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PRINCIPLES OF JOURNALISM

Self-evidently, journalism in each country in the world has its own

specific problems and tasks, but many of them are common. Media

outlets in the countries of South Caucasus are part of the world media.

Therefore, the principles of world journalism are very important for

Armenian, Azeri and Georgian journalists.

Nine Principles

In 1997, a group of influential American journalists, concerned about

adverse pressures and declining public trust in the news media, formed

the Committee of Concerned Journalists. During the next several years,

the committee conducted a series of meetings, seminars, and surveys of

journalists, editors and readers. More than 3000 people took part in these

discussions. Drawing on that effort, they defined nine basic principles

for journalism in today's world. They are:

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens.

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3. Its essence is a discipline of verification.

4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they

cover.

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.

6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.

7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant.

8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.

9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal

conscience.

Why these nine? Some readers will think items are missing here. Where

is fairness? Where is balance? After synthesizing what we learned, it

became clear that a number of familiar and even useful ideas - including

fairness and balance - are too vague to rise to the level of essential

elements of the profession. Others may say this list is nothing new. On

the contrary, we discovered that many ideas about the main elements of

journalism are wrapped in myth and misconception. The notion that

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journalists should be protected by a wall between business and news is

one myth. That independence requires journalists to be neutral is

another. The concept of objectivity has been so mangled it is now

usually used to describe the very problem it was conceived to correct.

There is probably nothing like objective journalism. Objective

journalism - completely independent of a creator - is a myth. Like all

human beings, journalists have prejudices and biases. But the

professional journalist knows how to use the standards of his or her

profession to overcome those prejudices and biases. The journalist aims

at balance rather than objectivity.

This is not the first time that the way we get news has gone through

momentous changes. It has happened each time there is a period of

significant, social, economic, and technological change. It is occurring

now with the advent of cable followed by the Internet. However, the

collision this time may be more dramatic. For the first time in history,

the news is increasingly produced by companies outside journalism, and

this new economic organization is important. We are facing the

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possibility that independent news will be replaced by self-interested

commercialism posing as news. If that occurs, we will lose the press as

an independent institution, free to monitor the other powerful forces and

institutions in society.

In this new century, one of the most profound questions for democratic

society is whether an independent press survives. The answer will

depend on whether journalists have the clarity and conviction to

articulate what an independent press means, and whether, as citizens, the

rest of us care.

What is truth?

When discussing journalism, the issues of objectivity and truth are

invariably raised. What is objectivity or truth? What does it look like?

Religions have their own truths. But which religion is most truthful?

Philosophers also have their own truths; every philosophy has offered its

own theory of truth. So, how can journalists figure out, what is the truth?

In journalistic practice, a truth should be perceived rather as precision of

facts. Therefore, it is important to distinguish between fact and opinion.

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What is a fact?

"Fact: A thing that has actually happened or is true; a thing that has been

or is." (Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary)

Journalism's first responsibility is to report facts to its readers, viewers

or listeners. A news organization may offer analysis of the news and

may also present opinion, either its own or that of commentators. But

facts are a journalist's first priority. For that reason, every journalist must

begin with a clear, disciplined understanding of what is fact, what is

analysis, and what is opinion, and what makes each different from the

others. Facts in a news story can be an event or action or circumstance

that the reporter witnessed and is certain of, a statement made to or

available to the reporter or something which is common knowledge

(although in this case the journalist must be very careful).

The majority of facts in most news stories are in the second category -

information supplied to the reporter by someone else - that is, a source.

Remember, the fact is that SOMEONE said SOMETHING. What he or

she said may be accurate, or it may not. If the police say two persons
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were hurt in an accident, you KNOW what the police said, but you

DON'T know that two people were hurt, unless you went to the scene

and saw for yourself.

The journalist's job is to come as close to verified truth as possible. That

means we have to do more than just report accurately what someone has

said. We also evaluate the source. Was the source an eyewitness? Or is

the information second-hand or fifth-hand? Is the source a neutral

observer or does he or she have a reason to omit or twist information?

Not only should you evaluate the source; you should make it possible for

readers to do so too. That is why sources should be named, as a general

rule, unless there is a strong and unavoidable reason to withhold

someone's identity. You should indicate why a source may be credible or

if the source may have a partisan viewpoint. In this way, without going

beyond the facts, you show the readers why they should believe (or

possibly doubt) the statements you have reported. This makes your story

more credible. When a statement expresses one side of an issue that is in

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dispute, you must make every effort to present the opposite side to your

readers as well.

Analysis, according to the dictionary, means "separating or breaking up

of any whole into its parts so as to find out their nature, proportion,

function, relationship, etc... the tracing of things to their source."

Note that analysis is based on fact. You use your knowledge and

judgment in making the connections or explanations, but the material

you present is still factual. Fact and analysis may often be combined in

news stories (when an article is heavily analytical, it may be labelled

"analysis" or "news analysis"). But in the tradition of fact-based

journalism, opinion is kept separate from news reports.

What is an opinion?

Opinion is a statement of something that is believed, not something that

is known to be true. The most common types of opinion are editorials

and columns. An editorial is an article or essay expressing the

newspaper's point of view on a specific subject. It can be written by the

editor- in-chief or another, usually senior, staff journalist. An opinion

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column is a signed article reflecting the views of its author, either a staff

or non-staff writer or a non-staff expert. A professional media outlet

labels its opinion. It enables customers (readers, viewers) easily to

identify facts and opinions. It expresses preference, approval or

disapproval. Reporters are expected strictly to avoid expressing their

opinions in news articles. That doesn't mean only avoiding an explicit

statement of what you think about the subject of your story. You should

also avoid using words that imply an opinion.

The standard for factual accuracy remains the same, whether you are

writing editorials or commentaries or news stories. Respect for facts is

what makes the difference between opinion journalism and propaganda.

Any statement of fact must be careful, accurate and verifiable. Facts

must not be used to mislead, for example, by reporting certain facts and

leaving out others. The reader should be able to trust facts reported in

the newspaper, no matter what page they are published on.

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What is the news?

ALL stories should include what is sometimes called '5-W-H'.

That is: What, Where, When, Who, Why and How.

To elaborate: What is happening. Where is it happening? When did it

happen? Who is involved? Why is it happening & How has it come

about?

ALL news stories should try to answer ALL these questions.

News is generally categorized as being HARD or SOFT. "Hard news" is

stories about events or conflicts that have just happened or are about to

happen, such as crimes, fires, meetings, demonstrations, speeches,

court cases. They are reported as an account of what happened, why it

happened and how the audience is affected. "Soft news" is stories which

are intended to entertain or inform. There is often an emphasis on human

interest or novelty. They may focus on people, places or issues that

affect the life of members of the audience.

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News has been described as "the first rough draft of history" and "the

immediate, the important, the things that have an impact on our lives".

There are obviously many different types of news stories, but in simple

terms, most of them will fit into the following categories:

PROXIMITY & RELEVANCE. For a story to have impact it should

be relevant and one of the key things to make it relevant is that it has

proximity. Things that happen nearby are more likely to interest us than

things that happen a long way away. The greater the effect something

has on viewers lives, their income or emotions, the more important an

item will appear to them.

IMMEDIACY. News is what is happening now. What happened

yesterday is 'dead' unless there is something new to say. News is only

news while it is NEW.

INTEREST. News should make you sit up and take notice. Stories must

have a wide appeal or most of the audience will switch off. The skill of

the journalist is to draw out the relevance and present it clearly, factually

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and in an interesting way. The audience will find out what it needs to

know as well as what it wants to know.

DRAMA. Violent crimes, car chases, amazing rescues are the things

that popular movies are made of. The danger, adventure and conflict

attract most people's attention.

ENTERTAINMENT. Although it depends on the style of the

programme, many news professionals now feel that it is possible to

entertain as well as inform. The idea of leaving the audience smiling

with a lighter piece of news at the end of a bulletin (often called the "and

finally") is now popular with many broadcasters.

SPECIAL INTEREST. These are stories that appeal to people's

specific interests, such as science, business or religion, or that appeal to

certain groups such as women, minorities, disabled people etc.

ANALYSIS. Stories which explain the meaning of events.

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What is covered?

There are five major segments of media coverage: government, business,

unions, non-government organizations and individuals. Any issue

usually represents a mixture of those segments. In addition, each media

outlet can have its own special targets, for example, the newspaper

Caspian Business News mostly covers regional business and economic

news related to the oil and gas sector as well as the banking sector.

However, readers also get political, social, sport and entertainment news

in the same paper.

What is professionalism for journalists?

Professional journalism should be factual, honest, fair, complete and

consistent.

Being factual means giving preference to facts over opinion in the

preparation of news stories. It also means being precise, accurate and

authentic - getting the facts right, but also getting the right facts.

Being honest means being free from fraud and deception. Bending facts

must never be tolerated, and errors must never go uncorrected.

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Being fair means recognizing and controlling self-interest, prejudices or

favoritism. Bias must never be permitted to influence reporting of the

news.

Being complete means providing background, context, balance and

perspective, capturing the tone, language, experiences and emotions.

