Vladimir Ryabukho Problems and Answers in Wave Optics PDF

Problems and Answers in Wave Optics
SPIE PRESS
Looking for a deeper understanding of electromagnetic

wave propagation? Need a resource of practice problems
to hone your skills? With 272 selected problems and
answers, this study aid is a powerful supplement to the
study of wave optics. Covering the basics of wave
propagation, reflection, refraction, anisotropic media,
interference, diffraction, and coherence, this
question-and-answer collection provides the opportunity
to solve problems chosen by a mentor with decades of
experience instructing students.
Ryabukho
Whether you're a professor needing representative exam
problems, a student learning the field of optics, or an
experienced engineer looking for a better grasp of the
field, you'll find this supplement of focused problems
helpful.
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, WA 98227-0010
ISBN: 9780819489715
SPIE Vol. No.: PM216
Problems and
Answers in
Wave
Optics
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ryabukho, Vladimir P.
Problems and answers in wave optics / Vladimir P. Ryabukho.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8194-8971-5 (alk. paper)
1. Wave theory of light. 2. Optics--Mathematics. I. Title.
QC403.R93 2011
535'.2--dc23
2011041769
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Printed in the United States of America.

Second printing
Preface
This collection presents problems related to a wide scope of
wave phenomena in optics, studied within the framework of
the university course of general physics. The problems cover
the basic topics of wave optics, i.e., electromagnetic waves and
oscillations of optical range, spectral properties of electromagnetic
waves, polarization of oscillations and waves, reflection and
refraction of light, total internal reflection, optics of anisotropic
media and crystal optics, interference of monochromatic
and mutually coherent waves, temporal and spatial light
coherence, interference of partially coherent light, multiple-beam
interference, diffraction of light, diffraction gratings, diffraction of
light by volume gratings and acoustic waves, and optics of moving
media.
This book is written as a supplement for students studying
physics, mathematics, and engineering, including medical physics
and engineering, biomedical optics, and biophotonics. The prob-
lems are chosen such that their solution supports the study and
understanding of the basic concepts of wave optics. This is why
the collection contains a sufficient number of relatively simple
problems for each topic. Paired with any popular optics textbook,
these problems illustrate the principles learned from lectures and
lab work. The content of some problems allows them to be used
for self-training. Many problems are accompanied by schematic
illustrations for clarification, since the study of optical problems is
largely associated with visual–spatial perception.
What follows is the result of more than 20 years of experience
teaching optics to students at Saratov State University. I greatly
appreciate the cooperation, contribution, and support of all of
v
vi Preface
my students, postgraduate students, and colleagues from the

university’s Department of Optics and Biophotonics, especially
from the head of the department, Professor Valery Tuchin. I am
indebted to my colleague Vladimir Derbov, a professor in the
Department of Theoretical Physics at Saratov State University,
for his English-language assistance. I appreciate his fast and high-
quality translation, and his spirit of fruitful collaboration. I would
also like to express my gratitude to my wife, Anna, and my son,
Peter, for their indispensable support, understanding, and patience
during the writing of this book.
Vladimir Ryabukho
October 2011
Contents
Preface ..................................................................................... v
Chapter 1 Electromagnetic Waves in the Optical
Range ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Equations and parameters of electromagnetic
waves .................................................................................... 1
1.2 Spectral properties of electromagnetic waves ........ 6
1.3 Polarization of electromagnetic waves ..................... 8
1.4 Energy, power, and intensity of light ......................... 9
1.5 Standing electromagnetic waves ................................. 10
Chapter 2 Reflection and Refraction of Light ................... 13
2.1 Fresnel formulae ............................................................... 13

2.2 Energy reflection and transmission coefficients .... 14
2.3 Total internal reflection .................................................. 17
Chapter 3 Optics of Anisotropic Media: Crystal Optics... 21
3.1 Light refraction at the boundary of an anisotropic

medium ................................................................................ 21
3.2 Linear polarizers and retarder plates ......................... 23
3.3 Interference of polarized light...................................... 26
3.4 Polarization prisms .......................................................... 28
3.5 Induced optical anisotropy ............................................ 30
Chapter 4 Coherence and Interference of Light ............... 33
4.1 Interference of monochromatic and mutually

coherent light ..................................................................... 33
vii
viii Contents
4.2 Amplitude division interferometers: The Michel-

son and Mach–Zehnder interferometers ................... 41
4.3 Wavefront division interferometers: The Young
interferometer .................................................................... 44
4.4 Coherence of light ............................................................ 47
4.4.1 Temporal coherence of light ........................ 47
4.4.2 Transverse spatial coherence of light ........ 50
4.4.3 Longitudinal spatial coherence of light .... 52
4.5 Interference of partially coherent light ..................... 54
4.6 Multibeam interferometry: The Fabry–Pérot
interferometer .................................................................... 60
Chapter 5 Diffraction of Light ............................................. 63
5.1 Fresnel zone theory of diffraction .............................. 63

5.2 Far-field (Fraunhofer) diffraction ............................... 67
5.3 Diffraction divergence of optical beams: diffrac-
tion limit of resolution in optical systems ................ 69
5.4 Diffraction gratings ......................................................... 73
5.5 Light diffraction by volume gratings: diffraction
by acoustic waves ............................................................. 77
Chapter 6 Optics of Moving Media ..................................... 81
6.1 Doppler effect .................................................................... 81

6.2 Sagnac interferometer ..................................................... 85
Answers ................................................................................... 89
1 Electromagnetic Waves in the Optical Range......... 89

1.1 Equations and parameters of electro-
magnetic waves ................................................ 89
1.2 Spectral properties of electromagnetic
waves.................................................................... 90
1.3 Polarization of electromagnetic waves ..... 90
1.4 Energy, power, and intensity of light......... 91
1.5 Standing electromagnetic waves................. 91
2 Reflection and Refraction of Light ............................. 92
2.1 Fresnel formulae .............................................. 92
Contents ix
2.2 Energy reflection and transmission

coefficients ......................................................... 92
2.3 Total internal reflection .................................. 93
3 Optics of Anisotropic Media: Crystal Optics ......... 94
3.1 Refraction of light at the boundary of
an anisotropic medium ................................... 94
3.2 Linear polarizers and retarder plates ......... 94
3.3 Interference of polarized light ..................... 94
3.4 Polarization prisms .......................................... 95
3.5 Induced optical anisotropy............................ 95
4 Coherence and Interference of Light ......................... 96
4.1 Interference of monochromatic and
mutually coherent light .................................. 96
4.2 Amplitude division interferometers:
The Michelson and Mach–Zehnder
interferometers .................................................. 97
4.3 Wavefront division interferometers: The
Young interferometer ...................................... 97
4.4 Coherence of light ........................................... 97
4.4.1 Temporal coherence of light........ 97
4.4.2 Transverse spatial coherence
of light ................................................ 98
4.4.3 Longitudinal spatial coherence
of light ................................................ 98
4.5 Interference of partially coherent light ..... 98
4.6 Multibeam interferometry: The Fabry-
Pérot interferometer ........................................ 99
5 Diffraction of Light ......................................................... 100
5.1 Fresnel zone theory of diffraction .............. 100
5.2 Far-field (Fraunhofer) diffraction ............... 100
5.3 Diffraction divergence of optical beams:
diffraction limit of resolution in optical
systems ................................................................ 101
5.4 Diffraction gratings ......................................... 101
5.5 Light diffraction by volume gratings:
diffraction by acoustic waves....................... 102
6 Optics of Moving Media................................................ 103
6.1 Doppler effect ................................................... 103
x Contents
6.2 Sagnac interferometer .................................... 103
References ............................................................................... 105

Index ......................................................................................... 107
Chapter 1
Electromagnetic Waves
in the Optical Range
waves
1.1 Estimate the phase velocity v of light propagation in a
medium with refractive index n = 1.5. Determine the wave-
length λ of the light in this medium if the frequency of the
light oscillations is ν = 5 · 1014 Hz.
1.2 Determine the change ∆v of the phase velocity of light
propagation due to refraction at the interface between glass
(n1 = 1.5) and water (n2 = 1.33), and the ratio of wave-
lengths λ1 /λ2 .
1.3 Determine the phase velocity v of light propagation in a
medium with relative permittivity ε = 2.5 and permeability
µ = 1.
1.4 Show that the plane-wave expression E(z, t) = E0 cos(ωt−kz)
is a solution of the wave equation and express the phase ve-
locity of the wave v in terms of the wave parameters, namely,
circular frequency ω and spatial circular frequency (wave
number) k.
1.5 Using the complex form of the expression for a plane har-
monic wave propagating along the z axis, show that this
expression satisfies the wave equation.
1.6 Using the complex expression for the plane harmonic elec-
tromagnetic wave and Maxwell’s equations in the differential
form, show that the vectors E, ~ H ~ and ~k of the wave form the
1
2 Chapter 1
right-hand trio of mutually perpendicular vectors in isotropic

dielectric media.
1.7 The plane-harmonic wave in a certain
medium is described
by the expression E(z, t) = 5 cos 2π · 5 · 1014 · t − 0.4·10
2π
−6 · z .
Determine the circular frequency ω, the wavelength λ, the

phase velocity of the wave v, and the refractive index of the
medium n.
1.8 Determine the phase difference ∆φ12 between the oscilla-
tions excited by the plane wave with wavelength λ, propa-
gating along the z axis, at points P1 and P2 with coordinates
z1 and z2 .
1.9 Determine the phase shift ∆φ of the wave with frequency

ν in the course of its propagation at the distance ∆z in the
medium with refractive index n.
1.10 A plane wave having the wavelength λ0 = 600 nm in vacuum
is normally incident on the plane-parallel plate with thick-
nesses d = 2 mm and refractive index n = 1.75. Determine
the phase difference ∆φ between the oscillations at the front
and back surfaces of the plate.
1.11 A plane wave with free-space wavelength λ0 is normally in-

cident on a plane-parallel glass plate of stepped thickness d1
and d2 and refractive index n. The plate is submerged in a
liquid with refractive index n0 . Determine the phase differ-
ence ∆φ12 between the wave oscillations at points P1 and P2 ,
lying in the plane of the back surface of the plate with greater
thickness d1 .
Electromagnetic Waves in the Optical Range 3
1.12 A plane wave with wavelength λ is incident on the plane

(x, y) perpendicular to the y axis and forming angle α with
the x axis. Write the expression for the spatial distribution
of the wave phase φ(x) along the x axis if, at the origin of
coordinates, the phase of the wave φ(x = 0) = π/2. Deter-
mine the phase difference ∆φ12 between the oscillations at
the points P1 and P2 of the x axis if the difference of their
coordinates is ∆x12 .
1.13 A plane wave with wavelength λ0 is incident with incidence

angle α0 onto the interface of two dielectrics with refraction
indices n1 and n2 . Derive the expression for the spatial phase
distribution for the incident φ1 (x) and refracted φ2 (x) waves
versus the x coordinate at the boundary between the media if
the incidence plane coincides with the (x, z) plane.
4 Chapter 1
1.14 Determine the phase difference ∆φ12 of the oscillations ex-

cited by the monochromatic plane wave with wavelength λ
at points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) in the (x, y) plane, at which
the wave is incident, forming the angles α and β with axes x
and y.
1.15 A monochromatic plane wave propagates in the plane (x, z)
in a direction forming the angle γ = 30 deg with the z axis.
Determine the phase velocity v x of the wave in the x-axis
direction, provided that the refractive index of the medium
n = 1.
1.16 A spherical wave from the point source S, located at the point
z0 and belonging to the z axis, is incident on the (x, y) plane.
Using the paraxial (parabolic) approximation, write the ex-
pression for the spatial distribution of the wave phase φ(x, y)
in the (x, y) plane if the initial phase of the wave at point z0
is φ(0, 0, z0 ) = π.
1.17 A convergent spherical wave is incident on the (x, y) plane

and focused at point S 0 of the z axis with coordinates
(0, 0, z0 ). Using the paraxial (parabolic) approximation, write
the equation describing the spatial distribution of wave phase
φ(x, y) in the (x, y) plane if, at the origin of the coordinate
frame in the (x, y) plane, φ(0, 0) = π.
1.18 A plane wave is incident on the focusing lens parallel to its

optical axis. Assuming the lens to be thin [lens thickness d
is small; the curvature radii of the lens spherical surfaces R1
and R2 are large; and the coordinates (x, y) of the ray incident
on the lens are approximately equal to coordinates (x0 , y0 )
of the ray emerging from the lens], and using the parax-
ial approximation, derive the equation describing the spatial
distribution of the phase φ(x0 , y0 ) of the wave in the plane
(x0 , y0 ) located immediately behind the lens, and express fo-
cal length f of the thin lens in terms of R1 , R2 , and the re-
fractive index n of the lens surrounded by air with refractive
index n0 = 1.
1.19 A plane wave with wavelength λ propagates in the direc-

~
tion N(cos α, cos β, cos γ), forming the angles α, β, γ with the
axes of the rectangular coordinate system x, y, z, respectively.
6 Chapter 1
Determine the spatial periods Λ x , Λy , Λz and the spatial fre-

quencies f x , fy , fz of the wave along axes x, y, z, respectively.
1.20 Determine spatial frequency fz along the z axis for the plane
wave with circular temporal frequency ω, forming angle γ
with the direction of wave propagation.
1.2 Spectral properties of electromagnetic waves

1.21 The spectral contour of quasi-monochromatic light has a
half-width ∆λ ≈ 0.01 µm at the central wavelength λ0 ≈
600 nm. Determine the temporal coherence length lc and the
coherence time τc of such light.
1.22 Determine the coherence time τc and the length of the
wave train lc of the electromagnetic wave in a medium with
refractive index n = 1.5 if the half-width of the frequency
contour of this wave is ∆ν ≈ 1013 Hz.
1.23 Determine the mean number of oscillations m in a single-
wave train of the radiation of a red light-emitting diode with
mean wavelength λ0 ≈ 0.65 µm and spectral contour width
∆λ ≈ 20 nm, and the radiation of a helium-neon gas laser
with λ0 ≈ 0.63 µm and ∆λ ≈ 0.04 nm.
1.24 White light is passed through an optical filter F. The spectral-
contour width of the white light is ∆λ ≈ 150 nm and the
central wavelength is λ0 ≈ 0.55 µm. The central wavelength
of the filter transmission band is λ f ≈ 0.65 µm and
transmission bandwidth is ∆λ f ≈ 15 nm. Determine the ratio
of coherence lengths (lengths of wave train) after and before
the filter.
1.25 The temporal coherence length of a quasi-monochromatic

light is lc ≈ 30 µm with mean wavelength λ0 ≈ 600 nm.
Determine the width of the spectral contour in the
wavelength scale ∆λ and in the frequency scale ∆ν for this
light.
1.26 The spectral contour of a quasi-monochromatic light is de-
scribed by the Gaussian function I(λ) = I0 exp[−(λ − 0.6)2 ×
104 ], where the wavelength λ is expressed in micrometers.
Determine the temporal coherence length lc for this light.
1.27 Derive an expression for the intensity of the frequency spec-
trum I(ν) = |E(ν)|2 of the wave train of harmonic oscillations
having the finite duration τc
E0 cos(2πν0 t + φ0 ), −τc /2 ≤ t ≤ τc /2,

(
E(t) =
0, |t| > τc /2.
Determine the spectral-contour width ∆ν at the half-

maximum depending on τc .
1.28 Derive the expression for the intensity of the frequency spec-
trum I(ν) = |E(ν)|2 of the wave train of damped oscillations:
E(t) = E0 exp(−t/τc ) cos(2πν0 t), where τc is the damping
time. Determine the width of the spectral contour ∆ν at the
half-maximum depending on τc .
8 Chapter 1
1.29 Derive the expression for the intensity of frequency spectrum

I(ν) = |E(ν)|2 of the wave train of oscillations, damped
according to the Gaussian law, i.e., E(t) = E0 exp[−(t/τc )2 ]
cos(2πν0 t), where τc is the damping time. Determine the
spectral contour width ∆ν at half-maximum depending on τc .
1.30 Derive the expression for the intensity of frequency spectrum

I(ν) = |E(ν)|2 of the finite-length wave train of oscillations,
modulated according to the harmonic law E(t) = E0 0.5[1 +
m cos(2π f0 t)] cos(2πν0 t), where m is the modulation
coefficient, f0 is the modulation frequency, and f0 1/τc .
1.3 Polarization of electromagnetic waves

1.31 Show that the superposition of two linearly polarized plane
waves with orthogonal directions of field oscillation E x (z, t)
and Ey (z, t), having the same frequency and arbitrary phase
difference ∆φ xy , yields an elliptically polarized wave.
1.32 Show that a linearly polarized plane wave E(t, ~ z) may be
presented as a superposition of two circularly polarized
plane waves E~ L (t, z) and E~ R (t, z) with opposite directions of

rotation of the electric field vector.
1.33 What are the phase difference ∆φ xy and the amplitudes Eox
and Eoy of two orthogonally polarized waves that provide a
resulting wave with (a) linear and (b) circular polarization?
1.34 Two monochromatic plane waves with wavelengths λ =
600 nm linearly polarized in orthogonal directions are
incident on the (x, y) plane under different angles with the
x axis, α01 = 0 deg and α02 = 30 deg. Determine the
spatial period Λ along the x axis for the variation of the
polarization state of resulting summary oscillations excited
by these waves.
1.35 Determine the polarization state of the electromagnetic oscil-

lations arising as a result of superposition of two linearly po-
larized monochromatic oscillations E x (z, t) = E0x cos(ω0x t +
φ0x ) and Ey (z, t) = E0y cos(ω0y t + φ0y ) with orthogonal direc-
tions of oscillations and different frequencies ω0x and ω0y .
1.36 Determine the polarization state of the plane electromagnetic
wave that appears as a result of superposition of two linearly
polarized plane waves E x (z, t) = E0x cos[ω0 t − kz + φ0x (t)]
and Ey (z, t) = E0y cos[ω0 t − kz + φ0y (t)] with orthogonal
directions of oscillations and the initial phases φ0x (t) and
φ0y (t) randomly varying with time.
1.4 Energy, power, and intensity of light

