INTERNATIONAL

BIODETERIORATION +
BIODEGRADATION
International Biodeterioration + Biodegradation 31 "0887# 64Ð73

Analysis of concrete from corroded sewer pipe

Je}rey L[ Davis\ Dana Nica\ Kameron Shields\ Deborah J[ Roberts
University of Houston\ Houston\ USA

Received 0 December 0886^ revised 0 March 0887^ accepted 0 June 0887

Abstract

The microbial populations in the loose outer corrosion layer "OCL# and the bound inner corrosion layer "ICL# of concrete from
a corroded sewage collection system were enumerated[ Chemical and physical studies were performed to determine the mineralogical
composition strength of the samples[
The average number of acidophilic sulphur!oxidizing microorganisms "ASOM# found were 03\499 and 05\999 MPN:g "OCL# and
01\499 and 099 MPN:g "ICL# at the crown and springline[ The average numbers of neutrophilic sulfur!oxidizing microorganisms
"NSOM# found were 097\999 and 003\999 MPN:g "OCL#\ and 4 and 299 MPN:g "ICL# at the crown and the springline[ The average
compressive strength of the concrete undergoing corrosion was reduced by 19)[
The results suggest that an initial ecological succession occurred on the concrete surface and that the progression of the corroding
front into the concrete was controlled by the penetration of acid produced by ASOM followed by the ASOM themselves[ NSOM
did not appear to penetrate the concrete[ Þ 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved

Keywords] Concrete^ Corroded sewer pipes

0[ Introduction structural support to the concrete pipe "Mehta\ 0872#[

The state of urban infrastructure systems has become a
major concern worldwide because of the cost of improve!
ments and maintenance[ The wastewater collection sys!
tem is of major importance\ where failure can lead to
health problems and property damage[ The City of
Houston|s wastewater collection system consists of over
7999 km of 04 to 255 cm concrete sewer pipes
"Schindewolf et al[\ 0884#[ Houston is currently spending
,0\199 million in e}orts to correct problems of failing
infrastructure[
The biogenic acid attack of sewer pipe concrete is
known as microbially induced concrete corrosion
"MICC#[ The initial report of the involvement of bacteria
in the corrosion process can be traced back to a study by
Parker "0834#[ Parker isolated Thiobacillus concretivorus
"thiooxidans# from the corroded layer of concrete and
concluded that microbial activity was the cause of the
deterioration of the concrete[ Further studies have sub!
stantiated and expanded on the knowledge of the cor!
rosion process[ "Sand et al[\ 0876^ Mori et al[\ 0881^ Milde
et al[\ 0872^ Diercks et al[\ 0880^ Islander et al[\ 0880#
Thiobacillus thiooxidans is a sulfur!oxidizing bacterium
that produces sulfuric acid[ The sulfuric acid can then
react with the highly alkaline concrete\ forming materials\
such as ettringite and gypsum\ that provide little or no
Since Parker|s initial study\ numerous other sulfur!
oxidizing bacteria have been determined to be involved
in the corrosion process "T[ thioparus\ T[ novellus\ T[
neapolitanus\ T[ intermedius# "Parker\ 0836^ Islander et
al[\ 0880#[
The corrosion process is initiated by the conversion of
sulfate to sul_de in the sewage by sulfate reducing
bacteria[ Sul_de then forms either bisul_de or hydrogen
sul_de based on pH equilibrium "pKa06[0\ pKa103#[
Because sewage is typically acidic\ hydrogen sul_de will
predominate[ Hydrogen sul_de is typically a gas at the
temperature and pressure that are normally associated
with sewer conditions and partitions primarily into the
gaseous phase[ Another factor that can contribute to this
partitioning into the gaseous phase is turbulent ~ow of
the sewage[
Concrete initially exhibits pH in the range of 00Ð02\
which is too alkaline for the growth of most bacteria[
The initial step in reducing the pH involves the abiotic
neutralization of the concrete[ This neutralization is
brought about by reaction of the cementitious material
and carbon dioxide\ also known as carbonation "Ismail
et al[\ 0882#\ or reaction with other acidic gases that
may be present\ such as hydrogen sul_de[ This abiotic
neutralization can reduce the pH of the concrete to as
low as nine[ Islander "0880# grew various thiobacilli in