Being consistent means showing steady conformity to the standards of

the journalistic profession.

Practical advice on news making

• Write only if you have something to say.

• Write in the same way as you speak - clear and comprehensive for

everybody.

• Use adjectives and adverbs reasonably and sparingly.

• Write the article so that the reader understands it on the first

reading.

• Show, do not tell.

• Avoid long, complicated sentences.

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• Use words which you know the meaning of.

• Never give the editor material which, in your opinion, still needs

polishing.

• In news reports, the main idea must be expressed in the first

paragraph. In material written in the style of an article, the main idea

should be presented no later than in the fifth or sixth paragraph.

• Standard paragraphs are made of three-four sentences, that is, the

paragraph is no more than 40-50 words.

• Use words of action. They make the material active and emotional.

• Journalism is an art of selection. Take out unnecessary material

and leave only the best, building the news according to its level of

importance. This is one of the key elements of professionalism.

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Useful information

The international declaration adopted by the1954 World Congress of the

International Federation of Journalists and amended by the 1986 World

Congress is widely proclaimed as a standard of professional conduct for

journalists engaged in gathering, transmitting, disseminating and

commenting on news and information. It runs as follows:

1. Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth is the first

duty of the journalist.

2. In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all times defend the

principles of freedom in the honest collection and publication of news,

and of the right to fair comment and criticism.

3. The journalist shall report only in accordance with facts of which

he/she knows the origin. The journalist shall not suppress essential

information or falsify documents.

4. The journalist shall only use fair methods to obtain news,

photographs and documents.

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5. The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any published

information which is found to be harmfully inaccurate.

6. The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regarding the

source of information obtained in confidence.

7. The journalist shall be alert to the danger of discrimination being

furthered by media, and shall do the utmost to avoid facilitating such

discrimination based on, among other things, race, gender, sexual

orientation, language, religion, political or other opinions, and national

or social origins.

8. The journalist shall regard as grave professional offenses the

following: plagiarism; malicious misinterpretation; calumny; libel;

slander; unfounded accusations; acceptance of a bribe in any form in

consideration of either publication or suppression.

9. Journalists worthy of the name shall deem it their duty to observe

faithfully the principles stated above. Within the general law of each

country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters the

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jurisdiction of colleagues only, to the exclusion of any kind of

interference by governments or others.

Tips to journalism students

I've written quite a bit about how beginning journalism students need to

focus on reporting as much as news writing. students usually have more

difficulty learning to be thorough reporters. The news writing format, on

the other hand, can be picked up pretty easily. And while a poorly

written article can be cleaned up by a good editor, an editor can't fix a

thinly reported story.

But students make many mistakes when they write their first news

stories. So here's a list of 15 rules for beginning news writers, based on

the problems I see most.

- The lede should be a single sentence of roughly 35-45 words that

summarizes the main points of the story - not a seven-sentence

monstrosity that looks like it's out of a Jane Austen novel.

- The lede should summarize the story from start to finish. So if

you're writing about a fire that destroyed a building and left 18

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 people homeless, that must be in the lede. Writing something like

"A fire started in a building last night" isn't enough.

- Paragraphs in news stories should generally be no more than 1-2

sentences each - not seven or eight like you're used to writing in

English class. Short paragraphs are easier to cut when editors are

working on tight deadline, and they look less imposing on the

page.

- Sentences should be kept relatively short, and whenever possible

use the subject-verb-object formula.

- Along these same lines, always cut unnecessary words. Example:

"Firefighters arrived at the blaze and were able to put it out within

about 30 minutes" can be cut to "firefighters doused the blaze in

about 30 minutes."

- Don't use complicated-sounding words when simpler ones will

do. A news story should be understandable to everyone.

- Don't use the first-person "I" in news stories.

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 - In Associated Press style, punctuation almost always goes inside

quotation marks. Example: "We arrested the suspect," Detective

John Jones said. (Note the placement of the comma.)

- News stories are generally written in the past tense.

- Avoid the use of too many adjectives. There's no need to write

"the white-hot blaze" or "the brutal murder." We know fire is hot

and that killing someone is generally pretty brutal. The adjectives

are unnecessary.

- Don't use phrases like "thankfully, everyone escaped the fire

unhurt." Obviously, it's good that people weren't hurt. Your readers

can figure that out for themselves.

- Never inject your opinions into a hard-news story. Save your

thoughts for a movie review or editorial.

- When you first refer to someone who's quoted in a story, use their

full name and job title if applicable. On the second and all

subsequent references, use just their last name. So it would be "Lt.

Jane Jones" when you first mention her in your story, but after that,
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 it would simply be "Jones." The only exception is if you have two

people with the same last name in your story, in which case you

could use their full names. We generally don't use honorifics like

"Mr." or "Mrs." in AP style.

- Don't repeat information.

- Don't summarize the story at the end by repeating what's already

been said.

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How to Write a News Script for TV News?

Writing a news script for television seems so simple until you try it for

the first time. Experts in English or print journalism often struggle with

turning stories into tight scripts that are meant to be heard, not read.

While you'll spend your entire career perfecting your TV news writing

style, mastering the basics of how to write a news script will provide a

foundation for success. These news writing tips help you create strong

content for TV news with every single script:

Write for the Ear

Read your script out loud. Is it easy to understand just by hearing it one

time only? Unlike in print, a TV news audience has one shot to get the

story.

That's why words that sound alike but have different meanings create

stumbling blocks for the ear. Words such as "cite", "site," and "sight"

should be avoided if possible. Short, punchy sentences are easier for the

ear to digest than long, complicated sentences that are full of dependent

clauses.
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Avoid Passive Voice

Passive voice writing jumbles up the usual sequence of subject, verb,

object in active voice writing. This sounds like a lesson from English

class, but it really makes a critical difference in broadcast news writing.

An active voice sentence is, "The robber fired the gun." You see the

subject, verb, and object. A passive sentence is, "The gun was fired by

the robber." The object and verb came before the subject. Viewers have

to wait until the end of the line to know who did what.

Then their brain has to process that information while trying to keep up

with what the newscaster is saying.

Beware of the "by" in a sentence. That's usually a giveaway the sentence

has been written in passive voice.

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Use Present Tense Where Appropriate

TV news is designed to sound like "now." That's another big difference

between broadcast and print news writing.

A 6:00 p.m. newscast needs to sound fresh as if the news is just now

unfolding.

But the mayor's news conference you covered happened at 2 o'clock.

The natural tendency is to write, "The mayor held a news conference

earlier today."

By shifting the focus of the sentence to the subject of the news

conference, you can put the sentence in present tense and give it extra

punch. "The mayor says he wants to slash taxes by 20 percent. He made

the announcement at a news conference..."

That example starts out in present tense for the hook, then shifts to past

tense. It's important not to simply force the present tense into every

sentence you write. It would sound awkward in a 6 p.m. newscast to say,

"He makes the announcement at a news conference that happens at 2

o'clock."
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Write Stories about People

It seems obvious, but it's easy to allow a script to veer away from

focusing on the people who are watching your newscast. If viewers

sense your stories don't directly affect them, they will turn away.

So when the state department of transportation announces a huge

infrastructure improvement project that involves replacing bridges

around your city, you may be presented with institutional information.

But transform it into something personal and meaningful to the people at

home.

"Your drive to work or school will soon be safer and easier, thanks to a

big project to make our city's bridges better." You've taken the

information and told viewers how it could change their lives. Dissect

press kits, graphs, and data before you start writing to determine why

your viewers will care about it.

Action Verbs Add Verve

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In news writing, you can't do much to the subject or object of your

sentences, but you can spice up your verbs. They are the part of speech

that can bring life to your stories.

Look at a story to see whether you can switch a sentence that says

"Residents are requesting information..." to "Residents demand

answers." That easy change adds urgency and action.

Before you get carried away, remember your story still has to be

accurate. "Demand" may be too strong. Try, "Residents want to know."

Using "is, are, was, were" weakens the impact of the action. "Residents

want answers" sounds better than "Residents are wanting answers."

Be Careful with Numbers

Numbers are hard on the viewers' ears, especially when there are a lot of

them. Make your point with a number or two, then move on.

Instead of, "The company's profit was $10,470,000, then fell to

$5,695,469 a year later," you can simplify the line to be, "The company's

profit was about 10 and-a-half million dollars, then fell to about half that

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the next year." The viewer gets the idea without having to hear every last

digit.

It's ideal to take big numbers and translate them into something

meaningful for the audience. Besides pointing out that the electric

company is raising rates by $3.5 million, take the time to say that the

hike means a typical customer will pay $200 more a year. That's the

number that affects people the most.

Skip Cliches and Journalese

Even experienced news writers fall into the trap of writing the same tired

words and phrases. Powerful storms always "wreak havoc," political

candidates "throw their hat into the ring" and the moments after a crime

has happened "details are sketchy."

Those empty terms make your news writing seem shallow. Replace them

with words that normal people would use in conversation.

