved from

http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_decision.htm.
Dudiy. S. (2005). Use a decision tree analysis to systematically arrive at your

smartest choice. Retrieved from
http://www.time-management-guide.com/decision-tree.html
Harris, R. (2009). Introduction to decision making. Retrieved from

Infinite Innovations Ltd. (2006). Retrieved from www.brainstorming.co.uk
MindTools.com. (2010). Decision making techniques. Retrieved from

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TED.htm
Ministry of Education (New Zealand). (n.a.). The evidence-driven decision making

cycle. Retrieved from
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/governance/consider/decision-making-
cycle_e.php
New Zealand Ministry of Education. (2010). The evidence-driven decision making

cycle_e.php

Swinton, L. (n.a.). Kurt LewinÊs force field analysis: Decision making made easy.
Retrieved from http://trans4mind.com/counterpoint/swinton4.html
Von Winterfeldt, D., & Edwards, W. (1986). Decision analysis and behavioral
research. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wikipedia. (2010). Decision making. Retrieved from

http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making

Topic  Strategies and
Tools for
9 Making the
Final Decision
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the different approaches to decision making;
2. Identify the decision-making strategies and the role of risk in the
decision-making process;
3. Describe the different forms of group decision making; and
4. Explain how to use decision-making tools or techniques in the
decision-making process.
 INTRODUCTION
„I donÊt need more decisions! I need more men!‰
(Unnamed General at the siege of Stalingrad during World War II)
In the previous topic, we introduced the decision-making process and the different
kinds of decisions we have to make daily. We then explored how our thinking
styles, based on the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument, affect our decision-
making process. We discussed the Evidence-driven Decision Making Cycle that
can be a helping tool in making sound and effective decisions. We concluded by
discussing the qualities of a good decision.

TOPIC 9 STRATEGIES AND TOOLS FOR MAKING THE FINAL DECISION  169
This topic will focus on how to make that final decision through some approaches
and strategies. We will then compare the processes of individual and group
decision making and conclude by introducing a number of decision-making tools
that are routinely used in business and political decision making.
9.1 APPROACHES TO DECISION MAKING

A decision can be considered as the culmination of the decision-making process
discussed in Topic 8.
In our own personal lives, we will most often be the ones to make the final decision
about the issues and choices that we face. In teams, organisations or businesses
where there are several individuals involved in day-to-day operations, decision
making can be done at either one of the two following levels:
(a) Authoritarian
In authoritarian decision making, the leader or authority figure makes the
final decision based on his or her judgement or after discussion with his
colleagues and co-workers. The leader must then explain the decision to the
rest of the team involved and see it through from acceptance to
implementation and evaluation.
(b) Group
In group decision making, several people constituting a group share their
input in making the final decision. They can reach this decision by
exchanging ideas and analyses and eventually, agreeing on details of
implementation and follow-up.
Group decision making can be reached through at least two types of decision-
making processes:
(a) Free discussion: A problem is openly and freely discussed within a group
and a variety of approaches to solve the problem are sought;
(b) Developmental discussion (also known as structured discussion): Involves

breaking down a problem into several components. The group then has to
attain the specified goals of each part of the problem. This approach is less
innovative but is more thorough, effective and efficient in the use of
resources. As group decision making is the more effective and efficient
alternative, it should be resorted to as often as possible. Similarly, in our
personal lives, we often find that big decisions are better arrived at with the
help and advice of family and friends.

170  TOPIC 9 STRATEGIES AND TOOLS FOR MAKING THE FINAL DECISION
In team or business scenarios, group decision making has been shown to be

particularly vital for another reason. People are more likely to implement an idea
that they consider their „own‰ rather than an idea that has been imposed on them
by an authority.
9.2 DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES

Every problem has potentially several solutions and part of the decision-making
process is selecting the best solution from a set of alternatives. The selection of the
best solution is determined by the following factors:
(a) Available resources, including manpower and financial resources;
(b) Time constraints;
(c) Available technology;
(d) Consequences of making the wrong choice (especially in the case of decisions
affecting human health or life); and
(e) Public opinion.
It is vital to consider all the constraints faced in implementing any decision without
losing track of the goals. With this in mind, there are several strategies used in
choosing the optimal solution:
(a) Maximin (maximise the minimums): The worst possible outcome of each
decision is analysed and the decision with the least detrimental possible
outcome is chosen. This strategy is particularly useful when the
consequences of a wrong decision are highly undesirable.
(b) Maximax (maximise the maximums): The alternative with the maximum
possible payoff is selected. This strategy is useful as risk-taking is most
acceptable and least likely to result in extreme negative consequences.
(c) Optimising: The best possible solution to the problem is selected. This is a
strategy that assumes unlimited resources and capability to solve any
particular problem.

(d) Satisficing (satisfactory and sufficient): The first satisfactory alternative is

chosen. This is the strategy we most often use in making many daily
decisions such as choosing where to park or what cold drink to have on a hot
day.
9.3 GROUP DECISION MAKING: METHODS

We have mentioned in subtopic 9.1 that group decision making is more effective
and efficient than individual decision making. We will now discuss briefly some
group decision-making methods.
Johnson & Johnson (2000) describe seven methods that a group can use to make
effective decisions. These can be summarised as follows:
(a) Decision made by authority without group discussion;
(b) Decision by expert;
(c) Decision by averaging individualsÊ opinions;
(d) Decision made by authority after group discussion;
(e) Decision by minority;
(f) Decision by majority vote; and
(g) Decision by consensus.
Though each of the methods above has specific strengths and weaknesses, the last
method, decision by consensus, is often the most effective method and the method
that yields the best results over the long term. As such, if you are ever in a position
to guide or regulate a group decision-making process, try to steer it into a direction
whereby your final decision will be made by group consensus.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. There are two major approaches to decision making. These are
authoritarian decision making and group decision making.
Compare these two approaches. Which of the two, in your opinion,
is better? Why do you think so?
2. We have discussed four decision-making strategies. Briefly explain
each strategy and compare them.
3. We have looked at five ways to make a decision. Can you list and
briefly explain each of them?
4. We have also discussed seven methods that can be used in group
decision making. Can you recall all of them? Which method would
you most likely use if you were in a group that needed to make a
decision? Elaborate on your choice.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Explore
http://www.foundationcoalition.org/home/keycomponents/tea
ms/decision2.html and make a note of the advantages and
disadvantages (called Strengths and Weaknesses in the tables
shown in the Web page) of each of these seven methods of group
decision making. Note the most appropriate time for using each of
the methods. Using that information, discuss with your coursemates
examples of real-life situations where any of the methods can be
used for best results and where some of the methods above would
prove to be particularly ineffective.
2. Making the right decision is often a matter of life and death for
soldiers in battle. Choose three methods of group decision making
that can be used in a battle situation. Explain why you think the
methods work.
3. Think of a recent decision made by a group of which you are a

member (e.g. family, department, tutorial group, sports team, fan
club). List the strengths and weaknesses of the methods used in
making that decision. Was the decision made the best possible
decision?

