CHAPTER- I

INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In order to deal with the projected energy requirements, and address the
environmental concerns through the integration of more renewable energy sources, the
current electric power grid is required to undergo essential modernization. Advances to
the electric grid must also increase the efficiency of non-renewable energy source while
improving the performance of the electricity delivery system. In order to help meet these
challenges energy storage system can play a significant role by enhancing the operating
capabilities of power system ensuring its reliability and lowering the cost while reducing
future infrastructure investments. Moreover, energy storage system, as backup power, can
be essential for system stabilization services and emergency preparedness.
Energy storage systems are an instrumental tool for improving the power grid
reliability by regulating variable generations and improving smart grid and micro grid
functionality In smart grid and micro grid power system, storage devices provide
redundancy in a system with limited transmission capability, and for power system with
variable and changing load profiles. Different energy storage technologies have been
developed for various smart grid and micro grid applications.
Battery storage devices have been widely utilized for different applications.
However, for high power applications, battery storage systems come with several
challenges, such as the low power density, low life span and high cost. Compared with
the batteries, super capacitors have lower energy density but their power density is very
high, and they offer higher cyclic life and efficiency even during fast charge and
discharge process. Compact in size, super capacitors can store an incomparably higher
amount of energy than conventional capacitors and they can release that energy at a high
or low rate with capacitance ranges up to 2700 Farads. Also they can up to 10-20 times
more power than batteries. In this dissertation, new techniques for the control and energy
management of the hybrid battery-super capacitor storage systems are developed to
improve the performance of the system in terms of efficiency, power quality and
reliability.

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 Hybrid battery-super capacitor storage system can be classified in to two
categories: passive hybrid and active hybrid systems. The passive hybrid configuration is
the simplest configuration in which the super capacitor is directly connected to the
battery energy storage with no power management circuitry. The active hybrid
configuration utilizes the power converter or converters to more effectively regulate the
power sharing between the battery, super capacitor and the pulsed load.
1.1 LITERATURE SURVEY
i) M.E. Baran and N.R. Mahajan worked on “DC Distribution for industrial
systems: opportunities and challenges”. A prototype DC distribution system has been
simulated to investigate the issues. One of the issues focused is the interaction between
power converters that are used to convert AC to DC and DC to AC. Another challenging
issue investigated is the system grounding. These issues becomes challenging mainly due
to the neutral voltage shift associated with the power converters. The converter
interactions can be minimized with the proper filtering and control on converters. It
provides grounding scheme an effective solution by keeping the neutral voltages low
under normal conditions and by limiting the fault currents during the fault conditions.
ii) M. Farhadi, A. Mohamed and O. Mohammed, worked on “Connectivity and
Bidirectional Energy Transfer in DC micro grid Featuring Different voltage
characteristics”. The main focus is on how to achieve the best controllability and
performance levels of the bidirectional converter when it is linking a DC bus with a
relatively high voltage ripple to another with small ripple. A three phase full wave diode
rectifier can be used to achieve the high voltage ripple bus, and whereas a three phase
controllable IGBT based rectifier was used as a pure DC bus. The better controllability
and lower current ripple can be achieved by the proper selection of current and feedback.
iii) D. Salomonsson, L. Soder, A. Sannino worked on” An Adaptive control
system for a DC Micro grid for data centers” and the data centers are call for electric
power with high availability and a possibility to reduce the electric losses, and
consequently need for cooling. Here the proposed DC micro grid can be operated in
eight different operation modes are described, resulting in 23 transitions. The control
system tested in a package PSCAD/EMTDC.

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 To reduce the current transients experienced by grid connected AC/DC
converters, fast grid outage detection and switches are required.
iv) M. Falahi, B.K.L. Utler-purry and M. Ehsani worked on “Reactive Power
Coordination of shipboard power systems in presence of pulsed loads”. This paper
presents a new model predictive control based dynamic Volt/Var control scheme to
control voltage in system. This method is also able to control voltage of system during
the propulsion motor startup. The controller is tested in presence of high power pulsed
loads in the system.
v) J.M. Sudhoff, S.D, worked on “Reducing impact of pulsed power loads on
Micro grid power systems”. Here a new strategy is proposed for the pulsed loads. This
strategy is based on identifying the optimal charging profile.
1.2 ENERGY STORAGE APPLICATIONS
Energy storage devices are widely utilized for various applications to improve
the performance of the system. This section presents the application of these storage
devices in the power grid as well as the pulse loads.
1.2.1 POWER GRID
The aim of this section is to explain the most significant application of power
storage technologies for a power grid with a considerable penetration of renewable
energy.
1.2.2 PULSE LOAD
Utilization of high- power energy storage is significantly important in
telecommunication, shipboard and spacecraft power system. In these applications, there
are various types of loads with a common profile that have a high instantaneous power
requirement but a relatively low average power requirement.
Such a current behavior is collectively referred to as a pulsed load. The duration
of a such load typically ranges from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with power
levels that depends on the applications.
In the case of a single energy source, the high instantaneous power requirement
of a pulsed load can cause considerable power disturbances and thermal issues.