S9853Ð7294:87:,08[99 Þ 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

PII] S 9 8 5 3 Ð 7 2 9 4 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 3 8 Ð 2
65 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73
lab cultures and developed a theory which suggests that
neutrophilic thiobacilli can grow at pH 8 and further
reduce the surface pH to four[ At this lower pH\ the
bacteria that are capable of producing vast amounts of
sulfuric acid can ~ourish "T[ thiooxidans#[ These can
further reduce the surface pH to one or two[
Mori et al[ "0881#\ on the other hand\ present some
data from corroded sewer pipe\ which suggests the
involvement of an unidenti_ed green fungus[ The fungus
grew at high pH and was capable of reducing the pH to
levels tolerable for T[ thiooxidans growth[
The sulfuric acid produced by T[ thiooxidans reacts
with the surface of the concrete converting the cemen!
titious material into ettringite "2CaO = Al1O =2CaSO3 =
21H1O# or gypsum "CaSO3 = 1H1O#[ Ettringite is a friable
material that forms from the incomplete reaction of sul!
furic acid and cement[ It provides little to no structural
support to the concrete pipe[ Gypsum is the _nal product
of the reaction of sulfuric acid and cement[ The wetted
gypsum that is formed in the corrosion process has the
consistency of {cottage cheese| and provides no structural
support to the concrete pipe[
Several technologies are currently in use around the
world to control this problem[ Some of these\ include the
addition of iron to precipitate sul_de from the sewage
"Padival et al[\ 0884#\ the use of acid resistant coatings
"Redner et al[\ 0880#\ and spraying with magnesium
hydroxide to raise the concrete surface pH "Sydney et al[\
0885#[ Although these techniques have shown promise in
reducing corrosion\ it is still necessary to further charac!
terize the corrosion process to allow the development of
new control technologies[
This paper extends the microbiological analysis of cor!
roded concrete to include aerobic heterotrophs\ anaer!
obic heterotrophs\ nitrate reducing bacteria\ ammonia
oxidizing bacteria\ and sulfate reducing bacteria to more
fully delineate the microbial ecology of corroding
concrete[ Combined with physical and chemical studies
of the concrete the work re_nes and advances the current
theories of MICC[
1[ Materials and methods
Samples of concrete sewage collection pipes were
removed from various locations within the City of Hou!
ston|s sewage collection system[ Samples were taken by
_rst removing the loose corrosion product and sub!
sequently coring completely through the sewer pipe at
the crown and at the 2 or 8 o|clock positions "springline#
from 5 sites within the City of Houston|s sewage col!
lection system that exhibited moderate to heavy
corrosion[
1[0[ Microbial analyses
Duplicate\ 14 g samples of corrosion product from the
outer corrosion layer of all six locations and the inner
corrosion layer of the concrete cores at three of the
locations were diluted by serial ten!fold dilutions in 9[0)
peptone water[ Plate counts were performed in quin!
tuplicate or 4!tube MPN|s were used[
Neutrophilic sulfur!oxidizing microorganisms
"NSOM# were cultured and enumerated using medium
adapted from Sand et al[ "0876#[ The neutrophilic med!
ium consisted of 09 g Na1S1O2\ 0 g KH1PO3\ 0 g KH1PO3\
0 g NH3Cl\ 9[4 g "NH3#1SO3\ 9[0 g MgSO3,6H1O\ 9[91 g
FeCl2\ 9[91 g MnSO3\ 9[91 g CaCl1 in 0 L of DI water[
The medium pH was adjusted to 5[4[ Acidophilic sulfur!
oxidizing microorganisms "ASOM# were cultured and
enumerated using the medium of Sand et al[ "0876#[ All
cultures were incubated at room temperature for 10 days[
A positive indication of growth was determined by
reduction of the culture pH[
Heterotrophs were enumerated on R1A "Difco# agar
using the spread plate technique[ Aerobic heterotrophs
"AH# were incubated for 1 days in the dark at room
temperature[ Anaerobic heterogrophs "AnH# were incu!
bated for 6 days at room temperature in an anaerobic
glovebox[
Nitrate reducing bacteria "NRB# were enumerated
using the technique of MacFaddin "0879#[ Enumeration
was performed by an MPN technique with samples incu!
bated for 03 days at room temperature in the dark using
nitrate broth "Difco#[ Positive indications of growth were
determined by the complete conversion of nitrate to
nitrogen gas[
Enumeration of sulfate reducing bacteria "SRB# was
performed using an MPN technique with the medium of
Butlin et al[ "0838#[ Samples were incubated for 10 days
at room temperature in the dark[ Positive indications of
growth were determined by visual observation of a black
precipitate[
Ammonia oxidizing bacteria "AOB# were enumerated
using the plate count technique of Soriano and Walker
"0857#[ Samples were incubated for 03 days at room
temperature in the dark[
1[1[ Physical and chemical analyses
The compressive strength of the concrete in the cores
was determined by levelling the ends of the cores and
then applying capping compound to both ends of the
cores in accordance with ASTM C 506!83 "0883#[ A stan!
dard compressive strength test was then utilized to deter!
mine the compressive strength of the cores[ Cores that
were removed below the waterline were used as specimens
of uncorroded concrete[ These were cut to various lengths
to be used as standards for comparative purposes[
The mineralogical analysis of the concrete in the cores
was performed by X!ray di}raction analysis[ A Siemen|s
D4999 X!ray di}ractometer\ which had a copper tube
operated at 49 kV and 39 mA\ was used in this study[
Samples of the outer corrosion layer product\ the inner
 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73 66

