MODULE-I

ME 306
ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
(AMT)
 TEXT BOOKS
1. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Serope Kalpakjian, Steven
R. Schmid, Pearson Education
2. Manufacturing Technology, R.K. Rajput, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
3. Automation, Production Systems and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, Mickel. P. Groover, Pearson Education
4. Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems, Yoram Koran, Mc Graw
Hill IntI. Book Co.
5. CAD/CAM: Theory & Practice, Ibrahim Zeid, R Sivasubrahmanian,
McGraw Hill Education
6. CAD/CAM; Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing, M.P.
Groover, E.M. Zimmers, Prentice Hall of India
7. Introduction to Micromachining, Jain V.K, Narosa publishers
 MACHINING
•Machining is a term describing a group of processes that consist of the
removal of material and modification of the surfaces of a workpiece after it
has been produced by various methods.
•Machining involves secondary and finishing operations
•Machining consists of several major types of material- removal processes:
1. Cutting, typically involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools
2. Abrasive processes, such as grinding and related processes
3. Advanced machining processes utilizing electrical, chemical, laser,
thermal, and hydrodynamic methods to accomplish machining
•The machines on which these operations are performed are called machine
tools
 ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES
There are situations in which mechanical methods are not satisfactory,
economical, or even possible, for the following reasons:
 The strength and hardness of the workpiece material are very high,
typically above 400 HB
 The workpiece material is too brittle to be machined without damage to
the workpiece
 The workpiece is too flexible or too slender to withstand forces in
machining or grinding, or the parts are difficult to clamp in fixtures and
work-holding devices
 The shape of the part is complex including such features as internal and
external profiles or holes with high length-to-diameter ratios in very hard
materials
 Special surface finish and dimensional tolerance requirements exist
that cannot be obtained by other manufacturing processes or are
uneconomical through alternative processes
 The temperature rise during processing and residual stresses
developed in the workpiece are not desirable or acceptable
 NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
•Difficulties in conventional machining led to the development of chemical,
electrical, laser, and high-energy beams as energy sources for removing material
from metallic or non-metallic workpiece
•These advanced methods, which in the past have been called non-traditional or
unconventional machining, began to be introduced in the 1940s
•Processes remove material not by producing chips as in machining and
grinding, but by means such as chemical dissolution, etching, melting,
evaporation, and hydrodynamic action-sometimes with the assistance of fine
abrasive particles
•Advantage of these processes is that their efficiency is independent of
workpiece hardness
 MACRO MANUFACTURING
•Conventional manufacturing processes produce parts that are larger than a
millimetre or so and can be described as visible to the naked eye.
•The size of such parts generally are referred to as macro scale, the word
“macro” being derived from the Greek makros, meaning “long”.
•The processing of such parts is known as macro manufacturing
 MICRO & NANO MANUFACTURING
•Micro manufacturing, which by definition refers to manufacturing on a
microscopic scale (that is, not visible to the naked eye), has been developed
mostly for electronic devices of all kinds, including computer processors and
memory chips, sensors, and magnetic storage devices.
•This type of manufacturing relies heavily on lithography approaches, wet and dry
etching, and coating operations.
•Meso manufacturing overlaps macro- and micro manufacturing
•Examples of meso manufacturing are extremely small motors, bearings, and
components for miniature devices such as hearing aids; medical devices such as
stents and valves; and mechanical watches
•Nano manufacturing, parts are produced at nano meter length scales, that is, one
billionth of a meter and typically between 10−6 and 10−9 m in length.
•Many of the features in integrated circuits are at this length scale; molecularly
engineered medicines and other forms of bio manufacturing are the only
commercial examples
REGIMES OF MACRO-, MESO-, MICRO & NANO MANUFACTURING
 POWDER METALLURGY (PM)
•Powder metallurgy (PM) is a process in which metal powders are compacted
into desired and often complex shapes and sintered (heated without melting) to
form a solid piece.
•This process first was used by the Egyptians in about 3000 B.C. to make iron
tools.
•One of its first modern uses was in the early 1900s to make the tungsten
filaments for incandescent light bulbs.
•The availability of a wide range of metal-powder compositions, the ability to
produce parts to net dimensions (net-shape forming), and the overall
economics of the operation give this unique process its numerous attractive and
expanding applications
 POWDER METALLURGY (PM)
•Powder metallurgy has become competitive with processes such as casting,
forging, and machining, particularly for relatively complex parts made of high
strength and hard alloys
•Commonly used metals in PM are iron, copper, aluminium, tin, nickel,
titanium, and the refractory metals.
• For parts made of brass, bronze, steels, and stainless steels, pre alloyed
powders are used, where each powder particle itself is an alloy.
•Metal sources are generally bulk metals and alloys, ores, salts, and other
compounds
 APPLICATIONS OF PM
(a) Balls for ballpoint pens
(b) Automotive components such as piston rings, connecting rods, brake pads
gears, cams, and bushings
(c) Tool steels, tungsten carbides, and cermets as tool and die materials
(d) Graphite brushes impregnated with copper for electric motors
(e) Magnetic materials
(f) Metal filters and oil-impregnated bearings with controlled porosity
g) Metal foams
(h) Surgical implants
(i) Several others for aerospace, nuclear, and industrial applications.
 NEED OF PM
•The process is very economical and the loss of material is lesser as compared
to other processes
•Machining operations can be eliminated
•Scrap losses are reduced and often results in lower unit cost for a given part in
comparison to any other production method
•Metals and alloys can be mixed together in any proportion which is difficult
and some times not possible by melting
•Metals and non metals can be mixed together in any proportion
•Articles of any desired porosity can be manufactured
•Super-hard cutting bits, which can never be manufactured by another methods
are made by powder metallurgy, e.g. sintered carbides
PROCESSES AND OPERATIONS INVOLVED
IN POWDER-METALLURGY
 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN POWDER-
METALLURGY

