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DOI: 10.1183/09059180.00004612
CopyrightßERS 2012
REVIEW
ABSTRACT: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a frequent complication of left heart disease arising AFFILIATIONS
from a wide range of cardiac disorders. In the clinical classification, PH associated with left heart *Heart Failure Unit, University of
Milan, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato,
disease is classified as Group 2, which includes left heart systolic dysfunction, left heart diastolic Milan, and
dysfunction and left heart valvular disease. In the past, rheumatic mitral valve disease was the #
Institute of Cardiology, University of
most common cause of PH in left heart disease; however, today it is more likely to be associated Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
with hypertensive and/or ischaemic heart disease.
CORRESPONDENCE
As the incidence of these conditions is increasing, the number of patients presenting with PH is
M. Guazzi
also increasing and, today, left heart disease represents the most frequent cause of PH. The Heart Failure Unit
development of PH in patients with left heart disease is associated with poor prognosis. However, University of Milan
despite the increasingly large number of patients affected and the impact of PH on outcome, there Via A. di Rudini 8
20142 Milan
are currently no specific treatment options for these patients.
Italy
This review gives an overview of the pathophysiology and epidemiology of PH associated with E-mail: marco.guazzi@unimi.it
left heart disease, and discusses the challenges associated with its management and treatment.
CORRESPONDENCE
N. Galiè,
KEYWORDS: Left heart disease, preserved ejection fraction, pulmonary hypertension
Institute of Cardiology
University of Bologna
Via Massarenti 9
eft heart disease (LHD) is the most frequent coronary artery disease [5] and has a reported
L
Bologna 40138
cause of pulmonary hypertension (PH), prevalence of ,30–50% in patients with overt heart Italy
arising in response to increased left ventri- failure [6, 7]. Whatever the underlying cardiac E-mail: nazzareno.galie@unibo.it
cular (LV) or left atrial filling pressure in a wide disease, the presence of PH in patients with heart
range of cardiac disorders [1]. PH is defined failure is associated with poor prognosis [8, 9]. Received:
However, despite the relatively large number of Aug 23 2012
by a mean pulmonary arterial pressure (Ppa)
Accepted after revision:
o25 mmHg; in the case of PH associated with affected patients, and the link with poor outcome,
Sept 13 2012
LHD, otherwise defined as Group 2 [2], this is there is not a definitive appreciation as to whe-
associated with a pulmonary capillary wedge ther PH is a ‘‘marker’’ of severity or pulmonary PROVENANCE
pressure (Ppcw) .15 mmHg [3]. In the classifica- vascular involvement becomes an important com- Publication of this peer-reviewed
tion of PH, Group 2 is divided into three distinct ponent of heart failure syndrome. In addition, article was supported by Actelion
subcategories based on aetiology: left heart systolic there are currently no specific therapeutic options Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Switzerland
dysfunction, left heart diastolic dysfunction and for these patients. This article discusses the epide- (principal sponsor, European
left heart valvular disease [2]. More recently, a miology and pathogenesis of Group 2 PH, and Respiratory Review issue 126).
different nomenclature has been proposed by reviews diagnostic and treatment strategies in this
using the terms heart failure with reduced LV increasingly important patient population.
ejection fraction (HFREF), corresponding to systo-
lic heart failure, and heart failure with preserved PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PH-LHD
LV ejection fraction (HFPEF), corresponding to The underlying pathogenesis of PH in LHD is not
diastolic heart failure (table 1) [4]. PH in HFREF is fully understood and is likely to be multifactorial.