9.4 DECISION-MAKING TOOLS

There are several tools or techniques that can be used to help you come to an
appropriate decision. These tools help you to map out the likely consequences of
decisions, work out the importance of individual factors and choose the best
course of action to take. Examples of such decision-making tools include:
(a) Grid Analysis: Making a selection between good options;
(b) Decision Trees: Choosing between options by projecting likely outcomes;
(c) PMI: Weighing the pros and cons of a decision;
(d) Force Field Analysis: Analysing the pressures for and against change;
(e) Pareto Analysis: Selecting the most important changes to make;
(f) Paired Comparison Analysis: Evaluating the relative importance of different

options;
(g) Six Thinking Hats: Looking at a decision from all points of view; and
(h) Cost/Benefit Analysis: Considering whether a change is worth making in the

first place.
These techniques build on the tools discussed in the section on Problem-Solving

Tools (Topic 7), in that decision making follows from an understanding of the
situation. However, remember that these tools exist only to assist your intellect
and common sense, which are in fact the most important assets in good decision
making.
We will now look at a few of these tools in detail.
9.4.1 Grid Analysis: Making a Choice Whereby Many

Factors Must Be Considered
Grid analysis is a simple technique commonly used to choose among a few good
alternatives. It is sometimes known as Decision Matrix Analysis or Pugh Matrix
Analysis. Grid analysis is performed by building a grid of tables and listing options
as rows on a table and factors to consider as columns. Once this is done, you give
a score to each option/factor combination and then add the scores to get an overall
score for every option.

The process of Grid Analysis can be summarised as follows:
(a) List your options as a row on a table and list your factors as columns;
(b) Decide on the importance of each factor and assign it a number that reflects
its importance relative to others;
(c) Score each option for each factor on a scale of 0 (poor) to 5 (very good) until
the table is completed;
(d) Multiply the score for each option by the weight assigned to each factor in
No. 2 above; and
(e) Add the weighted scores for each option and compare the overall results to
reach your decision.
Table 9.1 illustrates the process of grid analysis.
Table 9.1: Grid Analysis Showing Weighted Assessment of How Each Type of Car
Satisfies Each Factor
Factors Cost Board Storage Comfort Fun Looks Total

Weights 4 5 1 2 3 4
Sports Car 4 0 0 2 9 12 27
SUV/44 0 15 2 4 3 4 28
Family Car 8 10 1 6 0 0 25
Station Wagon 8 15 3 6 0 4 36
Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_03.htm
ACTIVITY 9.2
Using Table 9.1 as a template, construct a grid analysis to reach a
decision. A good example is to decide, just as the above, on what car to
buy for yourself; assuming you were going to buy a new car. Fill in a
similar table to show how you will make a decision.

9.4.2 Decision Tree Analysis: Choosing Among

Options by Projecting Likely Outcomes
A decision tree is a tool that can be used to enable you to choose from among a
number of possible courses of action. Illustrating the risks and choices associated
with every possible course of action allows you to weigh the consequences of your
decisions prior to you actually making the decision.
Figure 9.1 shows what a simple decision tree would look like. To draw a decision
tree, follow these steps:
(a) Represent your decision with a simple square on the left of a sheet of paper;
(b) Draw lines leading to the right from this square to illustrate each possible
decision;
(c) At the end of each line, consider the result of the decision. If the decision
leads to a clear outcome, make this the end of the line. If the decision leads
to an unclear outcome, show this by drawing a circle. If another decision
needs to be made, show this by drawing another square; and
(d) Continue this process until you have all your outcomes clearly illustrated.
Figure 9.1: Example of a decision tree

Decision trees can get extremely complicated and can even include calculated
values for each node. Visit this website for more information and examples
on how to build an effective decision tree: http://www.time-management-
guide.com/decision-tree.html
9.4.3 PMI: Weighing the Pros and Cons of a Decision

PMI stands for „Plus/Minus/Interesting‰ and is a very simple and useful tool for
making quick and effective decisions. It is also particularly useful for determining
if you need to make a decision in the first place, because in some instances the best
choice of action may be no action at all!
Like grid analysis, PMI takes the form of a table:

(a) Make a table with three columns labelled Plus, Minus and Interesting;
(b) In the Plus column, list all the positive consequences of taking a particular
action;
(c) In the Minus column, list all the negative consequences;
(d) In the Interesting column, write down any implications, uncertainties,
comments, etc that may influence the result or change your choice; and
(e) Assign a positive or negative score to each of your points, then add up the
score to show which action should be taken, if any.
The example below shows how the PMI method works.
Supposed a young professional is deciding on where to live. Her question is,

„Should I move to a big city?‰ She draws up a PMI table as shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Weighing the Pros and Cons of a Decision
Plus Minus Interesting

More going on (+5) Have to sell house (ă6) Easier to find new job? (+1)
Easier to see friends (+5) More pollution (ă3) Meet more people? (+2)
Easier to get to places (+3) Less space (ă3) Hard to get own work
done? (ă4)
No countryside (ă2)
Difficult to get to work
(ă4)
+13 ă18 ă1
Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_05.htm

ACTIVITY 9.3
Search the Internet for examples of how to create a PMI frame.
There are several other decision-making tools that we have not discussed. These
include Pareto Analysis, Paired Comparison Analysis, Force Field Analysis, Six
Thinking Hats Technique and Cost/Benefit Analysis. You can explore these
techniques by searching for information on the Internet. Some of these techniques,
like Cost Benefit Analysis, are very specific to business scenarios while others, like
the Six Thinking Hats Technique, may be useful in making individual decisions.
Use the Web pages below as a starting point for getting more information on these
techniques:
(a) Pareto Analysis

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_01.htm
(b) Paired Comparison Analysis

(c) Force Field Analysis

(d) Six Thinking Hats Technique

ACTIVITY 9.4
Recall the time you made the decision to take up the course you are now
studying. Use the decision-making tools given in this section to view
your decision from different perspectives. Would your decision have
been different if you had applied these tools then?

9.5 SOME FINAL DECISION-MAKING TIPS

The following points are just some general guidelines to good decision making.
Most of these are „common sense‰ and you may have thought of them at least at
some point in time.
Ć Make decisions only if those are yours to make.
Ć Making a decision is simply making a choice from among many alternatives.

It is not making a choice between right and wrong.
Ć Refrain from making hasty decisions. Decide quickly on reversible ones, but
take your time on irreversible ones.
Ć Decide while you still have time, since making the right choice at the wrong
time is no better than making the wrong choice at the right time.
Ć Write down your thoughts as you make your decision. Your notes and ideas
will help you consider all the relevant information as you make your final
choice.
Ć Your thinking will become clearer and the arguments more lucid if you list the
pros and cons of each line of action. This will also make your decision a
stronger one.
Ć Do not let little decisions accumulate into one big, complex decision, which can
be burdensome and harder to cope with. Make the little decisions as you go
along.
Ć Those affected by your decision should be involved in your decision-making

process whenever possible, as this can increase their commitment.
Ć You can never be absolutely sure that you have made the correct decision since
the consequences of that decision will only occur in the future. Make the
decision and do not worry about it.
Ć Use the O. A. R. approach in decision making. Look at O (Objectives) you are

seeking to attain, A (Alternatives) that are available to you and R (Risks) of the
alternative you are considering.
Ć Remember that not making a decision is a decision not to take action.
Ć Trust yourself to make a decision and then to be able to field the consequences
appropriately.