Reporters often use journalese when they are confronted with the cliches

of other professions and merely repeat what they hear. A police officer

may say a shooting suspect "fled on foot." It's a TV news writer's job to
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change that to "ran away." The law enforcement, government, and

healthcare industries have their own way of speaking, which shouldn't

be repeated on the air. Otherwise, your news writing sounds like it came

straight from a press release.

Write to Video

Many TV news stories are read as the audience watches video playing

on the screen. Connect the words to the video as if you were leading a

tour group.

That requires you to know what is going to be on screen as the viewers

hear the script. Once you have that information, the rest is easy.

If you're talking about an embezzlement suspect while the video shows

that suspect walking down the street with his lawyer, say, "The suspect,

seen here on the left walking to the courthouse with his lawyer." That

reference to the video keeps the viewer from wondering which of the

two people is the suspect while missing out on the rest of the story.

A line like, "Watch what happens when firefighters try to get the kitten

out of the tree," forces the viewers' eyes back to the screen. Remember,
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some people have the news turned on while reading the newspaper or

cooking supper. Get their attention riveted to the television.

Sell the Story

Print journalists may groan at this basic aspect of TV news writing. In

most cities, there's one newspaper but several TV stations providing

news. That means in television; a news writer also has to sell the product

as something different and superior to the competition.

"When the school board said there wasn't any money for classroom

computers, we decided to dig for answers." A line like that demonstrates

that the news team is aggressive, and is taking action to get to the truth.

"We are the only station with video of the brawl inside the college

cafeteria." A TV station uses its scripts to combat the perception that all

newscasts in a city are the same.

While this isn't pure journalism, this is a basic part of news writing that

is common at most TV stations. Realize that a newscast is also a

television program that not only competes with other newscasts but also

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all TV shows that are on the air in the same time slot. Sell the coverage

as something special.

Move the Story Forward

A TV news story doesn't have a "the end" at the bottom of the script.

The end of your script should usually tell the audience what will happen

next to the people involved.

"The school board will take a vote on whether to cut teachers' pay at its

next meeting," lets the audience know what developments to expect

next. Leaving that fact out leaves the audience hanging.

"We will be at that meeting and tell you the outcome of the vote," is

good to add so that your viewers will return for updates. That line

reinforces that your news team will stay on top of the story and not just

drop it.

That's a lot of effort to put into a 30-second script. Even though TV

news would seem to be all about video, crisp news writing will put you

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above others in your newsroom and could be the key to building your

career faster than you thought possible.

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 PRACTICAL SKILLS FOR STUDENT JOURNALIST

This chapter offers practical advice from several experienced British and

American journalists on topics such as newsgathering, writing,

reporting, interviewing, verification and accuracy. We are sure these

skills will be useful for both beginners and practicing journalists, who

can use it to check their own style of working.

News

Broadcasters, TV stations and TV news operations differ both within

countries and from country to country. While many general news

principles apply to both electronic media and print, there are obvious

differences between the ways they operate. Print or text (which includes

wire services and news agencies) also differ domestically and across

international borders. But there is one thing they all have in common,

and on which they all agree - the staff of a news operation must all be

aiming for the same thing and have a common set of editorial standards

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(and visual standards in the case of television) to which they all must

work.

In other words, the news staff - journalists, presenters, producers,

reporters, sub-editors, researchers, camera people, editors, sound,

graphics etc must all share a common goal and, more importantly, work

to an agreed house "style" - a way of shooting, cutting, writing, using

sound bites, still picture (photograph) choice and all the other functions

of newspapers, television and radio that is consistent across all news

bulletins, day to day, week to week. Obviously, the choice of style and

how a programme or publication looks will vary from station to station,

newspaper to newspaper, and is often dictated by what kind of audience,

what age group etc the news enterprise is aiming at.

This document therefore is not going to try to set out a style to be

adopted, but rather to set out a few guidelines and rules that are the

commonly accepted minimum standards to which any serious news

operation should aspire.

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The self-evident truth

The three most important factors that anyone working in news must

take account of are:

1. The audience

2. The audience

3. THE AUDIENCE

Without an audience (readership) there is little reason for our existence.

Furthermore, never forget that the audience pays our salaries (whether

by taxes, by buying products that are advertised, or by a license fee). We

work - ultimately - for them. So we must make sure at all times that

news items and bulletins are relevant to our audience.

The basics of news

News has been described as "the first rough draft of history" and "the

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immediate, the important, the things that have an impact on our lives".

There are obviously many different types of news stories, but in simple

terms, most of them will fit into the following categories:

Proximity & Relevance. For a story to have impact it should be

relevant and one of the key things to make it relevant is that it has to

have proximity. Things that happen nearby are more likely to interest us

than things that happen a long way away.

The greater the effect something has on viewers lives, their income and

emotions, the more important an item will appear to them.

Immediacy. News is what is happening now. What happened yesterday

is 'dead' unless there is something new to say. News is only news while

it is NEW.

Interest. News should make you sit up and take notice. Stories must

have a wide appeal or most of the audience will switch off. The skill of

the journalist is to draw out the relevance and present it clearly, factually

and in an interesting way.

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The audience will find out what it needs to know as well as what it

wants to know.

Drama. Violent crimes, car chases, amazing rescues are the things that

popular movies are made of. The danger, adventure and conflict attract

most people's attention.

Entertainment. Although it depends on the style of the programme,

many news professionals now feel that it is possible to entertain as well

as inform. The idea of leaving the audience smiling with a lighter piece

of news at the end of a bulletin (often called the "and finally") is now

popular with many broadcasters.

Special interest. Stories that appeal to people's interests, such as

science, business or religion, or that appeal to specific groups such as

women, minorities, disabled people etc.

Analysis. Stories which explain the meaning of events.

The types of news

News is generally categorized as being Hard or Soft.

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Hard news. Stories about events or conflicts that have just happened or

are about to happen, such as crimes, fires, meetings, demonstrations,

speeches, court cases.

They are reported as an account of what happened, why it happened and

how the audience is affected.

Soft news. Stories which are intended to entertain or inform. There is

often an emphasis on human interest or novelty. They may focus on

people, places or issues that directly affect people's lives.

Emergencies. These are the high points of human drama - fires, sea or

mountain rescues etc. In fact, any time where human life is at risk there

is a story.

Local & National Government. Decisions made by governments that

affect a large number of people are news. However, governments are

always keen to get (good) publicity and the journalist should be the one

to decide whether a government decision has impact or whether a

politician or a political party is just seeking publicity.

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Building. Local building developments such as roads, leisure

complexes, shopping malls and centers, housing schemes etc will have

an impact on an area. They will offer new facilities but may also cause

disruption.

Conflict & Controversy. This can be a physical clash in the streets or a

conflict of ideas. Every issue in the public eye has people who are for it

and those who are against. By putting both sides of the argument, the

audience can make up its own mind about important issues.

Pressure groups. People who have a strong view about an issue will

form themselves into a group to get their argument across. They either

want something or are opposed to it and if the issue affects enough

people they can provide a source of news.

Industry & business. Employment is a major factor in most people's

lives so developments in industry make big news. This applies both

when jobs are lost or created.

Health. This can be anything from an outbreak of illness to a shortage of

blood, a new cure, a problem with the health services, births, deaths etc.
38 | P a g e
Human Interest. Something extraordinary that happens to an ordinary

person. This could be either positive or negative, such as winning a large

prize, suffering a tragedy or an outstanding personal achievement.

Personalities. A visit by a film star, a member of royalty, or even a

(well-known) politician will always create interest.

Sport. Results and achievements.

Seasonal News. New Year celebrations, the tourist season, summer or

winter weather. Also, trends that show patterns or changes - such as

increases/decreases in crime etc.

Weather & Travel. These affect the way we live - what to wear,

whether we will be delayed on a journey. Many local stations

(particularly in radio) owe their audiences to the fact that they can

provide up-to-the- minute relevant information on weather and travel

conditions.

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Animals. Few items get greater reactions than 'cuddly' animal stories

such as, for example, a newly born Panda in Peking Zoo. They make

ideal "and finally" stories.

Reporting and Writing

Reporting: Some Tricks of the Trade

Don't forget those essentials. Remember the Five Ws: Who, What, When,

Where,

Why and How. Even the most experienced reporters, distracted by an

interesting angle, have forgotten to answer one or two of them on

occasion. One way to avoid that is to write the five Ws in your

notebook, with lots of blank space between them before you head out of

the door. Before finishing an interview or meeting, go down that list and

make sure the blanks are filled in.

Silence is golden. This adage can apply to reporters. There are few more

offensive people than loudmouth know-it-all reporters who want

everyone to know how well informed they are. Sources respond to a

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listener and will open up to a reporter who is willing to say: "I don't

know, so please help me with this information."

Be prepared. Perhaps the only reporter more offensive than the know-

it-all is the one who knows nothing. Never go to an event or interview

without doing your homework. It is all right to say, "I don't know,"

about information that is new, but there is no excuse for a reporter's

ignorance of commonplace information, especially the correct spelling

of an official's name.