primarily associated with ischaemic and dilatative Patients with LHD have abnormalities that result
cardiomyopathy, whereas a wide range of under- in increased LV or left atrial filling pressures. The
lying conditions may lead to HFPEF (table 1). initial cascade of events starts with the increase in
While in the past, mitral valve disease was the filling pressures in the left heart (either in the left
most common cause of Group 2 PH, HFPEF has atrium, left ventricle or both), which causes a
become recognised more and more in clinical passive increase in backwards pressure on the European Respiratory Review
practice and its incidence is increasing. HFPEF is pulmonary veins. Persistently elevated pulmon- Print ISSN 0905-9180
predominantly associated with hypertensive and ary venous pressure may result in fragmentation Online ISSN 1600-0617
overload persists to dilatation, tricuspid regurgitation, loss of patients with valvular disease, PH increases the likelihood of
contractility (by muscle mass unit) and an irreversible decrease poor surgical outcome, although surgery is associated with
in RV function [1]. RV dysfunction and tricuspid regurgitation better outcome overall compared with conservative manage-
further complicate heart failure syndrome as they lead to an ment [8]. A significant proportion of patients with severe
increase in right atrial pressure, which facilitates oedema, affects systolic LV dysfunction and PH have RV dysfunction [30],
the release of natriuretic peptides and results in renal venous which has been shown to be predictive of survival and clinical
congestion and, eventually, in the impairment of renal function events in patients with PH and chronic heart failure [41–46].
[1, 24, 25]. Together with PH, the development of RV dysfunc-
tion is known to be among the most significant modifiers of both Interestingly, recent observations obtained in acute decom-
the natural history and prognosis of heart failure resulting from pensated heart failure after initial diuretic and vasodilator
LV disease, with an ominous impact on functional capacity and therapy suggest increased mortality rates in the subgroup of
prognosis [26]. patients with reactive PH [47].
based study of patients with heart failure by BURSI et al. [9], there
60
was a strong positive association between systolic Ppa and
overall and cardiac mortality that was independent of age, sex,
comorbidities, LV ejection fraction and diastolic function (fig. 1). 40
Similarly, LAM et al. [23] demonstrated that systolic Ppa was the
only echocardiographic parameter independently associated 20
with decreased survival even after adjustment for age. The
degree of PH in patients with HFPEF in this study was often 0
severe, and systolic Ppa above the study median (48 mmHg) 0 1 2 3
was associated with significantly shorter survival rates, con- Time after heart failure yrs
firming findings of earlier studies demonstrating that PH is an
important determinant of mortality and morbidity in patients FIGURE 1. a) Overall survival by systolic pulmonary artery pressure (Ppa,sys)
with heart failure [28, 31, 39]. Ppa, systolic Ppa and diastolic Ppa tertiles in 1,049 heart failure patients (p,0.001). b) Survival from cardiovascular death
have also been shown to be predictive of a need for heart by Ppa,sys tertiles in 975 heart failure patients (p,0.001). Reproduced from [9] with
transplantation in patients with severe LV dysfunction [40]. In permission from the publisher.
Symptoms
Heart failure
diagnosis unclear
Echo Doppler
FIGURE 2. Diagnostic approach to distinguishing between pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and pulmonary hypertension (PH) caused by diastolic left heart
disease. RHC: right heart catheterisation; Ppcw: pulmonary capillary wedge pressure; PVR: pulmonary vascular resistance; RCT: randomised controlled trial; WU: Wood units.
Reproduced from [50] with permission from the publisher.
dysfunction should be suspected in the presence of a combina- LV filling pressures can be estimated by echocardiography, and
tion of the following signs: dilated left atrium, atrial fibrillation, the ratio of mitral peak velocity of early filling (E) to early
characteristic changes in mitral flow profile, pulmonary venous diastolic mitral annular velocity (E9) (E/E9 ratio) has been
flow profile, mitral annulus tissue Doppler signals and LV originally shown to give a reliable estimate of left atrial pressure
hypertrophy. Based on patient characteristics, clinical findings [51, 52]. However, data have questioned this assumption. In a
and noninvasive testing, diagnostic guidelines divide patients recent study performed in patients with HFPEF there is the
with a suspicion of PH without clear evidence of heart failure suggestion that E/E9 may not reflect changes in Ppcw reliably,
into three groups: 1) those who are unlikely to have PH-HFPEF especially during variable loading conditions elicited by fluid
versus PAH (younger patients without hypertension, coronary challenge and mechanical preload reduction by lower body
artery disease etc., with normal LV on echocardiography, etc.); negative pressure [53]. In addition, echocardiographic para-
2) those who are likely to have PH-HFPEF (older patients, meters may not be easily measurable in all patients. Therefore,
hypertensive patients, obese patients, patients with coronary although echocardiography may be a useful screening method,
heart disease, atrial enlargement, LV hypertrophy etc.); and invasive measures of Ppcw or LV end-diastolic pressure
3) those in which PH-HFPEF is uncertain (no signs of heart (LVEDP) by RHC (or left heart catheterisation) may be needed
failure, normal brain natriuretic peptide levels) (fig. 2) [50]. In in order to confirm a diagnosis of PH-LHD [3].
