CAMBRIDGE DELTA

LSA 2
SYSTEMS
LEXIS

‘Focusing on lexical sets at elementary level’

CANDIDATE’S NAME: PANAGIOTIS PARASKEVOPOULOS

CENTRE NUMBER: GR 108
WORD COUNT: 2482
Candidate No:

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3
Language Analysis.................................................................................................................. 3
Pedagogical implications ....................................................................................................... 4
Issues & Problems ................................................................................................................. 6
Suggestions / Solutions ......................................................................................................... 7
Bibliography............................................................................................................................. 10

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

Introduction
Vocabulary learning and acquisition is a complex process which involves amassing a critical
number of words ‘for use in both understanding and producing language’ (Thornbury 2002:
2) and being able to recall the appropriate lexical items making choices between closely
related words and using the right form of them.

So, the topic of my assignment concerns focusing on lexical sets at an elementary level with
the aim of enabling learners to develop their core vocabulary by providing them with
appropriate practical tasks to increase memorability and developing strategies for storing
lexis in ways that reflect the way our brain stores vocabulary.

The rationale behind my choice of topic pertains to the fact that the use of lexical sets is one
of the most common ways that course books present lexis. However, vocabulary tends to be
treated not as a language system in its own right but as a kind of accessory to skills like
reading and listening. More importantly, teaching lexical sets appropriately has significant
practical applications because it reflects the way information is stored in our mind. As a
result, the meaning of words can be made clearer by enabling learners to become more
aware of how words relate to each other. In addition, through the practical use of lexical
items, learners can develop more effective strategies of recording vocabulary in ways that
reflect the workings of the brain.

Language Analysis
Lexical sets are ‘sets of words that share a meaning relationship’ (Thornbury 2006: 120). This
relationship can take various forms:

1. One of the most common relationships between words is the hyponymic, which can be
described by the formula ‘X is a type of Y’ like ‘A car is a type of vehicle’. In this case, the
word ‘vehicle’ is the superordinate and the word ‘car’ is the hyponym while words like
bus, coach, etc. are its co-hyponyms. Of course, the word car itself can be a
superordinate with hyponyms like ‘sedan’, ‘sports car’, ‘sport utility vehicle’ etc.

A similar hierarchical relationship is the meronymic, which involves a whole-part

relationship. For example, words like ‘trunk’, ‘bow’, ‘branch’, ‘twig’, leaves are parts of a
tree.

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

2. Another looser semantic relationship involves words that are related to a theme. For
example, when we think of the theme Christmas we tend to think of words like
‘(Christmas) tree’, ‘carols’, ‘fireplace’ etc. Words that ‘share this kind of thematic
relationship are said to belong to the same lexical field’ (Thornbury 2002: 10). What is
interesting about lexical fields is that they include various lexical sets. For example,
Christmas as a lexical field includes lexical sets relating to the weather, food, home and
so on.
3. A narrower kind of relationship involves synonyms and antonyms. Synonyms are words
that have similar meanings, e. g. ‘beautiful’, ‘pretty’, ‘handsome’, etc but we should
always bear in mind that complete synonyms probably don’t exist. For example, we can
say a ‘pretty woman’ but not ‘a pretty man’. For this reason, when we deal with
synonyms, we need to consider factors like common collocations. Also, aspects like the
connotation of words should be taken into account since we need to be aware of
differences between a ‘slim woman’ and a ‘skinny woman’.

Antonyms are words that are considered to be opposites but, like synonyms, we should
not think of words as total opposites. For example, we can say ‘an old woman’ and
‘young woman’ but not ‘an old house’ and a ‘young house’. So again, we need to
consider factors like typical collocations. It should also be considered that ‘antonymy has
other senses’ (Thornbury 2006: 13). For example, there are gradable opposites like ‘hot’
and ‘cold’ which are part of a cline (boiling / hot/warm/cool/cold/freezing) but there are
others that cannot be graded, e. g. ‘alive’ and ‘dead’ and which are called
complementaries. Lastly, another sense of antonymy involves a kind of reciprocal
relationship with pairs like parent/child, borrow/lend, etc., which is called converseness.

Pedagogical implications

Considering the previously mentioned features of lexical sets, it should become fairly
obvious that they relate to how our so-called mental lexicon is constructed and, of course,
the cognitive processes of memory.