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 The possibility of introducing a high-power storage system, such as a super
capacitor with appropriate power electronic infrastructure and control strategies, will
highly improve the performance of the system.
In this case, the long time primary energy source only supplies the average
pulsed load requirement while a high - power energy storage supplies the dynamic power
requirements. As a result, the system configuration will have several advantages,
including less weight and volume of the system and elimination of thermal issues,
frequency fluctuations and voltage disturbances.
1.3 HYBRID ENERGY POWER SYSTEM
Most of the renewable energy resources have intermittent characteristics and
their output fluctuations on a daily and seasonal basis. Therefore, storage facilities play
an important role in safeguarding against disruptions in deliver and supply. Moreover,
each energy storage technology has different energy-power characteristics. The hybrid
combination of two or more power generation technologies, along with the storage
devices, can significantly improve the system performances. For example, a fuel cell
combined with a micro-turbine system efficiency than either source can possibly
achieve.
In a hybrid power system, all energy resources are converted in to supply
different types of loads while the energy can be stored in to mechanical, chemical,
thermal or electromagnetic form. In order to achieve full benefit from the system,
appropriate coordination and output power control of various sources in a hybrid system
are essential. Also, for proper power dispatch of the energy sources, each energy source
should be appropriately sized and controlled. This will allow the system to be sustainable
to the maximum extent possible and minimize the energy production cost, while reducing
greenhouse gas emission. The possible hybrid configuration of the power system for
connection of two or more energy sources are discussed. Then, the energy management
and control schemes for hybrid power system are presented.
1.3.1 HYBRID POWER SYSTEM CONFIGARATION
Since energy sources in a hybrid power system have different
characteristics, it is essential to properly standardize the hybridization framework and
procedure.

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 The hybrid power system can be connected in a micro grid, where local and
distributed sources and loads are connected together with autonomous operating
capabilities. In order to improve the robustness of the micro grid, the plug-and-play
operation capability also can be added to the system. The concept of plug-and-play
capability is to add or disconnect any grid components, namely generating power or load,
in to an existing system without requiring system reconfiguration. There are many
methods to connect energy sources to form a hyb rid power system. These methods
differ in their configuration scheme, and the types and the number of power converters.
The system configuration can be generally classified in to AC-coupled, DC-coupled,
hybrid AC/DC, and high frequency AC hybrid configurations.
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT
A power system with hybrid energy storage should be designed and
controlled properly to maintain the balance between the state of charge of battery storage
and ultra capacitor, while minimizing the system power losses. Currently, issues related
to the hybrid dc power system, such as the system configuration, energy management and
system efficiency for different loading schemes, are still an open problem.
1.5. OBJECTIVE
The hybrid energy storage system is an effective solution to provide a
reliable power with high efficiency in various power system .The main research objective
can be summarized as follow:
i. To develop and experimentally evaluate an advanced energy control
technique to reduce the adverse effects of pulsed load on the power
system.
ii. Also, the adverse effects of the pulsed load that need to be fully mitigated
are voltage drop of the DC bus, power pulsation of the energy devices,
frequency fluctuation of the AC bus and instability of the hybrid power
system.
iii. The design and implement different AC and DC filters in the system to
improve the power quality of the AC and DC power system so that the
current harmonics of the AC system are minimized and the performance
of the DC power system, in terms of control capability and voltage ripple,

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 improved. The power quality improvement of the system not only needs
well-designed AC and DC filters, but also requires appropriate
implementation of the galvanic transformers and utilization of proper
power converters switching pattern.

iv. To accurately model different components of the hybrid power system and
implement a virtual test-bed model of this system for dynamic and
transient study. The energy storage devices i.e. batteries, super capacitor
and the power converters include boost and bi-directional converters
needed for DC power regulation, and the controlled and uncontrolled
rectifiers needed to link the DC micro grid to the main AC grid are should
be accurately implemented in the virtual test board. The switching times of
the switching devices, such as circuit breaker and disconnecting switches
must be set based on their technology and the speed of the contactors.
v. To develop a protection scheme for a hybrid DC power system is fast,
accurate and reliable. The developed protection scheme should be able to
identify the type of fault using a fast fault current signal processing
technique so that the maximum fault current is effectively limited and the
transition time to anew safe operation is minimized.
vi. Proper design of the hybrid DC power system, including the
implementation of the disconnecting switches and circuit breakers, is also
important to add self-reconfiguration and self-healing capabilities of the
grid.
vii. Another design aspect of the protection system is accurate setting of
protection relay that requires a detailed fault current analysis based on
analytical calculation. These analyses can be used as a powerful tool for
protection relay setting calculation, and to identify the maximum and
minimum of a fault current when it occurs in different zones of a hybrid
power system.