this latter group of patients right heart catheterisation (RHC) is
suggested and in patients presenting with Ppcw ,15 mmHg a According to guidelines, PH-LHD is distinguished from PAH
volume challenge is proposed even though specific directions
on the amount of fluid overload are lacking.
by the presence of a Ppcw .15 mmHg [3]. While Ppcw is widely
assumed to be a surrogate marker for LVEDP, there are few c
EUROPEAN RESPIRATORY REVIEW VOLUME 21 NUMBER 126 341
REVIEW: PH IN LEFT HEART DISEASE M. GUAZZI AND N. GALIÈ
data supporting this in patients with PH. In a large study those patients who fall into diagnostic ‘‘grey areas’’, is
including .4,000 patients with PH, around half of those required. The picture seems a little more complex when
diagnosed with PAH based on Ppcw were found to have PH- considering differential diagnosis in patients with concurrent
LHD when assessed by LVEDP [54]. Reliance on Ppcw rather chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or restrictive lung
than LVEDP in patients with PH-LHD may, therefore, result in disease. In these cases confirming the haemodynamic con-
misdiagnosis. However, routine measurement of LVEDP by cordance between Ppcw and end-diastolic pressure at end-
left heart catheterisation carries increased risks and incon- expiration seems of special importance.
venience for patients, and would also increase costs and
Exercise haemodynamics and volume challenge have been
resource utilisation. Measurement of LVEDP in those patients
proposed as methods to help identify patients with PH-LHD,
with a high suspicion of PH-LHD, but an apparently ‘‘border-
and particularly those patients with resting Ppcw in the range
line’’ normal Ppcw at RHC might be a viable compromise. A
of 13–18 mmHg [56]. In a study of 406 patients with exercise
recent study suggests that it may also be possible to improve
limitation but normal Ppa at rest, a substantial proportion of
the correlation between Ppcw and LVEDP by using different patients who had RHC-defined PH during maximal exercise
parameters. RYAN et al. [55] evaluated digitised mean Ppcw (mean Ppa o30 mmHg) were identified as potentially having
(Ppcw,digital) compared with end-expiratory Ppcw, and assessed Group 2 PH (Ppcw o20 mmHg) [57]. Exercise haemodynamics
their correlations with LVEDP. Their data showed that the during supine exercise has also been utilised to distinguish
common practice of using Ppcw,digital significantly under- PH-HFPEF (Ppcw .25 mmHg at peak exercise) in a study of
estimated LVEDP and that end-expiratory Ppcw gave a more euvolaemic patients with exertional dyspnoea, normal brain
reliable reflection of LVEDP (fig. 3). Using LVEDP ,15 mmHg natriuretic peptide and normal cardiac filling pressures at rest
as the reference standard for diagnosis, Ppcw,digital had 100% [58]. Patients with exercise-induced increases in Ppcw also
sensitivity but only 12.5% specificity, while end-expiratory showed corresponding increases in LVEDP and Ppa during
Ppcw had a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 100%. exercise; these increases were considered to be exclusively
Extrapolated to their cohort of patients with suspected PH, this related to pulmonary venous hypertension as PVRI decreased
translated to nearly 30% being misclassified as having PAH, similarly both in patients with and without increased Ppcw on
rather than PH with HFPEF. However this study presents an exercise. However, the interpretation of these studies is
important limitation due to the absence of evaluation of end- complicated by the lack of a control group of age- and sex-
expiratory LVEDP. In fact, end-expiratory LVEDP may be matched normal individuals. In fact it is well known that
higher when compared with ‘‘average’’ LVEDP (the reduction normal individuals may also reach similar values of Ppcw
of lung volumes may increase LV filling) and then the (o20 mmHg) on supine exercise [59].