Ć Do not waste your time making decisions that do not have to be made.
Ć Determine alternative courses of action before gathering data.
Ć If you make an individual decision in lieu of a group decision, be aware that

there may be less commitment forthcoming from those affected.
Ć Your decision-making process should always include an implementation plan.
Ć You should move forward once a decision is made. The consequences of that
decision have already been set in motion, so do not look back or regret it. It
was the right move then. What should be the right move now?
Ć Make a mental picture of how you would implement your decision and
imagine the outcomes.
Ć You can get commitment from your staff, in addition to fresh ideas, if you rope
them in your brainstorming sessions.
Ć Do not take too long to deliberate, agonise and mull over your decision. Just
make it, and carry it through.
Ć After a decision is made, leave the „what ifs‰ behind and commit yourself to
your action plan.
Ć There are two major approaches to decision making in an organisation,

namely, the authoritarian method in which an executive figure makes a
decision for the group and the group method in which the group decides what
to do.
Ć There are two types of group decision-making sessions, namely, free

discussion in which the problem is put on the table for the group to talk about;
and developmental discussion or structured discussion where a problem is
broken into steps and smaller parts with specific goals.
Ć There are several strategies used for choosing from among several decisions ă
Optimising, Satisficing, Maximax and Maximin.
Ć There are many ways to make a final decision, to decide on a solution or come
to agreement. Some of the most popular ways of making the decision include
consensus, compromise, majority vote, decision by leader and arbitration.

Ć Many types of group decision-making models can be used. These include

decision made by authority without group discussion, decision by an expert,
decision by averaging individualsÊ opinions, decision made by authority after
group discussion, decision by minority, decision by majority vote and decision
by consensus. Decision by consensus may be the most useful tool and has
positive long-standing results regarding team decision making.
Ć There are several tools or techniques that can be used to help you come to an
appropriate decision. These tools help you to map out the likely consequences
of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors, and choose the best
course of action to take. Examples of such decision-making tools include:
 Grid Analysis: Selecting between good options;
 Decision Trees: Choosing between options by projecting likely outcomes;
 PMI: Weighing the pros and cons of a decision;

 Pareto Analysis: Selecting the most important changes to make;
 Paired Comparison Analysis: Evaluating the relative importance of

different options;
 Force Field Analysis: Analysing the pressures for and against change;
 Six Thinking Hats: Looking at a decision from all points of view; and
 Cost/Benefit Analysis: Seeing whether a change is worth making.
Authoritarian decision making Group decision making

Developmental discussion PMI
Free discussion Tree analysis
Grid analysis

1. There are two major approaches to decision making in an organisation,

namely the authoritarian method and the group method. Compare the two
methods.
2. There are several strategies used for choosing decisions. Give one example
and briefly explain it.
3. There are seven methods/processes that a team might use to make a

decision. What are these seven methods? Discuss and compare the
advantages and disadvantages of any two.
4. There are several tools that can be used to come to an appropriate decision.
These tools help you to map out the likely consequences of decisions, work
out the importance of individual factors and choose the best course of action
to take Illustrate with an example the use of one of these tools.
5. Differentiate between Pareto Analysis and Paired Compromise Analysis.
6. What is the PMI decision making technique? When is it best to use it?
Bellamy, L., Evans, D. L., Linder, D. E., McNeill, B. W., & Raupp, G. (1994). Team
training workbook. Arizona State University. Retrieved from
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teamwkbk.pdf.
Butler, G. A. (2007). Whole brain thinking. Retrieved from http://holistic-

personal-development.com/2007/11/13/whole-brain-thinking/
Dudiy. S. (2005). Use a decision tree analysis to systematically arrive at your

smartest choice. Retrieved from
http://www.time-managementguide.com/decision-tree.html
Infinite Innovations Ltd. (2006). Retrieved from www.brainstorming.co.uk
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2000). Group theory and group skills (7th ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

MindTools.com. (2010). Decision making techniques. Retrieved from

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TED.htm
Ministry of Education (New Zealand). (n.a.). The evidence-driven decision making

cycle_e.php
Swinton, L. (n.a.). Kurt LewinÊs force field analysis: Decision making made easy.
Retrieved from http://trans4mind.com/counterpoint/swinton4.s html
Wikipedia. (2010). Decision making. Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making

Topic  Research on
Thinking and
10 Problem
Solving
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the major antecedents of the science of psychology;
2. Explain the psychology of thinking;
3. Identify and describe the various concepts of problem solving;
4. Discuss the research carried out in problem solving and reasoning;
and
5. Explain the transition to the new cognitive era.
 INTRODUCTION
Mental representations and mental computations are the two main issues that
characterise modern psychology. Most individuals feel that thinking is solely
related to something internal or cognitive rather than behavioural. In other words,
thinking is something that takes place almost invisibly and, therefore, we have no
direct observational access to it. Thoughts about thinking date back to early
philosophers like Aristotle. We will discover some of the modern theories about
thinking in this topic. And we will explore a little further on the research about the
thinking process related to problem solving and reasoning later.

184  TOPIC 10 RESEARCH ON THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
10.1 MAJOR ANTECEDENTS OF THE SCIENCE

OF PSYCHOLOGY
Thinking is carried out on versions of the external world called representations
existing in the human brain. In addition, thinking also involves processes that
work to modify or enhance these representations, which are the functional or
computational aspects of thought. According to Dellarosa (1988), even the earliest
efforts to understand human thought, in philosophy and other domains of inquiry,
conversed to either or both of these issues of representation and computation.
ACTIVITY 10.1
The thinking routine is a helpful tool in making thinking a visible
process. One thinking routine that we have found to be useful in many
settings involves two key questions: „What's going on here?‰ and „What
do you see that makes you say so?‰ Discuss these two key questions in a
classroom setting.
10.1.1 Associationism
Associationism, the first movement within science and philosophy to describe in a
formal sense the problems of representation and computation that extends as far
back to Aristotle, states that the world is represented within ourselves, and our
behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas. According to John
Locke (Figure 10.1), an English philosopher who characterised psychology as the
study of mental life, exerts that the mind represents the world as a network of
ideas, interrelated to another through experiences. An idea can be defined as the
irreducible representational unit of human thought that represents meaning,
knowledge and abstraction. Whatever the human mind can comprehend is
represented by a set of complex ideas that is analysable into its component
elemental ideas. Locke went on by insisting that ideas are not inborn or innate, but
rather developed from experiences (Boring, 1950). Locke, states that the human
mind without experience is like a blank slate; thus experience both engraves its
message on this slate and leaves behind signs of itself which translates into ideas.