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1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
This thesis consists five chapters. The description of each chapter is as follows.
Chapter-1: Describes a brief introduction, literature survey, energy storage
applications, hybrid energy power system configuration, problem statement
objectives of the work.
Chapter-2: Describes a brief introduction to overview of the Grids
Chapter-3: Describes the controller design
Chapter-4: Describes the simulation and results
Chapter-5: Describes the conclusion and future scope

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 CHAPTER−II
INTERCONNECTION OF GRIDS
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The electrical grid is a network that allows for the distribution of
electricity from suppliers to consumers. Operationally the conventional electrical grid
starts at power generating systems such as power stations (see Power Stations article this
web site) that generate 3-phase Alternating Current (AC) electricity. The 3-phase AC
current is competent a transmission station that uses transformers to step up (increase) the
voltage from thousands of volts to many thousands of volts. Increasing the voltage
permits for economical transmission of electricity over long distances. Once being reborn
to high voltage, the 3-phase current electricity is shipped over long distance transmission
lines through three lines, one for every section. Before it can be distributed to finish
users, the electricity must taste an influence station that steps down (decreases) the
voltage with transformers in order that it can be distributed to communities and utilized in
homes and businesses at the proper voltage.
2.1 GRID OPERATION
A 3-phase current is employed because electricity is generated in an exceedingly
sine wave that has peaks and troughs that means that power strength for a single part
fluctuates between weaker and stronger moments. By generating three phases and
countervailing them by 120 degrees, the instant of peak power is equally distributed
between the three phases, allowing for more consistent peak power output. Having
consistent peak power output is important mainly for industrial purposes, e.g., industrial
3-phase motors.Alternating current is used because it is easier to change voltages with it
than with DC, and a very high voltage is fundamental to long distance electrical
transmission because it reduces energy loss by lowering resistance in the wires.
2.2 GRID DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
As a distribution system the electrical grid can be organized in several ways. How
associate degree electrical grid is set up depends on factors such as topology, geographic
and the level of grid interaction for a neighborhood. Electrical grids systems include:
(a)Radial

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(b)Mesh
(c)Looped (Parallel path flow)
(a) RADIAL
A radial kind grid is the simplest setup. It involves a series of networks and sub-
networks organized as radial trees that begin with an influence supply and distribute
electricity through networks with progressively lower voltages, eventually ending with
communities, homes and businesses.
(b) MESH
A mesh network involves the radial structure but includes redundant lines, which
area unit additionally to the most lines and arranged as backups for the aim of rerouting
power in the event of failure to itinerary.
(c) LOOPED (PARALLEL PATH FLOW)
Looped or parallel path flow systems involve the manner completely different
grid networks are connected to each alternative. Having one network connected to
different permits networks to share and balance the flow of electricity as required, where
ever one network can act as either a backup or further provider. During this setup each
network will run its own conductor to an equivalent (often high demand) distribution
point via parallel transmission lines. It is conjointly attainable for electricity to result one
network to the opposite and then back once more to the initial, i.e., a coiled flow. In an
exceedingly looped/parallel flow setup problems can arise with dominant the flow of
electricity at the point(s) of network contact.
2.3 GRID NETWORK
Electrical grids are composed of many smaller electrical networks that are linked
together into a larger network called a Wide Area Synchronous Grid(WASG),also known
as an “interconnection”. A Wide Space Synchronous Grid permits all the freelance
electrical networks in a explicit space to be connected by synchronizing the electrical
frequency between them. North American interconnections are synchronized at 60Hz and
European ones at 50Hz .
The advantages of grid network interconnections include coordinating (or
pooling) electricity generation, load distribution and backup assistance.

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2.4 GRID DEVELOPMENTS
Much of today’s grid networks are setup for conventional power generation and
cannot always handle the varied conditions that integration with newer alternative energy
technologies demand. As a result, redesigning the grid is becoming high on the agenda
for many world governments. The future includes several directions, which include:
(a)Distributed generation
(b)Smart grid
(c)Super grid
(a) DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Distributed generation is advances in electrical generating systems, e.g., solar
panels, wind turbines and cogeneration, which allow for making and distributing electric
power outside the standard grid system. Intrinsically these systems are smaller, a lot of
domestically centered and can act additionally to or become independent from the
standard grid provide. Because distributed generation systems transmit electricity over
short distances, i.e., they are native, they scale back the quantity of energy loss compared
to the grid. On the opposite hand, because they think about energy technologies, they can
have an oversized initial value. Distributed generation systems can generate between
3kW – 10,000kW of electricity.
(b) SMART GRID
The Smart Grid refers to updating the conventional grid configuration from what
is essentially a unidirectional “analog” system to a multidirectional digital system. The
conventional grid was designed and developed supported the requirements and
technologies of the last century. During this capability it has basic management over how
electricity is transmitted and distributed. Given what is doable with today’s technologies,
this basic management has become terribly inefficient and creates relatively boarding
again losses for both electricity and price. The objective of a smart grid is to modernize
the transmission and distribution of electricity to allow for:
1. Enabling greater use of variable energy sources (distributed generation)
Establishing the automation and monitoring capabilities needed for bulk
transmission at cross continent distances