1.37 The electric field strength E of a plane electromagnetic wave
varies following the expression E(z, t) = 20 cos(2π·4·1014 ·t−
10 Chapter 1
2π
· z + π/2) V/m. Determine the frequency ν, wavelength
5·10−7
λ, and velocity v of the wave. Write an explicit expression
for the magnitude of the Pointing vector S~ and calculate the
value of the intensity I [W/m2 ] of this wave in a medium
with refractive index n = 1.5.
1.38 The amplitude of the electric field strength in a laser beam
of light in a medium with refractive index n = 1.5 equals
E0 = 400 V/m. Determine the intensity of this beam of light
I [W/m2 ] and its power P [mW], assuming this beam to be
collimated with the cross section diameter D = 5 mm and to
have a uniform distribution of intensity in the cross section
of the beam.
1.39 The power of a laser beam of light is P = 2 mW. The dis-
tribution of the light intensity over a certain cross section
of the beam is given by the Gaussian function I(x, y) =
I0 exp[−(x2 + y2 )/w2 ] [W/m2 ]. Determine the intensity
I0 [W/m2 ] and the amplitude E0 [V/m] of the electric field
strength in the beam center if the beam radius w = 1 mm and
the refractive index of the medium n = 1.33.
1.40 The distribution of the electric field strength E(x, y) over the
cross section x, y of a laser beam in air (n = 1) is described by
the Gaussian function E(x, y) = E0 exp[−(x2 +y2 )/w20 ]. Write
the expression for the distribution of field intensity I(x, y)
over the cross section of the laser beam and estimate the
beam power P [mW] if E0 = 500 V/m and the beam radius
with respect to the field amplitude distribution w0 = 3 mm.
1.5 Standing electromagnetic waves
1.41 Determine the separation Λ between the adjacent antinodes

and nodes of a standing wave, formed in a medium with
refractive index n = 1.33 under the superposition of counter-
propagating waves E1 (z, t) and E2 (z, t) with the free-space
wavelength λ0 = 0.6 µm.
1.42 Determine the spatial period Λ x of photographic-plate-

blackening fringes in the Wiener experiment on photo-
graphic detection of standing electromagnetic waves; the
light used in the experiment has wavelength λ0 = 560 nm,
and the photosensitive layer PP forms the angle α = 1 deg
with the plane of the metallic mirror M.
1.43 Determine the number of antinodes m of a standing wave

and, correspondingly, the number of blackening layers
formed in a negative photosensitive layer with refractive in-
dex n = 1.35 and thickness h = 8 µm placed perpendicularly
to the directions of propagation of two counter-propagating
plane-monochromatic waves with frequency 5 · 108 MHz.
1.44 A photosensitive layer with refractive index n = 1.5 is

coating a metallic mirror M, on which a collimated laser
beam with the wavelength λ0 = 633 nm is incident on the
angle α0 = 45 deg. Determine the separation Λ between the
antinodes of the standing wave produced by the superposi-
12 Chapter 1
tion of the incident beam and that reflected from the mirror
surface.
1.45 In the scheme of a Denisyuk hologram recording, a laser

beam is incident on the photographic plate P and the scat-
tering object S at the angle α0 = 45 deg to the normal to the
photographic plate and the object surface. The wave scat-
tered by the surface of the object propagates along the nor-
mal to the surface of the photographic plate, meets the inci-
dent wave, and forms a standing wave. Determine the period
Λ of the standing wave in the photosensitive layer with re-
fractive index n = 1.4 if the wavelength of the laser beam is
λ0 = 633 nm.
1.46 In Lippman-colored photography, three standing waves with

spatial periods Λ1 = 232 nm, Λ2 = 196 nm, and Λ3 =
143 nm are recorded within a photosensitive layer with re-
fractive index n = 1.4. Determine the wavelengths of light
λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 and their corresponding colors.
Chapter 2
Reflection and
Refraction of Light
2.1 Fresnel formulae
2.1 Using Fresnel formulae, plot the coefficients of light reflection
from the boundary between two dielectric media versus
the angle of incidence α0 for linearly polarized light with
oscillations in the plane of incidence ρ p (α0 ) and perpendicular
to it ρ s (α0 ), provided that the refractive indices of the media
are n1 = 1.0 and n2 = 1.5.
2.2 A collimated beam of natural (randomly polarized) light is
incident on the boundary between two dielectric media with
refractive indices n1 = 1.3 and n2 = 1.8. Determine the angle
of incidence α0 for which the reflected beam becomes linearly
polarized. Determine the direction of electric field oscillations
in the reflected beam of light.
2.3 Determine the angle of incidence of a light beam α0 onto the
boundary between two dielectrics with refractive indices n1
and n2 , and the state of its polarization if the reflected beam
is practically absent and the intensity of refracted beam I2 is
equal to that of incident wave I1 .
13
14 Chapter 2
2.4 Determine the conditions under which an elliptically polarized

wave becomes circularly polarized after partial reflection from
a dielectric.
2.5 Determine the azimuth of polarization for reflected beam θ1
and for refracted beam θ2 if the azimuth of polarization for the
incident linearly polarized wave is θ0 = 45 deg, the refractive
indices of the media are n1 = 1, n2 = 1.5, and the angle of
incidence of the light beam is α0 = 45 deg.
2.6 Determine the azimuths of polarization for the reflected θ1 and
refracted θ2 waves if the incident wave is linearly polarized
with azimuth θ0 = 60 deg and the angle of incidence is the
Brewster angle α0 = αB , n1 = 1.3, n2 = 1.7.
2.7 Determine the ratio of the semiaxes ε1 and the orientation
of the polarization ellipse for the reflected beam of light if
the incident beam is circularly polarized and the angle of
incidence α0 = 45 deg with n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5.
2.8 What is the range of incidence angles [α01 , α02 ] in which
the phase difference ∆φ sp between the waves, reflected from
a dielectric and polarized parallel and perpendicular to the
incidence plane, changes by π radians?
2.2 Energy reflection and transmission

coefficients
2.9 Using Fresnel formulae, derive the expressions (depending
on the incidence angle α0 and the refractive indices of the
media n1 and n2 ) for the energy refraction and transmission
coefficients for the light, linearly polarized (a) in the plane
of incidence, R p and T p , and (b) perpendicularly to the plane
of incidence, R s and T s . Plot the reflection and transmission
coefficients versus the angle of incidence at given refractive
indices n1 = 1.0 and n2 = 1.5.
2.10 Using Fresnel formulae, derive the expressions for the
energy reflection and transmission coefficients R and T for
the light (a) linearly polarized with the arbitrary azimuth of
polarization θ0 , R(θ0 ) and T (θ0 ); (b) circularly polarized;
and (c) in its natural state (randomly polarized). Plot
Reflection and Refraction of Light 15
the energy reflection and transmission coefficients for the

mentioned polarization states versus the incidence angle α0
at given refractive indices n1 = 1.0 and n2 = 1.5.
2.11 Based on the expressions of energy reflection and
transmission coefficients for linearly polarized light derived
from the Fresnel formulae, prove the validity of the energy
conservation law in the course of reflection and refraction
of light at the boundary between two dielectric media with
refractive indices n1 and n2 at arbitrary incidence angle α0 .
2.12 Determine the intensity reflection coefficient R and
transmission coefficient T for natural light incident normally
at the boundary between air and glass. The refractive indices
of air and glass are n1 = 1.0 and n2 = 1.5, respectively.
2.13 Determine the energy reflection R and transmission T
coefficients for natural light incident on the Brewster angle
onto the boundary between air and glass (n1 = 1.0, n2 = 1.5,
respectively).
2.14 Determine the amplitude ρ and energy R reflection coeffi-
cients for linearly polarized light with polarization azimuth
θ0 = 60 deg, incident on the angle α0 = 70 deg on the
boundary between dielectric media with refractive indices
n1 = 1.3 and n2 = 1.8.
2.15 Determine the energy transmission coefficient T of a plane-
parallel glass plate with n2 = 1.5 in air (n1 = n3 = 1.0) at
normal incidence of natural light. Ignore multiple reflections
of light from the plate faces and possible interference effects.
2.16 Determine the angle of incidence α0 and the direction of

oscillations (polarization azimuth θ0 ) of the transmission of
a linearly polarized laser beam through a glass plate with re-
fractive index n2 = 1.7, with negligible loss of energy due to
16 Chapter 2
refraction by the plate surfaces. The plate is surrounded by

air (n1 = n3 = 1.0).
2.17 Determine the energy transmission coefficient T of a glass

plane-parallel plate with n2 = 1.5 in air (n1 = n3 = 1.0)
when linearly polarized light with polarization azimuth θ0 =
30 deg is incident at the Brewster angle αB .
2.18 Determine the power loss of a laser beam ∆P = P0 − P pass-

ing through a reflective, right-angle isosceles prism with re-
fractive index n2 = 1.5, immersed in air at normal incidence
of light on the leg face. The power of the incident beam is
P0 = 5 mW.
2.19 Determine the total energy transmission coefficient T of a

three-lens objective of a photo camera with no blooming of
glass surfaces. The refractive indices of the environment and
the lenses are n1 = n3 = n5 = n7 = 1, n2 = 1.5, n4 = 1.75,
and n6 = 1.65. Assume normal incidence of light at the
lenses and ignore multiple reflection and possible interfer-
ence effects.
2.20 Solve the previous problem under the conditions that all
lenses have surfaces coated with a thin-film coating whose
reflection coefficient is R = 0.01.
2.3 Total internal reflection

2.21 A collimated beam of light travels from an optically denser
dielectric medium through a plane boundary into a less
optically dense dielectric medium. Determine the critical
angle αc of the beam incidence at which total internal
reflection occurs. The velocity of light propagation in the first
medium is 1.75 times smaller than in the second one.
2.22 Using Fresnel formulae, plot the coefficients of reflection
from a boundary between two dielectric media versus the
incidence angle α0 for linearly polarized light with the
electric field oscillating in the plane of incidence ρ p (α0 ) and
perpendicularly to this plane ρ s (α0 ); the refractive indices
are n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.0. Plot the curves in the interval of
incidence angles 0 ≤ α0 ≤ αc , where αc is the critical angle
of total internal reflection.
2.23 Using Fresnel formulae, plot the coefficients of energy re-
flection of natural light R(α0 ) from a boundary between two
dielectric media versus incidence angle α0 at the refractive
indices n1 = 1.7 (optical glass) and n2 = 1.33 (water) in the
interval of incidence angles 0 ≤ α0 ≤ αc , where αc is the
critical angle of total internal reflection.
2.24 Determine the angular (αmax ) and numerical (NA =
n0 sin αmax ) apertures of an optical fiber with refractive in-
dex n1 = 1.7 for the light-guiding core and n2 = 1.68 for the
cladding. The medium from which the light is incident on the
face of the fiber has a refractive index of n0 , and the maximal
18 Chapter 2
angle of incidence, providing the total internal reflection of

light in the core, is αmax . Determine the NA for a fiber in air
with n0 = 1.0.
2.25 Using Frenel formulae, derive the expression for the phase
difference δ(α0 ) of p- and s-component oscillations of the
reflected wave under the conditions of total internal reflec-
tion, dependent on incidence angle α0 given the refractive
indices of the media, n1 and n2 .
2.26 Plot the phase shifts δ p (α0 ), δ s (α0 ) and the phase differ-
ence δ(α0 ) for the p- and s-components of the reflected
wave under the conditions of total internal reflection ver-
sus the incidence angle α0 in the interval of incidence angles
(αc , αc ÷ 90 deg) at n1 = 1.6, n2 = 1, where αc is the critical
angle of incidence providing total internal reflection.
2.27 Determine the phase shifts δ p and δ s for the p- and s-compo-
nents of a light wave reflected from the boundary between
two dielectric media if the incidence angle is α0 = 60 deg,
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.
2.28 Derive the expression for the incidence angle α0 of a light
beam at which the difference of phases for the p- and
s-components of the reflected wave under the conditions of
total internal reflection from a boundary between two dielec-
tric media with refractive indices n1 and n2 attains the maxi-
mal value δmax .
2.29 Determine the maximal phase difference δmax between the p-
and s-components and the corresponding angle of incidence
α0 that may appear due to the reflection from the boundary
between two dielectric media with refractive indices n1 = 1.7
and n2 = 1.0.
2.30 Determine the phase difference δ between the p- and
s-components in a laser beam reflected by the hypotenuse
face of a right-angle prism at incidence angle α0 = 45 deg,
where the refractive indices of the prism and surrounding
medium are n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1, respectively. The incident

beam is linearly polarized.
2.31 Plot the ratio of amplitudes for the refracted (evanescent)

wave and the incident wave E2 /E0 versus distance z from the
boundary between two dielectric media with n1 = 1.5 and
n2 = 1.0 under the conditions of total internal reflection of
light, with λ0 = 550 nm incident on the angle α0 = 45 deg.
Determine the angle of incidence α0 at which the evanescent
wave amplitude decreases by the factor of e−1 at a distance
z = λ0 /2.
2.32 Determine the depth l of penetration of the refracted (evanes-

cent) wave into a second medium under the conditions of
total internal reflection at the boundary separating the dielec-
tric media with n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.0 for the incidence angle
α0 = 60 deg and the wavelength λ0 = 630 nm. Penetration
depth l is defined as the distance at which the amplitude of
the refracted wave decreases by the factor of e−1 .
Chapter 3
Optics of Anisotropic
Media: Crystal Optics
3.1 Light refraction at the boundary of an
anisotropic medium
3.1 Determine the phase velocities of the ordinary (vo ) and ex-
traordinary (ve ) waves propagating in a cross-sectional plane
of a uniaxial quartz crystal perpendicular to its optical axis
0
O–O . The principal values of the permittivity of quartz at the
considered wavelength are ε⊥ ≈ 2.384 and εk ≈ 2.412.
O-O ′
vo
ve
ve
vo
3.2 Determine the ray velocities for the ordinary (uo ) and extraor-
dinary (ue ) waves propagating through a uniaxial anisotropic
0
medium at the angle θ = 30 deg to the optical axis O–O if
the principal values of the permittivity of the medium are
ε⊥ = 2.749 and εk = 2.208.
ue
uo θ
O O′
21
22 Chapter 3
3.3 A linearly polarized plane wave of light is normally inci-

dent from air on the boundary of an Iceland spar crystal
0
(no = 1.658, ne = 1.486). The optical axis of the crystal O–O
forms an angle β with the normal to the crystal surface. The
polarization azimuth of the incident wave is θ = 60 deg. De-
termine the ratio of ordinary-to-extraordinary wave intensities
Io /Ie at the output of the crystal plate.
o
β e
o
e
O-O′
3.4 A plane wave of natural (randomly polarized) light is incident

on the boundary between air and quartz. The angle of inci-
dence is α0 = 45 deg. The optical axis of the quartz crystal
0
O–O is perpendicular to the plane of incidence of the wave.
Determine the angle ∆α2 between the propagation directions
of the ordinary and extraordinary waves in the crystal if the
velocities of their propagations are v2o = 1.943 · 108 m/s and
v2e = 1.932 · 108 m/s, respectively, and the air refractive index
is n1 = 1.0.
n1
n2o
n2e O-O′
3.5 A right-angle prism is cut from a uniaxial crystal so that the

0
optical axis O–O is parallel to one of the leg faces. A beam
of natural (randomly polarized) light is normally incident on
this face. The refractive indices are no = 1.7 and ne = 1.5. De-
termine the angles of refraction of the ordinary and extraordi-
nary beams α2o and α2e at the hypotenuse face of the prism,
the acute angle of which is α = 30 deg.
Optics of Anisotropic Media: Crystal Optics 23
O e
o e
o
O
3.6 Solve the previous problem under the condition that the opti-
0
cal axis of the crystal O–O is perpendicular to the prism leg
face at which the light is incident.
3.7 A beam of natural (randomly polarized) light with aperture di-
ameter D = 4 mm is incident at the angle α0 = 45 deg onto
the face of a plane-parallel plate of Iceland spar (no = 1.658,
ne = 1.486) in air (n1 ≈ 1.0). The optical axis of the crystal
0
O–O is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Determine
the minimal thickness d of the plate for which the ordinary
and extraordinary light beams output from the plate would not
overlap.
D α0
d
O-O′
e
o
3.8 If in the previous problem the beams of the ordinary and ex-
traordinary waves overlap, what is the state of polarization
of light oscillations in the domain where the beams superim-
pose?
3.2 Linear polarizers and retarder plates

3.9 Determine the intensity I2 of a light beam passed through two
linear polarizers whose axes of transmission form angle α =
60 deg. The incident light with intensity Ii = 2 mW/mm2
24 Chapter 3
is linearly polarized, and the direction of oscillations (polar-

ization azimuth) of the incident light forms the angle θ =
30 deg with the transmission axis of the first linear polarizer.
Ignore the reflection of light by the linear polarizer faces.
P1
Ei P2
P1 P2
Ei
Ii
I2
3.10 Determine the intensity I2 of a light beam passed though two

linear polarizers with angle α = 30 deg between the trans-
mission axes. The intensity of the incident light with random
polarization is Ii = 4 mW/mm2 . Ignore the reflection of light
from the linear polarizer faces.
3.11 Determine the intensity I2 of a light beam passed though two
linear polarizers with angle α = 45 deg between the trans-
mission axes. The incident light is circularly polarized and
has intensity Ii = 100 mW/cm2 . Ignore the reflection of light
from the linear polarizer faces.
3.12 Determine the phase difference ∆φoe between the ordinary
and extraordinary waves outgoing from a plane-parallel plate
of Iceland spar (no = 1.658, ne = 1.486) with thickness d =
0
4.6 µm if the optical axis of the crystal O–O is parallel to the
plate faces and the linearly polarized optical wave with λ0 =
0.633 µm is incident normally onto the front face of the plate.
O
Ee
Eo
d
O′
3.13 A linearly polarized wave with wavelength λ0 = 0.55 µm and
direction of the electric field strength vector E~ i forms angle
0
θ = 30 deg with the optical axis of the plate O–O , parallel
to its input face, and is incident on a uniaxial crystal plate

with thickness d = 6.9 µm and the principal values of the
refractive index no = 1.56 and ne = 1.6. Determine the phase
difference ∆φoe between the ordinary and extraordinary
waves emerging from the plate; also determine the
polarization state and the parameters of the emerging wave.
O O
Ei θ
Ei
d
O′ O′
3.14 A linearly polarized plane wave with polarization azimuth

θ = 45 deg is normally incident on a crystal plate cut paral-
lel to the optical axis. Plate thickness d is such that the phase
difference acquired between the ordinary and extraordinary
waves at the output of the plate is ∆φ = (2m + 1)π, where m
is an integer number. Determine the state and the parameters
of polarization of the wave emerging from the plate.
3.15 A circularly polarized plane wave is normally incident on a
crystal plate, with the optical axis parallel to the plate faces.
Plate thickness d is such that the phase difference, appearing
between the ordinary and extraordinary waves at the plate
output, is ∆φ = (2m + 1)π, where m is an integer number.
Determine the state and parameters of polarization for the
wave emerging from the plate.
3.16 A monochromatic circularly polarized collimated beam of
light with λ0 = 0.6 µm is normally incident on a crystal re-
tarder plate (no = 1.623 and ne = 1.656) with the optical
axis, parallel to the plate faces, with thickness d = 4.55 µm.
Determine the polarization state of the light beam emerging
from the plate.
3.17 A linearly polarized beam of light with polarization azimuth
θ = 45 deg, central wavelength λ0 = 0.55 µm, and spectral
contour width ∆λ ≈ 0.01 µm is normally incident on a plane-
parallel crystal plate of Iceland spar (no = 1.658, ne = 1.486)
26 Chapter 3
with the optical axis parallel to the plate faces, with thick-
ness d = 250 µm. Determine the polarization state of light
emerging from the plate.
3.3 Interference of polarized light

3.18 Determine the intensity I2 of a light beam passed through
two linear polarizers with a crystal retarder plate between
them. The incident light is natural (randomly polarized) with
wavelength λ0 = 0.6 µm and intensity Ii = 6 mW/mm2 .
The plate thickness is d = 0.1 mm, and the principal values
of the refractive index are no = 1.62 and ne = 1.65. The
0
optical axis of the plate O–O forms angle α = 35 deg with
the transmission axis of the first linear polarizer. The angle
between the axes of the first and the second linear polarizer
is β = 58 deg.
P1 P1 O
O P2
P2
Ii I2
O′
O′
3.19 A circularly polarized wave with wavelength λ0 = 630 nm
is incident on the uniaxial crystal plate with thickness d =
0.5 mm and principal values of the refractive index no = 1.71
and ne = 1.68. A linear polarizer follows the plate with the
transmission axis P forming the angle α = 30 deg with the
0
optical axis of the plate O–O . Determine the intensity I2
of light passed through the plate and the linear polarizer
if the intensity of the initial circularly polarized wave Ii =
1 mW/mm2 .
P α
O
O P
Ii I2
O′
O′
3.20 A natural-light beam with intensity Ii passes through a

system consisting of a polarizer P and a quarter-wave plate.
The light is then reflected by the mirror M and passes
through the plate and the polarizer in the opposite direction.
Determine the intensity I2 of the outgoing light as a function
of the angle α between the transmission axis of the polarizer
0
P and the optical axis of the plate O–O . Determine the
maximal (I2max ) and minimal (I2min ) values of intensity I2 .
M P
P O O
I2
Ii
O′
O′
3.21 White natural light is passed through a system comprising a

linear polarizer P1 , a retarder plate, and a linear polarizer P2 .
Determine wavelength λ and the color of light emerging from
linear polarizer P2 for which the maximum of interference
will be observed. The linear polarizers are crossed, and the
optical axis of the retarder plate forms angle α = 45 deg with
the axes of the polarizers P1 and P2 . The thickness of the
plate is d = 24 µm, and the principal values of the refractive
index, no = 1.61 and ne = 1.65, are practically independent
of the wavelength.
P1 O
O P2
P1 P2
α
Ii I2
O′
O′
3.22 White natural light is passed through a system comprising

a linear polarizer, a retarder plate, and a linear polarizer.
Local minima (dips) are observed in the spectral contour of
the light at wavelengths λ1 = 600 nm, λ2 = 300 nm, and
λ3 = 200 nm. Determine the difference between the principal
28 Chapter 3
values of the refractive index of the plate ∆n = no − ne if the

thickness of the plate is d = 1.2 mm and its optical axis forms
angle α = 45 deg with the transmission axes of the crossed
linear polarizers.
3.23 Natural light with mean wavelength λ0 is passed through a
system of two polarizers, P1 and P2 , with a λ0 /2 crystal plate
between them. The transmission axes of the polarizers are
parallel and form angle α with the optical axis of the plate.
Determine the output-to-input ratio of light intensities I2 /Ii
for α = 30 deg.
3.4 Polarization prisms