observed difference with the end-expiratory Ppcw could be
present in this condition (and justified by the intrinsic Although interesting, maximal exercise testing in patients with
characteristics of the two methods of measurement). potential heart failure or PH may be difficult, and the use of
RHC during exercise is challenging so use of this technique as
In any case, reliance on Ppcw as opposed to LVEDP may be a routine test may be limited. Identification of noninvasive
inappropriate in some cases and further research into appro- ways of assessing PH-LHD during submaximal exercise may
priate cut-off values or identification of factors which might help address these limitations.
improve diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, particularly in
A number of potential echocardiographic markers of PH may be
of interest, including mean Ppa, estimated from the maximum
30 velocity of tricuspid regurgitation, and cardiac output, calcu-
lated from the aortic velocity–time integral [60], mitral effective
regurgitant orifice [61, 62], tricuspid annular plane systolic
excursion [63] and mid-systolic ‘‘notching’’ of the RV outflow
Pressure mmHg
MANAGEMENT OF PH-LHD
In contrast with the advances in treatment which have occurred
0 in recent years for PAH, virtually no progress has been made for
Ppcw,digital End-expiration Ppcw LVEDP PH-LHD. Guidelines give little advice, other than to manage
systemic hypertension and volume status [65] and to optimise
FIGURE 3. Comparison between digitised pulmonary capillary wedge underlying conditions [3]. In addition, the European Society of
pressure (Ppcw,digital) and end-expiration Ppcw, and their relationship to directly Cardiology/European Respiratory Society guidelines clearly
measured left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP). Box plots show the discourage the use of drugs approved for PAH in PH-LHD due
median values and interquartile range. Error bars represent values within two to the lack of evidence for a favourable risk-to-benefit ratio.
standard deviations of the mean. Dots represent outliers. Ppcw,digital was Cardiovascular medications (e.g. diuretics, angiotensin convert-
significantly lower (p,0.05) than end-expiration Ppcw and LVEDP. Reproduced ing enzyme inhibitors, b-adrenoceptor blockers and inotropic
from [55] with permission from the publisher. agents) and specific interventions (e.g. LV assist device
implantation and valvular surgery) may reduce PH through a findings, results from large-scale trials of bosentan in patients
drop in left-sided filling pressures [3], but in those patients with with chronic heart failure have been disappointing, with an
residual elevated Ppa, despite Ppcw normalisation, there is little overall lack of measurable treatment benefit and an apparent
evidence on which to base recommendations. increase in the risk of heart failure and adverse events during
treatment that led to early termination of studies [78–80].
In particular, the value of targeting PH directly by medical However, PACKER et al. [79] found that, in patients treated with a
therapy remains to be established. It can be hypothesised that full 26 weeks of therapy, while there was an increased risk of
targeting pulmonary vascular remodelling may be helpful heart failure during the first month of treatment with bosentan
in patients with reactive PH-LHD, particularly where PH compared with placebo, there was a decreased risk over the
dominates the clinical picture [8]. However, the removal of the subsequent 5 months of therapy [79]. In addition, patients in the
‘‘precapillary component’’ may increase the Ppcw leading to bosentan group who remained on therapy were more likely to
lung oedema [66, 67]. This may explain why the guidelines improve and less likely to deteriorate than the placebo group.
suggest that patients with PH-LHD should be enrolled in However, any interpretation of these post hoc evaluations are
suitable randomised and multicentre clinical trials with such limited and possibly influenced by selection and regression to
agents to finally clarify the risk-to-benefit ratio [3]. the mean biases. Whether it might be possible to identify a
subset of patients who may respond to bosentan in this setting is
The lack of recommendations concerning the use of PAH-
unclear. Other ET-1 antagonists, including darusentan [81] and
specific therapies in patients with PH-LHD reflects the current
tezosentan [82], have also failed to demonstrate any long-term
lack of favourable data. Studies are few and results generally
benefit of treatment in patients with HFREF.