TOPIC 10 RESEARCH ON THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING  185
Figure 10.1: John Locke

Source: http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/lock.htm
Complex ideas are the result of the binding and association of simple ideas. The
level of complexity and connectedness among ideas develop from childhood into
adulthood through experiences. The two experimental sources of simple ideas are
our senses that notice changes in our surroundings and the mind itself, through
reflection upon its own activity. Hence, the mind is able of being conscious of its
own matter and processes; a phenomenon known as introspection. Due to the fact
that the mind is fundamentally independent of obvious behaviour, an individualÊs
capability to explain it seems to be the only way its activity can be known. This
again assumes a certain degree of awareness of mental representation and/or
computation.
The principles that ruled the association of ideas and have stood the test of time
and data include:
(a) Contiguity: Two ideas that happen together in time or in space are likely to
be associated or linked;
(b) Similarity: The higher the degree of similarity between two ideas, the greater
their probability of being associated; and
(c) Repetition: The more frequent two ideas come about together, the greater
their strength of association.

Subsequently, British philosophers, James Mill and his son John Stuart Mill,
differentiated between sensations and ideas as basic classes of elements in the
mind. According to them, sensations are the primary elements of consciousness
from which ideas, which are pure abstractions, are drawn from. They developed
the criteria of strength which included:
(a) Permanence: The more persistent an association as time passes by, the
greater its initial strength;
(b) Certainty: The more confident the individual of an association, the greater
the strength; and
(c) Facility: The greater the speed and effortlessness with which an association
comes by, the greater its strength.
10.1.2 Faculties of the Mind

According to the Scottish School of Philosophy (Boring, 1950), the mind is not a
set of ideas or representations of the world but a set of faculties, powers, or
computational capacities that operate on incoming sensations. Their main
disagreement to Associationism was its importance on elementary elements,
which among other things appeared to go against the conventional religious
notions of the unity of the mind and soul prominent at the time.
However, as time passed, psychology drew closer to Associationism. Thomas

Brown proposed that it was necessary to invoke the principle of association or
representation, along with faculties, to account for the succession of thoughts that
seem to be typical of mental life. Brown proposed a series of laws that guided
associational processes and accounted for the finer differentiations among ideas
such as relative frequency, recency and vividness.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Aristotle introduced another principle to govern the association of ideas
called the „The Law of Contrast‰. What do you understand from this
theory?

ACTIVITY 10.2
Brown extended the principles of Associationism by being the first to
identify the secondary laws of Association. Primary laws accounted for
the transformation of simple ideas into complex ideas. The secondary
laws, however, explained why one association would be stronger than
another. Carry out a search on the internet on these six secondary laws
of association.
10.2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THINKING

In general, early American psychologists were more concerned with the „whys‰
and „hows‰ of consciousness and behaviour than with the „whats‰. Importance
was placed on the functional significance of the mind, on its role in the adaptation
of the organism to the environment, and on its properties as a mechanism that
controls human behaviour.
10.2.1 William James

A theorist and a systematiser whose fundamental position on psychology was set
forth in a classic book entitled Principles of Psychology (1890). According to James,
the human mind can be described as an array of functions and consciousness as a
dynamic stream of interacting events. He characterised psychology as the study of
an adaptive process. Being a person who believed in practicality, he attempted
to describe both behaviour and consciousness through the concept of the mind
as a quasi-biological organ whose function(s) can be used for environmental
adaptation. Besides its greater intricacy, abstractness and complexity, the mind is
almost similar with any other bodily structure such as the heart or the lungs. In
addition, according to him, the mind has also evolved in human beings to a point
where its functions are more versatile and pervasive than those of any other single
organ.

10.2.2 Functionalism
Functionalism mainly focused on consciousness and Elementism, and was led by
William James and John Dewey. JamesÊs principles were the foundation of
Functionalism, however, they were enhanced by the insights and observations of
Dewey and others.
(a) The Significance of Consciousness

Although the importance of consciousness was not disagreed by
functionalists, its position as the primary problem for psychology was.
Consciousness was treated by the functionalists much as mediators and
symbolic processes.
(b) DeweyÊs Theory of Thinking

Dewey (1910) defined thinking as a multi-staged, goal-oriented process that
possesses the following characteristics:
(i) Recognition of a problem, or a „felt difficulty‰;
(ii) Location and definition of the problem and the isolation of its relevant
features;
(iii) Formulation of possible alternative solutions;
(iv) Thinking over or reasoning through the various possibilities to

determine the most likely candidate solution; and
(v) Testing the selected solution possibilities.
A stage-like analysis of thought was later refined by Graham Wallas based

on a survey of anecdotal evidence on the symbolic processes of creative
scientists. The four stages of creative acts include:
(i) Preparation: The collection and assembly of problem-relevant

information;
(ii) Incubation: The pondering period;

(iii) Illumination or insight: The conception of a solution; and
(iv) Verification: The process ensuring that the solution is effective.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Define the term „pragmatism‰. In what way was William James a
pragmatist?
2. You are having tough time thinking about your current job due to
the heavy workload and the difficult attitude of your boss. Explain
how you would apply DeweyÊs theory of thinking in handling the
above scenario.
10.2.3 Later Functionalism

According to studies carried out by Thorndike (1898), learning and problem
solving are, in general, gradual processes based on the increasing strength of the
connection between the stimulus situation and certain response possibilities. The
law of repetition or exercise and The Law of Effect strengthens the connection
between stimulus and response.
The Law of Effect which is rather similar to the modern-day principle of

reinforcement states that an act or response that is followed by a pleasurable state
of affairs tends to become associated with the stimulus situation effective at the
time of its occurrence. On the other hand, the connection between a response that
is accompanied by a displeasing state of affairs and the stimulus to which it occurs
tends to be weakened. Due to the fact that experimental data of both human and
animal subjects appeared similar, Thorndike stated that responses are linked
directly to the stimulus situation as it is sensed by the subject.

10.2.4 Behaviourism
The system introduced by Watson (1924), called Behaviourism, placed behaviour
or performance as the focus of attention; making it the fundamental element in
psychology. According to behaviourists, it is of no use trying to understand
the inaccessible and possibly non-existing consciousness when the real data of
psychology are open, observable and available to direct measurement. The Law of
Effect: Pain avoidance vs. Pleasure theory was formalised by Edward L. Thorndike
(Figure 10.2) who suggested that behaviour, which results in pleasing outcomes,
tends to be repeated; while behaviour that leads to distasteful consequences, does
not.
Figure 10.2: Edward L. Thorndike

Source: http://www-distance.syr.edu/pvitaelt.html
Watson is of the opinion that inferred conscious states and processes are
excess baggage, while knowledge of the regularities of performance is all that a
psychologist really requires to be interested in.
Watson further added that we should eventually find out that much of what is
considered mentalistic is in reality unspoken or miniaturised motor activity,
mainly in the voice mechanism. Words, also known as symbols, are responses that
we have learned to apply to objects and events in the environment.