3.24 A Wollaston prism is made of Iceland spar (no = 1.658, ne =
1.486) with angle α = 20 deg between the leg and hy-
potenuse faces of the prism. Determine angle β between the
linearly polarized rays output from the prism if a ray of nat-
ural light is normally incident on the prism.
3.25 A linearly polarized ray of light is incident on a Wollaston

prism; the direction of oscillations form the angle θ = 30 deg
with the optical axis of the first half of the prism. Determine
intensity ratio Io /Ie for the rays emerging from the prism.
Ignore the reflection of light by the prism faces.
3.26 A circularly polarized ray of light is incident on a Wollaston
prism. Determine the intensity ratio Io /Ie for the ray emerg-
ing from the prism.
3.27 Determine angle β between the orthogonally polarized rays
emerging from a Rochon prism made of Iceland spar (no =
1.658, ne = 1.486) with angle α = 20 deg between the leg
and hypotenuse faces of the prism. Determine the ratio of in-
tensities of these rays Io /Ie , ignoring the losses in the course
of reflection from the faces of the prism for the following

incident rays: (a) natural (randomly polarized); (b) circularly
polarized; (c) linearly polarized with the azimuth of polariza-
tion θ = 60 deg with respect to the optical axis of the second
half of the prism; and (d) elliptically polarized with the ratio
of the semiaxes Eo /Ee = 0.5, with the major semiaxis par-
allel to the optical axis of the second half of the prism. The
prism is immersed in air.
3.28 Determine the intensity ratio Io /Ie of, and the angle β be-
tween the orthogonally polarized rays emerging from a Sen-
armont prism made of Iceland spar (no = 1.658, ne = 1.486)
with angle α = 20 deg between the leg and hypotenuse faces
of the prism. The incident ray is linearly polarized with po-
larization azimuth θ = 60 deg with respect to the optical axis
of the second half of the prism. Ignore the reflection of light
at the boundaries.
3.29 A beam of linearly polarized light with intensity Ii is passed

through a linear polarizer P and then through a Wollaston
prism. The linear polarizer rotates in its own plane with an-
gular velocity Ω. Derive the equations describing the time
dependence of the intensity of the ordinary Io (t) and extraor-
dinary Ie (t) waves at the prism output.
P
Io(t)
Ii
Ie(t)
30 Chapter 3
3.30 A beam of linearly polarized light with intensity Ii and wave-

length λ0 is passed through a half-wave retarder plate and
then through a Wollaston prism. The plate rotates in its own
plane with angular velocity Ω. Derive the equations describ-
ing the time dependence of the intensity of the ordinary Io (t)
and extraordinary Ie (t) waves at the prism output.
Io(t)
Ei
Ii
Ie(t)
3.31 A beam of linearly polarized light with intensity Ii is passed

through a quarter-wave retarder plate and then through a
Wollaston prism. The plate rotates in its own plane with an-
gular velocity Ω. Derive the equations describing the time
dependence of the intensity of the ordinary Io (t) and extraor-
dinary Ie (t) waves at the prism output under the condition
that the plane of polarization of the beam, incident on the
plate, is parallel to the optical axis of the first half of the
prism.
3.5 Induced optical anisotropy

3.32 A glass plate with thickness d = 4 mm is subjected to
homogeneous mechanical stress σy = 50 MPa along the y
direction. The plate is placed between two crossed linear
polarizers, P1 and P2 , so that the y axis forms angle α =
45 deg with the transmission axes of the linear polarizers.
An interference minimum is observed in the visible range
of the white light at wavelength λm . Using the Brewster
photoelasticity law, determine the optical path difference ∆oe
between the ordinary and extraordinary waves in the plate
and wavelength λm . The Brewster constant for the plate glass
is C B = 2.5 × 10−12 Pa−1 .
P1 y y
P2
P1 P2
α
3.33 Solve the previous problem for such orientation of the

linear polarizers P1 and P2 that their transmission axes are
parallel and form angle α = 45 deg with direction y of the
mechanical stress in the plate.
3.34 Electric voltage U is applied to a Kerr cell with nitrobenzene
placed between crossed polarizers P1 and P2 . The distance
between the capacitor plates of the cell is d = 1 mm, the
length l of the capacitor is 6.4 cm, and the Kerr constant is
K = 2.2·10−12 m/V2 . The transmission axes of the polarizers
form angle α = 45 deg with the plates of the condenser.
Determine the voltage U at which a beam of light leaving
the cell becomes circularly polarized. Determine intensity I2
of light output from the system in this case if the beam of
natural light with intensity Ii = 0.06 mW/mm2 is passed
through the first linear polarizer P1 .
P1 U U
P2
P1 P2
Ii I2
d
3.35 Under the conditions of the previous problem, determine the

voltage U at which the intensity of light output I2 from the
system takes the maximal value. What is the polarization
state of the beam outgoing from the Kerr cell in this case?
3.36 Alternating voltage U = U0 sin[2π f t] is applied to a Kerr
cell placed between two crossed polarizers. Plot the intensity
I2 (t) versus time for the light transmitted through the system
if U0 = 2.5 kV and f = 1 MHz, the separation between the
32 Chapter 3
plates of the condenser is d = 1 mm, and the length of the

condenser is l = 50 mm. The Kerr constant is K = 2.2 ·
10−12 m/V2 . The transmission axes of the polarizers form
angles α = 45 deg with the condenser plates. The beam
of natural light with intensity Ii = 1 mW/mm2 is passed
through the first linear polarizer.
3.37 Solve the previous problem for a parallel orientation of
the transmission axes of the polarizers and a 45-deg angle
between the direction of transmission of the polarizers and
the plane of the condenser plates.
Chapter 4
Coherence and
Interference of Light
coherent light
4.1 Using the phasor diagram method, derive the expression
for amplitude E0 and intensity I of oscillations resulting
from the superposition of two harmonic oscillations, E1 (t) =
E01 cos(ωt + φ01 ) and E2 (t) = E02 cos(ωt + φ02 ).
4.2 Using the complex expression of optical monochromatic
waves E1 (~r, t) = E01 exp[iφ1 (~r)] exp(−iωt) and E2 (~r, t) =
E02 exp[iφ2 (~r)] exp(−iωt), having the same direction of the
electric field oscillation, derive the expression for intensity
I(~r) of the wave resulting from the superposition of these
two waves.
4.3 Solve the previous problems under the condition that the
superposed oscillations E~ 1 (~r, t) and E~ 2 (~r, t) are linearly
polarized along the directions that form angle θ.
4.4 Solve the previous problems under the condition that the
superposed waves have different frequencies, ω1 and ω2 ,
and the intensity of the resultant wave is measured using a
photodetector with response time τ p for the following cases:
(a) τ p 2π/∆ω12 and (b) τ p 2π/∆ω12 , where ∆ω12 =
ω1 − ω2 .
4.5 Determine the intensity I of light at a certain point P of
the interference pattern arising at the superposition of two
33
34 Chapter 4
mutually coherent waves if the intensities of these waves are

known to be I1 = 4 W/m2 and I2 = 1 W/m2 and the phase
difference of the waves at point P equals ∆φ12 = 62.8 rad.
4.6 Determine the phase difference ∆φ12 of two harmonic
oscillations that are superposed at one point P and that have
the same angular frequency ω if it is known that the optical
paths of the waves that excite these oscillations from the
point source to point P of superposition are L1 and L2 ,
respectively.
4.7 Determine the optical path difference ∆12 and the phase
difference ∆φ12 for the oscillations at frequency f excited
by two waves in a given spatial point P if the trajectories of
propagation of these waves consist of straight line segments
of geometric lengths L1 , L2 , and L3 (passed through media
with refractive indices n1 , n2 , and n3 , respectively) for the
first wave, and L4 and L5 (passed through media with
refractive indices n4 and n5 ) for the second wave.
L2 n2
L1 n1 L3 n
3
S L4 n
4
L5 n5 P
4.8 A ray of light with wavelength λ0 from source S, incident at

angle α0 on a plane-parallel glass plate with refractive index
n2 and thickness d, is reflected from the first and second faces
of the plate. The two parallel rays that result are focused by
lens L into one point P in the back focal plane of the lens.
Write the expression for the phase difference ∆φ12 of these
rays, provided that the plate is immersed in air with refractive
index n1 = 1.0.
P
S L
α0
n1
n2 d
n1
Coherence and Interference of Light 35
4.9 The reflection of monochromatic light at λ0 = 0.6 µm from

a thin film of oil covering the surface of a liquid gives rise
to optical path difference ∆ = 0.9 µm between the waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the film. Is the
interference fringe observed in this location dark or bright?
1
n1<n2>n3 n1 2
n2
n3
4.10 The light at wavelength λ0 = 650 nm is incident on a

thin, tapered soap film immersed in air at incidence angle
α0 = 20 deg. In the vicinity of the film, the interference
fringes are observed having period Λ = 1 mm. The refractive
index of the soap film is n = 1.33. Calculate angle β between
the surfaces of the film forming an optical wedge.
P′
β
P
α0
n
4.11 Determine separation ∆r between the ninth and tenth dark

Newton rings if the separation between the second and the
third dark rings is 2 mm, and the rings are observed in
reflected light in an air wedge between the convex surface
of a lens L and the plane surface of a glass plate P.
P
36 Chapter 4
4.12 Why is the center of the Newton rings, observed in reflected

light, dark if the rings are the result of interference of the
light waves reflected from contacting the spherical surfaces
of glass lenses in air?
4.13 Newton rings are produced in the spacing between two
convex spherical surfaces of glass lenses L1 and L2 . Derive
a formula for the radius of the m’th dark ring rm if the
wavelength of light is λ0 , the curvature radii of the lens
surfaces are R1 and R2 , and the space between the lenses
is filled with a liquid having refractive index n2 > n1 = n3 ,
where n2 and n3 are the refractive indices of the lenses.
Observation is carried out in reflected light.
L1 n1
n2
L2 n3
4.14 Determine the contrast V of the interference fringes

produced by superposition of two linearly polarized optical
waves with intensities I1 = 2 mW/mm2 and I2 = 4.5 mW/
mm2 if the directions of oscillation in waves E~ 1 and E~ 2 form
angle θ = 30 deg.
x,y y
E1
θ
x
E2
4.15 The directions of propagation of two plane waves of similar

wavelength λ form angle θ. The waves are incident on
a screen whose plane is perpendicular to the bisector of
angle θ. Write the plane wave expressions, add them, and
show that the separation Λ between the adjacent interference
fringes (period of fringes) on the screen is expressed as
Λ = λ/2 sin(θ/2).
x,y y
E1
Λ
θ
x
E2
4.16 Two linearly polarized monochromatic plane waves with

similar frequencies (ω1 = ω2 = 2π · 5 · 1014 Hz) propagate
at angle θ = 60 deg to each other. Determine the period Λ
and the contrast V of the interference fringes observed on
a screen placed where the waves overlap and perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of one of the waves if the
amplitudes of these waves differ by a factor of 2 and the
angle between the directions of oscillation is θ = 60 deg.
x,y y
E1 Λ
x
θ
E2
4.17 Two linearly polarized monochromatic waves with wave-

lengths λ1 = λ2 = 0.63 µm propagate at an angle θ = 45 deg
to each other. Photosensitive plate P is placed perpendicu-
lar to the propagation direction of one of the waves. De-
termine the resolution R [lines/mm] of the photosensitive
plate required for recording the pattern of arising interfer-
ence fringes.
E1
E2
38 Chapter 4
4.18 Two linearly polarized monochromatic plane waves with

similar wavelengths λ1 = λ2 = 0.63 µm propagate in oppo-
site directions. Determine the period Λ of the interference
fringes produced in the domain of the superposition of these
waves if the refractive index of the medium in this domain is
n = 1.7.
E1 E2
4.19 A beam of light with wavelength λ = 6 · 10−4 mm is nor-

mally incident on a metallic mirror M and reflected by it. In
the domain of the superposition of the incident and reflected
waves, a standing wave is produced. At what distances z from
the mirror are the nodes and antinodes of the electric field of
the standing wave located?
4.20 A collimated laser beam of light with wavelength λ0 =

0.63 µm is incident from air at the angle α0 = 45 deg on
a metallic mirror M coated with a photosensitive, transpar-
ent (silver halide) layer with refractive index n = 1.52 and
thickness h = 10 µm. The wave reflected from the mirror
interferes with the incident wave. As a result, a system of in-
terference fringes (planes) appears inside the photosensitive
layer with period Λ. Determine the period Λ of the fringes
and their number N inside the photosensitive layer.
Λ
E1 M
α0
E2
h
4.21 Determine the period Λ of the interference pattern in an ex-

periment with a Fresnel biprism in air. The refractive index
of the prism is n = 1.5, the wavelength is λ0 = 0.6 µm, and
the refracting angle of the prism is α = 170 deg.
4.22 A Billet split lens is manufactured by cutting out the

central part with width ∆l from a whole focusing lens with
focal length f = 750 mm, as shown in the figure. The
remaining parts of the lens are put together to contact. If
a point light source S is placed in the front focal plane,
then one can observe an interference pattern behind lens
L. Determine ∆l if the period of the interference fringes
observed on the screen P behind the lens is Λ = 1 mm and
the wavelength of light is λ0 = 0.55 µm.
x,y y
L L P
Δl S Λ
x
f
4.23 Two monochromatic-light point sources S1 and S2 with

similar wavelengths λ are positioned on the z axis with
separation ∆z between them, and they illuminate a screen
located perpendicular to the z axis at distance z1 from source
S1 . Derive an equation for the distribution of intensity I(x, y)
40 Chapter 4
in
p the interference pattern on the screen in the paraxial region
x2 + y2 z1 . The intensities of the light waves from the
sources in the plane of the screen are equal to I1 and I2 .
x,y y
S2 S1
x
Δz z1
4.24 Interference fringes of equal inclination are observed in focal

plane P of focusing lens L due to the reflection from a plane-
parallel glass plate (GP) illuminated by monochromatic light
source S with the help of an oblique glass plate functioning
as a beam splitter (BS). The wavelength of light is λ0 =
600 nm, the plate thickness is h = 0.5 mm, the refractive
index is n = 1.5, and the focal length of the lens is f =
200 mm. Find the diameter D of the first dark interference
ring visible on the screen P, if in the center of the rings
an interference minimum is observed. The entire setup is
immersed in air.
h S L
BS P
GP
F
4.25 Show that the superposition of two monochromatic waves

having similar polarization but different wavelengths λ1 , λ2
yields a resulting wave with intensity I harmonically varying
in time with the frequency, equal to the difference ∆ν12
of the frequencies of the superimposed waves. Determine
amplitude ∆I of the oscillating intensity I(t) if the intensities
of the superposed waves are I1 and I2 .
4.26 Two plane monochromatic waves with different wavelengths

λ1 = 630 nm and λ2 = 631.1 nm are superimposed at angle
θ = 0.05 deg. Determine the frequency f of the intensity
oscillations in a single point on the screen, the period Λ, and
the velocity v of the motion of interference fringes observed
on the screen P placed perpendicularly to the bisector of
angle θ.
x,y y
λ1 Λ v
θ x
λ2 P
4.27 Two monochromatic waves with wavelengths λ1 = 633 nm

and λ2 = 650 nm are superimposed on the aperture of a
photodetector. Determine the response rate f p or the response
time τ p = 1/ f p of the photodetector necessary to observe the
interference signal (beating) of the waves.
4.2 Amplitude division interferometers: The

Michelson and Mach–Zehnder interferometers
4.28 Determine the optical path difference ∆12 in an air-
filled Michelson interferometer with arms having geometric
lengths L1 and L2 . What will be the variation δ∆12 of this
path length difference if a glass plate with thickness d and
refractive index n is placed inside one of the interferometer
arms?
42 Chapter 4
4.29 Arms 1 and 2 of a Michelson interferometer are filled with

media having different refractive indices n1 and n2 . A plane-
parallel glass plate with thickness d and refractive index n
is placed inside arm 2. What shift ∆L of the mirror in one
of the interferometer arms will restore the initial optical path
difference between the arms?
4.30 Determine the shift ∆L of a mirror in an air-filled Michelson
interferometer needed to provide five periodic changes of the
intensity of light with wavelength λ0 = 400 nm in the center
of the interference pattern observed in the output arm of the
interferometer.
4.31 A plane monochromatic wave with wavelength λ0 enters a
Michelson interferometer. One of the interferometer mirrors
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
illuminating wave, while the other mirror forms an angle
(90 deg +α) with this direction. Determine the period Λ
of interference fringes at the output of the interferometer,
provided that the inclination angle α of the mirror is small.
M1 α
M2
BS
4.32 A monochromatic-light point source S with wavelength λ0 is

used in a Michelson interferometer. The distance between the
source and the beam splitter BS is L0 . The distances between
the beam splitter and the mirrors of the interferometer are L1
and L2 . Write the equation for the phase difference ∆φ12 (x, y)
of the light waves as a function of the coordinates (x, y) at
the output screen of the interferometer installed at distance
L from the beam splitter. Use the paraxial approximation for
the light rays that hit the screen.
M1
M2
L1 L2
S L0
BS y
L ΔL
x,y
z x
4.33 In a Michelson interferometer, one mirror moves with con-

stant velocity v = 2 mm/s along the optical axis. Determine
frequency fS of the periodical variation of the light intensity
I(t) in the interference pattern at the output of the interfer-
ometer if the wavelength of the light is λ0 = 633 nm.
4.34 One mirror in a Michelson interferometer harmonically
oscillates along the optical axis with amplitude l = 1.5 µm
and frequency f = 102 Hz. Plot intensity I(t) in the inter-
ference pattern at the interferometer output versus time, pro-
vided that the wavelength is λ0 = 0.63 µm and the intensities
of the interfering waves are I1 = I2 = 0.5 mW/mm2 . The
initial phase difference between the waves is ∆φ0 = 0, π/2,
or π rad. For plotting, take the time interval [0, t] equal to
two periods of the mirror oscillation.
4.35 A mirror in a Michelson interferometer harmonically
oscillates with frequency f0 and amplitude l0 along the
optical axis, ∆z = l0 sin(2π f0 t + φ0 ). Derive the expression
for frequency fS of the periodic variation of the light
intensity in the interference pattern I(t) at light wavelength
λ0 ; determine the maximal fmax and the minimal fmin values
of the frequency fS .
4.36 A cuvette with length L = 100 mm, filled with a liquid
having refractive index n, is installed in one of the arms of a
Mach–Zehnder interferometer. Heating the liquid causes the
shift of interference fringes at the interferometer output by
2.5 pattern periods Λ. Determine the heat-induced increment
of refractive index ∆n if the wavelength is λ0 = 0.63 µm.
44 Chapter 4
BS1 M2
L x,y y
M1 x
BS2
n
4.37 The pressure of air in an airtight cell of length L = 70 mm,

placed in one of the arms of a Mach–Zehnder interferome-
ter, is increased by ∆P = 200 mm Hg, changing the refrac-
tive index of the air by ∆n and, correspondingly, shifting the
interference pattern observed at the output of the interferom-
eter by ∆m fringes. Determine the phase shift ∆φ of the light
wave passed through the cell and the relative pattern shift
∆m = ∆y/Λ, where Λ is the spatial period of the fringes and
∆y is the linear shift of the pattern. The wavelength of light
is λ0 = 633 nm. The air refractive index linearly depends on
pressure with proportionality coefficient B ≈ 2.4 · 10−9 Pa−1 .