Taking notes. For those who don't know standard shorthand, it is best to

work out your own. E.g.: yr own sys of abrs, wch u en us w/o stpng t

thnk and w/o stpng to Ik at ppr. Translation: Your own system of

abbreviations, which you can use without stopping to think and without

stopping to look at the paper. It is disconcerting for a source to be

talking to someone who is constantly bent over a notebook. Practice

taking quick, abbreviated notes.

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Avoid jargon. Don't let the jargon get into your notebook Avoid words,

expressions and phrases that are known only to people with specific

knowledge or interests.

Keep the color in. Keep the colorful details that give life to the story.

It's not only what people say that's important, but also how they say it.

Consider this: "Asked how he would handle council members who

disagreed with him, Smith looked his questioner straight in the eye,

grinned and formed his right hand in the shape of a gun, letting his

thumb drop like a hammer. He didn't say a word."

Be empathetic. Be sensitive to people in grief. Reporting with our

senses implies being sensitive to the conditions, circumstances and

nuances of specific situations.

Report both (all) sides. Every story has more than one side to it. In the

interest of balance and fairness, talk to all parties concerned and report

their views.

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Writing Guidelines

1. Identify your subject and stick to it. Be clear which question or

questions you are trying to answer. If a piece of information does not

help in answering them, leave it out.

2. After writing each phrase or sentence, look it at it through the

reader's eyes and ask yourself, is it clear? Does it say what it was

intended to say? Have you given the readers the necessary information

to understand what you are telling them?

3. Think whether an expression, reference or name will be understood

by your readers, or whether you need to define, explain, or identify.

4. Vary the length of sentences. However, remember, short sentences

are usually clearer.

5. Make sentences active, not passive.

6. Use examples. They make a story more interesting, and put

information into a form reader can grasp more easily than abstract terms.

Don't say a crowd "responded favorably" (or unfavourably) to a

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politician's speech; describe people cheering or booing or not paying

attention, get quotes that show the listeners' approval or disapproval.

7. Think of yourself as using a zoom lens: go from wide focus (broad

theme or information) to narrow focus (example or detail).

8. Answer the question "So what?" Tell readers why the story is

significant or interesting, what it will mean for them, and why it is worth

reading. One journalist puts it this way: "Imagine yourself in the reader's

shoes and ask, does it help me? Does it hurt me? Does it cost me

money? Will it help my life? Would I get from it joy, pain, excitement,

interest, misery, anything?"

9. Keep the "voice" consistent. Don't use a very colloquial style in

one place and formal language in another. News writing customarily is

conversational but formal - that is, it uses formal grammar and

vocabulary, but should sound conversational rather than academic.

10. Use familiar, common words; avoid technical terms and jargon.

11. Concrete words are always better than abstract words.

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12. Descriptive verbs are better than bland, general verbs ("he

plodded" or "he darted" instead of "he walked"; "he shouted" or "he

murmured" instead of "he said").

13. Be specific ("he took a taxi" or "he took a train" instead of "he

went").

14. Use quotes to add emotion and colorful language to your story.

15. Make every sentence count, don't repeat information.

16. Eliminate unnecessary words.

17. News writing ordinarily does not use first person at all. In an essay

or commentary that is written in the first person, you should use the

pronouns "I" and "me" sparingly. They should appear often enough to

establish a consistent voice (don't write half an essay without it and then

suddenly introduce a sentence with "I"; it is disconcerting) but you

should find ways to avoid repeating them any more often than is

absolutely necessary to convey your meaning.

18. Put events, ideas, and quotes in logical order.

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19. Try to write transitions from one theme to the next so the story

flows smoothly instead of jumping from subject to subject.

Leads

Why leads are vital: Don Frey, noted writing teacher, puts it well: the

lead to a story "grabs the reader, informs the reader, and teaches the

reader how to read the rest of the story." Author John McPhee says the

lead is the "flashlight that shines into a story." One other key point: A

newspaper reader is likely to spend only a few seconds deciding whether

to read a story or not. If the lead does not grab the reader, the writer's

work is in vain.

Types of leads: There are two types of lead: direct (hard) and indirect

(soft). Generally, use the direct lead for news stories, and the indirect

lead for features. However, this is only a guideline. Whatever the form,

the reader is looking for news; don't delay it long. There are other kinds

of leads: the question, the quote, the one-word, the anecdote (made

popular by the Wall Street Journal). They all have their place, but use

sparingly.
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Start early: While covering an event or interviewing a person, think

about what is important. Strive to focus a story as you report it. Circle

key elements in your notebook. As you return to the office, talk to

yourself about the story and block out a lead in your mind.

Sweat it: Rewrite the lead until it is right, or at least the best that you can

produce on deadline. Hang loose. Play with the words and the ideas.

You can always rely on the 5 Ws, but can you be more imaginative?

Be honest: You want to hook the reader, but don't hype the lead,

promising more than you deliver. "The lead is a contract with the

reader,"

says Don Murray, an excellent writing coach. "The story must document

the lead."

Keep it tight: Short leads are more likely to snag a reader. If your lead is

over 35 words, it probably is too long. Review the lead. Are you packing

too much into it?

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When stuck: Sometimes, the lead refuses to be born. Don't panic. Try

some of these tricks:

• Review the basics. What, in simple, ABC terms, is the story about?

What is the main news angle? If you were telling the story to a friend,

how would you start it?

• Write an imperfect lead, give the piece a sense of direction, and

repair the lead later. This ploy can work well.

• Take a walk. Go for coffee. Even a short break can help.

• Skip the lead, and write it later. Most of us need a "top" on the

story to give it direction, but sometimes the delaying tactic can work.

Finally: Don't be a slave to guidelines. They can all be violated for good

reason.

Interviewing

Before doing an interview, it is very important to research your subject

thoroughly and choose your interviewee carefully. You are looking for

an interviewee who can think clearly, concisely and with authority.

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However, it is not always possible to select an interviewee. It might be

the person who is the main subject of your story who must be

interviewed and who might also turn out to be totally inarticulate. So be

prepared!

Research is important because it enables you to focus the interview. An

interview should be to the point; it should not be long and rambling

(particularly for news items).

Control. No matter how important the interviewee is, once the interview

has been granted, the journalist is in control. You decide how to do the

interview, what the environment should be (at a crash site or at a

boardroom table). You decide where the interviewee will sit/stand, and -

most importantly - you decide the agenda of the interview and the

questions.

Sometimes interviewees, particularly politicians and government

officials, may want to know the questions beforehand. Obviously, each

case has to be dealt with on its merits, but in general do not give an

interviewee the exact questions. Try to get away with telling them
49 | P a g e
perhaps the first question in detail and then the general areas you want to

cover. Apart from anything else, if they know the exact questions, they

will start to rehearse the answers in their heads and when they finally

come to doing the interview, their replies may simply be predetermined

answers, which don't help you at all.

Above all else, listen to the answer. An interview isn't a series of

predetermined questions, but an attempt to find out what the story is

about, to elicit information.

The confrontational interview

This is an interview with a politician, an activist, a trade union leader, or

anyone who represents an interest group or a party in a dispute/conflict.

The interviewer must balance the interview, by putting the opposite

point of view and making the interviewee justify, explain and defend

his/her position. The interviewer should not let the interviewee use the

interview for his/her own purposes, e.g. to put across propaganda. The

interviewer should be assertive in asking questions, but should avoid

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becoming aggressive, which can damage the journalist's authority

(particularly in a face-to-face interview).

The "expert" interview

This could be with a professor, an academic, an analyst, a journalist. The

aim is to extract information, explanation, analysis. The interview is

not confrontational - the expert is being used to try to help the audience

better understand the story.

"Ordinary people"

For example, an ad hoc survey on a particular issue - when you ask

ordinary people in the streets or on the phone for their opinion on a

topical issue; or an interview with an ordinary person when they have

had an unusual experience. Because ordinary people are not experienced

in doing press interviews, it is best to keep your questions simple.

Preparation for scheduled interviews

• Have an idea what your story subject will be.

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• Get background information on your subject and on the person you

will interview.

• Prepare the key questions and especially the opening question.

Think about follow-up questions.

• Make sure you have a notebook and extra pen and if you use a tape

recorder, check to see that it is in working order. Even if you are taping

the interview, always take notes as well.

• If you are recording or have a photographer, think about how you

can assure good sound quality (don't meet in a cafe with loud music!)

and a good location for photos.

Opening the interview

• Thank the source for giving you his or her time.

• If it is an unscheduled interview (e.g. you are doing "man-on- the-

street" interviews or interviewing a witness to some event) clearly

identify yourself and your media.

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• When you interview someone about a war or disaster or a personal

tragedy, tell him you are sorry for what has happened and glad he or she

has survived.

• Be sure you have the correct spelling of the subject's name.

• Explain what subjects you will be asking about. However, leave it

open-ended enough so you can pursue other subjects that may arise.

• Try to establish a comfortable but professional atmosphere.

• Don't volunteer to put anything off the record. Unless the source

specifically asks not to be quoted, anything said in the interview can be

published.

Conducting the interview

• Ask questions in a logical order.