One can think of these objects or events in terms of their verbal counterparts. When
we „think to ourselves‰ about them, we are basically suppressing the obvious
verbal response of naming to a point where it becomes difficult or impossible for
others to find out. However, with suitable sensitive recording and measuring
equipments, we should find proof of them in tiny laryngeal movements. Hence,
thinking is actually sub-audible speech or what is known as the motor theory of
thinking, which places the emphasis on muscular or glandular changes rather than
on central or ideational changes.
Results carried out by Jacobson (1930) revealed that specific patterns of muscular
activity accompany and correlate with the content of thought process. In addition,
Freeman (1931) reported that elementary mental activities could be facilitated by
inducing an increase in generalised muscular tone in the subject. This leads to
the conclusion that there is a correlation between muscular (especially vocal)
movements and thinking. In other words, it may be that mental activity is in some
sense dependent on certain specific muscular tones. Nevertheless, the evidence has
been inadequate to convince all psychologists that thought and action are identical
or that thought can be represented completely by patterns of peripheral activity.
10.2.5 Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt is a German word which means „organised whole‰ or „configuration‰.
The believers of this psychology feel that psychological experience is anti-
elementaristic or in other words, not made up of discrete representational
elements, but an organised, dynamic field of events that interact or mutually affect
one another. An organism reacts to the whole configuration when it experiences
its environment. Properties of the whole psychological field are different from
the sum of its individual parts, and thus no analysis into parts can be entirely
successful. It also states that sensations, perceptions, images, associations, reflexes
and the like are not accepted as meaningful elemental psychological units. In
order to understand psychological phenomena, one must consider a system of
stimulation in which the change in any part can affect all the other parts.

(a) Gestalt Description of Thinking

In the Gestalt point of view, a problem is considered to exist when there
are unresolved tensions or stresses in the psychological field, resulting from
some interaction of perceptual and/or memory factors. Thinking takes
place as the stresses work themselves out, which in turn force the thinking
organism into action. It emphasises the computational process that follows
the principles of field theory from physics. Past experience with related
problems is no guarantee for solution, however, solutions arise from the
problem as it is perceived. Thinking is a process of resolving field stresses.
Looking at the problem from many different angles is vital before the
interaction of events leads to a clearer picture of a solution. In other words,
the moment one analyses the problem correctly, the solution appears almost
immediately. The Gestalt theory believes that there is a clear and strong
relation between thinking and perception where both are controlled by
practically the same principle of field theory. The main difference between
the two is that thinking occurs in a symbolic manner and is less under the
control of external factors.
(b) Evaluation
The emphasis of Gestalt psychologists on the fundamental and basic
importance of insight as a principle of learning has got them involved in a
long-standing controversy with individuals who regard learning as a
gradual process. The arrival of Gestalt psychology was during the times
when experimentalism was strongly in the grip of Behaviourism that
pictured the organism as a machine, subject to the many different sources of
external stimulation and responding to them in an indispensible automatic
fashion. Overall, Gestalt theory assisted psychology to attain a more
balanced and practical view of complex human behaviour that would have
been difficult to be described solely on the basis of Behaviourism.

SELF-CHECK 10.3
Similarity, continuation, closure, proximity and figure and ground are

among the Gestalt principles. In the following examples, identify the
principle that is being applied:
(a) Hint: Do the 11 objects that appear as a single unit look alike?
(b) Hint: Although the panda is not complete, enough is present for the
eye to complete the shape; the viewerÊs perception completes a
shape.

10.3 RESEARCH ON CONCEPTS

The two important questions that are required to understand human conceptual
behaviour are:
(a) How are concepts defined?
(b) How are concepts acquired?
10.3.1 Common-Element Concepts

Hull (1920) defined concepts as the abstraction of elements common to a category
of stimuli and the attachment of a single response to those elements. He added that
new stimuli sharing those elements would bring out the same response, producing
a phenomenon called stimulus generalisation. According to Hull, the learning
process was relatively unconscious and automatic. However, the two ideas, that
concepts are defined by common elements and that concept learning is a gradual,
automatic associative process, remained popular for a long time. In contrast,
Osgood (1953) felt that the common-elements approach was too restrictive and did
not exactly capture the meaning of concept formation. Furthermore, many
concepts not based on common elements that require the learner to show only a
consistent response did not differentiate between simple labelling and a more
complete understanding of a concept.
10.3.2 Mediational Processes and Hypotheses

In contrast to the common-element concept, Smoke (1932) studied the learning of
concepts based not on common physical elements but on common perceptual
relations or immediate sensory experiences. Osgood (1953) stated that common
perceptual relations were insufficient to describe many concepts. A good example
here would be the common perception that Singapore, Malaysia and Myanmar are
all nations. However, Osgood further added that the key notion was that concepts
reflect the mediational processes generated by the concept learner and not by
external factors.

Heidbreder (1946) explained the idea that concepts can be based on different kinds
of criteria. Nevertheless, none of the concepts she demonstrated was based on
common physical elements; in fact, the categories were based on either concrete
objects (e.g., trees), spatial forms (e.g., anything circular) or numbers (e.g., five
objects). According to HeidbrederÊs research, members of a concept always
had „something in common‰, however, that „something‰ may be complex and
abstract. As for Osgood, coming up with a common symbolic response to
physically different stimuli was essentially different from responding to common
physical elements.
Both Hull (1920) and Heidbreder (1924) had contradicting views on the concept-
learning process. In HullÊs approach, learning was passive where stimulus
elements get conditioned to responses in an automatic fashion. On the other hand,
Heidbreder reported two types of behaviour, namely participant and spectator
behaviour. As for participants, they formulated and actively tested hypotheses on
the basis of the concepts they were learning. In contrast, spectators, normally after
a series of wrong responses, responded „randomly‰ in categorising stimuli,
waiting for a new hypothesis to suggest itself.
The two important conclusions that we can arrive at this points are that:
(a) Concept learners at times actively pursue their ideas about what a particular
concept might be; and
(b) A concept-learning task may be approached in more than one method.
10.3.3 Strategies and Kinds of Concepts

Great emphasis was focused on the use of strategies for obtaining concepts. Several
different strategies were explained, with each strategy considered in terms of its
logical, information-gaining properties as well as its cognitive strain. Bruner and
colleagues (1956) described cognitive strain by the load on memory and inference.
These researchers also realised that there could be conflict between maximising
information gain and minimising cognitive strain, in order that a concept learner
may use a less-than-optimal strategy to keep cognitive strain to a tolerable level.