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 2. Motivate consumers to actively participate in operations of the grid
3. Provide higher quality power that will save money wasted from outages
4. Run more efficiently
5. Optimizing electricity usage for on and off peak periods
6. Developing communication systems within grid operations that
increasetransparency and control.
(c) SUPER GRID
The super grid is a longer term project that will have the advanced micro control
properties of a smart grid, as well as the advanced macro control properties of an
intercontinental Wide Area Synchronous Grid with the objective of opening up energy
markets to levels of free trade similar to the way the free trade of goods is possible today.
In this capability it will have several network properties that area unit similar to the web,
where the exchange of electricity in the super grid are going to be cherish the exchange of
knowledge on the web.
2.5 DC MICROGRID
A microgrid is a localized grouping of generation, storage, and loads coupled to
the centralized grid at one point. “The DOE (Department of Energy) and CEC (California
Energy Commission) jointly commissioned a report from Navigant Consulting in 2005
that wrestled with this definition. The ultimate report known two ‘Points of Universal
Agreement’ of what constitutes a microgrid, that remain valid today. A microgrid
consists of interconnected distributed energy resources capable of providing decent and
continuous energy to a significant portion of internal load demand. A microgrid possesses
independent controls, and intentional islanding takes place with minimal service
interruption (seamless transition from grid-parallels to islanded operation)” (Savage,
Nordhaus& Jamieson, 2007).
For the purpose of this microgrids are assumed to be operating on direct current
power rather than alternating current for distribution. This does not mean that some
components will not be alternating current, both AC and DC components will be
considered within the scope of the project.

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 Figure 2.1: DC Microgrid Structure
2.5.1 POWER GENERATION
Generation on these systems can be either AC or DC; however the AC sources
will be converted to DC for distribution in many cases are shown in figure 2.1. It should
be noted that in most cases two distribution systems are often used in buildings. AC
distribution is still relevant in buildings due to the need for plug loads. There is not a
wide spread standard for DC plugs and many products are not manufactured that use
these DC plugs as a standard power source. DC microgrids use a single point of contact
with the outside utility grid. It is a common misconception that these are stand-alone
grids with no utility interconnection. While some of them are, it is not a requirement.
Many microgrids use energy from the utility when they are consuming more energy than
they are producing.
On-site generation is not required to distribute DC power but, there are
advantages to having onsite generation that will be discussed in the next section. The
sources will be referred to as micro sources and for most applications will be limited to
less than 1 MW, although in certain cases can range upwards of 10MW (Jiayi,
Chuanwen&Rong, 2007). In most applications there is an AC to DC rectifier that will
convert the grid AC power to DC to be pushed though the DC microgrid in a situation
where there is not enough DC generation to cover the entire load. The various DC
sources are combined in a DC Electronic Control Center (DC ECC). This then distributes
the power to the various loads throughout the building.

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 This is done in a similar manner to that of its AC counterpart with feeders,
breakers, and control panels; however with the small DC loads it is common to use a
Power Server Module (PSM) in order to manage these loads. These PSM’s take in
380Vdc and output 24Vdc from several ports. These ports are often limited to 100W,
limiting the sum of that circuit to the maximum limit of the particular port. However the
PSM can be programmed to have several ports operate off the same control signal
allowing for an increase of power provided from a single control signal. These
components make up the majority of a dc microgrid and are discussed in detail in
following sections. DC microgrid vary from traditional centralized generation of AC
power and HVAC transmission and distribution in that all facets of these systems
including generation, distribution, and storage are not owned by the utility company, but
rather have a private ownership.

2.5.2 ADVANTAGES OF DC MICROGRIDS

The advantages of a microgrid can be classified into three primary categories:
i. System efficiency
ii. Reliability of Power
iii. Safety
2.6 System Description
The notional hybrid dc microgrid considered for this study is depicted in figure
2.2. This microgrid consists of several types of loads and hybrid energy sources which
are connected to a common dc bus.
The energy sources of the dc microgrid are the ac grid, the battery bank and the
supercapacitor bank. The ac grid is mainly supplying the microgrid while the battery
bank provides extra power when the grid is highly loaded or if the dc microgrid grid is
islanded. Also, the supercapacitor bank functions as a power buffer device and provides
the instant power needed.

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 Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of the hybrid dc microgrid under study
The interconnected ac grid is a software based ac grid test-bed power system. This
system includes generating stations, and programmable loads is up to 35 kW. Four ac
generators are connected in a ring combination through line/cable models. One of the
generators (connected to bus 1) runs at a constant frequency of 60 Hz and acts as the
slack bus. The other three generating stations are torque controlled, which allows for
constant output power.