interferometer
4.38 In a setup similar to that in Young’s experiment, the in-
terference fringes produced on a screen placed at distance
z = 60 cm from a two-slit opaque screen have the period Λ =
0.6 mm. The separation between the slits is d = 0.55 mm.
Determine the wavelength of light λ0 used in the experiment.
d x,y y
P1 Λ
S
z x
P2
z
4.39 In a setup similar to that in Young’s experiment, the distance

from the central fringe to the fifth interference maximum is
x = 0.3 cm. The distance between the two-slit opaque screen
and the observation plane is z = 5 m, and the separation be-

tween the centers of the slits is d = 0.5 cm. Determine the
wavelength of the incident monochromatic light λ0 .
4.40 Determine the period Λ of Young’s interference fringes ob-
served in the light from a semiconductor laser with λ0 =
650 nm at a distance z = 55 cm from a two-slit opaque screen
with narrow slits separated by d = 1 mm.
4.41 In Young’s interferometer with two slits S1 and S2 in an
opaque screen, the point light source S with λ0 = 0.6 µm
is separated by z0 = 1 m from the screen and by x0 = 1 mm
from the optical axis, crossing the segment d = 2 mm be-
tween the slits. Determine the positions xm of the centers
of bright fringes in the interference pattern observed on the
screen at distance z = 2 m from the slits.
S S1
x0 xm
z
S2
z0 d z
4.42 The light from two mutually coherent sources S1 and S2

gives rise to a system of interference fringes on the screen
P, separated from the plane of the sources by the distance
z = 2.5 m. By how many times β will the spatial period Λ
of the interference fringes change if between the sources and
the screen P a focusing lens L with focal length f = 50 cm is
placed so that the sources will appear in the front focal plane
of the lens?
L P
S1
S2
f
z
4.43 Young’s interference fringes are observed using a converging

lens L in the image plane P of the source S having the light
wavelength λ0 = 600 nm. Determine the period Λ of the
46 Chapter 4
fringes if a screen R with pinholes is placed before the lens

at distance ∆z = 10 mm from the lens and z0 = 100 mm from
the light source. The focus length of the lens is f = 25 mm,
and the separation between the pinholes is d = 0.3 mm.
R L
P
S
z0 f
z
Δz
4.44 Two mutually coherent laser beams with wavelength λ0 =

0.6328 µm are focused onto the front focal plane F of focus-
ing lens L. Determine the separation d between the centers
of the focal spots S1 and S2 of these beams if the interference
fringes, arising in the domain of superposition of the beams
behind the lens, have period Λ = 1 mm and the focal length
of the lens is f = 120 mm.
F L x,y y
S1 Λ
S2 x
f
4.45 Two collimated, mutually coherent beams of light with

wavelength λ0 = 0.532 µm overlap, forming a certain angle
θ between the directions of their propagation and producing
an interference pattern with fringe period Λ = 5 mm. Both
beams enter an objective L with focal length f = 110 mm
and are focused onto the back focal plane F of objective L.
Determine the separation d between the foci of these beams.
x,y L F
θ d
S1
S2
y f
x
4.4 Coherence of light

4.4.1 Temporal coherence of light
4.46 Using the Wiener–Khinchin theorem, derive the expressions
for the real part Re{Γ(∆t)} of the temporal coherence
function Γ(∆t) and the modulus of the normalized temporal
coherence function |γ(∆t)| = |Γ(∆t)|/Γ(∆t = 0) of the optical
field having rectangular spectral density G(ω) with central
circular frequency ω0 :
G0 if ω0 − ∆ω/2 ≤ ω ≤ ω0 + ∆ω/2
(
G(ω) =
0 if ω < ω0 − ∆ω/2 and when ω > ω0 + ∆ω/2.
Derive the expressions for estimating the coherence time τc

and temporal coherence length lc of the field, depending on
the bandwidth ∆ω and the refractive index n of the medium,
in which the field propagates.
G(ω)
G0
Δω
ω0 ω
4.47 Estimate the coherence time τc of an optical field whose

spectral contour G(ω) in the circular frequency scale ω has
the width ∆ω ≈ 2π·0.05·1014 Hz at the half-maximum value
of the spectral density.
G(ω)
Δω
ω0 ω
4.48 Determine the maximal separation ∆r between two points

P1 and P2 on a ray of the wave field propagation from a
48 Chapter 4
quasi-point source of light S, in which the mutual coherence

of oscillations still exists, if the spectral bandwidth of these
oscillations in the wavelength scale is ∆λ ≈ 0.006 µm and
the mean wavelength is λ0 ≈ 0.6 µm.
Δr
P1 P2
S
z
4.49 Determine the temporal coherence length lc of a quasi-

collimated beam of light in a medium with refractive index
n = 1.5, having the spectral bandwidth in the oscillation
frequency scale are ∆ω ≈ 4π × 1012 Hz.
4.50 The frequency-scale spectral contour of optical radiation has
Gaussian shape G(ω) = G0 exp[−(ω − ω0 )2 /∆ω2 ], where
ω0 = 2π · 5 · 1014 Hz and ∆ω = 2π · 0.01 · 1014 Hz. Estimate
the coherence time τc and the temporal coherence length lc of
a quasi-collimated beam of this radiation in a medium with
refractive index n = 1.33.
4.51 Estimate the temporal coherence length lc of quasi-
collimated beams of light in air: (a) white light in the visible
range of wavelengths; (b) radiation from a high-pressure
mercury lamp with the spectral line at λ0 = 546.1 nm with
width ∆λ0 ≈ 10 nm; and (c) radiation from a low-pressure
mercury lamp with the spectral line at λ0 = 546.1 nm with
width ∆λ0 ≈ 4 · 10−4 nm.
4.52 The bandwidth of radiation spectrum G(ω) from a gas
He-Ne laser in a single-frequency mode of oscillation is
determined by the spectral line width of the laser cavity
∆ω ≈ 2π · 106 Hz. Estimate the length of a wave train (the
temporal coherence length lc ) for a quasi-collimated beam
from such a laser propagating in air.
G(ω)
Δω
4.53 A quasi-collimated beam of white visible light is passed

through a bandpass filter BPF with central transmission
wavelength λ02 ≈ 650 nm and transmission spectral
bandwidth ∆λ02 ≈ 50 nm. Determine the ratio β of temporal
coherence lengths of the filtered lc2 and the initial lc1 beams
of light, β = lc2 /lc1 .
G(λ) G(λ)
Δλ1
BPF Δλ2
λ01 λ02 λ
λ01 λ
4.54 A prism monochromator is used to obtain a quasi-collimated

light beam having a relatively narrow spectral contour G(λ)
with width ∆λ. The angular dispersion of the prism is Dα =
∆α/∆λ = 0.2 · 10−3 rad/nm. Determine the coherence length
lc of the light beam with λ0 ≈ 580 nm, output from the
monochromator, if the focal length of the objective lens
L2 is f2 = 280 mm and the width of the output slit S2 is
∆x = 0.1 mm.
P Δα L2
L1
S2 Δx L3
S1
f2
4.55 In an interference experiment, the values of the mean

wavelength λ0 and the time coherence length lc of a quasi-
parallel beam of light are found to be λ0 ≈ 850 nm and
lc ≈ 150 µm, respectively. Using these values, determine the
50 Chapter 4
spectral bandwidth of oscillations in this light beam in the

circular-frequency scale ∆ω and in the wavelength scale ∆λ.
4.4.2 Transverse spatial coherence of light

4.56 Based on the Van Cittert–Zernike theorem, derive an
expression for the normalized transverse spatial coherence
function γ(∆x, ∆y) of the optical field with wavelength λ0 at
the distance z from spatially extended incoherent light source
S having a rectangular shape with sides a and b. The source
has a uniform distribution of radiation intensity I(x, y) = I0
over the surface. From the obtained expression for γ(∆x, ∆y),
derive the formulae for determining the dimensions of the
domain of transverse spatial coherence of the field, i.e., the
optical field transverse coherence lengths ρcx and ρcy along
the axes x and y, respectively.
y
a
x
S b
z x
ρcy
ρcx
z
4.57 A quasi-monochromatic beam of light with mean wave-

length λ0 ≈ 628 nm is produced by an extended spatially
incoherent source S having the shape of a round disc with
diameter D = 4 mm. Determine the maximal spacing ∆ρc
between the points P1 and P2 in the plane (x, y) in which
the beam of light excites partially mutually coherent oscilla-
tions. The plane (x, y) is perpendicular to the direction of the
beam propagation and is located at distance z = 1 m from the

source S.
y
x
S
y
z
x
P1 P2
Δρc z
4.58 Determine the transverse spatial coherence length ρc of

visible sunlight at the surface of the Earth. The angular
size of the Sun disc visible from the Earth’s surface is
2θ ≈ 0.55 deg.
4.59 A beam of visible sunlight (λ0 ≈ 0.55 µm) is passed through
a narrow slit with width a = 1 mm in an opaque screen S.
Determine the transverse coherence length of the light ρcx in
the plane x, y behind the screen at distance z = 2 m in the
direction x, perpendicular to the slit.
S x,y
4.60 A spatially incoherent source S of quasi-monochromatic

light (λ0 = 0.85 µm) is imaged by collecting lens L, located
at distance z1 = 220 mm from the source. The source diame-
ter is D s = 5 mm, the focal length of the lens is f = 100 mm,
and the diameter of the lens aperture is Da = 40 mm. Deter-
mine the transverse coherence length of the light: (a) in the
lens aperture plane (ρc1 ); (b) in the back focal plane of the
lens (ρc f ); (c) in the plane of real image of the light source
S0 (ρc2 ); and (d) at the distance z3 = 200 mm from the image
0
S of the source (ρc3 ).
52 Chapter 4
L
S S′
f f
z1 z2 z3
4.61 Determine the diameter D of a star if the transverse coher-

ence length ρc of infrared light (with effective wavelength
λ0 ≈ 2.1 µm) from this star at the surface of the Earth, mea-
sured using the interference method, is ρc ≈ 135 m, and the
distance z from the star, measured using the annual parallax,
appears to be z = 25.3 light years.
4.4.3 Longitudinal spatial coherence of light

4.62 For a quasi-monochromatic optical field with sufficiently
narrow frequency spectrum and relatively wide angular
spectrum, the longitudinal coherence length of the field
(along the direction of propagation) is mainly determined by
the width of the angular spectrum 2θ rather than by the width
of the frequency spectrum ∆ω, as for a quasi-collimated light
beam. Determine the temporal coherence length lc and the
longitudinal coherence length Lc of such a field with mean
wavelength λ0 ≈ 0.65 µm and spectral width ∆λ ≈ 0.001 µm
at distance z = 80 mm from a round spatially incoherent light
source with diameter D = 20 mm.
x
S
2θ
y
z P1 x
P2
z
Lc
4.63 The coherence of an optical field in the longitudinal

direction, i.e., in the direction of the light propagation,
is equally dependent on the parameters of the frequency

and the angular spectra of the field. This may lead to a
reduction of the longitudinal coherence length of the field Lc
as compared to the temporal coherence length lc , determined
by the frequency spectrum width ∆λ, and as compared to
the spatial coherence length ρcz , determined by the width of
the angular spectrum 2θ of the field. Plot the longitudinal
coherence length Lc (z) of the field versus the distance z
from an extended spatially incoherent light source S having
a round shape with diameter D = 5 mm. The source radiates
the light with mean wavelength λ0 ≈ 0.55 µm and frequency
spectral width ∆λ ≈ 0.02 µm. Determine the temporal length
lc and the longitudinal coherence length Lc at distance z =
9.3 mm from the light source.
2θ
D z
S Lc
4.64 Determine the longitudinal coherence length Lc of an optical

field from a spatially incoherent light source in the back
0
focal plane F of a collecting lens L and in the plane of
the real image of the source (S0 ). The source S is located
at distance z1 = 160 mm from the front focal plane F of lens
L and radiates light with mean wavelength λ0 ≈ 0.55 µm and
frequency spectrum width ∆λ ≈ 0.002 µm. The transverse
size of the source is D s = 4 mm, the diameter of the lens
aperture is Da = 40 mm, and the focal length of the lens is
f = 80 mm.
Da
L
F 2θ F′
S S′
Ds z
z1 f f z2
54 Chapter 4
4.5 Interference of partially coherent light

4.65 Show that if the phase difference of two superposed
oscillations ∆φ12 randomly varies in time, then the intensity
I of the resulting oscillation is equal to the sum of intensities
of the original oscillations I1 + I2 , and no interference of
oscillations is observed. Assume that during the sampling
time all values of the phase difference ∆φ12 in the interval
from 0 to 2π radians are equally probable.
4.66 Optical wedge W is formed on the surface of glass plate P.
Determine the number m of interference fringes observed
near the edge of the optical wedge in non-monochromatic
light with spectral width ∆λ = 0.05 µm and mean wavelength
λ0 = 0.6 µm.
W P
P
W
4.67 In the setup for observation of Newton’s rings, the maximal

order m of the observed interference fringe is approximately
4. The fringes of higher order have contrast that practically
equals zero. Determine the length of temporal coherence lc
and the width of the spectral interval ∆λ of the used light if
its central wavelength is λ0 = 0.55 µm.
4.68 Determine maximal thickness d of a thin film of oil with

refractive index n = 1.5 on the surface of a liquid on which
one can observe an interference pattern due to superposition
of the light waves reflected from the surfaces of the film if
the spectral width of the incident radiation is ∆λ = 40 nm
and the mean wavelength is λ0 = 550 nm.
n
d
4.69 A Michelson interferometer makes use of a non-monochro-

matic point source of light with spectral contour width ∆λ =
10 nm and central wavelength λ0 = 600 nm. Evaluate the
total number 2m of periods of variation of the light intensity
at the output of the interferometer, observed under the
longitudinal displacement ∆L of one of the interferometer
mirrors.
M1
M2
S
BS
ΔL
4.70 A Michelson interferometer makes use of a source of

light with spectral contour width ∆λ = 36 nm and central
wavelength λ0 = 600 nm. The optical path difference in the
interferometer is ∆ = 100 µm. Dispersing prism P is installed
in the output arm of the interferometer, and the spectrum of
light I(λ) at the interferometer output is observed. Evaluate
the number of interference oscillations, i.e., the interference
56 Chapter 4
fringes m, arising in the spectrum of the radiation output

from the interferometer.
4.71 A Michelson interferometer makes use of a source of light

with Gaussian spectral contour in the wavelength scale
I0 (λ) = 4 exp[−(λ − 0.6)2 /0.22 ], where the wavelengths are
expressed in micrometers. The interferometer makes use of
a 50% beam splitter and 100% reflecting mirrors placed
at different distances from the beam splitter, so that the
optical path difference between the interfering waves at the
output of the interferometer is ∆ = 5 µm. Write the intensity
distribution function I(λ) in the spectrum of the summary
wave at the output of the interferometer and plot the spectral
dependences I(λ) and 0.5I0 (λ).
4.72 In a Michelson interferometer with point light source S, hav-
ing central wavelength λ0 and width of the spectral contour
∆λ, one of the mirrors (M2 in the figure) harmonically oscil-
lates with amplitude l0 lc , where lc is the length of tem-
poral coherence. The photodetector PD mounted at the out-
put of the interferometer registers interference oscillations
of the light intensity I(z2 ) depending on the position z2 of
the interferometer mirror M2 . These oscillations with total
number m are schematically plotted in the figure. Determine
the approximate value of the coherence length lc and spec-
tral width ∆λ if the period ∆z2 of intensity oscillation I(z2 ) is
∆z2 = 0.3 µm.
M2 2l0
z2 I(z2)
M1 z2
0
PD
BS
S
4.73 In a setup similar to that of Young’s experiment, it was

found that the interference pattern disappears when the
separation between the pinholes P1 and P2 in the opaque
screen becomes equal to d = 0.6 mm. Determine diameter
D of the extended source of light if the distance z0 from the
source to the opaque screen with pinholes is z0 = 80 cm and
the mean wavelength of the source radiation is λ0 ≈ 600 nm.
d P1 x,y y
S
D z x
P2
z0
4.74 In a setup similar to that of Young’s experiment, interference

fringes with the period Λ = 3 mm are observed on a screen
placed at a distance z = 50 cm from a screen with pinholes.
Determine diameter D of the light source at which Young’s
fringes disappear if distance z0 between the light source and
the screen with pinholes is z0 = 60 cm.
4.75 Sunlight is directly incident on an opaque screen with two
narrow parallel slits. At what maximal separation d between
the slits can one observe Young’s interference fringes behind
the screen at a sufficiently large distance from it? The an-
gular diameter of the Sun is θ ≈ 0.01 rad, and the central
wavelength of sunlight is λ0 = 0.55 µm.
4.76 Image S of the Sun is obtained using a focusing lens L with
focal length f = 100 mm at a circular hole in an opaque
screen P1 . The diameter of the hole in screen P1 is equal to
that of the Sun image. At a certain distance z0 behind screen
58 Chapter 4
P1 screen P2 is placed, having two narrow parallel slits sep-

arated by d = 0.8 mm. At what minimal distance z0 between
screen P1 and double-slit screen P2 can one observe Young
interference fringes on screen P3 ? The angular diameter of
the Sun is θ ≈ 0.01 radian, and the central wavelength of
sunlight λ0 = 0.55 µm.
L P1 P2 P3
d
S
f z0
4.77 In a Rayleigh interferometer studying transparent media, a

slit—illuminated by primary extended light source S1 with
central wavelength λ0 = 0.55 µm—is used as a secondary
light source S2 . Determine the maximal width b of slit S2
(sufficient for observation of interference fringes in the im-
0
age of the slit S2 ) if the focal length of the first lens L1 of the
interferometer is f1 = 40 cm and the separation between the
slits is d = 20 mm.
L1 cuvette 1 L1 interference pattern

S1 S2 S2′
ocular
cuvette 2 eye of observer
interference pattern
4.78 The light from an extended light source S with wavelength