Regarding the way our brain stores words, it seems that there is a dictionary-like function
where words are stored based on spelling and sound. By itself, this method of storing would
be ineffective because we would need to scroll down words with similar sounds in our
mental lexicon and this would be time-consuming. That’s why there seems to be a

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

thesaurus-like function which consists of a vast interconnected network of related words
which keeps expanding. This seems to be verified by research where it was found that it is
easier for people to name a fruit that starts with p rather than think of word that starts with
p and it is a fruit (Thornbury 2002: 17). So, in learning a new language, learners have to learn
a new conceptual system which entails the construction of a second mental lexicon
(Thornbury 2002: 18).

Of course, knowledge of vocabulary involves accumulating lexical items and retrieving them
when needed. So, in effect, this points to the claim that ‘having a good memory is key
component of language aptitude’ (Bilbrough 2011: 1, quoting Skehan). Regarding the
different memory systems, researchers point to:

 short-term memory, which refers ‘to the brain’s capacity to hold a limited number of
items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds (Thornbury 2002: 23)
 working memory, which functions when we concentrate long enough on information
while being engaged with it. What is interesting is that ‘[it] is limited not only by time
but also by capacity’ since the amount of information that ‘can be maintained and
processed’ is five to nine pieces (Bilbrough 2011: 4). This, of course, has implications to
the amount of vocabulary that learners are asked to work with.
 long-term memory, which ‘is a largely subconscious process and is apparently not
constrained by either time or capacity’ (Bilbrough 2011: 5) since information can be
stored there for a few days or a lifetime.
 Declarative memory, which is accessed every time we consciously access long-term
memory (Bilbrough: 5)
 Procedural memory, which refers to unconscious access and results in performing tasks
like driving unconsciously. In language learning, of course, this points to ‘the concept of
automaticity’ (Bilbrough: 5) and leads to fluency, in the sense that the less conscious
effort we put while using language the more fluent we become.

From the above it should become obvious that storing language in the long-term memory so
that slowly it can become part of procedural memory constitutes a complex interaction

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

between working memory and long-term memory as shown in the diagram.

(Bilbrough: 7)

Regarding pedagogical purposes, it means that learners should be exposed to a variety of

tasks that demands the use of the working memory so that the new language can
incorporated in the long-term memory. Also, teaching words in lexical sets seems to make
sense since:

 it is easier to recall words from memory

 it reflects the way our brain stores information
 it makes meaning clearer by showing how they relate to similar or different words.

Issues & Problems

Despite the above-mentioned advantages of teaching lexical sets, there has been some
recent research that points to potential dangers regarding the use of lexical sets that relate
to some inherent difficulties in teaching and practising lexical sets.

1. According to latest research, it seems that words closely related to each other, like
hyponyms, meronyms etc. seem to interfere with each other (Thornbury 2002: 37). As
Paul Nation mentions, ‘interfering relationships’ defined as ‘those that make learning
more difficult’ can take place ‘when one word can substitute for another in a kind of list’
(Nation 2000: 6-10) in sentences like this:

I’m wearing a skirt/jacket/sweater. It is hot/cold.

Nation also mentions research by Tinkham and Waring where there seems to be
evidence that learning words that are completely unrelated is preferable to presenting
words in lexical sets. Interestingly, according to Tinkham's research thematically related
words were easier to learn than completely unrelated words (Nation: 7)

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

 This seems to suggest that, although words are stored together it ‘does not mean that
they should be learned together’ (Thornbury 2002: 37) and that more emphasis should
be given to lexical fields which are more loosely related. However, I feel that since lexical
fields incorporate various lexical sets, teaching them is necessary. However, they should
be practised in such a way as to minimise the above-mentioned problems.

2. Regarding lexical sets that involve synonymy and antonymy, the fact that there are no
absolute synonyms or antonyms can cause learners a lot of problems if they do not
consider features of lexical items like connotations, collocations and register. In the case
of antonyms, there are other factors that need to be considered like gradable adjectives,
complementarity and converseness. For example, students can produce phrases such as
‘weak winds’, ‘weak cigarettes’ ‘handsome woman’, etc.
3. As for lexical or semantic fields, a source of potential problems relates to the fact that
every lexical item belongs to one or more semantic fields’ (Harman (ed.): 117). For
example, a word like sandal can be a hyponym for footwear and can be found in the
context of summer and the weather. So, the mental lexicon represents a vast jigsaw
puzzle which can be confusing for elementary learners. Consequently, the appropriacy
of teaching lexical fields at an elementary level should be approached with caution and
gradually.
4. An issue that probably relates to the issues described above has to with storing and
memorising lexical items. Since lexical items comprise a vast web of interconnected
words, students might have problems remembering lexical items by recording them in
ways that do not reflect the way our brain stores information. For example, recording
words in a typical fashion by means of definitions and translations is not conducive to
memorability because, as it was mentioned previously, storing words in a thesaurus-like
fashion facilitates faster recall.