A strategy called conservative focusing applicable to learning common-element

concepts under the selection procedure, both maximises information gain and at
the same time keeps cognitive strain to a low level. This strategy consists of
choosing an example that differs in one and only one characteristic from the initial
positive example, taking note whether the chosen example is positive or negative.
This strategy is an excellent method to identify a conjunctive (connective) concept
(Figure 10.3).
Figure 10.3: A concept formation study (Bruner et al. (1956)

Source: http://www.palgrave.com/psychology/malim/pdfs/chap_15.pdf

Successive scanning is a another strategy introduced by Bruner and colleagues

(1956) which consists of making a guess on what the target concept may be and
simply holding on to it until it is proven wrong, followed by making another guess,
and so on. It was found that as the concept-learning task becomes more „stressful‰,
the probability increases that learners will employ simpler and less effective
strategies.
In logic, correct predictions usually lead to maintaining hypotheses while wrong

predictions ought to be followed by employing new hypotheses that are in
harmony with the information presented. The type of instance (positive or
negative) does not matter; however, it can be expected to affect performance due
to the greater processing demands normally linked with negative instances. These
researchers further added that learners are least likely to produce correct
inferences from trials involving wrong predictions about negative instances. They
also pointed out that different strategies have unequal chances of coming across
the various types of trials, hence providing a trial-by-trial processing explanation
of overall differences in strategy success rates.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Link up with a friend and simulate BrunerÊs procedure in the following
way: Take a pack of playing cards which has attributes of suits (hearts,
diamonds, spades and clubs), colours (black and red) and numbers (ace
to ten, Jack, Queen and King). Ask your friend to select a concept and go
through BrunerÊs procedure. First, get your friend to point out a positive
example of the concept selected, then select further cards and for each
ask, „Is that one?‰ Take both of the strategies described above in turn and
decide for yourself which is the most effective one.
10.4 RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING

There has been rational agreement that the essential characteristics of a problem
are that an individual has a goal, but lacks a clear or well-studied path to the goal.
Hence the importance in research on problem solving has been on response
discovery or in other words, how the individual arrives at effective, goal-achieving
behaviour.

10.4.1 Trial and Error

Due to the fact that a problem solver has to find a suitable solution, it is expected
that a crucial activity is trying different approaches and making errors until the
right approach is found. Trial and error is linked with the view that obtaining a
solution is a gradual, undirected process that does not involve perception or
comprehension of problem requirements or structure. In his studies on animal
behaviour (Figure 10.4), Thorndike (1898) placed a hungry cat in a cage where the
food could not be reached from inside the cage unless the cat triggered some
mechanism by pulling a string or pushing a pole somewhere in the cage.
Figure 10.4: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box

Source: http://www.nickyhayes.co.uk/nicky/OHP/ch18ohp.html
Thorndike observed that over repeated trials, the catsÊ behaviour gradually
changed, and after many trials the animals would make relatively direct efforts to
activate the door-opening mechanism. He observed in this behavioural pattern,
no proof of the cat „seeing through‰ the problem. In fact, problem solving was
regarded as a process in which unsuccessful responses were gradually eliminated
and successful responses „stamped in‰. An important characteristic of the puzzle-
box problems was that the solution mechanism was concealed and the critical
elements of the situation were not readily available for inspection.
Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954) stated clearly that trial and error can at times
be necessary, as a strategy of exploring the environment and obtaining information
necessary. In addition, even hypothesis testing could be regarded as a form of trial
and error.

10.4.2 Insight
Thorndike concluded that no perception of critical relations was involved. On the
other hand, Yerkes (1916) reported a sudden shift from trial and error to solution
in chimpanzees, who exhibited good retention of solutions and some transfer to
new situations. Kohler (1925; 1976) realised that when presented with a problem,
the apes tried several different methods such as stretching, jumping, reaching out
for or even bashing any objects that were handy enough. After a certain amount of
time, these chimpanzees would go into a period of calmness, perhaps thinking
thoroughly on its mission. Eventually, with a sudden and planned movement, the
ape would utilise the critical object(s) to obtain the particular fruit (Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5: KohlerÊs most well-known work on chimp cognition was in the use of tools
to gain access to food
Source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/english/files/wolfgang_koehler.htm
Kohler indicated that there was a significant variation in the time required to arrive
at a solution where some animals solved the task in less than 15 minutes while
some required hours before being able to find a solution. Furthermore, Kohler also
observed that the positioning of the objective and the implement in the animalÊs
visual field was vital. The positioning of the fruit and the critical implement at
opposite ends of the cage drastically reduced the attainment of the solution due to
the fact that the animal was not able to look at both these objects simultaneously.
Hence, the effect of visual separation was particularly crucial on the first exposure
to a problem situation, a finding that is in harmony with the notion that solving a
problem involves a change in perception of the situation.

10.4.3 Problem-Solving Set

The phenomenon of set happens in many situations, reflecting a state of
preparation for a particular input and response. In most situations where a quick
but accurate reaction is desired, sets serve as positive purposes. Thus, to be
prepared actually means to detect and react more quickly than would otherwise
be the case. The positive effects of set mentioned above are best understood in
terms of general preparedness. Another aspect of set is to prepare an individual
for a specific type of input or response.
As stated by Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954), the term „direction‰ proposed by

Maier (1930) which guides problem-solving efforts, was a kind of set. Directions
are not habits but indicate the influence of the problem situation. In other words,
the structure of the problem situation was maintained to affect the direction that
would be followed. Maier (1940) differentiated between habitual directions and
new directions as summarised in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Habitual and New Directions
Habitual Directions New Directions

Are overcome when problem solving Are created when problem solving
requires doing something new. requires doing something new.
Results in reproducing old solutions. Give rise to a new combination of
experiences.
Accounted for by memory and associative Require a direction that is established in
processes. the problem situation and controls
memory integration.
Functional fixedness, an example of negative set, is a term proposed by Duncker

(1945) that refers to the fact that an object with a strong expected function cannot
be observed as playing a different role. In a classic experiment explaining
functional fixedness, Duncker (1945) provided experimental subjects a candle, a
box of nails, and several other objects, and asked them to attach the candle to the
wall so that it did not drip onto the table below (Figure 10.6).

Figure 10.6: Classic candle box experiment that illustrates functional fixedness
He found that the most of the subjects either tried to nail the candle directly to the
wall or to glue it onto the wall by melting it. In fact, very few of them came up with
the idea of using the inside of the nail box as a candle-holder and nailing this to
the wall. In DunckerÊs terms the participants were „fixated‰ on the boxÊs usual
function of holding nails and could not re-conceptualise it in an approach that
allowed them to solve the problem.
Research on functional fixedness stressed on uses for particular objects. A rather

different approach to the problem-solving set concerned the dominance of a
particular type of response to situations with a high degree of surface similarity.
The usual procedure was to provide individuals with solving a series of similar
problems in „the same way‰, followed by testing them with similar problems that
may or must be solved using a different approach. A suitable example for this was
demonstrated by the „water jar‰ problem (Luchin, 1942). In this experiment,
individuals were provided with three different jars with specified capacities,
however, without any gradations. They were required to show how they would
obtain a particular volume of water. For instance, a volume of 100 quarts can be
obtained from three separate jars holding 21 quarts (jar A), 127 quarts (jar B) and 3
quarts (jar C) by firstly filling the largest jar B, followed by filling the second largest
jar A once from B, and finally filling the smallest jar C twice from B. This would
finally leave a total volume of 100 quarts in the largest jar B as demonstrated by
the equation B ă A ă 2C.