λ0 = 0.6 µm is incident on an optical wedge with small angle
α = 10−2 rad and refractive index n = 1.5, and is reflected
from the wedge faces. The incidence can be considered nor-
mal. Determine the period Λ of the interference fringes and
the extension (depth) ∆z of the domain of localization of the
fringes appearing near the wedge if a light source S with di-
ameter D = 6 mm is located at distance z0 = 1 m from
the wedge. Assume that the radius of the transverse spatial
coherence of light is practically constant within the limits ∆z

of the localization domain of the fringes.
Δz
S
D
z0 n
4.79 In a Michelson interferometer with an extended quasi-mono-

chromatic light source S with mean wavelength λ0 = 0.6 µm,
one of the plane mirrors is tilted at a small angle α = 5 ·
10−4 rad. The mirrors are located at equal distances z1 = z2
from the beam splitter BS. The interference fringe pattern is
observed in the plane of mirror images x, y, obtained with
unit magnification β = 1 using a focusing lens L with focal
length f = 80 mm. Determine the period Λ of the interfer-
ence fringes in the plane of the interferometer mirror images
and the extension (depth) ∆z of the domain of localization of
fringes if the diameter of the aperture diaphragm of the lens
is D = 10 mm. Assume that the aperture diaphragm of lens
L serves as a secondary extended light source for the whole
domain where the fringes are localized.
M2
α
z2 x,y y
BS
M1 z
z1 x
Da Δz
L
S
4.80 Determine the angular size θ of the Betelgeuse star (α Orio-

nis) as seen from Earth if, using a stellar Michelson interfer-
ometer, it is found that the radius (length) of the transverse
spatial coherence of the red light (λ0 = 0.66 µm) from this
star is approximately ρc = 3 m.
60 Chapter 4
4.6 Multibeam interferometry: The Fabry–Pérot

interferometer
4.81 Determine the transmission coefficient T of a Fabry–Pérot
interferometer implemented on the base of a plane-parallel
dielectric film with thickness h = 6 µm and refractive index
n = 1.5 for a beam of light with wavelength λ0 = 600 nm in-
cident on the plate at angle α0 = 30 deg if the reflection co-
efficients of the faces of the plates are R = 0.7. Determine the
wavelengths of visible light λm in interval λ = 0.6 ÷ 0.5 µm
for which the transmission coefficient of this interferometer
has the maximal value at normal incidence of the light beam
on the plate, α0 = 0 deg.
R R
α0
n f
h
4.82 Plot the transmission coefficient T (λ) versus the wavelength

for a Fabry–Pérot interferometer implemented on the base
of a dielectric film with thickness h = 2 µm, refractive
index n = 1.8, and reflection coefficient of the surfaces
R = 0.04, R = 0.4, and R = 0.8, in the range of wavelengths
λ1 = 0.4 µm and λ2 = 0.7 µm.
4.83 Determine the change of the thickness ∆h of the air gap be-
tween the Fabry–Pérot interferometer mirrors if, in the center
of the interference pattern at the output of the interferometer,
one can observe five cycles of variation of the intensity from
maximum to the next maximum. The wavelength of the ra-
diation used is λ0 = 600 nm.
h L I(h)
f Δh h
4.84 Determine the radius Rm of the interference ring with the in-
terference order m = 48 and wavelength λ = 600 nm in the
interference pattern observed in the Fabry–Pérot interferom-
eter if the focal length of the focusing lens is f = 100 mm
and the thickness of the air gap between the mirrors of the
interferometer is h = 16 µm.
4.85 In a scanning Fabry–Pérot interferometer, the thickness of

the air gap between the mirrors is varied, and a change in
the diameters of the ring interference fringes is observed at
the output of the interferometer in the back focal plane of the
focusing lens. Plot the transmission coefficient T (h) of the
interferometer in the normal direction (along the optical axis
of the lens) versus the thickness h of the air gap between the
plates for the radiation with two wave components of equal
intensity with wavelengths λ1 = 560 nm and λ2 = 561 nm
in the range of the air gap thickness values h1 = 20 µm and
h2 = 21 µm. The reflection coefficient of the interferometer
mirrors is R = 0.8.
Chapter 5
Diffraction of Light
5.1 Fresnel zone theory of diffraction
5.1 An opaque screen with a circular aperture of D = 2 mm is

placed at a distance a = 1 m from a point light source S
with wavelength λ0 = 550 nm. Determine the number m of
Fresnel zones within the limits of the aperture for observa-
tion point P, located on optical axis z at a distance b = 1.5 m
from the screen R at the opposite side.
5.2 Determine the number m of Fresnel zones that fit into the
circular aperture in an opaque screen for point P (see the fig-
ure), in which a minimum of intensity I(z) is observed in the
diffraction pattern on optical axis z.
63
64 Chapter 5
5.3 A plane wave with wavelength λ0 = 630 nm is incident

on an opaque screen with a circular aperture of diameter
D = 4 mm. Determine the separation ∆z between the min-
ima (dark spots) on the optical axis, for which 6 and 8 Fresnel
zones fit into the aperture in the screen.
5.4 A collimated laser beam of monochromatic light with wave-

length λ0 = 0.63 µm is normally incident on an opaque
screen with a circular aperture of diameter D = 2 mm. At
a distance b ≈ 198.4 mm behind the screen on the axis of
the aperture, a dark diffraction spot is observed. What is the
minimal shift ∆b of the observation point along the axis of
the aperture that replaces the dark spot in the center of the
diffraction pattern with a bright spot?
5.5 Determine width ∆r of the second Fresnel zone at plane x, y,
separated by distance a = 1.5 m from light source S, for
observation point P located on the optical axis at distance
b = 1 m from the plane x, y. The wavelength of the light is
λ0 = 600 nm.
5.6 Fresnel zones are constructed on the surface of the concave

wavefront of a spherical wave surface that has radius a and
that converges into point S. The distance from the wavefront
surface of the wave to the point of observation P equals b.
Derive the expression for the radius rm of the edge of the
m’th Fresnel zone.
Diffraction of Light 65
5.7 Derive a formula for calculating the radii rm of the bound-

aries between the zones on a Fresnel zone plate with focal
length f = 2 m for the monochromatic light of a laser diode
with wavelength λ0 = 0.65 µm. Using the derived formula
and computer graphics, create a tenfold-magnified image of
the Fresnel zone plate with opaque even zones and transpar-
ent odd zones, providing the above-mentioned focal length f .
5.8 Determine the radius of boundary r4 and width ∆r34 of the
fourth zone in a Fresnel zone plate with focal length f =
80 cm for light with wavelength λ0 = 0.56 µm.
5.9 A Fresnel phase zone plate is made of a plane-parallel glass
plate with refractive index n by cutting grooves with depth
h at even Fresnel zones. A magnified fragment of the central
part of such a plate is shown in the figure. Derive the formula
for calculating groove depth h if the Fresnel plane is to oper-
ate at wavelength λ0 in an environment with refractive index
n0 .
5.10 Show that when recording on a photosensitive plate P the

ring interference fringes (Newton’s rings) that arise due to
the interference of coaxial plane and spherical waves, one
66 Chapter 5
obtains a Fresnel zone plate with focal length f , equal to the

radius of curvature R of the spherical wave in the plane of
the photosensitive plate.
5.11 The image of a point light source S is obtained using a Fres-

nel zone plate placed at a distance a = 1 m from the source.
0
The image of source S1 appears at a distance b = 2.5 m from
the plate surface. Determine the distance f between the plate
0
and the image S2 if the source S is moved to infinity.
5.12 Determine the focal length f of a Fresnel zone plate for light
with wavelength λ0 = 0.55 µm if the radius of the boundary
of the third ring of the plate is 1.6 mm. Determine the radius
of the boundary of the first zone of this plate.
5.13 Determine light intensity I in the focus of the Fresnel zone
plate with all zones shut except the first one. Without the
plate, the intensity is I0 . Ignore the losses caused by reflec-
tion from the faces of the plate.
5.14 Using the phasor diagram method, determine intensity I in
the center of the diffraction pattern from a circular opaque
screen (in the Poisson spot) that removes the whole first Fres-
nel zone if in the absence of the screen, the intensity at the
same point is I0 .
5.2 Far-field (Fraunhofer) diffraction

5.15 A collimated laser beam of light with wavelength λ0 = 0.532
µm is normally incident on an opaque screen S with a slit
having a width of b = 0.08 mm. A focusing lens L with focal
length f = 100 mm is placed behind the screen. Plot the dis-
tribution of the normalized intensity I(x, y)/I0 (I0 being the
maximal intensity) in the diffraction pattern observed in the
back focal plane of the lens in the direction x, perpendicular
to the slit in the screen. Determine the positions xm of the
intensity minima of the order m = ±1, ±2, ±3 in the back
focal plane of the lens, assuming that xm f .
5.16 In the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern (in the far diffraction

field) of a laser beam with λ0 = 0.63 µm on a rectangu-
lar aperture with dimensions a and b along axes x and y,
respectively, the intensity minima in the plane x, z are ob-
served in the directions determined by angles α ≈ 2 arcmin;
4 arcmin; 6 arcmin; . . . and in the y, z plane by angles β ≈
4 arcmin; 8 arcmin; 12 arcmin; . . .. Evaluate the aperture di-
mensions a and b.
5.17 The aperture diaphragm of a diffraction-limited objective
(aberration-free) has the shape of a square with side length
a. A monochromatic point source S with wavelength λ0
is located on the optical axis of the objective. Derive the
expression for the light intensity distribution I(x, y) that
appears due to the diffraction on the edges of the aperture
diaphragm in plane x, y, perpendicular to the optical axis and
passing through the focus F of the geometric convergence of
rays, located at distance z from the diaphragm. Assume that
the value of intensity in focus F is I(x = 0, y = 0) = I0 and
a z.
68 Chapter 5
5.18 A laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm is incident

on a screen with two narrow parallel slits having similar
width b = 0.1 mm and separated by distance d = 0.4 mm
from each other. The far-field diffraction and interference
pattern, produced by the waves coming from the slits, is
observed in the back focal plane x, y of the objective with
focal length f = 150 mm. Plot the intensity distribution I(x)
in the diffraction pattern along direction x, perpendicular to
the slits. Determine the separation ∆x between the adjacent
minima of the interference pattern. Assume the value of
intensity in focus F is I(x = 0, y = 0) = I0 and d f .
5.19 A laser parallel beam with wavelength λ0 = 633 nm is

incident on a screen S with a circular aperture with diameter
D = 1 mm. The diffraction pattern from the aperture is
observed in plane x, y at a large distance z = 10 m from the
screen with the aperture. Using the Fraunhofer diffraction
integral and computer software, numerically calculate the
spatial distribution of the complex amplitude of the
diffraction field U(x, y) in observation plane x, y. Using
computer graphics, plot in grayscale (or use the brightness
scale of one color, corresponding to the wavelength of light)
the diffraction pattern of the normalized intensity I(x, y)/I0 =
|U(x, y)|2 /I0 , where I0 is the maximal intensity.
5.20 The pattern of diffraction of a laser collimated beam

with wavelength λ0 = 0.532 µm on a circular aperture
with diameter D = 5 mm is observed in the back focal
plane x, y of an aberration-corrected objective with focal
length f = 100 mm. Using computer graphics, plot intensity
distribution I(x) in the diffraction pattern and obtain the
grayscale image of diffraction pattern I(x, y). Determine
diameter d of the central spot in the pattern.
5.21 A laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm is incident on a
thin wire with diameter d = 0.3 mm, and the far-field diffrac-
tion pattern is observed in plane x, y at distance z = 5 m from
the wire. Determine the separation ∆xm between the inten-
sity minima of −3 and +3 orders in the far-field diffraction
pattern.
5.3 Diffraction divergence of optical beams:

diffraction limit of resolution in optical
systems
5.22 Determine the diffraction divergence angle α of a light beam
with wavelength λ0 = 600 nm passed through a circular
aperture with diameter D = 0.06 mm in an opaque screen.
5.23 A collimated laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.65 µm is

passed through a circular aperture with diameter D = 2 mm
in an opaque screen. Determine the diameter dz of the laser
70 Chapter 5
beam passed through the aperture at distance z = 5 m from

the screen.
5.24 Estimate angle α of the diffraction divergence for a laser

beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm if, at the exit mirror
of the laser cavity, the diameter of the beam is D = 1 mm.
Determine the diameter dz of the laser beam at distance
z = 100 m from the laser.
5.25 The exit face of the waveguide strip of a semiconductor laser
has a rectangular shape with dimensions a = 3 µm and
b = 8 µm. Determine the maximal α x and the minimal αy
divergence angles of the laser beam in the corresponding
directions x and y if the wavelength of the laser radiation
is λ0 = 0.65 µm.
5.26 An opaque screen with a circular aperture of diameter D =

15 mm is placed in a converging laser beam with wavelength
λ0 = 0.6328 µm. Estimate the diameter d of the laser beam
spot in the beam focus if the screen is placed at distance
z = 75 mm from focus F.
5.27 A perfectly aberration-corrected (diffraction-limited) optical

system with exit pupil diameter D = 10 mm is used to
focus a parallel laser beam. Determine diameter d of the
laser beam spot in the focal plane of the optical system if the
laser radiation wavelength is λ0 = 0.63 µm and the distance
between the pupil and the back focal plane is f = 25 mm.
5.28 A collimated laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm

is transformed by an optical system consisting of two
aberration-free objectives L1 and L2 . Determine the diam-
eter d of the laser beam focused by objective L2 if the di-
ameter of its exit pupil is D2 = 10 mm and the focus length
is f2 = 50 mm. The distance between the back focus of ob-
jective L1 and objective L2 is z2 = 150 mm. The laser beam
uniformly fills the entire aperture of objective L2 .
5.29 A diffraction-limited optical system of image formation in-

cludes an aperture diaphragm with diameter D = 30 mm,
0
coinciding with the back principal plane H of the system.
Evaluate the resolution R (in lines/mm) of this optical sys-
tem in the paraxial domain for the surface of an object P,
placed at distance z0 = 20 cm from the front principal plane
H of the optical system. The illuminating source of light S
has a mean wavelength of λ0 = 0.55 µm.
72 Chapter 5
5.30 A telescopic optical system (collimator) that increases the di-

ameter of a laser beam and reduces its diffraction divergence
comprises two aberration-free objectives L1 and L2 with fo-
cal lengths f1 < f2 and superposed focal planes. Determine
the angle of diffractive divergence α of the collimated laser
beam emerging from objective L2 if the diameter of its aper-
ture is D2 = 100 mm and a laser beam with wavelength
λ0 ≈ 0.85 µm almost uniformly fills the entire aperture of
this objective.
5.31 The diameter of the parabolic mirror of a telescope is D =

10 m. Determine the angular resolution ∆α of the telescope
at wavelength λ0 = 0.55 µm. What should the minimal length
of a segment b on the Moon be to distinguish between its
telescopic image on Earth and the image of a point? Accept
that the distance to the Moon is 384,400 km. What should
the minimal separation ∆x between two objects on the Mars
surface be to produce two distinct images in the telescope?
Assume that Mars is observed at the time of favorable oppo-
sition, when the distance from Earth is minimal and equals
z = 5.6106 × 107 km.
5.32 The pupil diameter of a human eye at moderate illuminance
is 4 mm, and the separation between the lens and the retina
of the eye z ≈ 24 mm. Determine the linear (∆x) and angu-
lar (∆α) resolution of the eye for green light (λ0 = 550 nm),
ignoring the aberrations of the lens and the eye cornea. As-
sume that the refractive index of the vitreous body of the
eye is n = 1.336. Determine the minimal separation ∆x0 be-
tween the bars drawn on a sheet of paper placed at a distance
z0 = 30 cm from the eye.
x0 x
z0 z
5.33 Microscope objective L has a numerical aperture NA =

n sin α = 0.2, where n is the refractive index of the medium
between object A and the first lens of the microscope objec-
tive, and α is the aperture angle of the microscope, i.e., the
angle between the optical axis of the microscope objective
and the extreme ray entering the aperture of microscope ob-
jective L. Determine the resolution of the microscope ∆x for
object A in green light (λ0 = 0.55 µm).
5.34 Determine the linear resolution ∆x of a special aberration-

free photographic objective producing the image of a distant
object in green light if the maximal relative aperture of the
objective is Da / f = 1/2, where Da is the diameter of the
aperture diaphragm of the objective and f is the focal length.
5.4 Diffraction gratings

5.35 Derive a formula for the angular distribution of the intensity
of light I(α) with wavelength λ0 arising due to Fraunhofer
diffraction (far-field diffraction) from an amplitude grating
with N slits of width b arranged with period d, provided
that the rays of light are normally incident on the grating.
Plot the function I(sin α) and, using graphical representation
of function I(sin α), investigate the effect of the grating
74 Chapter 5
parameters N, d, and b on the spatial intensity distribution,

I(sin α).
5.36 A collimated beam of light with wavelength λ0 = 596 nm is

normally incident on a diffraction grating DG with the period
of grooves d = 3 µm. The diffraction pattern is observed
in the back focal plane of a focusing lens with the focal
length f = 100 mm. Determine the separation ∆x between
the principal maxima of the diffraction pattern.
5.37 A collimated laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm is

incident at angle α0 = 30 deg on a diffraction grating with
the period of grooves d = 1.5 µm. Determine the angle β
formed by the second diffraction order with the normal to
the grating.
5.38 A collimated laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.65 µm

is incident at angle α0 = 15 deg on the diffraction grating
DG with the period of grooves d = 2 µm. Determine the
angles β+1 and β−1 formed by the diffracted beams of light,

corresponding to the diffraction orders +1 and −1, and the
normal to the grating.
5.39 Find the condition of zero intensity of the third principal

maxima (m ± 3) of diffraction by an amplitude diffraction
grating with period d and slit width b.
5.40 A diffraction grating has period d = 10 µm and slit width
b = 2 µm. Determine the number of principal maxima
2m + 1 in the far-field diffraction patterns observed within
the principal maximum of diffraction by a single slit.
5.41 A diffraction grating is manufactured by recording the in-
terference pattern of two collimated laser beams with wave-
length λ0 ≈ 0.63 µm meeting at an angle θ = 30 deg on
a high-resolution photographic plate P placed perpendicu-
larly to the bisector of the angle θ. The resulting diffraction
grating is then illuminated with a laser beam with the same
wavelength λ ≈ 0.63 µm. Determine the angle of laser beam
diffraction α of the first order (m = ±1).
5.42 A laser collimated beam of light, the spectrum of which

contains two lines with wavelengths λ1 = 0.55 µm and
λ2 = 0.56 µm, is normally incident on the diffraction grat-
ing with the period of grooves 2 µm. The diffraction pattern
is observed in the back focal plane of a lens with focus length
76 Chapter 5
f = 300 mm. Determine the separation ∆x between the prin-

cipal maxima of diffraction of the second order, m = 2, with
wavelengths λ1 and λ2 .
5.43 What linear separation ∆l between the components of the
yellow doublet of sodium (λ1 = 589.0 nm, λ2 = 589.6 nm)
will be measured by means of a matrix photoelectric detec-
tor (CCD array) in a spectrograph using a diffraction grating
with 1000 grooves/mm and a focusing objective with focus
length f = 500 mm? The spectral lines are observed in the
first diffraction order.
5.44 Determine the total number N of diffraction grating grooves
providing the resolution of components of the sodium dou-
blet (λ1 = 589.0 nm, λ2 = 589.6 nm) in the first diffraction
order.
5.45 Determine the resolution R of a grating with period d =
0.5 µm and total width 2.5 cm in the second diffraction order,
m = 2.
5.46 A light beam with wavelength λ = 532 µm is incident at the
angle α0 on a profiled reflective grating with the groove pe-
riod d = 1 µm. Determine the value of angle α0 at which the
first-order diffracted beam (m = 1) propagates perpendicu-
larly to the grating plane.
5.47 Determine wavelength λ1 of the third-order diffracted light

(m1 = 3) from a grating that coincides with the fourth-
order diffracted light (m2 = 4) having a wavelength of λ2 =
0.5 µm.
5.48 Determine the possibility of overlap between the first- and
second-order diffraction spectra under the illumination of a
grating having an arbitrary period d with a beam of visible

light having spectral width 0.4–0.7 µm.
5.49 Determine the maximal diffraction order m for light with
wavelength λ diffracted by a grating with period d. Deter-
mine the minimal period d of the grating providing the max-
imal possible angle of the first-order diffraction (m = 1) for
light with wavelength λ.
5.50 Determine the angular dispersion Dα = ∆α/∆λ [grad/nm]
in the first-order spectrum (m = 1) of diffraction by a grat-
ing with 1200 grooves per 1 mm, for the D-line average of
sodium vapor radiation with wavelength λ = 589 nm. Deter-
mine the linear dispersion DL = ∆l/∆λ [mm/nm] of a spec-
trograph with such a grating using an objective L2 with focal
length f2 = 40 cm.
5.51 A beam of sodium D-line average emission light with

λ = 589 nm is normally incident on a plane reflecting diffrac-
tion grating. Determine grating period d if the second-order
diffraction spectrum is observed at an angle 28 deg to the
normal.
5.5 Light diffraction by volume gratings:

diffraction by acoustic waves
5.52 A crystal lattice may be considered as periodically arranged
atom layers. If a collimated beam of x-ray radiation is
incident on the crystal at a certain angle θ to the atom layers,
one can observe the interference enhancement of waves
reflected from the adjacent layers at the same angle θ. Derive
78 Chapter 5
the equation—involving the angle θ, the wavelength λ0 of

the x-ray radiation, and the period Λ of atom layers—that
determines the condition of phase matching and interference
enhancement of the waves reflected from the atom layers.
5.53 A volume diffraction grating in a transparent layer with

thickness h is a periodic structure with refractive index
n(x) = n0 + ∆n cos(2πx/Λ), varying periodically along the
coordinate x and independent of y and z. In the figure, the
maxima of the refractive index are shown by a sequence
of horizontal lines with period Λ. A collimated light beam
with wavelength λ0 is incident on the grating at angle θ0 .
It is refracted at the boundary of the layer, then incident at
angle θ on the surfaces of maximal refractive index n and
partially refracted from each surface. Derive the equations
for Λ, θ, λ and Λ, θ0 , λ0 , determining the condition of phase
matching of all reflected waves and, therefore, the condition
of diffracted light beam formation.
5.54 A pattern of interference of two laser plane waves with

wavelength λ1 = 0.633 µm meeting at angle 2θ1 = 45 deg
is recorded using a photographic plate with a photosensitive
layer of thickness h = 10 µm and refractive index n = 1.4.