The powder-metallurgy process typically consists of the following operations:

1. Powder production;
2. Blending;
3. Compaction;
4. Sintering;
5. Finishing operations.
 METHODS OF POWDER PRODUCTION
•There are several methods of producing metal powders, and most of them can
be produced by more than one method.
•The choice depends on the requirements of the end product.
•The microstructure, bulk and surface properties, chemical purity, porosity,
shape, and size distribution of the particles depend on the particular process
used .
•These characteristics are important because they significantly affect the flow
and permeability during compaction and in subsequent sintering operations.
• Particle sizes produced range from 0.1 to 1000 μm.
 ATOMIZATION

(a) gas atomization; (b) water atomization; (c) centrifugal atomization with a spinning
disk or cup; and (d) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode.
 ATOMIZATION
•Atomization involves a liquid-metal stream produced by injecting molten metal
through a small orifice.
•The stream is broken up by jets of inert gas or air, known as gas or water
atomization, respectively.
•The size and shape of the particles formed depend on the temperature of the
molten metal, rate of flow, nozzle size, and jet characteristics.
•The use of water results in a slurry of metal powder and liquid at the bottom of
the atomization chamber.
•Although the powders must be dried before they can be used, the water allows
for more rapid cooling of the particles and higher production rates.
•Gas atomization usually results in more spherical particles
 ATOMIZATION (CONT…)
•In centrifugal atomization, the molten-metal stream drops onto a rapidly
rotating disk or cup, so that centrifugal forces break up the stream and generate
particles
• In another method, a consumable electrode is rotated rapidly (about 15000
rev/min) in a helium-filled chamber
•The centrifugal force breaks up the molten tip of the electrode into metal
particles
 REDUCTION &ELECTROLYTIC
DEPOSITION