corrosion layer product\ and the concrete were ground 2[0[ Microbial analyses
to a _ne powder with mortar and pestle and investigated
for the re~ection angle "1u# in the range 09 to 49>[ Figure 0 presents an example of the results from the
analysis of the microbial populations that inhabit the
1[2[ Data manipulation loose corrosion product[ These data are from the location
2 crown and springline samples[ Of major interest is the
The results of the duplicate 4!plate plate counts were number of sulfur!oxidizing bacteria because of their
combined[ The numbers presented in the _gures are the known importance in the corrosion process[ A large num!
averages of approximately 09 plates[ The duplicate MPN ber of ASOM and a relatively low number of NSOM are
data for NSOM and ASOM are presented separately present in the crown samples[ However\ NSOM are more
since no mechanism is available to combine the results predominant than ASOM in the springline samples[ This
of MPN tests statistically All data were plotted using _nding provides evidence from the _eld supporting the
SigmaplotTM "SPSS Inc[#[ All errors bars represent 84) theory put forth by Islander et al[ "0880#[ The springline
con_dence limits of the data[ cores were longer "19[21 cm#\ than the crown cores
"6[51 cm#\ suggesting that the springline had not under!
gone as much corrosion[ The presence of more NSOM
2[ Results and discussion than ASOM in the springline corrosion product and more
ASOM than NSOM in the crown corrosion product is
The thickness of the concrete remaining in the sewer predicted by the microbial succession theory[
pipe was determined by measuring the thickness of the Aerobic heterotrophs were also present in large
cores that were removed and are summarized in Table 0[ numbers[ This has not been reported in previous concrete
The original pipe thickness is unknown[ These pipes are corrosion studies\ but could be expected due to the large
poured in place and have round interior exposures and number of heterotrophs present in sewage[ Nitrate reduc!
square exteriors[ The pipes are thinner at the crown and ing bacteria were also present in large numbers in the
springline than at the corners[ The thickness of concrete springline corrosion product in this sample\ but were not
remaining in all the cores taken from the crown were observed in high numbers in other samples[
shorter than the concrete remaining at the springline\ The presence of sulfate reducing bacteria "SRB#\
with the notable exception at location 0[ At location 0\ nitrate reducing bacteria "NRB#\ anaerobic heterotrophs
the thickness of the crown core was 00[32 cm while the "AnH#\ and ammonia oxidizing bacteria "AOx# was not
thickness of the springline core was 7[78 cm[ This evi! consistent from site to site[ This indicates that they were
dence indicates that the crown is not as heavily corroded present transiently due to inoculation from sewage by
as the springline for this location[ This can be attributed splashing or full pipe ~ow and they probably do not
to the hydrodynamic characteristics of the sewer at this participate in the MICC process[
location[ The cores were taken after a bend in the sewer Figures 1 and 2 show the numbers of ASOM present
system[ This bend resulted in increased wetting of the in the outer and inner corrosion layers for all sites[ These
concrete at the springline[ Mori et al[ "0881# dem! data suggest that the ASOM are well represented at all
onstrated the importance of moisture in the corrosion locations\ including both crown and springline\ in both
process[ the outer and inner corrosion layers[
The numbers of NSOM present in the outer and inner
corrosion layer for all sites\ are not quite as consistent[
NSOM are present in the outer corrosion layers of most
Table 0 but not all locations at both the crown and the springline
Thickness of concrete cores "Fig[ 3#[ However\ they are only present in signi_cant
Location Core Length "cm# numbers in the inner corrosion layer at location 5 "Fig[
2#[ The cores removed from location 5 are thicker than
0 Crown 00[32 those from most of the other locations\ suggesting that
Springline 7[78 the corrosion at location 5 was not as extensive as the
1 Crown 5[24
corrosion at the other locations[
Springline 04[13
2 Crown 6[51 These _gures indicate that the theory put forth by
Springline 19[21 Islander et al[ "0880# describes a surface phenomenon[
3 Crown 04[13 After the establishment of the microbial succession on
Springline 02[86 the surface of the concrete\ reduction of the internal con!
4 Crown 09[05
crete pH is accomplished by the migration of microbially
Springline 04[13
5 Crown 02[35 produced sulfuric acid[ ASOM then follow the sulfuric
Springline 06[67 acid front into the concrete matrix[ NSOM apparently
do not[
67 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73