Suggestions / Solutions
These are some suggestions to tackle the above-mentioned issues:

1. Regarding the confusion due to interference between words closely related that Nation
and other researchers have pointed out, I think that it has to be taken into consideration
the fact that, especially at an elementary level, some degree of fuzziness is to be
expected. However, this problem can be tackled if it is approached in ways which can
minimise confusion. So, when teachers present new lexical sets, they should ensure that

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

 the kind of practice they set should ensure memorability. One of the main principles that
should be followed is that of cognitive depth, whereby being engaged in cognitively
demanding tasks increases the chances that words can be remembered (Thornbury
2002: 25). For example, after presenting a lexical set with clothes and accessories as
superordinates, the students can be given a variety of tasks to practise different aspects
of the words. Firstly, they could be given anagrams, word searches to practise noticing
the words. Then, they could be asked to group them in different categories like items for
men, women or both. Another useful activity is the odd one out where learners are
asked to find words that do not belong to a group and explain why. The interesting point
about an exercise like this is that sometimes there may be more than one word that can
be excluded, which helps students approach words from different angles. Finally, they
can be given some personalisation tasks like ranking the lexical set, e. g. clothes, in terms
of usefulness. As homework, they could be asked to write a paragraph about their
favourite items.

Tasks like these, are helpful in multiple ways in the sense that they engage the students
with various aspects of the words like the form and the meaning, which increases the
chances of memorability. Of course, as it was mentioned previously, it should not be
expected that elementary students will be able to assimilate lexical sets immediately.
This process should be regarded as a continuum in a process of development.

2. As for the problems relating to synonyms and antonyms, there are some useful tasks
that could help learners tackle them more effectively. For example, students can be
given a group of words like ‘strong/weak and heavy/light’ and they could be asked to
match them with words that they typically collocate like: ‘dish/beer/cigarettes’ and so
on. They could then do some gap-filling exercises involving sentences or small texts
before they are asked to produce their own sentences or a small paragraph. Activities
like this, which focus on collocations, help students become more aware of similarities
and differences concerning synonyms and antonyms and promote better understanding
and usage.

Regarding problems of connotation, tasks, where students need to think about the
subtle differences of words which seem to be the same semantically, are particularly
useful. For example, a task where students are given sentences to be filled with words
like ‘thin/slim/skinny’ forces them to pay attention to aspects of language like register
and connotation. When such words are presented in appropriate context like texts,

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

 dialogues etc. it becomes more effective since learners are more cognitively engaged in
extracting the appropriate meaning and help them avoid confusion.

3. Considering the issue of lexical or semantic fields, I think that, at an elementary level,
they should be approached gradually and be used to form connections between words
which can be found in various lexical fields. For example, after learners have worked
with a lexical set like ‘Clothes and Accessories’ they can relate it with other sets like ‘the
weather’, which encounter in subsequent units. So, students could be asked to
categorise clothes, which they have already encountered, based on the different
seasons they are worn. Tasks like this where they have to combine the two sets can help
them form new categories and new associations. If this is done systematically, it helps
learners develop their mental lexicon and trains them to form such associations
themselves.
4. Regarding the issue of storing new words appropriately in ways that reflect ways that
our brain does this, it is essential that students be trained in this. Probably the most
effective way of achieving this is to use tasks that include visual representation like
spidergrams, diagrams and mind maps that relate to words or topics. For example,
students can be asked to group words that they have learned on a particular topic in this
way:

(Scrivener 2011: 202)

Activities like this help learners practice vocabulary more effectively and train them to
record information in ways that enhance memorability. Of course, they should be shown
a variety of recording techniques that reflect different word associations.

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level

Bibliography
 Bilbrough, N. (2011) Memory Activities for Language Learning, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
 Hartman, R. K. K. (1996) Solving Language Problems: From General to Applied Linguistics,
Devon: University of Exeter Press
 Nation, P. (2000) ‘Learning Vocabulary in Lexical Sets: Dangers and Guidelines’, TESOL
Journal, 9, 6-10
 Scrivener, J. (2011) Learning Teaching, 3d edn, London: Macmillan
 Thornbury, S. (2006) An A to Z of ELT, London: Macmillan
 Thornbury, S. (2002) How to Teach Vocabulary, Essex: Pearson Longman

Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos – Focusing on Lexical Sets at Elementary Level