Reduction
•The reduction of metal oxides (i.e., removal of oxygen) uses gases, such as
hydrogen and carbon monoxide, as reducing agents.
•By this means, very fine metallic oxides are reduced to the metallic state.
•The powders produced are spongy and porous and have uniformly sized
spherical or angular shapes
Electrolytic Deposition
•Electrolytic deposition utilizes either aqueous solutions or fused salts.
•The powders produced are among the purest available.
 CARBONYLS
•The only method for the manufacture of metal powder by the pyrolysis of a
gaseous compound which has been used industrially on a substantial scale is the
carbonyl iron or nickel process
•When iron and nickel ores react under high pressure (70 – 300 atm.) with
carbon monoxide, iron pentacarbonyl [Fe (CO)5 ] or nickel tetracarbonyl
[Ni(CO)4 ] is formed
•Both compounds are liquids at room temperature Fe(CO)5 evaporates at 103 ̊C
and Ni(CO)4 at 43 ̊C
•The reaction products are then decomposed to iron and nickel, and they turn
into small, dense, uniformly spherical particles of high purity.
•Carbonyl iron powder is used for the production of magnetic powder cores for
radio or television applications
 COMMINUTION

(a) Roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling
 COMMINUTION
•Mechanical comminution (pulverization) involves crushing milling in a ball
mill, or grinding of brittle or less ductile metals into small particles.
•A ball mill is a machine with a rotating hollow cylinder partly filled with steel
or white cast-iron balls.
• The powder or particles placed into a ball mill are impacted by the balls as the
cylinder is rotated or its contents are agitated.
•This action has two effects:
(a) the particles periodically fracture, resulting in smaller particles, and
(b) the morphology of the particles is affected.
•With brittle materials, the powder particles produced have angular shapes; with
ductile metals, they are flaky and are not particularly suitable for powder-
metallurgy applications
 PARTICLE SIZE
•Particle size usually is controlled by screening-that is, by passing the metal
powder through screens (sieves) of various mesh sizes.
•Screen analysis is achieved by using a vertical stack of screens, with the mesh
size becoming finer as the powder flows downward through the screens
•Other methods are available for particle-size analysis:
1. Sedimentation, which involves measuring the rate at which particles settle
in a fluid.
2. Microscopic analysis, which may include the use of transmission and
scanning electron microscopy
3. Light scattering from a laser that illuminates a sample consisting of
particles suspended in a liquid medium. The particles cause the light to be
scattered, and a detector then digitizes the signals and computes the particle-
size distribution.
 PARTICLE SIZE & PARTICLE SHAPE

4. Optical methods (such as particles blocking a beam of light), in which the

particle is sensed by a photocell
5. Suspending particles in a liquid and then detecting particle size and
distribution by electrical sensors.
Particle Shape
•A major influence on processing characteristics, particle shape usually is
described in terms of aspect ratio or shape factor.
•Aspect ratio is the ratio of the largest dimension to the smallest dimension of
the particle.
•This ratio ranges from unity for a spherical particle to about 10 for flake-like
or needle-like particles
SHAPE FACTOR & SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Shape Factor
•Also called the shape index
• shape factor (SF) is a measure of the ratio of the surface area of the particle to
its volume-normalized by reference to a spherical particle of equivalent
volume.
•Thus, the shape factor for a flake is higher than that for a sphere
Size Distribution
•The size distribution of particles is an important consideration, because it
affects the processing characteristics of the powder.
•The distribution of particle size is given in terms of a frequency-distribution
plot.
•The maximum is called the mode size
 BLENDING METAL POWDERS
•Powders of different metals and other materials can be mixed in order to impart
special physical and mechanical properties and characteristics to the PM
product.
• Mixtures of metals can be produced by alloying the metal before producing a
powder, or else blends can be produced.
•Proper mixing is essential to ensure the uniformity of mechanical properties
throughout the part.
•When a single metal is used, the powders may vary significantly in size and
shape; hence, they must be blended to obtain uniformity from part to part.
•The ideal mix is one in which all of the particles of each material (and of each
size and morphology) are distributed uniformly
•Lubricants can be mixed with the powders to improve their flow characteristics
 BLENDING METAL POWDERS
(CONT…)
•Lubricants reduce friction between the metal particles, improve flow of the
powder metals into the dies, and improve die life.
•Lubricants typically are stearic acid or zinc stearate in a proportion of from
0.25 to 5% by weight.
• Other additives, such as binders (as in sand moulds), are used to develop
sufficient green strength and additives also can be used to facilitate sintering.
•Powder mixing must be carried out under controlled conditions in order to
avoid contamination or deterioration.
• Deterioration is caused by excessive mixing, which may alter the shape of
the particles and cause work hardening, making subsequent compaction more
difficult.
•Powders can be mixed in air, in inert atmospheres (to avoid oxidation), or in
liquids (which act as lubricants and make the mix more uniform)
 COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS

Typical set of powder metallurgy tools Powder metallurgy compacting cycle

 COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS
•Compaction is the step in which the blended powders are pressed into various
shapes in dies
•The purposes of compaction are to obtain the required shape, density, and
particle-to-particle contact and to make the part sufficiently strong for further
processing
•The powder (feedstock) is fed into the die by a feed shoe, and the upper punch
descends into the die.
•The presses used are actuated either hydraulically or mechanically, and the
process generally is carried out at room temperature, although it can be done at
elevated temperatures
•The pressed powder is known as green compact, it has a low strength, seen in
green parts in slip casting
•The green parts are very fragile (similar to chalk) and can crumble or become
damaged very easily; this situation is exacerbated by poor pressing practices.
•To obtain higher green strengths, the powder must be fed properly into the die
cavity and proper pressures must be developed throughout the part
 COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS
•The density of the green compact depends on the pressure applied
•As the compacting pressure is increased, the compact density approaches that
of the metal in its bulk form.
• An important factor in density is the size distribution of the particles.
•If all of the particles are of the same size, there always will be some porosity
when they are packed together, theoretically a porosity of at least 24% by
volume.
•Introducing smaller particles into the powder mix will fill the spaces between
the larger powder particles and thus result in a higher density of the compact
•The higher the density of the compacted part, the higher are its strength and
elastic modulus
•The reason is that the higher the density, the higher the amount of solid metal
in the same volume, and hence the greater its strength
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
The density of the green compact depends on the pressure applied
As the compacting pressure is increased, the compact density approaches that
of the metal in its bulk form
An important factor in density is the size distribution of the particles.
If all of the particles are of the same size, there always will be some porosity
when they are packed together, theoretically a porosity of at least 24% by
volume
Introducing smaller particles into the powder mix will fill the spaces between
the larger powder particles and thus result in a higher density of the compact
The higher the density of the compacted part, the higher are its strength and
elastic modulus
The reason is that the higher the density, the higher the amount of solid metal
in the same volume, and hence the greater its strength
 ISOSTATIC PRESSING
•Green compacts may be subjected
to hydrostatic pressure in order to
achieve more uniform compaction
and, hence, density
•In cold isostatic pressing (CIP),
the metal powder is placed in a
flexible rubber mould typically
made of neoprene rubber, urethane,
polyvinyl chloride, or another
elastomer
•The assembly then is pressurized
hydrostatically in a chamber,
usually using water.
• The most common pressure is 400
MPa, up to 1000 MPa may be used.
 HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING (HIP)
•In hot isostatic pressing (HIP), the container
generally is made of a high-melting-point sheet
metal and the pressurizing medium is high-
temperature inert gas or a vitreous (glass-like)
fluid
•Common conditions for HIP are pressures as
high as 100 MPa-although they can be three
times as high and temperatures of 1200°C
•The main advantage of HIP is its ability to
produce compacts having almost 100% density,
good metallurgical bonding of the particles, and
good mechanical properties.
•The HIP process is used mainly to produce
super alloy components for the aircraft and
aerospace industries and in military, medical
and chemical applications
 ADVANTAGES OF HIP
•Because of the uniformity of pressure from all directions and the absence of die-
wall friction, it produces fully dense compacts of practically uniform grain
structure and density (hence, isotropic properties), irrespective of part shape.
•Parts with high length-to-diameter ratios have been produced with very uniform
density, strength, toughness, and good surface detail.
•HIP is capable of handling much larger parts than those in other compacting
processes
Limitations of HIP
•Wider dimensional tolerances are needed than those obtained in other compacting
processes
•HIP requires higher equipment cost and production time than are required by other
processes
•HIP is applicable only to relatively small production quantities, typically less than
10,000 parts per year.
 SINTERING
•Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder perform to a specific
temperature (below the melting temperature of the principle powder particles
while well above the temperature that would allow diffusion between the
neighbouring particles).
•Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder particles
and increase in the strength of the final part.
•The heating process must be carried out in a controlled, inert or reducing
atmosphere or in vacuum for very critical parts to prevent oxidation.
• Prior to the sintering process, the compacted powder perform is brittle and
confirm to very low green strength.
•The nature and strength of the bond between the particles depends on the
mechanism of diffusion and plastic flow of the powder particles, and
evaporation of volatile material from the in the compacted preform
 SINTERING (CONT…)
•Bonding among the powder particles takes places in three ways:
(1) Melting of minor constituents in the powder particles,
(2) Diffusion between the powder particles, and
(3) Mechanical bonding.
•The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors
that control the sintering process.
•Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the
incipient holes and increasing the area of contact among the powder particles
in the compact perform.
 SINTERING MECHANISMS
•Sintering mechanisms are complex and depend on the composition of the metal
particles as well as on the processing parameters.
The sintering mechanisms are
1. Diffusion,
2. Vapour-phase transport, and
3. Liquid-phase sintering
•As the temperature increases, two adjacent powder particles begin to form a
bond by a diffusion mechanism as a result, the strength, density, ductility, and
thermal and electrical conductivities of the compact increase.
•At the same the compact shrinks.
•Allowances should be made for shrinkage, as are done in casting.
 SOLID-STATE DIFFUSION
PROCESS & LIQUID-PHASE TRANSPORT