Fig[ 0[ Microbial population of the outer corrosion layers taken from location 2[ Columns without error bars indicate that the samples were below
the detection limit of the analysis[ The height of the column indicates the detection limit[

Fig[ 1[ ASOM population in the outer corrosion layer from all locations[
 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73 68

Fig[ 2[ ASOM and NSOM populations in the inner corrosion layer from the cores tested[ Columns without error bars indicate that the samples were
below the detection limit of the analysis[ The height of the column indicates the detection limit[

Fig[ 3[ NSOM population in the outer corrosion layer from all locations[ Columns without error bars indicate that the samples were below the
detection limit of the analysis[ The height of the column indicates the detection limit[
79 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73
Figures 4 and 5 show the numbers of AH that are
present in the outer and inner corrosion layers\ respec!
tively[ Large numbers of these organisms are present in
both layers\ indicating they also move with the corroding
front[ Possible explanations for their presence in these
layers are] 0# they may provide some vital nutrient for
the ASOM^ 1# they may be present to remove some sub!
stance that may be toxic to the ASOM^ and\ 2# Het!
erotrophic ASOM are being enumerated[ It is possible
that the ASOM and NSOM are capable of heterotrophic
growth and may be represented by these AH numbers[
Samples of several of the positive sulfur!oxidizing
MPN tubes from each site were plated onto solid forms
of ASOM and NSOM media[ The resulting cultures indi!
cated that both fungal and bacterial colonies were
present[ Some of these cultures grow with thiosulfate as
the only source of energy as well as on organic media[
Further studies are underway to identify the organisms
and their roles in the corrosion process[
2[1[ Compressive stren`th analysis
The compressive strength of uncorroded concrete was
determined using cores that were taken below the water
level These cores were selected as uncorroded based on
Fig[ 4[ Aerobic heterotroph population in the outer corrosion layer from all locations[ The crown sample for location 5 was not analyzed[
visual observation[ The results of compressive strength
analysis of di}erent lengths of these uncorroded cores
and of samples of the apparently sound concrete below
the corroded layer are presented in Table 1[ A plot of the
compressive strength vs[ h:d resulted in a curve "com!
pressive strength5151[0"h:d#−4245\ r19[8850#[ The
sample cores were evaluated by comparing their actual
compressive strength to those calculated using the above
equation[ The results show that the apparently sound
portion of the concrete cores from most locations exam!
ined had compressive strengths lower than standards\
indicating that the apparently sound concrete remaining
in the sewers they came from is not structurally sound[
This suggests migration of the corroding acid into the
apparently sound concrete matrix[ The location 2 spr!
ingline sample contained 19[21 cm of apparently sound
concrete beneath the corroded layers[
2[2[ Mineralo`ical analysis
X!ray di}raction analysis was performed on several
samples of the outer and inner corrosion layers as well as
the on the apparently sound concrete[ A representative
X!ray di}raction pattern for uncorroded concrete is
shown in Fig[ 6[ The primary constituent observed in the
 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73 70