The photographic plate is perpendicular to the bisector of
angle 2θ1 . After light exposure, the plate is subjected to
such photochemical procedures (development, fixing, and
bleaching) that in the regions of maximal light intensity
(light interference fringes), the refractive index of the
photosensitive layer is increased. Thus, a volume phase
diffraction grating is obtained with sinusoidal variation of the
refractive index in the layer, characterized by the period Λ
h. At what angle θ2 should a laser beam with wavelength
λ2 = 0.532 µm be directed at such a volume diffraction
grating to observe the laser beam diffracted by the grating?
5.55 A longitudinal acoustic wave is excited at frequency fa = 40

MHz in a crystal of lithium niobate (LiNbO3 ) by means of a
piezoelectric transducer supplied with alternating voltage U s
with frequency f s = fa . Determine the angle of incidence θ
of a laser beam with λ0 = 0.63 µm on the crystal surface that
satisfies the Bragg condition and provides observation of the
laser beam, diffracted by the acoustic wave in the crystal. The
propagation velocity va of the acoustic wave in the LiNbO3
crystal is va = 6550 m/s.
5.56 Determine frequency f s of an alternating electric signal

applied to the piezoelectric transducer of an acousto-optical
cell if the laser beam diffracted by the acoustic wave in the
80 Chapter 5
cell is observed propagating at an angle α = 6 deg with

respect to the direction of the laser beam incident on the cell.
The velocity of the sound propagation in the cell crystal is
va = 5960 m/s (silica, SiO2 ). The laser beam wavelength is
λ0 = 0.6328 µm.
5.57 An alternating electric voltage U s with frequency f s = 500

MHz is applied to the piezoelectric transducer of an acousto-
optical cell and excites a standing acoustic wave as a result of
interference (superposition) of the direct traveling acoustic
wave and the backward-traveling wave, reflected from the
opposite face of the crystal. A laser beam with wavelength
λ0 = 0.532 µm is incident on the cell at the Bragg angle
θ, and the diffracted laser beam is observed. Determine
the incidence and diffraction angle θ and the frequency f
of intensity modulation of the diffracted laser beam if the
velocity of the acoustic wave in the crystal of the cell is
va = 616 m/s (paratellurite crystal, TeO2 ).
Chapter 6
Optics of Moving Media
6.1 Doppler effect
6.1 A red shift by ∆λ = 0.0001 µm of the hydrogen spectral
line at λ0 = 0.6565 µm in the radiation spectrum of a star is
measured using a spectrograph located on Earth. Determine
the velocity v of the star moving away from Earth.
6.2 A light source S moves with velocity |~v| = 30 km/s in a
direction, forming an angle θ = 45 deg with the direction
pointing at the photodetector PD. Determine the shift of the
wavelength ∆λ of light received by the light detector with
respect to the wavelength λ0 = 0.6 µm of the light from
motionless source S.
S θ PD
6.3 The light source S moves with velocity ~v s in a direction

forming angle α s with the direction pointing at photodetector
PD, which moves at angle α p with respect to the same
direction and has velocity ~v p . Determine frequency ν and
wavelength λ of the light received by photodetector PD if
the wavelength of light emitted by the motionless source
(in its own reference frame) is λ0 . The velocities of the
source and the detector are small compared to the velocity of
light.
81
82 Chapter 6
vs αp
αs vp
S PD
6.4 A light-scattering particle S moves with velocity |~v| = 15

mm/s in a direction, forming angle α = 45 deg with the
direction of the incident laser beam having wavelength λ0 =
0.6328 µm. Considering the moving particle, first, as a
receiver of the incident light and, second, as a moving source
of secondary radiation, determine the frequency ν of the
light scattered by the particle and detected by a motionless
photodetector in the direction forming angle β = 30 deg with
the direction of the incident laser beam.
v
S
PD
6.5 A particle moves with velocity ~v in the domain of superpo-

sition of two mutually coherent plane waves. Owing to the
Doppler effect, the waves—scattered by the particle—have
frequencies ω1 and ω2 , different from the frequency ω0 of
the plane waves incident on it. Considering the moving par-
ticle, first, as a receiver of the incident light and, second, as
a moving source of secondary radiation, determine the fre-
quency f s of the signal on photodetector PD produced by the
interference of the waves scattered by the particle, depend-
ing on the propagation directions N ~ 1 and N
~ 2 of the waves, the
magnitude and the direction of velocity ~v of the particle, and
the wavelength λ0 of the plane waves incident on the particle.
The particle velocity |~v| is small compared to the velocity of
light c.
Optics of Moving Media 83
N1
ω v
0
ω1 ω
2
ω PD
0
N2
6.6 A laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.633 µm is diffracted

by a phase diffraction grating DG moving with velocity ~v
in its own plane perpendicularly to its grooves. Determine
the wavelength of laser beams λ(+2) and λ(−2) diffracted in
the orders +2 and −2, respectively, if the grating period is
d = 2 µm, the grating motion velocity is |~v| = 6 mm/s, and
the laser beam is normally incident on the grating. Consider
the grating as a secondary source of diffracted waves.
+2
v
+1
λ0
DG -1
-2
6.7 In an interferometer with a diffraction grating DG used as an

amplitude beam splitter, the first- and zero-order diffraction
order beams are superposed using mirrors M1 and M2 and
beam splitter (half-mirror) BS. The motion of the diffrac-
tion grating in its own plane with velocity ~v1 perpendicular
to the grooves affects the frequency shift of the diffracted
light beam owing to the Doppler effect, and the photodetec-
tor records a variable interference signal ũ p (t). Determine the
frequency of photodetector signal f1 if the period of the grat-
ing is d and the wavelength of the light, incident on the grat-
ing, is λ0 . Determine the frequency of photodetector signal
f2 if mirror M2 moves with velocity ~v2 along the direction of
propagation of the light, incident on it. Assume the veloci-
84 Chapter 6
ties of the grating and the mirror to be much smaller than the
velocity of light.
M1
v1
BS M2
v2
DG
PD
u~P (t)
6.8 A collimated beam of light with wavelength λ0 = 0.532 µm

is diffracted by an acoustic wave traveling with velocity v =
1480 m/s in water and having the frequency fa = 10 MHz.
Determine the Doppler shift ∆λ of the wavelength of light in
the diffraction orders +1 and −1. The light beam is incident
perpendicularly to the direction of the acoustic wave propa-
gation. The acoustic wave may be considered as a secondary
source of diffracted light beams.
+1
v
−1
~ fa
U PET
6.9 A laser beam with wavelength λ0 = 0.63 µm is diffracted

by a traveling acoustic wave propagating in quartz with ve-
locity va = 5960 m/s. The alternating voltage Ũ applied to
the piezoelectric transducer exciting the acoustic wave has
frequency f = 40 MHz. Determine the frequency shift ∆ν
due to the Doppler effect in the diffracted laser beam if the
Bragg condition for the travelling acoustic wave is satisfied.
Consider the travelling acoustic wave, first, as a detector of
light and, second, as a moving secondary source of light.
U
~
f PET
6.10 In a Michelson interferometer with a light source S having

wavelength λ0 = 0.6 µm, one mirror moves with velocity
v = 5 mm/s along the optical axis of the interferometer. De-
termine the Doppler shift ∆λ of the wavelength of light re-
flected from the moving mirror, and the frequency f of the
varying signal ũ p (t) of the photodetector PD installed in the
output arm of the interferometer and registering the signal
of interference of the light waves reflected by the fixed (M1 )
and moving (M2 ) mirrors of the interferometer.
6.11 In a Michelson interferometer with a light source S having

wavelength λ0 , one mirror oscillates harmonically with fre-
quency f0 and amplitude l0 . Derive the expression for the
Doppler change of the wavelength λ(t) of light reflected from
this mirror and the expression for the change of the signal
frequency f (t) of the photodetector installed in the output
arm of the interferometer and registering the signal produced
by the interference of the light waves reflected from the fixed
(M1 ) and the moving (M2 ) mirrors of the interferometer.
6.2 Sagnac interferometer

6.12 In a Sagnac interferometer placed on a rotating platform, the
light beam from source S with wavelength λ0 is split by beam
splitter BS into two beams that, by means of three mirrors
(M1 , M2 , and M3 ), are made to propagate in the opposite
86 Chapter 6
directions along the perimeter of the square with length of

side L. Determine the phase shift ∆φ arising between the
interfering waves at the output of the interferometer, owing
to the rotation of the platform with angular velocity Ω.
PD
M1
S BS Ω
M3 M2
6.13 A fiber optic gyroscope (fiber optic Sagnac interferometer)

is mounted on a rotating platform. Light with wavelength
λ0 from source S is introduced into an optical fiber with
refractive index n, split by coupler BS into two waves that
propagate in opposite directions along a fiber with length L
laid in N rings, returned to the coupler BS, and is superposed
in the output fiber branch and then on the photodetector
PD used to detect the signal uP (t) of interference of these
two waves. Determine the period of interference signal
T when the platform is rotating with uniformly variable
angular velocity Ω(t), with constant angular acceleration
η = dΩ/dt = const.
S BS
Ω(t)
PD
uP(t)
6.14 An optical gyroscope is implemented as a fiber-ring Sagnac

interferometer with the fiber-ring diameter D = 100 mm, the
total length of the fiber L = 1200 m, and the refractive index
n = 1.68. Determine the additional phase shift ∆φ arising
between the interfering waves at the interferometer output
because of its rotation with angular velocity Ω = 10 deg /s.
A light-emitting diode with wavelength λ0 = 0.85 µm is used

as a light source in the interferometer.
6.15 A fiber optic gyroscope is installed on a platform rotat-
ing with constant angular acceleration dΩ/dt = 5 deg /s2 .
Determine the frequency f of the interference signal of the
gyroscope if an optical fiber with length L = 1000 m and re-
fraction index n = 1.8 is stacked into rings 20 cm in diameter
and the wavelength of the source of light is λ = 1.3 µm.
Answers
1 Electromagnetic Waves in the Optical Range
waves
1.1 v = 2 · 108 m/s; λ = 400 nm
1.2 ∆v ≈ 0.256 · 108 m/s, λ2 /λ1 ≈ 1.13
1.3 v ≈ 1.897 · 108 m/s
E(z, t) = E0 cos(ωt − kz) ⇒ ∂ ∂E(z,t) 1 ∂ 2 E(z,t)
2
ω2
1.4 2z = v2 ∂ 2 t
→ k2 = v2
↔
v = ωk
1.5 E(z, t) = E0 exp i(ωt − kz) ⇒ ∂ ∂E(z,t) − v12 ∂ E(z,t)
2 2
2z ∂2t
= 0 → k2
2
= ωv2
~ t) = E~ 0 exp i(ωt −~k~r) and H(z,
1.6 E(z, ~ t) = H ~ 0 exp i(ωt −~k~r +ϕ0 )
~ ~
~ t) =
⇒ rot H(z, ∂ D(z,t)
∂t
~ t) = − ∂ B(z,t)
and rot E(z, ∂t → −i~k × H~ =
~ −i~k × E~ = −iωµ0 µH
iωε0 εE, ~ → E⊥~ H⊥ ~ ~k
1.7 v = 2 · 108 m/s; n = 1.5
1.8 ∆φ12 = 2π(z2 − z1 )/λ
1.9 ∆φ = 2π∆znν/c
1.10 ∆φ ≈ 11666.67π
1.11 ∆φ12 = 2π(d1 − d2 )(n − n0 )/λ0
1.12 φ(x) = 2πx sin(π/2 − α)/λ + π/2, ∆φ12 = 2π∆x12 cos(α)/λ
1.13 φ1 (x) = 2πn1 x sin(α0 )/λ0 , φ2 (x) = 2πn2 x sin(α2 )/λ0
1.14 ∆φ12 = (2π/λ)[cos(α)(x1 − x2 ) + cos(β)(y1 − y2 )]
1.15 v x = 6 · 108 m/s
1.16 φ(x, y) ≈ π + (2π/λ)z0 − (2π/λ)(x2 + y2 )/2z0
89
90 Answers
1.17 φ(x, y) ≈ π + (2π/λ)(x2 + y2 )/2z0

1 −1
h i
λ0 nd − λ0 f (x + y ), f ≈ (n − 1) R1 + R2
1.18 φ(x0 , y0 ) ≈ 2π π 02 02 1
1.19 Λ x = λ/ cos α, Λy = λ/ cos β, Λz = λ/ cos γ; f x = cos α/λ,

fy = cos β/λ, fz = cos γ/λ
1.20 fz = ω cos(γ)/2πC
1.2 Spectral properties of electromagnetic waves

1.21 lc = 36 µm, τc = 12 · 10−14 s
1.22 τc ≈ 10−13 s, lc = 20 µm
1.23 m1 ≈ 33, m2 ≈ 15750
1.24 ≈ 14 times
1.25 ∆λ ≈ 12 nm, ∆ν ≈ 1013 Hz
1.26 lc ≈ 36 µm
1.27 I(ν) ∼ E02 τ2c sin2 (π(ν − ν0 )τc )/(π(ν − ν0 )τc )2 , ∆ν ≈ 1/τc
2 2 , ∆ν = 1/πτc
1
1.28 I(ν) ∼ E02 τ2c 1+4π2 (ν−ν
0 ) τc √
1.29 I(ν) ∼ E0 πτc exp[−π τc (ν − ν 0 )2 ], ∆ν = 2 ln 2/πτc
2 2 2 2

sin2 [π(ν−ν0 )τc ] m2 sin2 [π(ν−ν0 − f0 )τc ] sin2 [π(ν−ν0 + f0 )τc ]
1.30 I(ν) ∼ E02 τ2c [π(ν−ν0 )τc ]2
+ 4 [π(ν−ν0 − f0 )τc ]2
+ [π(ν−ν0 + f0 )τc ]2
1.3 Polarization of electromagnetic waves

1.31 E x = E0x cos(ωt − kz + ϕ x ), Ey = E0y cos(ωt − kz + ϕy ); if we
eliminate from these equations variable phase (ωt − kz), it is
2 E 2
possible to obtain the equation of an ellipse EE0xx + E0yy
E
− 2 EE0xx E0yy cos ∆ϕ xy = sin2 ∆ϕ xy
E~ R (t, z) = E~ 0x cos ωt − kz + π2 + E~ 0y cos(ωt − kz), E~ L (t, z) =

1.32
E~ 0x cos ωt − kz − π2 + E~ 0y cos(ωt−kz) → E~ R (t, z)+ E~ L (t, z) =

2E~ 0y cos(ωt − kz) = E(t, ~ z)

1.33 (a) ∆φ xy = mπ, m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., E0x /E0y is arbitrary;
(b) ∆φ xy = (2m + 1)π/2, m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . E0x /E0y = 1
1.34 Λ = 1.2 µm
1.35 The polarization of oscillations is time-dependent, taking all
states from linear to circular at E0x = E0y with the period
T = 2π/(ω0x − ω0y ).
1.36 Random, chaotically varying polarization, i.e., natural light.
Answers 91
1.4 Energy, power, and intensity of light

1.37 ν = 4 · 1014 Hz, λ = 0.5 · 10 m, v = 2 · 10 m/s, |S~ | =
−6 8
ε0 n v20 cos 2π · 4 · 10 · t − 5·10−7 · z + π/2 [W/m2 ], I =

2 2 2 14 2π
0.5ε0 n2 v202 [W/m2 ]

1.38 I ≈ 319 [W/m2 ], P ≈ 6.3 [mW]
1.39 I0 ≈ 637 [W/m2 ], E0 ≈ 600 [V/m]
1.40 I(x, y) = 0.5ε0 cnE02 exp −2 (x w+y2 ) [V/m], P = 0.5ε0 cnE02 π
2 2
0
w20
2 ≈ 4.7 [mW]
1.5 Standing electromagnetic waves

1.41 Λ = 0.226 µm
1.42 Λ x ≈ 16 µm
1.43 m = 36
1.44 Λ ≈ 0.239 µm
1.45 Λ ≈ 0.234 µm
1.46 λ1 = 650 nm, λ2 = 550 nm, λ3 = 400 nm; red, green, blue.
92 Answers
2 Reflection and Refraction of Light

2.1 Fresnel formulae
2.1 ρ p (α0 ) = − nn22 cos α0 −n1 cos α2
and ρ s (α0 ) = nn11 cos
cos α0 −n2 cos α2
α0 +n2 cos α2 , where
q cosα0 +n 1 cos α2
2
cos α2 = 1 − nn21 sin2 α0
2.2 α0 ≈ 54.16 deg; orthogonal to the incidence plane.
2.3 tg(α0 ) = n2 /n1 ; linearly polarized in the incident plane.
2.4 The major semiaxis of the ellipse is parallel to the incidence
plane, and the ratio of the semiaxes of the polarization ellipse
is equal to the ratio of the amplitude reflection coefficients
for the waves polarized parallel and perpendicular to the
incidence plane.
2.5 θ1 ≈ 73.1 deg, θ2 ≈ 43.7 deg
2.6 θ1 = 90 deg, θ2 ≈ 59.1 deg
2.7 ε1 ≈ 3.3; the major semiaxis is perpendicular to the incident
plane.
2.8 α01 = arctan(n2 /n1 ), α02 = 90 deg
2.2 Energy reflection and transmission coefficients

2.9 R p = (ρ p )2 , T p = (τ p )2 nn12 cos α0 ; R = (ρ ) , T = (τ ) n1 cos α0 ;
cos α2 s s 2 s s 2 n2 cos α2
p s p s
ρ , ρ and τ , τ are amplitude reflection and transmission
coefficients, α2 is refraction angle.
2.10 (a) R(θ0 ) = R p cos2 θ0 + R s sin2 θ0 , T (θ0 ) = 1 − R(θ0 );
(b) R = 0.5(R p + R s ), T = 1 − R;
(c) R = 0.5(R p + R s ), T = 1 − R.
R p and R s are energy refraction coefficients for the light, lin-
early polarized in the plane of incidence and perpendicularly
to the plane of incidence (see the previous problem).
2.11 R p + T p = (ρ p )2 + (τ p )2 nn12 cos α0 = 1;
cos α2
R + T = (ρ ) + (τ ) n1 cos α0 = 1;
s s s 2 n
s 2 2 cos α2
ρ p , ρ s and τ p , τ s are amplitude reflection and transmission

coefficients, α2 is angle of refraction.
2.12 R = 0.04, T = 0.96
2.13 R ≈ 0.074, T ≈ 0.926
2.14 ρ ≈ 0.443, R ≈ 0.2
2.15 T ≈ 0.92
Answers 93
2.16 α0 ≈ 59.5 deg; θ0 = 0