Sintering of compact preform using solid-state diffusion between powder particles

Sintering of compact preform using liquid-phase transport between powder particle

 VAPOUR-PHASE TRANSPORT &
LIQUID-PHASE SINTERING
•The material is heated to very close to its melting temperature, metal atoms
will be released to the vapour phase from the particles.
•At convergent geometries (the interface of two particles), the melting
temperature is locally higher and the vapour phase resolidifies.
•Thus, the interface grows and strengthens while each particle shrinks as a
whole
•If two adjacent particles are of different metals, alloying can take place at the
interface of the two particles.
•If one of the particles has a lower melting point than the other, the particle will
melt and (because of surface tension) surround the particle that has not
melted.
•An example of this mechanism, known as liquid-phase sintering, is cobalt in
tungsten-carbide tools and dies
•Stronger and denser parts can be obtained in this way
 SPARK SINTERING & MICROWAVE
SINTERING
•In spark sintering loose metal powders are placed in a graphite mould, heated
by electric current, subjected to a high-energy discharge, and compacted-all in
one step.
•Another technique under development is microwave sintering, which reduces
sintering times and thereby prevents grain growth, which can adversely affect
strength.
 IMPREGNATION
•The inherent porosity of PM components can be utilized by impregnating
them with a fluid.
•Bearings and bushings that are lubricated internally with up to 30% oil by
volume are made by immersing the sintered bearing in heated oil.
•These bearings have a continuous supply of lubricant (due to capillary action)
during their service lives (also referred to as permanently lubricated).
•Universal joints also are made by means of grease-impregnated PM
techniques, thus no longer requiring traditional grease fittings.
 INFILTRATION
•Infiltration is a process whereby a slug of a lower-melting-point metal is placed
in contact with the sintered part.
•The assembly is then heated to a temperature sufficiently high to melt the slug.
• The molten metal infiltrates the pores by capillary action and produces a
relatively pore-free part having good density and strength.
•The most common application is the infiltration of iron-based compacts by
copper or bronze.
•The advantages of infiltration are that the hardness and tensile strength of the
part are improved and the pores are filled, thus preventing moisture penetration
(which could cause corrosion).
•Some porosity is desirable when an infiltrant is used, the part may be sintered
only partially, resulting in lower thermal warpage
 LIMITATIONS OF PM
•High cost of metal powders compared to the cost of raw material used for
casting or forging a component. A few powders are even difficult to store
without some deterioration.
•High cost of tooling and equipment. This is particularly a limitation when
production volumes are small.
•Large or complex shaped parts are difficult to produce by PM process.
•Parts have lower ductility and strength than those produced by forging.
•Uniformly high – density products are difficult to produce.
•Some powders (such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium) in a
finally divided state present fire hazard and risk of explosion.
•Low melting point metal powders (such as of zinc, tin, cadmium) give thermal
difficulties during sintering operation, as most oxides of these metals cannot
be reduced at temperatures below the melting point.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLERS (PLC)
•A programmable logic controller can be defined as a microcomputer-based
controller that uses stored instructions in programmable memory to
implement logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic functions