• Be sure you understand the answers.

• Use questions to make information more specific (a pensioner says

he has not received his pension payments; you ask, "How

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many months since you were paid?" A politician says he will fight

against corruption; you ask, "Give some examples of what actions you

will take")

• Except for the simplest questions, ask twice, in different words,

and listen for any change in the answers.

• Ask how your source knows what he is telling you. Ask, "Did you

see this yourself? Or did you hear it from someone else?" "Did you see

this document, or did someone tell you?"

• Take good notes, but don't try to write down every word. Listen for

a colorful or important quote and make sure you have it accurately in

your notes. If necessary, say to the subject, "please, wait a second, I

want to get this down correctly" or ask him or her to repeat a word or

phrase.

• As you are taking notes, put an X or circle or otherwise mark

anything that needs to be checked or that you don't quite understand.

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• Pay attention to details, such as the subject's appearance, speaking

voice, gestures, and the surrounding scene.

• Don't argue with your source or express your opinions. Maintain a

calm, professional attitude even if the source becomes angry or excited.

Just listen and politely and calmly ask the next question.

• Listen for the idea or fact that will be the lead for your story.

• Save the hardest or most sensitive questions for the end.

Remember: Almost always, people will talk most willingly when they

feel that someone is truly interested in what they say. Train yourself to

be curious, to really listen, and to be open to new information and ideas,

to genuinely try to understand the viewpoint and experiences of the

person you are speaking to.

Ending the interview

• Look back at the X's in your notes and try to clear up or double

check anything you were unsure about.

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• Ask, "Do you have any answers for which I failed to ask the

question?"

• Get the subject's phone number and ask if it will be all right to call if

you think of any other questions. If you will be writing right away, make

sure you get a home phone number or know where the source can be

reached.

Verification

Never add anything that was not there

Do not add means, simply, do not add things that did not happen. This

goes further than "never invent" or make things up, it also encompasses

rearranging events in time or place or conflating characters or events. If

a siren rings out during the taping of a TV story, and for dramatic effect

it is moved from one scene to another, it has been added to that second

place. What was once a fact has become a fiction.

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Never deceive the audience

Do not deceive means never mislead the audience. Fooling people is a

form of lying and mocks the idea that journalism is committed to

truthfulness. It is closely related to "do not add." If you move the sound

of the siren and do not tell the audience, you are deceiving them. If

acknowledging what you've done would make it unpalatable to the

audience, then it is self-evidently improper. This is a useful check.

Do not deceive means that if one is going to engage in any narrative or

storytelling techniques that vary from the most literal form of eyewitness

reporting, the audience should know. In quoting people, a survey of

journalists that we conducted found broad agreement on this point.

Except for word changes to correct grammar, the overwhelming

majority of journalists believe that some signal should be sent to

audiences - such as ellipses or brackets - if words inside quotation marks

are changed or phrases deleted for clarity.

57 | P a g e
The Rule of Transparency

Be as transparent as possible about your reporting methods and motives.

If journalists are truth seekers, it must follow that they be honest and

truthful with their audiences, too - that they be truth presenters. If

nothing else, this responsibility means journalists be as open and honest

with audiences as they can about what they know and what they don't.

In practice, the only way to be completely honest with people about

what you know is to reveal as much as possible about sources and

methods. How do you know what you know? Who are your sources?

How direct is their knowledge? What biases might they have? Are there

conflicting accounts? What don't we know? Call it the rule of

transparency. We consider it the most important single element in

creating a better discipline of verification.

Most of the limitations journalists face in trying to move from accuracy

to truth are addressed, if not overcome, by being honest about the nature

of our knowledge, why we trust it, what efforts we make to learn more.

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Transparency has a second important virtue: it signals the journalist's

respect for the audience. It allows the audience to judge the validity of

the information, the process by which it was secured and the motives

and biases of the journalist providing it. This makes transparency the

best protection against errors and deception by sources. If the best

information a journalist has comes from a potentially biased source,

naming the source will reveal to the audience the possible bias of

information - and may inhibit the source from deceiving as well.

It is the same principle that governs scientific method: explain how you

learned something and why you believe it - so the audience can do the

same. In science, the reliability of an experiment, or its objectivity, is

defined by whether someone else could replicate the experiment. In

journalism, only by explaining how we know what we know can we

approximate this idea of people being able, if they are of a mind to, to

replicate the reporting. This is what is meant by objectivity of method in

science, or in journalism.

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Transparency and Dealing with Sources

The Rule of Transparency also suggests something about the way

journalists deal with their sources. Obviously journalists should not lie to

or mislead their sources in the process of trying to tell the truth to their

audiences.

Unfortunately, journalists, without having thought the principle through,

all too often have failed to see this. Bluffing sources, failing to level with

sources about the real point of the story, even simply lying to sources

about the point of stories are all techniques some journalists have

applied - in the name of truth seeking. While at first glance candour may

seem like handcuffs on reporters, in most cases it won't be. Many

reporters have come to find that it can win them enormous influence.

"I've found it is always better to level with sources, tell them what I'm

doing and where I'm going," then Boston Globe political correspondent

Jill Zuckman told us. Washington Post reporter Jay Matthews makes a

habit of showing sources drafts of stories. He believes it increases the

accuracy and nuance of his pieces.

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At the same time, journalists should expect veracity from their sources.

A growing number of journalists believe that if a source who has been

granted anonymity is found to have misled the reporter, the source's

identity should be revealed. Part of the bargain for anonymity is

truthfulness.

Originality: Rely on Your Own Reporting

Beyond demanding more transparency from journalists, citizens and

journalists can also look for something else in judging the value of a

news report. Michael Oreskes, the former Washington bureau chief of

the New York Times, has offered this deceptively simple but powerful

idea in the discipline for pursuing truth: Do your own work.

Keep an Open Mind: Humility

One way journalists can err is by assuming they understand too much.

Journalists should not only be skeptical of what they see and hear, but

also about their ability to know what it really means. In other words,

journalists need to recognize their own fallibility, the limitations of their

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knowledge. They should avoid false omniscience. They should

acknowledge to themselves what they are unsure of, or only think they

understand - and then check it out. This makes their judgment more

precise and their reporting more incisive. It avoids fudging.

Several journalists have advocated similar ideas. Jack Fuller, the author,

novelist, editor, and newspaper executive, has suggested that journalists

need to show "modesty in their judgment" about what they know and

how they know it.

Gregory Fauve, the long-time editor in Sacramento and Chicago, says

his rule is simple. Do not print one iota beyond what you know.

First, you have to be honest about what you know, versus what you

assume you know, or think you know. A key way to avoid

misrepresenting events is a disciplined honesty about the limits of one's

knowledge and the power of one's perception.

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Accuracy

Guarding against errors

In school, one can be 80 percent correct and get a decent grade (called

marks in some parts of the world). In journalism, however, there is no

such leniency. Even if you're 90 percent correct, you've failed. News

stories must be 100 percent correct.

Avoiding errors isn't easy, because there are so many different types of

them to avoid. They range from simple typos, spelling slips, misplaced

headlines, captions and pictures, to grave miscalculations that could be

disastrous to both the news organization and its audience. How can such

errors be avoided? Here are some tips:

• Primary responsibility for accuracy of any news report falls on the

reporter/writer. Don't hand in your story before you're 100 percent sure

of every figure, fact, name and address.

• Go back to the sources you used for the story to double check

facts, figures, the spelling of a name, the accuracy of a quotation, the

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meaning of a term or phrase or any other point that may be unclear or

misleading.

• Consult with your professional peers to make sure that what you've

written makes sense. See if they agree (or disagree) and what they have

to say about it. They may point to some holes or raise questions that

would require some additional research. Consult a dictionary to ensure

correct spelling of words, grammar and usage.

• After editing the story, a final reading by the reporter/writer

provides a last opportunity to guard against errors before the story is

published.

• If you're an assignment editor, let the junior reporters start with the

simple and less complicated stories until they learn what it means to

make a serious mistake.

• When it comes to financial figures, one has to be doubly careful.

There have been times when a wrong figure has caused major financial

disasters and greatly undermined the credibility of news organizations.

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• Make sure that your figures add up correctly and that your

percentages are correct and meaningful. It may be a fact that the salary

of a bank manager in Tokyo is 40 percent higher than his

counterpart in Dhaka, Bangladesh. However, this would remain

meaningless if we don't explain how the living conditions compare in

the two cities.

• The same can be said about averages. Can you imagine a man

drowning in a river that "averaged" one foot in depth?

• Since mistakes are unavoidable, adopt a serious correction policy

that is prompt and systematic.

65 | P a g e
 Math basics for journalists

Working with averages and percentages

Journalists are often thought of as being "word people," and however

true that may or may not be, even the most diligent reporter can blanche

when faced with a thicket of figures. But sidestepping or downplaying

numbers can be perilous.

Appropriately and accurately used, they can be the very foundation of a

story — a project is over or under budget; students' graduation rates are

above or below average; prices are collapsing or spiking. It can even tell

you when something is fact or folly.