This system also includes Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
system to monitor the entire system . The hybrid dc microgrid under study is connected to
the ac grid through the uncontrolled rectifier and boost converter for power conversion
and regulation. A 3-phase Y/Δ transformer was implemented to galvanically isolate the
ac grid from the dc microgrid. Also, an inductive ac filter is located between the
transformer and the uncontrolled rectifier to filter out the harmonics to the ac grid.
Moreover, an inductive-capacitive dc filter is connected between the boost converter and
the uncontrolled rectifier to improve the performance of the converter and reduce the ac
grid harmonics. The detailed parameters of the components are summarized in table 4.1.

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 Table 2.1: Hybrid dc microgrid system parameters
Component Parameter Specification
Connection YD
SN 3KVA(1p.u)
VN 208V(1p.u)
Transformer Req 0.72Ω(0.05p.u)
Xeq 0.86Ω(0.06p.u)
RM 4820Ω(334p.u)
XM 16.45Ω(430p.u)
Power rating 2500 W
Boost Converter IGBT module SKM100GAL12T4
Switching frequency 5 kHz
LBC 6 mh
AC Filter LAF(XLAC) 12 mH (4.52 Ω ,
0.31p.u)
DC Filter LDF 2.7 mh
CDF 680 µF

As shown in figure 2.1, the battery bank is connected through the bidirectional
converter to the common coupling dc bus. The battery bank is composed of twelve lead-
Acid battery cells rated 120-V, 110-Ah.
Also, the supercapacitor bank is 2.9-F, and as an energy buffer, delivers high
instantaneous power to the pulse load. This bank is composed of 20 Maxwell's 16-V
modules. In order to ensure equal charge distribution among the supercapacitor cells, a
passive balancing system is implemented. The passive balancing is a 640-Ω resistor that
is connected in parallel to each 16-V module.

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 Table 2.2: Energy storage and bidirectional converter parameters
Component Parameter Specification
Battery Bank Type Universal
(UB121100)Lead Acid
Number of Cells 12
Rated Capacity 110Ah
Bank nominal Voltage 120V
Internal Resistance 4mΩ
Type Maxwell (BMOD0058)
Number of Cells 20
Supercapacitor Bank Rated Capacity 2.9 F
Rated Voltage 320 V
Maximum Voltage 340 V
Maximum Continuous 12 A (∆T=15O C)
Current
Leakage Current 25 mA
(Passive Balancing)
Bidirectional Power rating 1800 W
Converter IGBT module SK45GB063
Switching frequency 5 kHz
LBD 6 mh

Additionally, an analog hysteresis protection is designed to ensure that uneven

charge distribution, especially during very fast charges, does not cause the supercapacitor
to exceed its maximum voltage limit.
This protection unit also provides a backup for the energy control system. If the
voltage on any of the supercapacitor arrays exceeds the preset limit, the analog control
circuit will open the output of the IGBT switch Svp. The charging path remains open until
the supercapacitor is discharged through the bypass diode to the point that its voltage is
reduced to the predefined safe threshold . The detailed parameters of the storage system
and the bidirectional converter are summarized.

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2.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter we discuss about the various types of grids, system description and
storage elements like battery, super capacitor that are present in the hybrid dc microgrid.

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 CHAPTER-III
CONTROLLER DESIGN
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Various energy control methods for pulse load mitigation suggested in literatures
are adapted for our hybrid dc microgrid and are explained here. These methods differ
from each other for the measurement data required and the performance level achieved.
3.1 Control Description
The control of the hybrid dc microgrid which consists of three layers are shown in
figure 3.1. The first layer is the energy control system. This control layer utilizes the dc
grid bus voltage and the load current to set the total current command, ic*. The next layer
is the formulation of the reference current of the boost converter, ic1*and the reference
current of the bidirectional converter, ic2* based on the converters availability and their
power limitation. If both converters are available, the priority is given to the boost
converter to supply the microgrid through the AC grid. The bidirectional converter is
utilized in the case that an outage occurs in the AC grid or if the power requirement of the
dc microgrid is higher than the boost converter power limitation. The third layer is the
converter controllers that regulate the output current of the converters. The converter
controllers are Proportional-Integral (PI) with anti-windup that improve the control loop
responses during transients and saturation. The controller adjusts the duty ratio of the
IGBT switching at 5-kHz fixed frequency using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
technique. The switching signals PWM1 and PWM2 shown in figure5.1.are assigned to
the boost converter and the bidirectional converter, respectively.

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the dc microgrid three layer control system.
The energy control system largely governs the interaction of the pulse load with
the dc microgrid and the ac power system. In the following sections, different energy
control schemes including the developed ACVC technique are described.