2.17 T ≈ 0.932
2.18 ∆P = 0.392 mW
2.19 T ≈ 0.7
2.20 T ≈ 0.94
2.3 Total internal reflection

2.21 αc ≈ 35 deg
2.22 ρ p (α0 ) = − nn22 cos α0 +n1 cos α2 , ρ (α0 ) = n1 cos α0 +n2 cos α2 , where
cos α0 −n1 cos α2 s n1 cos α0 −n2 cos α2
q 2
cos α2 = 1 − nn21 sin2 α0 ; sin αc = nn21 .
2.23 R(α0 ) = 0.5{[ρ p (α0 )]2 + [ρ s (α0 )]2 }, where
ρ p (α0 ) = − nn22 cos
cos α0 −n1 cos α2
α0 +n1 cos α2 ,
ρ s (α0 ) = n1 cos α0 −n2 cos α2
n1 cos α0 +n2 cos α2 ,
q
2
cos α2 = 1 − nn21 sin2 α0 .
2.24 NA ≈ 0.26, αmax "≈ 15 √
deg #
cos α0 n21 sin2 α0 −n22
2.25 δ(α0 ) = 2 · arctg n1 sin2 α0
p ) n1 √n2 sin2 α0 −n2 δs (α ) √n2 sin2 α0 −n2
2.26 tg δ (α2
0
= 1
2
n2 cos α0
2
, tg 2
0
= n11 cos α0 2 ,
√
cos α0 n2 sin2 α0 −n2
tg δ (α2 0 ) = 1
n1 sin2 α0
2
2.27 δ p ≈ 2.38 rad, δ s ≈ 1.67 rad

n21 −n22
2.28 cos2 α0 = n21 +n22
2.29 δmax ≈ 1.02 rad, α0 ≈ 45.8 deg
2.30 δ ≈ 0.64 rad q
2.31 E2 /E1 = exp −z 2π
λ0 n 2
1 sin2
α0 − n2 , α0 ≈ 44.4 deg
2
2.32 l ≈ 0.12 µm
94 Answers
3 Optics of Anisotropic Media: Crystal Optics

3.1 Light refraction at the boundary of an anisotropic
medium
3.1 vo ≈ 1.94 · 108 m/s, ve ≈ 1.93 · 108 m/s
3.2 uo ≈ 1.81 · 108 m/s, ue ≈ 1.86 · 108 m/s
3.3 Io /Ie = 3
3.4 ∆α2 ≈ 0.17 deg
3.5 α2o ≈ 58.21 deg, α2e ≈ 48.59 deg
3.6 α2o ≈ 58.21 deg, in this case, there is only one ordinary beam.
3.7 d = 81.4 mm
3.8 Random polarization (natural light).
3.2 Linear polarizers and retarder plates

3.9 I2 = 0.375 mW/mm2
3.10 I2 = 1.5 mW/mm2
3.11 I2 = 25 mW/cm2
3.12 ∆φoe ≈ 2.5π
3.13 ∆φoe ≈ π, linear with the direction of oscillations, forming
an angle 60 deg with the direction of oscillations in the
incident wave.
3.14 Linear with the direction of oscillations forming an angle
90 deg with the direction of oscillations in the incident wave.
3.15 Circular polarization in the opposite direction of rotation of
the electric field vector.
3.16 Linear polarization.
3.17 Random polarization (natural light).
3.3 Interference of polarized light

3.18 I2 = I2i {cos2 (α) cos2 (β−α)+sin2 (α) sin2 (β−α)− 21 sin(2α) sin
2(β − α) cos[ 2π λ0 (no − n )d]} ≈ 0.84 mW/mm2
n he io
3.19 I2 = 2 1 ± sin 2α sin 2π
Ii
λ0 (no − n e )d , I2 ≈ 0.903 or
2
0.097 mW/mm
3.20 I2 (α) = I2i cos2 2α, I2 max = 21 Ii , I2 min = 0
3.21 λ = 0.64 µm
3.22 ∆n ≈ 0.0005
3.23 I2 /Ii = 0.125
Answers 95
3.4 Polarization prisms

3.24 β ≈ 7.2 deg
3.25 Io /Ie ≈ 0.33
3.26 Io /Ie = 1
3.27 β ≈ 3.62 deg; (a) Io /Ie = 1; (b) Io /Ie = 1; (c) Io /Ie = 3;
(d) Io /Ie = 1/4
3.28 Io /Ie = 3, β ≈ 3.61 deg
3.29 Io (t) = 0.5Ii sin2 (Ωt), Ie (t) = 0.5Ii cos2 (Ωt)
3.30 Io (t) = Ii sin
h (2Ωt), Ie (t) = Ii cos
2 2
i (2Ωt)
3.31 Io (t) = Ii (cos Ωt) + (sin Ωt) ,
4 4
Ie (t) = Ii 0.5 sin2 (2Ωt)
3.5 Induced anisotropy of optical properties

3.32 ∆oe = 0.5 µm, λm = 0.5 µm
3.33 ∆oe = 0.5 µm, λm = 1 and 0.33 µm
3.34 U = 1.333 kV, I2 = 0.015 mW/mm2
3.35 U = 1.884 kV; linearly polarized
2
I2 (t) ∼ I2i sin2 ∆ϕ2oe , where ∆ϕoe = 2πlK Ud

3.36
2
3.37 I2 (t) ∼ I2i cos2 ∆ϕ2oe , where ∆ϕoe = 2πlK Ud

96 Answers
4 Coherence and Interference of Light

coherent light
4.1 E02 = E012
+ E02
2
+ 2E01 E02 cos(φ01 − φ02 ), I = E02
4.2 I(~r) = E012
+ E022
+ 2E01 E02 cos[φ1 (~r) − φ2 (~r)]
4.3 I(~r) = E01 + E02 + 2E01 E02 cos(θ) cos[φ1 (~r) − φ2 (~r)]
2 2
4.4 (a) I(~r) = E012

+ E02
2
;
(b) I(~r) = E01 + E02 + 2E01 E02 cos(θ) cos{[ω1 − ω2 ]t + [φ1 (~r)
2 2
− φ2 (~r)]}
4.5 I = 9 W/m2
4.6 ∆φ12 = (ω/c)(L1 − L2 )
4.7 ∆12 = L1 n1 + L2 n2 q + L3 n3 − L4 n4 − L5 n5 , ∆φ12 = 2π∆12 f /c
4.8 ∆φ12 = (2π/λ0 )2d n22 − sin2 α0 + π
4.9 Bright fringe
4.10 β ≈ 0.9 arcmin
4.11 ∆r ≈ 1.02 mm
4.12 Because the phase difference of the interfering waves at the
point q
of lens contact is equal to π rad.
4.13 rm ≈ mλn 0 RR11+R
R2
2
4.14 V ≈ 0.8 h i
4.15 E1 (x, t) = E01 exp i ωt − 2π θ
λ x sin 2 ,
h i
E2 (x, t) = E02 exp i ωt − 2π θ
λ x sin − 2 ,
h|E1 (x, t) + Ei2 (x, t)| =

|E1 (x, t)|2 + |E2 (x, t)|2
+ 2E01 E02 cos
2
2π
λ 2x sin 2
θ
→ Λ = λ/2 sin(θ/2)
4.16 Λ = 0.69 µm, V = 0.4
4.17 R ≥ 2Λ−1 = 2245 [lines/mm], where Λ is the period of
fringes.
4.18 Λ ≈ 185 nm
4.19 Antinodes: z = (m + 1/2) · 0.3 · 10−3 mm;
nodes: z = m · 0.3 · 10−3 mm, where m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
4.20 Λ ≈ 0.23 µm, N ≈ 43
4.21 Λ ≈ 6.8 µm
4.22 ∆l ≈ 0.41 mm √ h i
4.23 I(x, y) = I1 + I1 + 2 I1 I1 cos 2πλ ∆z + π 1
λ z1 +∆z − 1
z1 (x 2
+ y2
)
Answers 97
4.24 D ≈ 17√mm
4.25 ∆I = 2 I1 I2 ,
E1 (r, t) = E01 exp(i2πv1 t + φ1 (r)),
E2 (r, t) = E02 exp(i2πv2 t + φ2 (r)),
I ∼ h|E1 + E2 |2 iτ ≈ I1 + I2 + 2E01 E02 cos(2π∆v12 t + ∆φ12 (r)),
if τ 1/∆v12
4.26 f ≈ 7.6 · 104 MHz, Λ ≈ 0.723 mm, v ≈ 5.5 · 107 m/s
4.27 f p ≥ 2 · 0.124 · 1014 Hz, τ p ≤ 4 · 10−14 s
4.2 Amplitude division interferometers: The Michelson

and Mach–Zehnder interferometers
4.28 ∆12 = 2(L1 − L2 ), δ∆12 = 2d(1 − n)
4.29 ∆L = d(n2 − n)/n2 or ∆L = d(n2 − n)/n1
4.30 ∆L = 1 µm
4.31 Λ ≈ λ0 /2α
4.32 ∆φ12 (x, y) ≈ 2π
λ ∆L + π 1
λ L0 +2L2 +L − L0 +2L1 +L (x + y )
1 2 2
4.33 f s ≈ 6.32 kHz

h i
4.34 I(t) = 2I1 1 + cos 2πλ0 2l sin(2π f t) + ∆ϕ 0
4.35 fS = (4πl0 f0 /λ0 ) cos(2π f0 t + φ0 ), fmax = 4πl0 f0 /λ0 ,
fmin = 0
4.36 ∆n ≈ 0.000016
4.37 ∆φ ≈ 14π, ∆m = 7

interferometer
4.38 λ0 = 0.55 µm
4.39 λ0 = 0.6 µm
4.40 Λ ≈ 0.36 mm
4.41 xm ≈ mλ0 z/d − x0 z/z0 ≈ (0.6m − 2) mm
4.42 β = Λ1 /Λ2 = 5
4.43 Λ ≈ 0.059 mm
4.44 d ≈ 76 µm
4.45 d ≈ 12 µm
98 Answers
4.4 Coherence of light

4.4.1 Temporal coherence of light
4.46 Re{Γ(∆t)} = G0 ∆ω · sin(∆ω∆t/2) · cos(ω0 ∆t),
(∆ω∆t/2)
|γ(∆t)| = sin(∆ω∆t/2)
(∆ω∆t/2)
, τc ≈ 2π/∆ω, lc ≈ (c/n)τc
−14
4.47 τc ≈ 20 · 10 s
4.48 ∆r ≈ 60 µm
4.49 lc ≈ 100 µm
4.50 τc ≈ 10−12 s, lc ≈ 0.2 mm
4.51 (a) lc ≈ 1.5 µm; (b) lc ≈ 30 µm; (c) lc ≈ 0.75 m
4.52 lc ≈ 3 · 102 m
4.53 β ≈ 5.6
4.54 lc ≈ 0.2 mm
4.55 ∆ω ≈ 4π · 1012 Hz, ∆λ ≈ 4.8 nm
4.4.2 Transverse spatial coherence of light

sin(πb∆y/λ0 z)
4.56 γ(∆x, ∆y) = sin(πa∆x/λ 0 z) λ0 z λ0 z
(πa∆x/λ0 z) · (πb∆y/λ0 z) , ρcx ≈ a , ρcy ≈ b
4.57 ∆ρc ≈ 190 µm
4.58 ρc ≈ 60 µm
4.59 ρcx ≈ 1.1 mm
4.60 (a) ρc1 ≈ 37 µm, (b) ρc f ≈ 17 µm, (c) ρc2 ≈ 4 µm,
(d) ρc3 ≈ 40 µm
4.61 D ≈ 3.7 · 106 km
4.4.3 Longitudinal spatial coherence of light

λ2
4.62 lc ≈ ∆λ0 ≈ 423 µm; L1c ≈ l1c + ρ1cz , ρcz ≈ 2λ θ2
0
≈ 83 µm,
Lc ≈ 70 µm
4.63 lc ≈ 15 µm, Lc1(z) ≈ l1c + ρcz1(z) , ρcz ≈ 2λ
θ2
0
≈ 15 µm, Lc ≈ 7.6 µm
4.64 1
Lc ≈ l1c + ρ1cz , lc ≈ λ20 /∆λ ≈ 151 µm, ρcz ≈ 8λ0 f 2 /D2s ≈
1760 µm for the back focal plane of the lens, ρcz ≈ 8λ0 ( f +
z2 )2 /D2a ≈ 40 µm for the plane of the light source image;
Lc ≈ 139 µm for the back focal plane of the lens; Lc ≈ 31 µm
for the plane of the light source image.
Answers 99
4.5 Interference of partially coherent light

4.65 Intensity of oscillations I is proportional to the mean square
of the oscillations E(t):I ∼ h[E(t)]2 iτ = h[E1 (t) + E2 (t)]2 iτ =
h[E1 (t)]2 iτ + h[E2 (t)]2 iτ + 2hE√1 (t)E
√ 2 (t)iτ = I1 + I√
2 +√E01 E02
hcos ∆ϕ12 (t)iτ , where E01 = 2 I1 and E02 = 2 I2 are
the amplitude of oscillations, τ is sampling time equal to the
time constant of the photodetector; this time is much longer
than time τc of random change of phase difference ∆ϕ12 (t)
(τc is time of coherence).
4.66 m ≈ 12
4.67 lc ≈ 2.2 µm, ∆λ ≈ 0.14 µm
4.68 d ≈ 2.5 µm
4.69 2m ≈ 120
4.70 m ≈ 10
4.71 I(λ) = 0.5I0 (λ){1 + cos[(2π/λ)∆]}
4.72 lc ≈ 6 µm, ∆λ ≈ 0.06 µm
4.73 D ≈ 0.8 mm
4.74 D ≈ 3.6 mm
4.75 d < 55 µm
4.76 z0 > 1455 mm
4.77 b < 11 µm
4.78 ∆z ≈ λ0 z0 /2αnD ≈ 3.3 mm; Λ ≈ λ0 /n2α = 20 µm
−1 −1
4.79 Λ ≈ 0.6 mm; ∆z ≈ λ0D2 f 2α + λD0 + 2α − λD0 ≈
19.3 mm
4.80 θ ≈ 0.045 arcsec
4.6 Multibeam interferometry: The Fabry-Pérot

interferometer
4.81 T ≈ 0.055, λ30 ≈ 600 nm, λ31 ≈ 581 nm, λ32 ≈ 563 nm,
λ33 ≈ 545 nm, λ34 ≈ 529 nm, λ35 ≈ 514 nm, λ36 ≈ 500 nm
(1−R)2
4.82 T (λ) = 1+R2 −2R cos( 2π
λ 2hn)
4.83 ∆h = 1.5 µm
4.84 Rm = 48.4 mm  
2 2
4.85 T (λ) = 0.5 ·  +
 (1−R) (1−R)


2π 2π
1+R2 −2R cos λ1 2hn 1+R2 −2R cos λ2 2hn
100 Answers
5 Diffraction of Light
5.1 Fresnel zone theory of diffraction
5.1 m ≈ 3
5.2 m = 4
5.3 ∆z ≈ 265 mm
5.4 ∆b1 ≈ 22 mm, ∆b2 ≈ 28.3 mm
5.5 ∆r ≈ 0.249
p mm
5.6 rm ≈ −mλab/(a
√ − b)
5.7 rm ≈ 1.14 m mm
5.8 r4 ≈ 1.34 mm, ∆r34 ≈ 0.18 mm
5.9 h = (2m + 1)λ0 /2(n − n0 ), m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
5.10 The light intensity I(x, y) at the interference fringes is deter-
√
mined by equation I(x, y) = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos π(xλR+y ) +
2 2

∆φ0 . Equations for radii ρm of dark and bright fringes are
πρ2m
of the form λR + ∆φ0 = mπ for each m. The focal length of
r2
Fresnel zone plate is determined by equation f = mλm , where
rm are the radii of Fresnel zones. Hence, f = R for ∆φ0 = 0.
5.11 f ≈ 0.714 m
5.12 f ≈ 1552 mm; r1 ≈ 0.924 mm
5.13 I ≈ 4I0
5.14 I ≈ I0
5.2 Far-field (Fraunhofer) diffraction

5.15 x1 ≈ ±0.67 mm, x2 ≈ ±1.33 mm, x3 ≈ ±2 mm
5.16 a ≈ 1.08 mm, b ≈ 0.54 mm
5.17 I(x, y) = I0 [sin(πax/λ0 z)/πax/λ0 z]2 [sin(πay/λ0 z)/πay/λ0 z]2
5.18 I(x) = I0 [sin(πbx/λ0 f )/πbx/λ0 f ]2 cos2 (πdx/λ0 f ), (∆x =
λ0 f /d ≈ 0.24 mm h i! h i
5.19 U(x, y) ∼ 1z exp i λπ0 z (x2 + y2 ) S exp −i λπ0 z (x0 x + y0 y) dxdy
h i R D/2R 2π h i
= 1z exp i λπ0 z ρ2 0 0 exp −i λ2π0 z ρ0 ρ cos(α0 − α) ρ0 dρ0 dθ0 ,
where ρ0 cos θ0 = x0 , ρ0 sin θ0 = y0 ; ρ cos θ = x, ρ sin θ = y
5.20 I(x, y) = I0 [2J1 (πD/λ f )]2 , where J1 (u) is the first-order
Bessel function of the first kind; d = 2 · 1.22λ0 f /D ≈ 26 µm
5.21 ∆x(−3, +3) = 63 mm
Answers 101
5.3 Diffraction divergence of optical beams: diffraction

limit of resolution in optical systems
5.22 α ≈ 340
5.23 dz ≈ 5.25 mm
5.24 α ≈ 2.2 arcmin, dz ≈ 127 mm
5.25 α x ≈ 4.7 deg, αy ≈ 12.4 deg
5.26 d ≈ 7.7 mm
5.27 d ≈ 3.8 mm
5.28 d ≈ 12 mm
5.29 R ≈ 224 lines/mm
5.30 α ≈ 2 arcsec
5.31 ∆α ≈ 0.01 arcsec, b ≈ 20 m, ∆x ≈ 3 km
5.32 ∆x ≈ 1.22 nD λ0
z ≈ 3.0 µm, ∆α ≈ 1.22 λD0 ≈ 0.6 arcmin,
∆x0 ≈ 1.22 D z0 ≈ 0.05 mm
λ0
5.33 ∆x ≈ 1.7 µm
5.34 ∆x ≈ 1.34 µm
5.4 Diffraction gratings

 b 2  2
 sin π λ0 sin α   sin πN λd0 sin α 
5.35 I(α) = I0  π b sin α   d  
λ 0 sin π sin α
λ0
5.36 ∆x ≈ 20.27 mm
5.37 β ≈ 20 deg
5.38 β+1 ≈ 3.8 deg, β−1 ≈ −35.7 deg
5.39 d = 3b
5.40 2m + 1 = 9
5.41 α = arcsin[2 sin(θ/2)] = 31.2 deg
5.42 ∆x ≈ 5.2 mm
5.43 ∆l ≈ 0.57 mm
5.44 N ≈ 103
5.45 R = λ/∆λ ≈ mN ≈ 105
5.46 α0 ≈ 32 deg
5.47 λ1 ≈ 0.667 µm
5.48 Not possible
5.49 m = d/λ, d = λ
5.50 Dα ≈ 0.1 grad/nm, DL ≈ 0.68 mm/nm
5.51 d ≈ 2.5 µm
102 Answers
5.5 Light diffraction by volume gratings: diffraction by

acoustic waves
5.52 2Λ sin θ = λ0
5.53 2Λ sin θ = λ, 2Λ sin θ0 = λ0
5.54 θ2 ≈ 36.5 deg
5.55 θ ≈ 0.11 deg
5.56 f s ≈ 1 GHz
5.57 θ ≈ 12.5 deg, f = 1 GHz
Answers 103
6 Optics of Moving Media

6.1 Doppler effect
6.1 v ≈ 4.6 · 104 m/s
6.2 ∆λ ≈ 0.423 · 10
−4
µm
v

6.3 ν ≈ cλ0 1 + c cos α s + cp cos α p ,
−1 v s
v
−1
λ ≈ λ0 1 + vcs cos α s + cp cos α p