Truly understanding numbers and being able to clearly convey their

meaning to readers is a crucial part of being a journalist. You should

have a working knowledge of arithmetic, be comfortable with statistics

and be able to calculate percentages, ratios and other relationships

between numbers.

Here are a few basic concepts to keep in mind when number-crunching

66 | P a g e
for a story.

Averages

The three mathematical concepts — "mean," "median" and "mode" —

are often lumped into the colloquial term "average." All three measure

different things, however, and using them interchangeably or in the

wrong context can result in an incorrect story.

Mean: The mean is known more commonly as an average. It is

calculated by dividing the sum of values in a collection by the number of

values. For example, 300 + 400 + 500 = 1200. Divide this by three (the

number of values we're looking at), and the result is 400 — the mean.

The mean is a good tool when all the values are relatively close in

amount to show the "central tendency." If most of the values are similar

and one value is much higher or lower, the mean will not be a precise

estimate of the commonality.

Median: If there is an extremely high or low value in a collection of

values — say, one person with a high income in a group of low-income

residents — the median is often a more accurate way to measure the

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central tendency of the group of numbers.

To find the median of a collection of values, sort the values in

descending order. If the number of values being examined is odd (3, 11,

131, etc.), the value directly in the middle is the median. For example,

the median of 50, 300, 400, 500 and 5,000 is 400 — the value in the

center of the list of values.

If the collection is an even number of values, take the two values in the

middle and calculate their mean by adding them together and dividing

by two. For example, the median value of 300, 400, 500 and 600 is the

average of the two middle values, 400 and 500: 400 + 500 = 900; 900 / 2

= 450.

Mode: Used less frequently in journalism than in statistics, the mode is

more of an indicator than an accurate measurement. However, it can be

helpful in determining a pattern of reoccurrence. The mode is the most

reoccurring value in a collection. For example, in the numbers 300, 400,

500, 400, 200 and 400, 400 is the mode — it occurs three times in a

group of six numbers.

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Percentages

In news stories with raw numbers, percentages are often helpful to

describe the data to readers in a meaningful way. A percentage is a

fraction of a whole, or of 100. It is calculated by multiplying the

numerical value by 100.

Finding a percentage: To calculate what percentage a number is of another

larger number, divide the former by the latter. For example, to determine

what percentage 62 among 1,567 total is: 62 / 1567 = 0.0395. Multiply

this figure by 100 to get a percentage: 3.95%.

Percent change: To help readers understand the difference in a changing

set of numbers, such as time or price, a percent change can be helpful.

To calculate the percent change, subtract the initial value from the

changed value, divide by the initial value, and then multiply that value

by 100. For example, to find the percent change of a price increase from

$20 to $35: $35-$20 = $15; $15 / $20 = 0.75; and 0.75 x 100 = 75%.

Percent of whole: When you are describing how much one value among a

collection of values contributes to the entire collection, a percentage of

69 | P a g e
whole is a good place to start. To calculate a percentage of whole, add

all the values in the collection. Take the particular value you are

interested in and divide it by the sum of all the values. Then, multiply by

100 to find the percentage.

For example, a local news website has an investigative-reporting team.

If the two-person team is paid $2,000 a month, other salaries are $2,000,

Web services are $1,000, and other expenses $5,000, what percentage of

the total monthly expenses are spent on investigative reporting? Total

expenses are $10,000, so $2,000 / $10,000 = 0.2; 0.2 x 100 = 20%.

When working with numbers, try not to let them tell the story. Instead of

overwhelming your readers with a barrage of numbers, use only what is

necessary to convey the essence of the story. Visual and descriptive cues

help readers quickly understand content, so use rates and percentages

when possible instead of raw numbers.

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 Language & style - grammar

In this chapter on Language & Style, we look at some of the most

important grammatical rules for news writing, at some common

mistakes and how to correct them. In the final chapter on Language &

style we will look at translation.

Collective nouns: Some nouns which are collections of individual parts

are treated as plural, while others are treated as singular.

It is very much a matter of which style your particular newspaper or

broadcasting station uses, but there is a general guideline.

If individuals within the group act or make decisions as a single body,

use the singular verb.

RIGHT: The Government said it was going to abolish income tax.

WRONG: The Government said they were going to abolish income tax.

However, if the collective group is more noted for its individual parts,

treat it as a plural. This is commonly done for sporting teams.

71 | P a g e
RIGHT: The team manager said they were going to win.

WRONG: The team manager said it was going to win.

Remember also that a singular noun should be treated as singular even

when it contains several things. For example, we say that:

A bag of coconuts is sitting on the table.

A flock of sheep is grazing in the field.

The bus full of nurses is waiting outside.

This is because the subject of the sentence is "a bag", not "coconuts"; "a

flock", not "sheep"; and "a bus", not "nurses".

Neither, none, each and every

The words neither, none, each and every are treated as singular when

they are the subject of a verb, even though they refer to more than one

thing or person. This is because the words mean not either one, not one,

each one and every one.

RIGHT: Neither the man nor the woman is able to speak.

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WRONG: Neither the man nor the woman are able to speak.

The word none is treated as singular (because it is short for not one),

even though it is usually followed by a plural noun. The subject of the

sentence is none (i.e. not one) and therefore needs a singular verb. The

subject of the sentence which follows is not men, it is none:

RIGHT: None of the men was willing to testify in court.

WRONG: None of the men were willing to testify in court.

The words each and every are treated as singular, even though they may

be followed by a long list of things they refer to.

RIGHT: Every car, bus, bicycle and rickshaw in the city has to be

licensed.

WRONG: Every car, bus, bicycle and rickshaw in the city have to be

licensed.

Misplaced modifiers

When you use a phrase to modify or describe part of a sentence, make

sure that it describes the correct part. The rule is that the modifier
73 | P a g e
attaches to the noun nearest to it. Mistakes can sometimes be very

amusing. In this example, the modifier is in italics.

RIGHT: The plane came to a halt in front of the clan chief who was

dressed in a grass skirt

WRONG: Dressed in a grass skirt, the plane came to a halt in front of

the clan chief.

I, me, we and us

These become a problem when you turn someone's quotes into reported

speech. It is correct to use I, me, my, we, us, and our within quotation

marks, but once you take the quote marks away and write in reported

speech, you have to make the following changes:

I becomes he or she,

me becomes him or her,

my becomes his or her.

We becomes they,

us becomes them,
74 | P a g e
 our becomes their.

you becomes him, her or them,

your becomes his, hers or their.

Many journalists remember to change the I, me and my in reported

speech but forget about the rest of the changes that have to be made. In

the following example, we show the right and wrong ways of turning a

sentence from quotes into reported speech. The original sentence in

quotes was:

The Prime Minister of Fiji told soldiers in Suva: "I will do my best to

protect our country."

Turned into reported speech, it becomes:

RIGHT: The Prime Minister of Fiji told soldiers in Suva that he would

do his best to protect their country.

WRONG: The Prime Minister of Fiji told soldiers in Suva that he would

do his best to protect our country.

In the wrong version above, leaving the word "our" in the sentence
75 | P a g e
implies that we, the journalist, are included in the story.

It is sometimes not enough just to change a few words. Sometimes you

will have to add words of explanation. In the correct sentences above, it

is clear who is speaking to whom. However, when changing quotes into

reported speech it occasionally becomes less clear, especially in

paragraphs later in the story. Suppose the Prime Minister then went on to

tell the soldiers:

"I can do so much, but I also need your help."

In reported speech you would then have to write:

The Prime Minister of Fiji told soldiers in Suva that he would do his best

to protect their country.

He said he could do so much, but he also needed help from the army.

This would be an acceptable solution in writing for radio and television,

where you should not use direct quotes in scripts. If you are writing for

the print media, the best solution is to give the quotes themselves.

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Its and it's

There is often confusion over these two words. The rule is simple. Use

its when referring to something belonging to it. Use it's as a short form

for it is. For example:

The wounded animal returned to its lair.

The hunter said: "It's not clear what is happening at the moment."

Punctuation

Here are some basic rules of punctuation used in most style books. The

Golden Rule of all writing, however, is to keep it simple and clear.

Capital letters

These are used at the beginning of sentences and for the names of people

and places. Capitals are also used at the beginning of words which are a

titles rather than a description. For example, we write about "the

Government of Sri Lanka" because that is the title of one specific body,

but we write of "agreements between governments" because we are

speaking about governments in general. The following example

77 | P a g e
demonstrates the difference:

Eight prime ministers attended the meeting, hosted by the Prime

Minister of India.

Capital letters should also be used for the trade names of products and

companies. For example:

The Universal Cement Company produces cement called Cemebond.

Full stops

Called "periods" in America, full stops are used at the ends of sentences,

as decimal points and with certain standard abbreviated place names. For

example, in America Cal. for California or N.Y. for New York; in

Australia W.A. for Western Australia or Vic. for Victoria., though it

becoming increasingly common to drop the full stops in informal use.

However, unless the abbreviation is one well-known to your audience,

write the name in full. Journalists working for radio or television

normally give the names in full.