Fig[ 5[ Aerobic heterotroph population in the inner corrosion layer from the cores analyzed[

Table 1
Summary of compressive strength of concrete samples

Uncorroded
Actual strength strength
Location Height "cm# h:d "kPa# "kPa# ) reduction

Std 0 5[24 9[60 43729 NA NA

Std 1 6[51 9[75 36859 NA NA
Std 2 09[05 0[03 30979 NA NA
Std 3 10[48 1[31 17979 NA NA
0 crown 00[32 0[19 17379 28059 16[2
2 crown 6[51 9[82 17789 33719 24[4
0 springline 7[78 9[82 23199 33719 12[5
2 springline 19[21 1[00 18619 17649 −2[2

uncorroded concrete was quartz[ This X!ray di}raction
pattern was used for comparative purposes and quali!
tative interpretation of the results from corroded
materials[
Figures 7Ð09 present X!ray di}raction patterns that
are representative of all X!ray di}raction results in the
analysis set[ Figure 7 presents the X!ray di}raction pat!
tern for the crown core from location 1 for the outer
corrosion layer[ The X!ray di}raction pattern shows the
outer corrosion layer has large amounts of calcium sul!
fate present in the form of bassanite "CaSO3,9[4 H1O#[
The inner corrosion layer for crown at location 1 "Fig[ 8#
has large amounts of calcium sulfate in the form of gyp!
sum "CaSO3,1H1O#[ The di}erence in the forms of cal!
cium sulfate can be attributed to the di}erence in sample
preparation[ The outer corrosion product was dehy!
drated prior to analysis[ In this study\ ettringite was not
present in the materials that are obviously present due to
corrosion However\ minor amounts of ettringite were
found in the inner layers of apparently sound concrete
"Fig[ 09#[ This suggests that sulfuric acid has penetrated
into the concrete matrix and is reacting with the concrete
matrix[
3[ Conclusions
The presence of large numbers of ASOM and NSOM
in the outer corrosion layer con_rms their role in the
corrosion process[ The presence of aerobic heterotrophs
71 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73

Fig[ 6[ X!ray di}raction pattern for uncorroded concrete[ Q represents quartz[

Fig[ 7[ X!ray di}raction pattern for the corrosion product taken from the outer corrosion layer at the crown of location 1[ Q represents quartz and
B represents basanite[

indicates they may have some as yet unexplained role[
The exact nature of that role could not be determined
from the tests that were performed[ The lack of NRB\
SRB\ and AnH in the samples suggests they do not have
a role in the corrosion process[
The results presented here support the microbial suc!
cession theory put forth by Islander et al[ "0880# as a
surface phenomenon[ The presence of large numbers of
ASOM and low numbers of NSOM in the inner corrosion
layer suggests that the penetration of the corrosion front
is caused by the migration of sulfuric acid and ASOM
into the uncorroded area of the concrete[
The penetration of the acid into the concrete matrix is\
no doubt\ responsible for the reduction in compressive
strength observed in the apparently uncorroded portion
of the concrete[ Little ettringite was detected in the cor!
 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73 72

Fig[ 8[ X!ray di}raction pattern for the corrosion product taken from the inner corrosion layer at the springline from location 1[ Q represents quartz
and G represents gypsum[

Fig[ 09[ X!ray di}raction pattern for the apparently sound concrete in the core taken from the crown at location 5[ Q represents quartz and E
represents ettringite[

roding front and the thermodynamics of the conversion Acknowledgements

to calcium sulfate may be so fast that ettringite is a short!
lived intermediate[ These results suggest that the rate of
acid produced by ASOM and acid penetration into the
concrete must be determined in order to fully com!
prehend and model concrete corrosion[
This work has been supported by the National Science
Foundation\ City of Houston\ and Montgomery!Watson
America as part of the Intelligent Renewal of Urban
Wastewater Systems project at the University of
73 J[L[ Davis et al[:International Biodeterioration + Biode`radation 31 "0887# 64Ð73
Houston[ Gratitude is extended to Sam Wang for his
assistance in the X!ray di}raction analysis[
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