Crime Rates.

Experts estimate that the number of major crimes committed in the city of Bronxville
from 2005 to 2012 is approximated by the function N (t) = −0.1t3 + 1.5t2 + 100 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 7,
where N (t) denotes the number of crimes committed in year t with t = 0 corresponding to the
beginning of 2005. Find where the function N (t) is increasing and decreasing.

Solution. We have that N � (t) = −0.3t2 + 3t = −0.3t(t − 10). Observe that N � (t) > 0 for all t in
the interval (0, 7), hence the function N (t) is increasing throughout this interval. �

4.2 Applications of the Second Derivative

4.2.1 Determining Intervals of Concavity
√
Consider the graphs of f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x on the interval [0, ∞). We note both of the
derivatives f � (x) and g � (x) are positive on (0, ∞), hence both f (x) and g(x) are increasing on this
interval; however, all tangent lines of f (x) lie beneath the graph of f (x), whereas all tangent lines
of g(x) lie above the graph of g(x). We summarize this notion in the following definition.
Definition. Let f (x) be a differentiable function on an interval (a, b).

(a.) We say that the graph of f (x) is concave up on (a, b) if f � (x) is increasing on (a, b).

(b.) We say that the graph of f (x) is concave down on (a, b) if f � (x) is decreasing on (a, b).

Like we hinted at above, geometrically, a curve is concave up if it lies above its tangent lines, and
a curve is concave down if it lies below its tangent lines. Even more explicitly, the concavity of a
curve describes the direction (up or down) in which a curve is “bowing out.” Using the definition,
we conclude that a function f (x) is concave up if f � (x) is increasing, and f (x) is concave down if
f � (x) is decreasing. By the results of the previous section, we conclude that f � (x) is increasing if
f �� (x) > 0, and f � (x) is decreasing if f �� (x) < 0. We state this as a theorem now.

Concavity of a Differentiable Function. Let f (x) be a twice-differentiable function on an

interval (a, b).

(a.) If f �� (x) > 0 for every x in (a, b), then the graph of f (x) is concave up on (a, b).

(b.) If f �� (x) < 0 for every x in (a, b), then the graph of f (x) is concave down on (a, b).

Determining Intervals of Concavity of the Graph. Use the following algorithm to deter-
mine concavity of the graph of a twice-differentiable function f (x).

1.) Determine the values of x for which f �� (x) = 0 or f �� (x) is not defined. We note that these
values induce open intervals where f �� (x) is continuous and nonzero.

2.) Determine the sign of f �� (x) in each interval found in the previous step by computing f �� (c),
where c is any conveniently chosen test value.

(a.) If f �� (c) > 0, then the graph of f (x) is concave up on the interval containing c.
(b.) If f �� (c) < 0, then the graph of f (x) is concave down on the interval containing c.

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Concavity of a Cubic Function. Determine the open intervals where the cubic function f (x) =
x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32 is concave up or concave down.

Solution. Consider the first and second derivatives of f (x) given by

f � (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 24 and

f �� (x) = 6x − 6.

We note that f (x), f � (x), and f �� (x) are polynomials, hence they are defined everywhere; however,
observe that f �� (1) = 0. We must consider the intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞). Choose a test value
c in the interval (−∞, 1). We will take c = 0 so that f �� (0) = −6 < 0. We conclude that the
graph of f (x) is concave down on the interval (−∞, 1). Choose a test value c in (1, ∞). We will
take c = 2 so that f �� (2) = 6 > 0. We conclude that the graph of f (x) is concave up on (1, ∞). �

Concavity of a Rational Function. Recall from the previous section that we determined the
relative extrema of the rational function f (x) = x + x1 . We will now determine the open intervals
where the rational function f (x) is concave up or concave down.

Solution. Consider the first and second derivatives of f (x) given by

1
f � (x) = 1 − x−2 = 1 − and
x2
2
f �� (x) = 2x−3 = .
x3
We conclude that f �� (x) is never zero; however, we note that f �� (x) is not defined at x = 0. We
must consider the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). Choose a test value c in the interval (−∞, 0).
We will take c = −1 so that f �� (−1) = −2 < 0. We conclude that the graph of f (x) is concave
down on (−∞, 0). Choose a test value c in (0, ∞). We will take c = 1 so that f �� (1) = 2 > 0. We
conclude that the graph of f (x) is concave up on (0, ∞). �

4.2.2 Inflection Points

Consider the basic cubic function f (x) = x3 . We find that f � (x) = 3x2 , hence we have that
f � (x) ≥ 0 on R; however, we find that f �� (x) = 6x, hence we have that f �� (x) < 0 on (−∞, 0)
and f �� (x) > 0 on (0, ∞). Even though the sign of f �� (x) changed at x = 0, observe that f (x) did
not change from increasing to decreasing. We use this to motivate the next definition.
Definition. We refer to a point on the graph of a continuous function f (x) where the tangent line
exists and where the concavity of the graph of f (x) changes as an inflection point.