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When used at the end of a quote, the full stop comes within the closing

quotation mark:

He said: "This is not what we wanted."

Not all abbreviations use full stops. Most newspapers today do not use

them to abbreviate Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr, Rev and similar common titles.

It used to be the case that full stops were used within abbreviations of

titles. Increasingly, editors are choosing to leave them out, as in USA,

PNG or UN.

Commas

The comma in written English acts very much like a pause in the spoken

language. It is used within sentences to separate phrases or lists of

words, as in the following example:

The company, which was only set up last year, now produces a range of

goods including tires, steering wheels, exhaust systems and windscreens.

Notice that there is no comma before the and at the end of the list.

Commas should only be inserted to help reading or listening. If you find

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you have several commas in your sentence, it is probably too long and

should be split into separate sentences.

Semi-colons (;)

Their main use is to separate phrases which already contain commas,

especially in lists:

The winners were: Bagu Lagi, geology; Jim Ho, physics; Peter Graham,

Doro Meeni and Fa'afo Tokala, economics; and Nga Nganda, history.

Colons (:)

There are two principle uses for the colon in news-writing. One is at the

start of lists, as in the example above.

The second is when going from attribution into a quote:

The judge said: "This is not the first time I have had to deal with this

kind of case."

Apostrophes (')

There are several uses for apostrophes. The most common is to show

possession. It is usually used in front of an s. In this example, the

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printery belongs to the company:

Fire last night destroyed the company's main printery.

However, when a plural noun ends with an s, the apostrophe is not

normally followed by another s:

Frank's jokes were a great success at his parents' anniversary party.

In the sentence above, the jokes belonged to Frank, so we add an 's.

However, the word parents already ends in s, so we just add an

apostrophe.

Apostrophes are also used in contractions in place of missing letters or

numbers:

"In the '34 gold rush, miners couldn't get to Bulolo quickly enough," he

said.

Quotation marks (" ")

These should mainly be used to distinguish spoken words, although

some journalists use them when quoting from written reports.

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Hyphens (-) and dashes ( - )

Hyphens are used to pull words together, and dashes are used to separate

phrases, usually for dramatic effect.

Hyphens are used to join two or more words into one idea, for example:

non-agreement, well-meant, Vice-Chancellor, mother-in-law. They are

also used in some words to avoid ambiguous meaning. For example, the

hyphen distinguishes between re-cover (to cover again) and recover (to

get something back).

The dash (which is given more space than a hyphen) is used to indicate a

dramatic shift or a surprise phrase, as in the following example intro.

David Paro arrived home from work yesterday to find an unwelcome gift

on his verandah - three tonnes of manure.

Do not use the dash unless it is necessary; it can get tiresome to readers.

Question marks (?)

These should only be used after a direct question, which means they

usually appear within quotation marks. Examine the following

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combinations to see the right and wrong uses of question marks:

RIGHT: The doctor asked Mary: "When did you last give blood?"

WRONG: The doctor asked Mary: "When did you last give blood."

RIGHT: The doctor asked Mary when she had last given blood.

WRONG: The doctor asked Mary when she had last given blood?

Journalists sometimes wrongly ask their readers questions, particularly

in writing features. The journalist's job is to answer readers' questions,

not leave them guessing, so avoid posing questions.

Exclamation marks (!)

You should not need these in news-writing. In novels they are inserted to

signify drama. If you are a good reporter your story should do that for

you. You should only use them at the end of a quote which is an

exclamation or an order, for example: Mr Paro took one look at his

veranda and said: "Damn!"

Ellipsis (...)

This is a series of three dots put into quotations to show that something
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has been missed out: "The car struck several objects ... before coming to

rest against a tree."

Again, you should try to avoid this if at all possible, as it suggests to

your reader that you are hiding something.

The ellipsis is frequently used instead of a dash in radio and television

news-writing. The newsreader knows to allow an expectant pause before

finishing the sentence. So in radio, we might rewrite the manure

example:

David Paro arrived home yesterday to find an unwelcome gift on his

veranda ... three tonnes of manure.

Brackets ()

You should also avoid brackets in news-writing. They are meant to

contain extra detail within a sentence, but are more often used by lazy

journalists to avoid having to rewrite sentences correctly.

Some newspapers allow their use when explaining abbreviations, for

example:

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A surgeon suffering from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

(AIDS) has been sacked from his job in the country's main hospital.

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 Inverted Pyramid Structure

This publication about news writing for print is the second of a five-part

series on news media writing. This series also covers an introduction to

news media writing, grammar and punctuation, news writing for

television and radio, and interviews for news stories.

Introduction

A good print news story will contain the following components: inverted

pyramid structure, five Ws and H, leads, impersonal reporting, news

writing techniques, quotations and attributions, Associated Press Style,

and proper grammar and punctuation. Proper grammar and punctuation

will be covered in a separate EDIS publication.

Inverted Pyramid Structure

The inverted pyramid structure is the most commonly used structure

for news writing. The inverted pyramid presents the most important

information in a news story first, followed in descending order by less-

important information. This structure works well for two reasons. First,

86 | P a g e
the most important information, which is presented at the beginning,

helps to grab the reader’s attention and interest, so the reader is more

likely to read the entire article. Second, a story written in the inverted

pyramid structure means the least important information is at the very

end of the structure. Therefore, if the story needs to be cut, it can be cut

from the bottom without any loss of important information. If you put

important information at the end, it may get deleted.

The inverted pyramid structure is based on the “five Ws and H” and

good leads. The lead, or first paragraph, is a simple statement that

provides focus to the news story. A lead should be written as simply as

possible and should contain as many of the five Ws and H as can be

understood easily. The body of the inverted pyramid story adds detail to

the information that has been introduced in the lead. The body should

provide more information, supporting evidence, and context in the form

of direct and indirect quotes, more details, and other descriptions.

Stories in the inverted pyramid structure avoid falling into the trap of a

chronological storytelling of what happened at an event (“this happened,

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then this happened, then this happened”). For example, what happens at

the beginning of a meeting or event is rarely the most important or

interesting thing that occurred.

Inverted Pyramid Structure of News Writing

The inverted pyramid is the structure most commonly used for news

writing. The inverted pyramid presents the most important information

in a news story first, followed in descending order by less-important

information.

FIVE WS AND H

The five Ws and H are the key components of any news stories. They

stand for who, what, when, where, why, and how. The five Ws and H

also can be the questions that a news story should answer, such as:

• Who said or did something?

• What was said or done? What happened?

• When was it said or done? When did it happen?

• Where was it said or done? Where did it happen?

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• Why was it said or done? Why did it happen?

• How was it said or done? How did it happen? How does this affect

me?

To gain the reader’s attention you should begin the lead with the most

interesting or most important element of the five Ws and H. Others are

added later in the story. The aspect used most often in the lead is the

what, or perhaps the who, if it is someone important. What happened is

usually what most people want to read about first.

LEADS

The lead paragraph, or lead (pronounced LEED), is the first paragraph

in the news story. The lead grabs the reader’s attention and contains as

many of the five Ws and H as can be understood easily. The reporter

must make a judgment about what to put in a lead, based on the

newsworthiness

criteria described previously. A good lead generally will contain at least

three of the five Ws and H. However, one mistake writers sometimes

89 | P a g e
make is trying to put too much in a lead. The lead should be brief, no

more than 25 words. Following are descriptions of some types of leads

that you might include in your stories.

The summary lead is the most common news-style lead seen in

newspapers. The summary lead provides the most important of the five

Ws and H elements. It gets the basic information up front. If you include

a who in your lead, you do not have to use the person’s name. You can

identify someone by title or job position and then include the person’s

name later in the story. The following example shows how you can

identify people without using their names. Unless the who in your story

is someone important or well known, rarely will you want to list the

person’s name in the lead paragraph.

Example: Five Anyville 4-H members and a volunteer were injured

Sunday night when their van slid out of control on icy roads in eastern

Kentucky.

This summary lead contains who (five Anyville 4-H members and one

volunteer), what (were injured when their van slid out of control), when
90 | P a g e
(Sunday night), where (eastern Kentucky), and how (icy roads), and it is

25 words.

The question lead asks a question to grab the reader’s attention. The

question lead is seldom used because if a reader does not care about the

answer to the question, then that person probably will stop reading.

Example: Will the older adult vote affect local elections? Not if older

adults are not registered to cast their ballots.

A quotation lead is a direct quotation used in the first paragraph. Unless

the quotation is something memorable or unusual, the quotation lead

should be avoided, because it is considered that the story’s writer has

given up on being creative and just inserted a quotation to jump-start a

story. The following example shows how a quotation lead can work,

because the quotation is out of the ordinary.

Example: “My plane is taking off without me" shouted a student pilot to

his instructor as he dashed down the runway after the Cessna 140

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Impersonal Reporter

Another aspect of journalistic writing is the impersonal reporter. Now,

because everyone can communicate with their target audiences, anyone

can be a “reporter" To be a good reporter, though, you should follow

these guidelines.