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3.2 Instantaneous Power Control Scheme
Instantaneous Power Control (IPC) as discussed is the simplest control technique
of a hybrid dc power system. The schematic diagram of this controller which is modified
and adapted for our hybrid dc Microgrid as shown figure 3.2. As can be seen, this control
method utilizes the instantaneous consumed power of the loads and the common coupling
bus voltage Vb to set ic*. The τvm and τcr are the time constants of the low pass filters for
the measured Vb and reference command ic*, respectively.

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of the instantaneous power control.

This controller is equipped with hysteresis voltage protection that monitors the
entire supercapacitor bank. Once the voltage of the dc bus exceeds the preset maximum
limit Vbmax , the controller will set ic* to zero until the bus voltage drops to the preset
minimum bus voltage threshold Vbmin.
3.3 Limit-Based Voltage Control Scheme
The basic concept of the Limit-Based Voltage Control (LBVC) is to
charge the supercapacitor bank and control the dc bus voltage as rapidly as possible
subject to the available power of the sources and the converter power limit .

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 Figure 3.3: Block diagram of the Limit-Base Voltage Control.
The concept of this controller is shown in figure 3.3. The two input ports are the
target bus voltage Vb* and the measured bus voltage Vb and the output port is the
reference current command Ic*. As can be seen, the measured bus voltage is first filtered
by a low pass filter and then subtracted from Vb*. The voltage error is then multiplied by
a proportional gain Ks and limited to the maximum current limit of the system Icmax. The
gain ks need to be large enough so that the limit Icmax be in effect until the point where the
bus voltage becomes very close to Vb* and then approaches it asymptotically. It should be
noted that the Vb* is larger than the Vbmin and smaller than the Vbmax. If the bus voltage is
less than the Vbmax, the output of the current limiter goes through an output filter to form
ic*. Otherwise ic* will be set to zero until the supercapacitor is discharged and the bus
voltage is decreased to Vbmin .
3.4 Continuous Average Current Control Schemes
Heavy pulse loads lead to significant disturbance in a power system due to their
power profile characteristics. To reduce the power pulsation of the converters and
sources, the Continuous Average Current Control (CACC) technique is suggested .

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 Figure 3.4: Block diagram of Continuous Average Current Control.
Figure 3.4 shows the schematic diagram of the CACC method adapted for our
hybrid dc microgrid. Inputs to this control are the bus voltage Vb and the load currents ipl,
il1 , and il2 where the output is the reference current command ic*. The goal for the CACC
method is to keep the output current of the power converter at a relatively constant value
equal to sum of the steady state load current and pulse load time-averaged current. This
buffers the converters from high pulse currents while maintaining the bus voltage. As can
be seen in figure 3.4, the pulse load current is first integrated and averaged according to
the operation time. Then, the calculated continuous averaged current is intercalary to the
steady state load’s currents. If the safe operation of the system is ensured, the calculated
current is then fed to the output filter to create ic* .
3.5 Adaptive Current-Voltage Control Scheme
An effective energy control scheme should be able to keep the converters at a
relatively constant value to prevent the converter power pulsation.

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 Figure 3.5: Block diagram of Adaptive Current-Voltage Control.
Although the CACC method effectively reduces the system disturbance during a
pulse load with constant duty ratio and constant amplitude, it fails during pulse load
changes and transient grid operation. In order to improve the dynamic performance of the
grid and to buffer the battery bank and AC grid from high pulse currents, a new ACVC
technique is developed.
The ACVC is designed based on the moving average current and voltage
1measurement and an adaptive gain compensator. Figure 5.5 shows the schematic
diagram of this controller. The input ports of the controller are the pulse load power, the
steady state load currents and the bus voltage while the output port is the reference
current command ic*. As can be seen, the measured pulse load power is first integrated
and passed through a delay block with a time delay of T seconds where T is the averaging
period. Then, the integrated power is subtracted from the delayed value to calculate the
accumulated power. To calculate the average power during the last T period, Ppav the
accumulated power is divided by the time period T.
Similarly, the average of the bus voltage, Vbav is calculated and then normalized
with respect to the desired voltage. The proposed ACVC is designed so that the current
control and the voltage control respond to the long-term and transient variation of the
grid, respectively. Thus, the Ppav is calculated per T period and is updated every T cycle,
while the Vbav is continuously updated.