SELF-CHECK 10.4
Imagine that you have three jars, A, B and C. For each of the seven
problems below, the capacity of the three jars is listed. You must use these
jars in order to obtain the amount of liquid specified in the Goal column.
You may obtain the goal amount by adding or subtracting the quantities
listed in A, B and C.
Problem A B C Goal
1 24 130 3 100
2 9 44 7 21
3 21 58 4 29
4 12 160 25 98
5 19 75 5 46
6 23 49 3 20
7 18 48 4 22
10.4.4 Transfer of Principles

Good transfer to appropriate new situations is presumed to be a hallmark of
insightful problem solving. For instance, Thorndike (1898) found that cats who had
mastered the solution to one puzzle-box learned another modified version of the
problem in a shorter period of time. Similarly, Kohler (1925; 1976) reported that
apes that have used a box as a platform to obtain a hanging fruit have a higher
tendency to utilise other objects such as tables or stones to achieve their goals. The
studies carried out by Harlow (1949) concurred with the above and indicated that
extensive practice with several examples of object-discrimination problems
resulted in monkeys being more efficient at solving problems.
Two different approaches were proposed in the study of problem-solving transfer

involving training before presenting the test problems. The first approach focused
on the training that stressed on the understanding of solution principles that
would produce better transfer (Katona, 1940; Bartlett, 1951). The second training
emphasised on „rote memorisation‰ of solutions.

10.5 RESEARCH ON REASONING

Reasoning can be defined as drawing inferences and evaluating available
information, and is in fact an important component of most thinking assignments.
An individual may employ a logically efficient strategy to solve a trouble-shooting
problem or on the other hand, derive suitable inferences from a trial in a concept-
learning experiment. The process of reasoning uses tasks that stress the utilisation
of information mainly related to the assignment. Psychologists were able to point
out the differences between „ordinary‰ human reasoning and the command of
formal logic.
10.5.1 Atmosphere Effect

A conventional way of training and assessing reasoning is called syllogism. In this
method, two premises and a conclusion are presented where a total of three terms
are involved. Generally, the conclusion connects the two terms that have not
appeared simultaneously in the premises. In this event, the most important
question is whether the conclusion follows logically from the premises presented.
A suitable example is presented as follows:
Premise 1: All X is N.
Premise 2: Some N is Y.
Conclusion: Some X is Y.
The conclusion given is invalid as the conclusion does not logically follow the
premises presented. Studies have shown that people frequently accepted
conclusions that are invalid.
Woodworth and Sells (1935) suggested that the atmosphere created by the
premises was a vital determinant of these errors. Generally, the atmosphere
indicated the modifiers found in premises (all, some, no) with the view that
negative premises created a negative atmosphere and so on. It is believed one
negative premise is able to determine the atmosphere, and hence conclude the type
of invalid conclusion individuals would accept. In addition, Sells (1936) found that
invalid conclusions were frequently accepted if supported by the atmosphere.

Deductive reasoning is concerned with syllogisms in which the conclusion follows

logically from the premises. A suitable example of deductive reasoning is provided
as follows:
Premise 1: Amar knows that one needs winter clothing in cold weather.
Premise 2: It is very cold in London during winter.
Conclusion: Amar needs winter clothing in London.
In contrast, the process where simple observations of a particular type are made
and applied through generalisation to a totally different problem in order to make
a decision is called inductive reasoning. A good example of inductive reasoning is
given as follows:
Premise: All grasshoppers seen by Eric and his wife are green.
Conclusion: Therefore, they reason that all grasshoppers on earth are green.
Figure 10.7 shows the relationship between deductive and inductive reasoning
whereas Table 10.2 exhibits the differences between both types of reasoning.
Figure 10.7: Relationship between deductive and inductive reasoning

Table 10.2: Differences between Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

Premises Stated as facts or general Based on observations on specific
statements. cases.
Conclusion Conclusion is more special than the Conclusion is more general than the
information the premises provide. information the premises provide.
It is reached directly by applying It is reached by generalising the
logical rules to the premises. premisesÊ information.
Validity If the premises are true, than the If the premises are true, than the
conclusion must be true. conclusion is probably true.
Usage More difficult to use. One needs Used often in everyday life.
facts that are definitely true. Evidence is used instead of proven
facts.
10.5.2 Content Effects

As far as logic is concerned, the particular type of content found in a reasoning
task is not important. In other words, regardless of what X, Y and N may be, the
validity of the conclusion to a syllogism remains unchanged. However,
researchers continued to explore if the reasoning of individuals may be affected by
problem content. The difference between abstract and concrete content is
explained by the following two syllogisms:
Syllogism A (Abstract syllogism): Syllogism B (Concrete syllogism):

Given: All PÊs are RÊs Given: All elephants are mammals
Given: All QÊs are RÊs Given: All cows are mammals
Therefore: All PÊs are QÊs Therefore: All elephants are cows.

It is believed that a significant percentage of students in tertiary education will

accept the invalid conclusion drawn to the abstract syllogism which has a slight
advantage as compared to the concrete syllogism (Wilkins, 1928). Overall,
individuals basically reason better with concrete materials that are believed to be
more familiar. Morgan and Morton (1944) reported that individuals more often
followed biases as compared to atmosphere or logic. Subsequently, researchers
revealed bias effects of different strengths; interest in content effects broadened to
other reasoning tasks; and the complexity of issues unfolded over time.
SELF-CHECK 10.5
1. Adam: IÊve noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it
comes back down, so I guess this next time when I kick it up, it will
come back down, too.
Razak: ThatÊs NewtonÊs Law. Everything that goes up must come

down. And so, if you kick the ball up, it must come down.
What reasoning is being used by both Adam and Razak?
2. Which of the following claims would be best expressed by

deductive reasoning?
A. CaliforniaÊs population growth rate slowed last year.
B. California residents appreciate their good weather.
C. California residents are residents of the United States.
D. More cars are registered in California than in any other state.
3. Which of the following claims would be best expressed by

inductive reasoning?
A. Your first quiz grade usually indicates how you will do in the
course.
B. The final exam accounts for 30% of the course grade.
C. Late papers will not be accepted.
D. GravityÊs Rainbow is required reading in your course.

10.6 TRANSITION TO THE NEW COGNITIVE

ERA
Research in thinking took a new turn beginning 1960 where it started to show
significant dynamism, specifically on the concept learning and problem solving.
Cognitive concepts such as hypothesis, strategy, heuristics, encoding and retrieval
were used in discussion of concept learning and problem solving. Furthermore,
the development of information theory (Shannon & Weaver, 1949) guided
psychological researchers to investigate tasks in terms of information load and to
pay attention to how information is processed. Linguists such as Noam Chomsky
(1957) tackled behaviourist accounts of language by focusing on the creative
aspects of language, namely producing and comprehending novel sentences.
These researchers suggested an alternative account based on differentiating
between competence (knowledge) and performance (action), explaining linguistic
competence in terms of abstract rules, and disagreed that language development
required the postulation of a biologically given language-acquisition device. The
theories set by linguists were essentially different from behaviourist accounts, and
their arguments were rather convincing.
Psychology of thinking was greatly affected by the appearance of computer

technology which were considered as systems for processing symbols, for
operating on information. Newell et al. (1958) summarised a theory of human
thinking based on the fact that human beings were information-processing
systems and carried out a thorough comparison between human and computer
processing. The emergence of computer technology backed up the hypothesis of
„unseen‰ thinking processes. This led to the study of more complex activities and
a novel type of mechanism as an account of human behaviour.
 Associationism states that the world is represented within ourselves and our
behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas.
 The mind is a set of faculties, powers, or computational capacities that operate

on incoming sensations.
 William James described the human mind as an array of functions, and

consciousness as a dynamic stream of inter-reacting events.