6.4 ν ≈ λc0 1 − cv cos α + cv cos(α + β) ≈ (4.74 · 1014 − 1.06 ·
104 ) Hz
~ ~ v
λ0 ( N1 − N2 ) ~
6.5 f s ≈ 2π
6.6 λ(+2) ≈ λ0 + 0.8 · 10−11 µm, λ(−2) ≈ λ0 − 0.8 · 10−11 µm
6.7 f1 = λc0 vc1 λd0 , f2 = λc0 vc1 λd0 ± 2vλ02
λ2
6.8 ∆λ ≈ ± c0 fa ≈ ±10−8 µm
6.9 ∆ν = f = 40 MHz
6.10 ∆λ ≈ 2λ0 v/c = 2 · 10−11 µm, f ≈ 2v/λ0 ≈ 16.7 · 103 Hz
6.11 ∆λ ≈ 2c−1 λ0 2πl0 f0 cos(2π f0 t), f (t) ≈ 4πl0 f0 cos(2π f0 t)/λ0
6.2 Sagnac interferometer

6.12 ∆φ = 8π LcλΩ0
2
6.13 T = n2 Lπcλ 0N
2 (dΩ/dt)
6.14 ∆φ ≈ 1.46 rad

6.15 f ≈ 0.145 Hz
References
1. S. A. Akhmanov and S. Yu. Nikitin, Fizicheskaya optika
(Physical Optics), Moscow State Univ. Publishers, Moscow,
1998.
2. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th ed., Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2002.
3. E. I. Butikov, Optika (Optics), Nevskiy Dialekt: BHV-
Peterburg, St. Petersburg, 2003.
4. O. S. Heavens and R. W. Ditchburn, Insight into Optics, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991.
5. G. Landsberg Optika (Optics), Nauka, Moscow, 1975 (5th ed.),
2006 (6th ed.).
6. A. N. Matveev, Optika (Optics), Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow,
1985.
7. S. K. Stafeev, K. K. Boyarskii, and G. L. Bashnina, Osnovy
optiki (Fundamentals of optics), Piter, St. Petersburg, 2006.
105
Index
acoustic waves, 5.55–5.57, Fabry–Pérot

6.8, 6.9 interferometer, 4.81,
anisotropic medium, 3.1–3.37 4.82, 4.85
Billet split lens, 4.22 coherence, 4.46–4.64
Bragg function
angle, 5.57 spatial transverse, 4.56
condition, 5.55, 6.9 temporal, 4.46
Brewster length
angle, 2.6, 2.13, 2.16, 2.17 longitudinal, 1.24–1.26,
4.46, 4.48–4.55,
photoelasticity law, 3.32,
4.62–4.64
3.33
transverse, 4.56–4.61
circularly polarized wave
mutual, 4.48
passed though polarizer,
spatial longitudinal,
3.11, 3.15, 3.16, 3.19, 3.26,
4.62–4.64
3.27
spatial transverse,
reflection, 2.7 4.56–4.61
coefficient temporal, 4.46–4.55
reflection length, 1.21, 1.22,
amplitude, 2.1 1.24–1.26, 4.46,
energy, 2.10–2.12, 2.14, 4.48–4.55, 4.62, 4.63
2.15, 2.23 time, 1.21, 1.22, 4.46, 4.47,
transmission 4.50
amplitude, 2.1 transverse spatial domain,
energy, 2.9–2.15, 4.56
2.17–2.20 color of light, 3.21
107
108 Index
complex expression of a thin and

wave, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 one-dimensional,
critical angle for total internal 5.35–5.51
reflection, 2.21–2.23 volume, 5.52–5.57
crystal limit of resolution,
lattice, 5.52 5.26–5.29, 5.31–5.34
lithium niobate, (LiNbO3 ) angular, 5.31, 5.32
5.55 diffraction-limited
paratellurite, (TeO2 ) 5.57 optical system, 5.29
silica (SiO2 ), 5.56 human eye, 5.32
crystal plate, 3.12–3.23, linear, 5.31–5.33
3.29–3.31 microscope, 5.33
Denisyuk hologram, 1.44, photographic objective,
1.45 5.34
depth of penetration, 2.32 spectral by grating, 5.44,
diameter of beam spot, 5.45
5.26–5.28 telescope, 5.31
minima and maxima, 5.15,
diffraction
5.21, 5.36, 5.42, 5.43
beam order, 5.37, 5.38,
pattern
5.41, 5.46–5.49, 5.51
Fraunhoffer, 5.15–5.21
by moving grating,
Fresnel, 5.2–5.4, 5.13
6.6–6.10
separation between
by volume grating, spectral lines, 5.42, 5.43
5.52–5.57 principal maxima, 5.36,
divergence, 5.22–5.25, 5.30 5.39, 5.40, 5.42
angle, 5.22, 5.24, 5.25 dispersion of light
beam of semiconductor angular, 5.50
laser, 5.24 linear, 5.50
far-field, 5.15–5.21 Doppler effect, 6.1–6.11
Fraunhofer, 5.15–5.21, 5.35 elliptically polarized wave
gratings, 5.35–5.57 at refraction, 2.4, 2.7
moving, 6.6–6.10 passed through polarizers,
moving in interferometer, 3.27
6.7 evanescent wave, 2.31, 2.32
on photographic plate, eye, 5.32
5.41, 5.54 far-field diffraction,
reflective, 5.46 5.15–5.21
Index 109
Fraunhofer diffraction, retarder plate, 3.18–3.20,

5.15–5.21, 5.35 3.32, 3.33–3.37
frequency light passed through linear
circular, 1.7 polarizers, 3.9, 3.11,
spatial, 1.19, 1.20 3.18–3.20, 3.23, 3.25–3.31
Fresnel biprism, 4.21 optical wave, 1.37, 1.39,
Fresnel formulae, 2.1, 1.40
2.9–2.11, 2.22, 2.23 ordinary and extraordinary
Fresnel zone plate, 5.7–5.11 waves, 3.3
focal length, 5.10–5.13 oscillations, 4.1
Fresnel zones Poisson spot, 5.14
number, 5.1, 5.2 spatial distribution in
on concave wavefront, 5.6 interference pattern, 4.23,
radius, 5.6, 5.7, 5.12 4.32
theory of diffraction, resultant wave, 4.2–4.5
5.1–5.14 in output of Michelson
width, 5.5, 5.8 interferometer, 4.30,
Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral, 4.33–4.35, 4.70–4.72
5.19 spectral distribution, 4.71
Gaussian function, 1.26, 1.29, with different
1.39, 1.40, 4.50, 4.71 frequencies, 4.4,
gyroscope, 6.13–6.15 4.25–4.27, 6.7
half-wave retarder plate, 3.30 interference
Iceland spar, 3.17, 3.24 fringes
induced anisotropy, 3.32–3.37 at interference of partial
Brewster photoelasticity coherent light, 4.73–4.76
law, 3.32, 3.33 at the output of
Kerr effect, 3.34–3.37 Fabry–Pérot
intensity interferometer, 4.83,
angular distribution, 5.35, 4.84, 4.85
5.37 at the output of
distribution in far-field Mach–Zehnder
(Fraunhofer) diffraction, interferometer, 4.36,
5.15–5.21, 5.35 4.37, 4.40
Fresnel diffraction pattern, at the output of
5.2–5.4, 5.13 Michelson
light beam, passed through interferometer, 4.31,
linear polarizers and a 4.70, 4.71
110 Index
at the output of Young with moving mirror, 6.7,

interferometer, 4.38, 6.10, 6.11
4.41–4.44, 5.18 Young, 4.38–4.41, 4.43,
contrast, 4.14, 4.16 4.73–4.76, 5.18
equal inclination, 4.24 Kerr effect, 3.34–3.37
localization 4.78, 4.79 laser
number at interference of helium-neon, 1.23
partial coherent light, semiconductor, 5.24
4.66, 4.67, 4.70, 4.72 laser beam, 1.37, 1.39, 1.40,
period, 4.10, 4.11, 2.16, 2.18, 2.30, 4.52,
4.15–4.18, 4.20–4.22, 5.18–5.21, 5.23–5.28, 5.30,
4.26, 4.38, 4.40, 5.37, 5.38, 5.41, 5.55, 5.56
4.42–4.44 law of energy conservation,
multibeams, 4.81–4.85 2.11
mutually coherent light, lens, 1.18, 4.22
4.1–4.27 light-emitting diode, 1.23,
partially coherent light, 6.14
4.65–4.80 linear polarization, 1.31–1.35
polarized light, 3.18–3.23 at output of the prism,
interferometer 3.24–3.31
amplitude division, beam passed through
4.28–4.37 polarizer devices, 3.12,
Fabry–Pérot, 4.81–4.85 3.13, 3.14, 3.17, 3.27–3.29
transmission coefficient, reflection beam, 2.1, 2.3,
4.81, 4.82, 4.85 2.5, 2.6, 2.10, 2.14
Mach–Zehnder, 4.36, 4.37 refraction beam, 2.5, 2.10,
Michelson, 4.28–4.35, 2.14, 2.16, 2.17
4.69–4.72, 4.79, 6.10, 6.11 refraction beam in
stellar, 4.80 anisotropic media, 3.3
Rayleigh, 4.77 linear polarizers, 3.9–3.14,
ring, 6.12–6.15 3.18, 3.19, 3.21, 3.22
Sagnac, 6.12–6.15 linearly polarized light
fiber optical, 6.13–6.15 passed through polarizer
wavefront division, devices, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14,
4.38–4.45 3.17, 3.27–3.29
with moving diffraction reflection, 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6,
grating, 6.7 2.10, 2.14
Index 111
refraction, 2.5, 2.10, 2.14, superimposed waves,

2.16, 2.17 4.6–4.8
refraction in anisotropic in output of
media, 3.3 Mach–Zehnder
Lippman colored interferometer, 4.37
photography, 1.46 in output of Michelson
Maxwell’s equations, 1.6 interferometer, 4.32
mercury lamp, 4.51 waves at reflection, 2.8,
microscope, 5.33 2.25, 2.28–2.30
modulation, 1.30 phase shift, 1.9
natural light, 2.2 at reflection, 2.26, 2.27
passed through the phase spatial distribution,
polarizer devices, 1.12, 1.13, 1.16–1.18
3.20–3.23, 3.27, 3.30 phase velocity, 1.1–1.4, 1.7,
reflection, 2.2, 2.10, 2.12, 1.15
2.13 in anisotropic medium, 3.1
refraction, 2.10, 2.12, 2.13, phasor diagram method, 4.1,
2.15 5.14
refraction in anisotropic photodetector response time,
media, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.8 4.4, 4.7
Newton’s rings, 4.11–4.13, photographic plate, 1.42,
4.67, 5.10 1.44, 1.45, 4.20, 5.41, 5.54
numerical aperture, 2.24, 5.33 photosensitive layer (plate),
optical fiber, 2.24 1.44, 1.46, 4.17, 4.20
optical gyroscope, 6.13–6.15 plane wave expression,
optical path difference, 4.7, 1.4–1.7, 1.37, 4.15
4.9, 4.28, 4.29, 4.70 Pointing vector, 1.37
paraxial approximation, Poisson spot, 5.14
1.16–1.18 polarization
partially coherent light, azimuth, 2.5, 2.6, 2.10,
4.46–4.64 2.16, 2.17
interference, 4.65–4.80 circular, 1.33, 1.34
phase difference, 1.8–1.12, ellipse, 2.7
1.14, 1.33 elliptical, 1.31, 1.34
between the ordinary and linear, 1.31–1.35
extraordinary waves, at output of the prism,
3.12–3.15 3.24–3.31
random variation, 4.65 random, 1.36
112 Index
wave, 1.31–1.36 quarter-wave plate, 3.20, 3.31

polarized light ray velocities, 3.2
circular, 1.33, 1.34 red shift spectral line, 6.1
at reflection, 2.7 reflection
passed though polarizer coefficients, 2.1, 2.9–2.14,
devices, 3.11, 3.15, 3.16, 2.22
3.19, 3.26, 3.27 Fresnel formulae, 2.1,
elliptical, 1.31, 1.34 2.9–2.11, 2.22
linearly phase difference, 2.25,
passed through polarizer 2.26, 2.29, 2.30
devices, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, phase shift, 2.26, 2.27
3.17, 3.27–3.29 refraction
reflection, 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, internal total, 2.21–2.32
2.6, 2.10, 2.14 transmission coefficients,
refraction, 2.5, 2.10, 2.9, 2.10, 2.12, 2.13
2.14, 2.16, 2.17 refractive index, 1.7
refraction in anisotropic anisotropic medium, 3.22
media, 3.3 resolution of a photosensitive
randomly plate, 4.17
reflection, 2.2, 2.10, 2.13, retarder plate, 3.12–3.17,
2.14 3.18–3.23, 3.29–3.31
refraction in anisotropic separation between spectral
medium, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.8 lines in diffraction pattern,
position of diffraction minima 5.42, 5.43
and maxima, 5.15, 5.21, spatial coherence, 4.56–4.64
5.36, 5.42, 5.43 spatial frequency, 1.19, 1.20
principal maxima in spatial periods, 1.19
diffraction pattern, 5.39, spectral contour of wave,
5.40 1.21, 1.22, 1.24–1.29, 4.47,
prism 4.50, 4.53–4.55
Fresnel biprism, 4.21 at interference of partial
right-angle, 2.18, 2.30, 3.5, coherent light, 4.68–4.70,
3.6 4.72
polarization, 3.24–3.31 Gaussian, 4.71
Rochon, 3.27 laser radiation, 4.52
Senarmont, 3.28 passed through the
Wollaston, 3.24–3.26, polarizer devices, 3.22
3.29–3.31 spectrograph, 5.50
Index 113
spectrum 1.21, 1.22, at interference of partial

1.24–1.28 coherent light, 4.73, 4.74,
angular, 4.62, 4.63 4.77
spherical wave, 1.16, 1.17 transverse spatial coherence,
standing wave 4.56–4.61
acoustic, 5.57 domain, 4.56
optical, 1.41–1.46, 4.18, function, 4.56
4.19 length, 4.56–4.61
star, 4.61, 4.80 at interference of partial
sun, 4.76 coherent light, 4.73–4.80
sunlight, 4.58, 4.59 Van Cittert–Zernike theorem,
interference, 4.75 4.56
telescope, 5.30, 5.31 wave equation, 1.4, 1.6
temporal coherence, wave train, 1.22–1.24, 1.26,
4.46–4.55 1.28, 4.52
function, 4.46 wavelength, 1.1, 1.7
length, 1.21, 1.22, white light, 1.24, 3.21, 3.22,
1.24–1.26, 4.46, 4.48–4.55, 3.32, 4.51, 4.53
4.62, 4.63 interference, 4.53, 4.58,
at interference of partial 4.59, 4.76
coherent light, 4.67, 4.72, coherence, 4.51
4.80 Wiener experiment, 1.42
theorem Wiener–Khinchin theorem,
Van Cittert–Zernike, 4.56 4.46
Wiener–Khinchin, 4.46 x-ray radiation, 5.52
transverse coherence lengths, yellow doublet of sodium,
4.56–4.61 5.43, 5.44
Vladimir P. Ryabukho was born in
1951 in Russia (Soviet Union), in the
Saratov region. He graduated from the
Saratov State University (Physical Fac-
ulty) Department of Optics in 1976, and
then in 1980 from the Moscow Physical-
Technical Institute (Special Faculty), with
a specialty in Applied Holography. He
received his Candidate of Sciences de-
gree in Physics and Mathematics from
the Moscow Physical-Technical Institute
in 1985, and his Doctor of Sciences degree in Physics and Mathe-
matics from Saratov State University in 1996.
Dr. Ryabukho first worked as an engineer and then as
a researcher in the electronics industry (for the Research
and Production Association “Almaz”), where he performed
measurements and technical control on laser systems. In 1986,
he joined the Department of General Physics at the Saratov
Polytechnic Institute, and in 1989, he moved to the Department
of Optics and Biophotonics at Saratov State University. Since
1996, he has served as a professor and as head of the Laboratory
of Optical Coherent Measurements in the Institute of Precision
Mechanics and Control, Russian Academy of Sciences; since
2009, he has worked concurrently as the head of the Department
of Natural and Mathematical Disciplines at the Institute for Extra-
professional Education.
Dr. Ryabukho lectures on general physics, conducts a section
on optics, and holds special courses on Fourier optics, laser
interferometry, optical holography, coherence of wave processes,
and optical coherent methods in biology and medicine. His
research interests include laser interferometry, low-coherence
interferometry, optical coherence, speckle optics, holography,
optical measurements, interference microscopy and tomography.
He has published over 100 scientific articles in peer-reviewed
journals.
Problems and Answers in Wave Optics
SPIE PRESS
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question-and-answer collection provides the opportunity
to solve problems chosen by a mentor with decades of
experience instructing students.
Ryabukho
Whether you're a professor needing representative exam
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Copyright © 2011 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers

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my students, postgraduate students, and colleagues from the

Chapter 2 Reflection and Refraction of Light ................... 13

2.1 Fresnel formulae ............................................................... 13

Chapter 3 Optics of Anisotropic Media: Crystal Optics... 21

3.1 Light refraction at the boundary of an anisotropic

Chapter 4 Coherence and Interference of Light ............... 33

4.1 Interference of monochromatic and mutually

4.2 Amplitude division interferometers: The Michel-

Chapter 5 Diffraction of Light ............................................. 63

5.1 Fresnel zone theory of diffraction .............................. 63

Chapter 6 Optics of Moving Media ..................................... 81

6.1 Doppler effect .................................................................... 81

1 Electromagnetic Waves in the Optical Range......... 89

2.2 Energy reflection and transmission

6.2 Sagnac interferometer .................................... 103

References ............................................................................... 105

right-hand trio of mutually perpendicular vectors in isotropic

Determine the circular frequency ω, the wavelength λ, the

1.9 Determine the phase shift ∆φ of the wave with frequency

1.11 A plane wave with free-space wavelength λ0 is normally in-

1.12 A plane wave with wavelength λ is incident on the plane

1.13 A plane wave with wavelength λ0 is incident with incidence

1.14 Determine the phase difference ∆φ12 of the oscillations ex-

1.17 A convergent spherical wave is incident on the (x, y) plane

1.18 A plane wave is incident on the focusing lens parallel to its

1.19 A plane wave with wavelength λ propagates in the direc-

Determine the spatial periods Λ x , Λy , Λz and the spatial fre-

1.2 Spectral properties of electromagnetic waves

1.25 The temporal coherence length of a quasi-monochromatic

E0 cos(2πν0 t + φ0 ), −τc /2 ≤ t ≤ τc /2,

Determine the spectral-contour width ∆ν at the half-

1.29 Derive the expression for the intensity of frequency spectrum

1.30 Derive the expression for the intensity of frequency spectrum

1.3 Polarization of electromagnetic waves

plane waves E~ L (t, z) and E~ R (t, z) with opposite directions of

1.35 Determine the polarization state of the electromagnetic oscil-

1.4 Energy, power, and intensity of light

1.5 Standing electromagnetic waves

1.41 Determine the separation Λ between the adjacent antinodes

1.42 Determine the spatial period Λ x of photographic-plate-

1.43 Determine the number of antinodes m of a standing wave

1.44 A photosensitive layer with refractive index n = 1.5 is

1.45 In the scheme of a Denisyuk hologram recording, a laser

1.46 In Lippman-colored photography, three standing waves with

2.4 Determine the conditions under which an elliptically polarized

2.2 Energy reflection and transmission

the energy reflection and transmission coefficients for the

2.16 Determine the angle of incidence α0 and the direction of

refraction by the plate surfaces. The plate is surrounded by

2.17 Determine the energy transmission coefficient T of a glass

2.18 Determine the power loss of a laser beam ∆P = P0 − P pass-

2.19 Determine the total energy transmission coefficient T of a

2.3 Total internal reflection

angle of incidence, providing the total internal reflection of

medium are n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1, respectively. The incident

2.31 Plot the ratio of amplitudes for the refracted (evanescent)

2.32 Determine the depth l of penetration of the refracted (evanes-

3.3 A linearly polarized plane wave of light is normally inci-