22
 Figure3.6: Compensation gain kv profile with respect to normalized bus voltage.
To set the reference current, ic*, the updated Ppav is divided by the Vb to form the
ipav and then is added to the steady state load’s currents. This current is fed to the gain kv
which is an adaptive proportional voltage controller. The kv is continuously updated
based on the normalized average bus voltage to adjust ic*. Figure 3.6.shows the kv
variation with respect to normalized dc bus voltage. As can be seen, this profile is
composed of three zones; normal operation, overvoltage and under voltage. These zones
are defined based on voltage threshold VNL and VNH which are the normalized low
voltage and normalized high voltage thresholds of the dc bus. The kV changes with m0,
mL and mH angle in normal, overvoltage and under voltage conditions, respectively. For
better dynamic performance of the grid, the mL and the mH should be larger than m0 to
respond quickly to severe under voltage and overvoltage conditions. In this project, the
m0 , mL and mH are 20, 86 and 46.7, respectively where Vb, VNL and VNH are 320V,
0.995 and 1.005, respectively.
3.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discuss about the control design and the energy control schemes like
IPC,CACC,LBVC and ACVC methods are discussed.

23
 CHAPTER−IV
SIMULATION AND RESULTS
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In this section the system under investigation is modeled in
MATLAB/Simulink. The simulation studies were performed to know the effect of
various control strategies. Various energy control schemes such as IPC, LBVC and
CACC are applied to the system and plotted the results. ACVC controller is simulated
and compared the results against the various energy controller schemes listed above.
4.1 INSTANTANEOUS POWER CONTROL (IPC) SCHEME
The IPC method utilizes the boost converter and the bidirectional
converter to supply the grid during the pulse on-time. During the pulse off-time, only the
boost converter supplies the dc microgrid i.e. when the pulse load turned on, the boost
converter operated at its maximum power limit at 8A and the rest of the power was
provided by the bidirectional converter and battery bank. When the pulse load turned off,
the boost converter was only required to supply the steady state loads. The Simulink
diagram for IPC scheme is shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Simulink diagram for the IPC method

24
 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.2: Simulation results for IPC method: (a) Average dc bus voltage Vdc (b)
Booster converter current ic1 and (c) Bidirectional converter current ic2.

25
 The Average dc bus voltage, boost converter current and bidirectional
current of dc microgrid using IPC control scheme results as shown in figure 4.2. The
results shows that in the IPC method Vdc is maintained 320V, booster converter current
ic1 as 5A and bidirectional converter current ic2 is 1.5A. Therefore this control method
utilizes the instantaneous consumed power of the loads and the common coupling bus
voltage Vb to set 𝑖𝑐*.
4.2 LIMIT-BASED VOLTAGE CONTROL (LBVC) SCHEME
The LBVC method only utilized the boost converter to supply the dc
microgrid. Once the pulse load turned on, the converter reached to its maximum power
limit with a slow-front impulse and then asymptotically decreases to 3.5-A when the
pulse turned off. LBVC technique made slightly less bus voltage variation is 1.59%. The
Simulink diagram for LBVC scheme is shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Simulink diagram for the LBVC method

26
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 4.4: Simulation results for LBVC method: (a) Average dc bus voltage Vdc
(b) Booster converter current ic1 (c) Bidirectional converter current ic2 (d) Pulsed load
current Ipl.

27
 The Average dc bus voltage, boost converter current, bidirectional current
and Pulsed load current of dc microgrid using LBVC control scheme results as shown in
figure 4.4. The simulation results shows that in the LBVC method Vdc is maintained
320V, booster converter current ic1 as 5A, bidirectional converter current ic2 is 1.5A and
pulsed load current ipl is 7.2A. The LBVC is to charge the supercapacitor bank and
control the dc bus voltage as rapidly as possible subject to the available power of the
sources and the converter power limit.
4.3 Average Current Continuous Control (CACC) Scheme
(a) Pulsed load variable frequency
The developed ACVC technique and the CACC method are aimed at
keeping the power converter at a relatively constant value to buffer the converter and the
ac grid from power pulsation. The comparative analysis of the hybrid dc microgrid
performance when the ACVC technique and CACC method are employed as shown in
figure 4.6 and figure 4.7. In this scheme, the pulsed load was 2kW at a frequency of
0.1HZ and duty ratio of 20%. As can be seen, the ACVC and CACC methods had a
similar performance; the energy control system adjusted the boost converter to a
relatively constant 4.5A which is equal to the sum of the steady state load current and the
pulse load time-averaged current. The simulink diagrams for CACC scheme when pulse
load frequency changes as shown in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Simulink diagram for comparison between CACC and ACVC when
pulse load frequency changes.

28
Figure 4.6: Simulink diagram for the CACC method

Figure 4.7: Simulink diagram for the ACVC method

29
 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.8: Simulation Results for CACC Method results: (a) Average dc bus
voltage Vdc (b) Booster converter current ic1 (c) Pulsed load time averaged current ipav.
The Average dc bus voltage, boost converter current, and Pulsed load time
averaged current of dc microgrid using CACC scheme results are shown in figure 6.8.
During the pulse on-time, the supercapacitor bank was discharged to 314.7V and was
charged during the pulse off-time and the voltage increased to 322.6V. Since the
generated and consumed powers were equal, the average voltage was always 320V and
the loads were continuously supplied, booster converter current ic1 as 4.5A and pulsed
load time averaged current ipav is 1.5A as shown in figure 4.8.