Finding Inflection Points. Use the following algorithm to determine the inflection points of
the graph of a twice-differentiable function f (x).

1.) Compute the first derivative f � (x) and the second derivative f �� (x) of f (x).
2.) Determine the values x in the domain of f (x) for which either f �� (x) = 0 or f �� (x) is unde-
fined but such that f � (x) is defined.
3.) Determine the sign of f �� (x) to the left and right of each number x found in the previous
step. Given that there is a change in the sign of f �� (x) as we move across x, we conclude
that (c, f (c)) is an inflection point on the graph of f (x).

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Concavity of Cubic Function, Cont’d. Because the domain of both f (x) = x3 −3x2 −24x+32
and f � (x) is R, every point in R where f �� (x) = 0 or f �� (x) is undefined is a point of inflection. We
found that f �� (1) = 0, hence we conclude that x = 1 is a point of inflection.

Concavity of Rational Function, Cont’d. Consider the rational function f (x) = x + x1 . We

note that x = 0 is not in the domain of f (x); therefore, despite the fact that the graph of f (x)
changes concavity at x = 0, this x-value does not give an inflection point.

Consumer Price Index. Economists in the country of Jayhawkia estimate that the economy’s
consumer price index (CPI) is described by the cubic function I(t) = −0.2t3 + 3t2 + 100 for
0 ≤ t ≤ 10, where t is time in years and t = 0 corresponds to the beginning of the year 2003.
Find the point of inflection of the function I(t), and discuss its significance.

Solution. Consider the first and second derivatives of I(t) given by

I � (t) = −0.6t2 + 6t and

I �� (t) = −1.2t + 6 = −1.2(t − 5).

We note that I �� (t) is a linear polynomial, hence it is defined everywhere; however, we find that
I �� (t) = 0 when t = 5, hence (5, I(5)) is the only candidate for an inflection point of I. Observe
that I �� (t) > 0 for t < 5 and I �� (t) < 0 for t > 5. Because I �� (t) changes sign as it crosses t = 5, we
conclude that (5, I(5)) = (5, 150) is indeed an inflection point. We note that the second derivative
of I(t) measures the rate of change of the rate of change of the CPI. Considering that I � (t) is a
quadratic function that opens downward, we conclude that the rate of inflation peaked at t = 5,
and so, the rate of inflation was increasing before t = 5 and slowing after t = 5. �

Second Derivative Test. Given a twice-differentiable function f (x), we have the following algo-
rithm for determining the relative extrema of f (x).

1.) Compute the first derivative f � (x) and the second derivative f �� (x) of f (x).

2.) Find all critical numbers of f (x), i.e., find all c for which f � (c) = 0 or f � (c) is not defined.

3.) Compute f �� (c) for each critical number c.

(a.) If f �� (c) < 0, then f (x) has a relative maximum at x = c.

(b.) If f �� (c) > 0, then f (x) has a relative minimum at x = c.
(c.) If f �� (c) = 0 or f �� (c) is not defined, then the test is inconclusive.

Concavity of Cubic Function, Cont’d. Determine the relative extrema of the cubic function
f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32.

Solution. We have already found that the graph of f (x) is concave down on (−∞, 1) and concave
up on (1, ∞), hence f �� (x) < 0 for all x in (−∞, 1) and f �� (x) > 0 for all x in (1, ∞). Let us
determine the critical values of f (x). We have that f � (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 24 = 3(x + 2)(x − 4), hence
f � (x) is defined everywhere; however, we have that f � (x) = 0 when x = −2 and x = 4. We must
test these values in f �� (x). By our opening remarks, we have f �� (−2) < 0 and f �� (4) > 0. By the
second derivative test, x = −2 gives a relative maximum and x = 4 gives a relative minimum. �

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