disappointing. Inhaled NO selectively targets the pulmonary
arterial circulation and has been tested for the treatment of There has been increasing interest in the use of phospho-
advanced left-sided PH in post-LV assist device placement and diesterase type-5 inhibitors in PH-LHD. In patients with
post-transplant. In patients with an LV assist device, inhaled HFREF and PH, there is evidence of both acute (single dose of
NO reduces Ppa and increases LV assist device flow [68]. In 50 mg) efficacy and safety of sildenafil in the evaluation of PH in
post-transplant PH management only inhaled NO, and not severe heart failure [83, 84] and is effective and well tolerated in
intravenous prostacyclin, prostaglandin E1 and sodium nitro- longer term trials [85–87]. 12 weeks of treatment with sildenafil
prusside, induced a selective decrease in PVR with no change significantly reduced PVR and increased cardiac output with
in systemic resistance [69]. At variance with these favourable exercise compared with placebo, without altering Ppcw or mean
results, other investigators reported no significant changes in Ppa, heart rate or systemic vascular resistance [86]. Exercise
Ppa and an increase in Ppcw, possibly due to an increased capacity, ventilation efficiency and quality of life also improved.
preload of a poorly compliant LV [70], which may lead to the There is also evidence that sildenafil may help to modulate and
development of acute alveolar oedema in some cases [67]. reverse the abnormal oscillatory ventilator pattern seen in
patients with PH-LHD at higher risk [88]. More recently, a 1-yr
Prostanoids have shown favourable acute and long-term study of 44 patients with HFPEF demonstrated significant
haemodynamic effects in patients with PH-LHD included in improvements in: mean Ppcw, RV function and geometry;
small studies. They lead to a decrease in Ppa, Ppcw and PVR, and increased tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion and
increase in cardiac output, but also to a drop in systemic arterial ejection rate; and reduced right atrial pressure with sildenafil
pressure and resistance [71–73]. In a multicentre international versus placebo at 6 months [89]. This response was maintained
randomised study including 471 patients (FIRST study), up to 12 months. However, for this class of drugs a formal
treatment of patients with severe LV failure (reduced ejection multicentre, international randomised controlled study evalu-
fraction; mean Ppcw 25 mmHg) with intravenous epoprostenol ating the real risk-to-benefit ratio in PH-LHD is lacking. In
failed to improve exercise capacity or quality of life, or to reduce particular because concerns have been raised about the possible
morbidity compared with the standard of care (e.g. angiotensin induction of sudden death in PH-LHD patients by phospho-
converting enzyme inhibitors, b-agonist, diuretics etc.) [74]. This diesterase type-5 inhibitors [90]. Small, single-centre studies can
study was prematurely terminated because epoprostenol treat- be considered as proof-of-concept experiences (favourable
ment (which is the most powerful treatment for PAH and the preliminary single-centre studies were also published with
only agent with demonstrated improvement in survival in prostanoids [73] and endothelin receptor antagonists [77]) and
this condition) was associated with a strong trend towards cannot be considered as a substitute for formal registration large
decreased survival [74, 75]. A subsequent post hoc evaluation studies or encourage the clinical use of these compounds.
showed that patients with a marked reduction of the Ppcw
(.9 mmHg) treated with epoprostenol had an outcome similar In patients with PH-LHD due to valvular disease, correction of
to ‘‘standard-of-care-patients’’, confirming that surrogate end- the underlying valve problem usually leads to resolution, or
points are not predictive of the drug effects in heart failure trials. near resolution, of PH. In mitral valve patients treated with
mitral balloon valulvoplasty, younger patients with shorter
In animal models of heart failure, long-term treatment with disease duration improve to the greatest degree, although in all
ET-1 receptor antagonists led to improvements in haemo- cases improvement takes time [91, 92]. Additionally, pre-
dynamics, cardiac remodelling and survival [76]. Encouraging operative severity of PH does not appear to affect long-term
results were also seen following acute treatment using the ETA/ outcome following successful mitral balloon valvuloplasty,
B antagonist bosentan in patients with symptomatic heart with systolic Ppa falling to normal levels after 6–12 months,
failure. Ppa, right atrial pressure, Ppcw, systemic pulmonary even in patients with high pre-mitral balloon valvuloplasty
resistance and PVR were reduced while cardiac output and
stoke volume were increased [77]. Despite such positive initial
levels (o80 mmHg) [90]. Similarly, mitral valve replacement
has been shown to be safe in patients with high pre-operative c
EUROPEAN RESPIRATORY REVIEW VOLUME 21 NUMBER 126 343
REVIEW: PH IN LEFT HEART DISEASE M. GUAZZI AND N. GALIÈ
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