 Functionalism mainly focused on consciousness and elementism.
 Learning and problem solving are gradual processes based on the increasing
strength of the connection between the stimulus situation and certain response
possibilities.
 Behaviourism places behaviour or performance at the focus of attention, and

made it the fundamental fact of psychology.
 Gestalt psychology believes that psychological experiences are anti-

elementaristic or not made up of discrete representational elements, but rather
an organised, dynamic field of events that interact or mutually affect one
another.
 Common-element concepts define concepts as the abstraction of elements

common to a category of stimuli and the attachment of a single response to
those elements.
 Trial and error is linked with the view that obtaining a solution is a gradual,
undirected process that does not involve perception or comprehension of the
problem requirements or structure.
 Functional fixedness refers to the fact that an object with a strong expected
function cannot be observed as playing a different role.
 Syllogism is a conventional way of training and assessing reasoning.
 Deductive reasoning is concerned with syllogisms in which the conclusion

follows logically from the premises.
 Inductive reasoning is the process where a simple observation is made and

applied through generalisation to a totally different problem to make a
decision.
 Transition to the new cognitive era included concepts such as hypothesis,

strategy, heuristics, encoding, and retrieval, and was greatly affected by the
emergence of computer technology.

Associationism Elementism
Atmosphere effect Functional fixedness
Behaviourism Functionalism
Common elements Gestalt psychology
Content effects Inductive reasoning
Consciousness Successive scanning
Conservative focusing Syllogism
Deductive reasoning Trial and error
1. State the two main problems that characterise modern psychology.
2. Describe the principles that ruled the association of ideas and have stood the
test of time and data.
3. State the four stages of analysis of thoughts as introduced by Graham Wallas.
4. Briefly explain „Behaviourism‰ as introduced by John B. Watson.
5. What do you understand by the term „Gestalt Psychology‰?
6. Define common-element concept.
7. Compare and contrast between „conservative focusing‰ and „successive

scanning‰.
8. State the three major differences between habitual directions and new
directions.
9. What are the benefits of good transfer to appropriate new situations in

problem solving?
10. Briefly describe the „atmosphere effect‰.

Bartlett, F. C. (1951). The mind at work and play. London: Allen.
Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology. New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts.
Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. New York:
Wiley.
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton.
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The psychology of human thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: Heath.
Duncker, K. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58: (5, Whole

No. 270).
Freeman, G. L. (1931). Mental activity and the muscular process. Psychological

Review, 38: 428ă447.
Harlow, H. F. (1949). The formation of learning sets. Psychological Review, 56:

51ă65.
Heidbreder, E. (1946). The attainment of concepts: II The problem. Journal of

General Psychology, 35: 191ă223.
Hull, C. L. (1920). Quantitative aspects of the evolution of concepts. Psychological

Monographs (Whole No. 123).
Jacobson, E. (1930). Electrical measurements of neuro-muscular states during

mental activities: IV. Evidence of contraction of specific muscles during
imagination. American Journal of Physiology, 93: 703ă712.
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt
Katona, G. (1940). Organizing and memorizing. New York: Columbia University

Press.
Kohler, W. (1925; 1976). The mentality of apes. New York: Liveright.

Luchins, A. S. (1942). Mechanization in problem solving: The effect of Einstellung.

Psychological Monographs, 54 (Whole No. 248)
Maier, N. R. F. (1930). Reasoning in humans: I. On direction. Journal of

Comparative Psychology, 10: 115ă143.
Maier, N. R. F. (1940). The behavior mechanisms concerned with problem solving.

Psychological Review, 47: 43ă58.
Morgan, J. J. B., & Morton, J. T. (1944). The distortion of syllogistic reasoning

produced by personal convictions. Journal of Social Psychology, 20: 39ă59.
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Elements of a theory of human
problem solving. Psychological Review, 65, 151ă16.
Osgood, C. E. (1953). Method and theory in experimental psychology. New York:

Oxford University Press.
Sells, S. B. (1936). The atmosphere effect: An experimental study of reasoning.

Archives of Psychology of New York, No. 200.
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication.

Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Smoke, K. L. (1932). An objective study of concept formation. Psychological

Monographs, 42 (Whole No. 191).
Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An Experimental study of the

associative processes in animals. Psychological Monographs, No. 8.
Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence. New York: Macmillan.
Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism. New York: PeopleÊs Institute.
Wilkins, M. C. (1928). The effect of changed material on ability to do formal

syllogistic reasoning. Archives of Psychology of New York, No. 102.
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New York: Holt.
Woodworth, R. S., & Sells, S. B. (1935). An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic

reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18: 451ă460.
Yerkes, R. M. (1916). The mental life of monkeys and apes, a study of ideational
behavior. Behavior Monographs, No. 12.
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SBFS1103

Thinking Skills and Problem Solving

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Dr Haresh Kumar Kantilal

Moderators: Assoc Prof Dr Arifin Hj Zainal

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Thinking Skills 1

Topic 2 Critical and Creative Thinking 16

Topic 3 Identifying Reasons and Conclusions 40

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

3.8 Evaluating Inferences 56

Topic 4 Problem Solving 63

Topic 5 Development of Problem Solving 92

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Problem-solving Strategies 114

Topic 7 Problem-solving Tools 130

Topic 8 Decision Making 147

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8.11 Risk 163

Topic 10 Research on Thinking and Problem Solving 183

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

10.5 Research on Reasoning 203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

2. Demonstrate the ability to think critically to solve problems in many

3. Evaluate the credibility of the statement or information and to make

4. Apply higher level thinking skills to analyse relevant information to make

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 discusses the definition and importance of thinking, ways to increase

Topic 3 discusses how to identify reasons and conclusions, examples of

Topic 4 presents alternative conceptual approaches to define a problem and

Topic 5 introduces the development of problem solving that includes strategic

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 introduces the different approaches to decision making and identifies

Topic 10 introduces the major antecedents in the science of psychology and

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Butterworth, J., & Thwaites, G. (2005). Thinking skills. Cambridge International

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

De Bono, E. (1985). Six thinking skills. London: Penguin Books.

De Bono, E. (2014). Lateral thinking. London: Penguin Books.

Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

Hurson, T. (2007). Think better: An innovatorÊs guide to productive thinking

John, C. (2006). Thinking critically. Houghton Mifflin Co.

Lumsdaine, E., & Lumsdaine, M. (1995). Creative problem solving. McGraw-Hill,

Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Thinking and problem solving: Handbook of perception

Vaughn, L. (2004). The power of critical thinking: Effective reasoning about

Wright L. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction to analytical reading and

Vaughn, L. (2004). The power of critical thinking: Effective reasoning about

Wright L. (2001). Critical thinking: An Introduction to analytical reading and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)