Reporters should be transparent in their writing. They should avoid

using first-person pronouns (I, me, we, our, my, us) or second-person

pronouns (you, your) outside of a source’s direct quote.

Reporters also should set aside their own views and opinions. Allowing

the writer’s opinions, prejudices, and biases to enter a story is called

editorializing. News reporters should report only what they see and

hear. How a reporter feels about that information is not relevant to the

news story.

To avoid editorializing, a writer should present only facts and limit or

eliminate most adjectives, except in direct quotes. For example, instead

of writing, “He was sad,” describe what the person did that made you

think he was sad. Instead of writing, “He was sad,” you could write, “He
92 | P a g e
placed his head in his hands and wept.” Present what you see and hear;

let the reader make the connection that the person was sad. How do you

know something is “interesting,” “impressive,” “tragic,” or “avoidable”?

That is your opinion. Just present the facts. Leave the value judgment to

your readers.

Editorializing can be avoided by attributing any information that is not a

factor is not common knowledge. If the information is not common

knowledge, may or may not be true, or is entirely opinion, it must be

attributed to someone. If not everyone knows something to be true, your

responsibility is to attribute that information to a source.

You do not have to wrap up the story. That is one of the functions of the

inverted pyramid structure. When there is nothing else to write, just stop.

News Writing Techniques

The following summarizes news writing techniques for print:

- Short sentences: Sentences in news stories average 20 to 25 words

or so. Do not string together, with commas and conjunctions,

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 several sentences into one long sentence. The best way to shorten

sentences is to use periods, not commas and conjunctions.

- Short paragraphs: For news stories, paragraphs should be no more

than three sentences long. Usually, paragraphs are one or two

sentences long. This is much different than the writing you have

done for your composition and English classes, which emphasizes

four or five sentences per paragraph.

- Third person: A news story should be written completely in third

person (e.g., he, she, it, they), except when you use a person’s own

words in a direct quotation.

- Nouns and verbs: Place emphasis more on nouns and verbs than on

adjectives and adverbs. Overusing adjectives and adverbs will

cause you to editorialize. Action verbs keep a story moving and

grab the reader more than “to be” verbs (be, is, are, am, was,

were), which show little action. Use action verbs to describe what

you observe.

- Simple writing: Use simple words and simple sentences. Not every
94 | P a g e
 sentence should be in the simple-sentence format (subject-verb-

object), but the simple sentence is a good tool for clearing up

muddy writing.

- Jargon and cliches: Avoid jargon and cliches. Jargon is technical

language used in specialized fields or in specific groups. Cliches

are overused words and phrases, such as “it cost an arm and a leg,”

“a drop in the bucket,” and “on the cutting edge.”

- Transitions: Transitions tie together what you have written. Each

sentence in a story should logically follow the previous sentence or

should relate to it in some way. New information in a story should

be connected to information already introduced. Transitions

include the following:

- Connectors help unify the writing. For the most part, they are

conjunctions such as and, but, or, for, thus, however, therefore,

meanwhile, and others. They do not have great value in terms of

the content of the writing, but they are necessary for its flow.

- Hooks are words or phrases that are repeated throughout an article

95 | P a g e
 to give the reader a sense of unity. For example, in a story about

the city council, the word “council” used throughout the story

would be a hook.

- Pronouns are one of the best transitional devices for writing about

people. Instead of using a person’s name each time, use a pronoun

about every other time the person is mentioned in the story.

Quotations and Attribution

Quotations are the words of someone talking. It is a good idea to use

quotations to bring “life” to your story. Quotations can be either direct or

indirect. A direct quotation is the exact words of a person talking (or

quoted) in a news story. An indirect quotation, also called a paraphrase,

may have one word or a few of the same words that a speaker used, but

it will also have words that the speaker did not use. Paraphrases express

what the source said but with different words from those the speaker

used. The exact words spoken by the speaker in a direct quotation or in

an indirect quote will be inside quotation marks.

A good news story will use more paraphrases than direct quotations.
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Direct quotations do add “life” to a story, but they should be used

sparingly. Use them to supplement a story. Do not string together long

sections of direct quotes.

Attribution means telling readers where the information in a story

comes from. Attribution is extremely important in news writing. It is one

way writers can avoid editorializing in their story, by making sure that

information in their stories can be attributed to someone or some

organization. Writers should attribute anything that is not common

knowledge to all readers. Attributing information sources also allows the

reader to assess the credibility of the information by assessing the source

of the information. Some sources are more credible than others. Here are

some examples of attribution:

Indirect quote/paraphrase: Myers said the incident was under

investigation.

Indirect quote (with some of the words as the exact words of the

speaker): Myers said the incident was being

investigated, but that it would be “a long time before the investigation is

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completed.”

Direct quote: “The incident is under investigation,”

Myers said.

Direct quote: “The incident is under investigation,” Myers said, “but it

will be a long time before the investigation is completed.”

Following are some guidelines for attributing information and including

quotations in news stories:

- Use the person’s first name and last name when identifying a

person by name for the first time in the story. This is also called

“first reference.” Afterward, use only the person’s last name. Some

newspapers use courtesy titles—such as Dr., Mr., Ms., and Mrs.—

before the last name (“Ms. Becker,” “Mr. Mallory”). However, the

predominant practice is not to use courtesy titles. You do not have

to include the person’s last name each time you reference the

person; you can use a pronoun (he, she) every other time, instead

of the person’s last name.

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 - Use quotation marks around a word or group of words when

someone has spoken or written those exact words.

- Every quotation (direct or indirect) must have attribution.

- Each direct quotation should be its own paragraph. This may mean

that the paragraph with a direct quotation is only one sentence.

- Use “said” for attribution. Many people try to look through a

thesaurus for a different word to use, such as stated, noted, or

exclaimed. Said is a neutral word. Use it.

Associated Press Style

The Associated Press is an international organization of professional

journalists. The organization has a writing style for news stories. You

must follow Associated Press Style if you are going to write news stories

professionally or provide news releases about your events to news

media. Every journalist and public relations professional must

understand and use Associated Press (AP) Style.

It is recommended that you purchase an Associated Press Stylebook at

99 | P a g e
least every two to three years to see if any additions to the Stylebook

have been made or if any entries have changed. For example, the 2006

Associated Press Stylebook listed “(123) 555-5678” as the correct way

to include telephone numbers in a news story. The telephone number

entry was changed in the 2007 Associated Press Stylebook to “123-555-

5678.” In the 2009 edition of the Stylebook, “website” was listed as two

words: “Web site.” In the 2010 edition, it had been changed to one word,

not capitalized: “website” In addition, you should review the

Stylebook’s section on edit marks.

You may never need to know certain Associated Press Stylebook

listings, such as if “nearsighted” is one word, two words, or hyphenated.

(It is one word, by the way, according to the 2010 edition.) However,

you will need to know how to correctly write an address and to use

numbers and measurements, among other things. The following list of

Associated Press tips is not meant to be a complete list of everything you

should know, but it should keep you from having to memorize

everything in the Stylebook.

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Numbers

- In general, spell out whole numbers nine and below. (The nine

boys)

- Use figures for 10 and above. (The 25 boys)

- “Million” and “billion” are used with round numbers. (2.3 million.

250 billion)

- “Thousands” are numbers. (186,540)

- Ages are always numbers. (The 2-year-old girl. John is 21 years

old.)

- Measurements and dimensions are always numbers. (25 percent. 3

yards. He is 5 feet tall.)

- Years are always numbers. (He was born in 1990.)

- However, spell out any number—except for a year—that begins a

sentence. (Four-year-old Tom Adams won an award. 2007 was a

good year.)

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Abbreviations

TITLES

Some titles are abbreviated, but only in front of someone’s name. The

abbreviated titles are “Dr.,” “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” “Rev” (reverend), “Sen”

(senator), “Rep” (representative), “Gov” (governor), “Lt. Gov.”

(lieutenant governor), and military ranks. For example, “Gov. Adams

said he liked the presentation.” Titles are spelled out if they are not in

front of a person’s name. (“Adams, the governor of Georgia, said he

liked the presentation.”)

STREET ADDRESSES

The words “street,” “avenue,” and “boulevard” are spelled out unless

they are part of a full street address. “Road,” “alley,” “circle,” and

“drive” are not abbreviated.

• He lives on Main Street. He lives at 1245 Main St.

• She lives on Bamboo Avenue. She lives at 405 Bamboo Ave.

• They live on Citrus Boulevard. They live at 80 Citrus Blvd.

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• The box was delivered to Boone Road. The box was delivered to

890 Boone Road.

MONTHS AND DATES

Months are spelled out unless they come before a date. Check the

Associated Press Stylebook to see how each month is abbreviated.

Months that are five letters or shorter are never abbreviated (March,

April, May, June, and July).

• She moved last February.

• She moved in February 2014.

• She moved on Feb. 6, 2014.

• She moved on March 15, 2014.

ORGANIZATIONS

Spell out names of organizations (colleges, groups, clubs) on first

reference. Abbreviate the names, if necessary, on second reference.

• First reference: College of Agriculture Student Council.

• Second reference: CASC

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