30
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 4.9: Simulation Results for ACVC Method results: (a) Average dc bus
voltage Vdc (b) Booster converter current ic1 (c) Pulsed load current Ipl (d) Pulsed load
time averaged current ipav.

31
 The Average dc bus voltage, boost converter current, and Pulsed load time
averaged current of dc microgrid using ACVC scheme results as shown in figure 6.9. The
ACVC method average dc bus voltage Vdc is maintained 320V, booster converter current
ic1 as 4.2A and ic1 increases up to 6.3A at 10s after it maintained constant 5.7A,pulsed
load current iplis 6A and pulsed load time averaged current is 2.7A.
In order to evaluate the transient and dynamic performance of the CACC
method and the developed ACVC technique can be performed when the frequency and
the duty ratio of the pulse load were changed. When the pulse frequency was decreased
from 0.1-Hz to 0.2-Hz and its duty ratio was increased from 20% to 40% at t = 30 s.
i. The slow response of the CACC method caused an imbalance between the
injected power and the consumed power.
ii. The CACC method not only suffers from under voltage during transient pulse
load changes, but also a dangerous overvoltage may happen due to overpower
estimation and slow response of the CACC method.
(b) Pulsed load variable power from 2kw to 3kw
In order to further investigate the effectiveness of the developed ACVC
technique, its performance was tested while the pulse load power being modified from
2kW to 3kW. The Simulink diagrams for CACC scheme when pulse load variable power
from 2kw to 3kw as shown in figure 4.10. The comparative performance of the ACVC
technique and the CACC methods are shown in figure 6.13 and figure 6.14. As observed,
the ACVC technique was able to accurately calculate the Ipav which was changed from
1.25-A to 1.875. The system reached a new steady state condition in which the dc bus
voltage varied from 323.4V to 313.6V to support the 3kW pulsed power load while the
average voltage was 320V. In contrast, the CCAC method failed to properly track the
pulse load variation and the Ipav was slowly increasing from 1.25A. As a result, the
average DC bus voltage was decreased from 320V to 316.8V in 40 seconds.

32
 Figure 4.10: Simulink diagram for comparison between CACC and ACVC
when pulse load variable power from 2kw to 3kw.

Figure 4.11: Simulink diagram for the CACC method

Figure 4.12: Simulink diagram for the ACVC method

33
 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4.13: Simulation Results for CACC Method results: (a) Average dc bus
voltage Vdc (b) Booster converter current ic1 (c) Pulsed load time averaged current ipav.

34
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 4.14: Simulation Results for ACVC Method results: (a) Average dc bus
voltage Vdc (b) Booster converter current ic1 (c) Pulsed load current Ipl and (d) Pulsed load
time averaged current ipav.

35
 The slow response of the CACC method is due to the large memory of the
integrator and the continuous averaging characteristic of the CACC method. The
simulation results show that the presented ACVC technique prevented any steady state
voltage error or dangerous over voltage during transient and dynamic operation and its
performance was effectively improved compared with the CACC method. To further
show the effectiveness of the ACVC technique and the consequence of converter current
pulsation, the ac grid performance during the dc microgrid operation is compared.
4.4 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discuss about the simulation and results of IPC, LBVC, CACC
and ACVC schemes.

36
 CHAPTER -V
CONCLUSION AND FUCTURE SCOPE
5.0 CONCLUSION
A new energy control scheme was developed to reduce the adverse impact
of pulsed power loads. The proposed energy control was an adaptive current-voltage
control (ACVC) scheme based on the moving average current and voltage measurement
and a proportional voltage compensator. The performance of the developed ACVC
technique was compared to the other common energy control methods. The simulation
results showed that the ACVC scheme has a similar performance with the CACC method
during a constant pulsed power load operation. However, the transient response of the
ACVC technique during pulse load variation was effectively improved and it prevented
any steady state voltage error or dangerous over voltage.
Also, the performance of the developed ACVC technique was compared
with the LBVC and IPC methods for different pulse rates and duty ratios. The
comparative analysis showed that although the maximum dc bus voltage variation in the
case of ACVC scheme was higher than the IPC and LBVC methods, the proposed ACVC
technique required smaller power capacity of the converter and energy resources.
Moreover, the developed ACVC method effectively eliminated the power pulsation of the
slack bus generator and frequency fluctuation of the interconnected AC grid while the ac
bus voltage drop was well reduced. Additionally, the efficiency analysis for different
pulse duty ratios showed that the developed ACVC method considerably improved.
5.1 Scope for the Future Work
To enable large scale grid integration of sustainable resources without
compromising security of the operation of the power systems, important technical
requirements, such as Low Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT).
Capability is imposed to distributed stations. Depending on battery State Of
Charge(SOC) and Depth Of Discharge(DOD) the different control actions can be
implemented.

37
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