through digital or analogue input/output modules, for controlling machines
and processes
•PLC applications are found in both the process industries and discrete
manufacturing, but it is primarily associated with the latter industries to
control machines, transfer lines and material handling equipment
•Before the PLC was introduced around 1970, hard-wired controllers
composed of relays, coils, counters, timers, and similar components were
used to implement this type of industrial control
•There are significant advantages in using a PLC rather than conventional
relays, timers, counters, and other hardware elements
 ADVANTAGES OF PLC
1. Programming the PLC is easier than wiring the relay control panel
2. The PLC can be reprogrammed whereas conventional controls must be
rewired and are often scrapped instead
3. PLC take less floor space than do relay control panels
4. Reliability of the PLC is greater and maintenance is easier
5. The PLC can be connected to computer systems more easily than relays
6. PLCs can perform a greater variety of control functions than can relay
controls
COMPONENTS OF PLC
 COMPONENTS OF PLC
POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic level
signals inside the PLC and the field’s high level signal.
PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire PLC
systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
Used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of
operation and control of process equipment or driven machine
 PLC OPERATING CYCLE
The typical operating cycle of the PLC, called a scan, consists of three parts:
(1) Input scan: During the input scan, the inputs to the PLC are read by the
processor and the status of these inputs is stored in memory
(2) Program scan : The control program is executed during the program scan.
The input values stored in memory are used in the control logic calculations to
determine the values of the outputs
(3) Output scan : The outputs are updated to agree with the calculated
values. The time to perform the scan is called the scan time, and this time
depends on the number of inputs that must he read, the complexity of control
functions to he performed, and the number of outputs that must be changed.
Scan, time also depends on the clock speed of the processor. Scan times
typically vary between l and 25 msec
 HISTORY OF MANUFACTURING
•Construction of simple production machines and mechanization started in
1770,at the beginning of Industrial Revolution
•Fixed automatic machines and transfer lines for mass production
•Machine(m/c) tools with simple automatic control
•Introduction of Numerical Control (NC) in 1952 opened a new era of
automation
•Logical extension of NC was Computer Numerical Control (CNC) for m/c
tools
•Industrial robots were developed simultaneously with CNC systems. First
commercial robot was manufactured in 1961
•Fully automatic factory which employs a Flexible Manufacturing System
(FMS) & Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAD/CAM) techniques is the next logical extension
 NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)
•Programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a machine tool or
other equipment are controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric
data.
•The alphanumerical data represent relative positions between a work head and a
workpart t as well as instructions needed to operate the machine.
•The applications of NC divide into two categories:
(1) Machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning, and other
metal working
(2) Non machine tool applications, such as assembly, drafting, and inspection.
 ADVANTAGES OF NC SYSTEMS

•Non-productive time is reduced

•Greater accuracy and repeatability
•Lower scrap rates
•Inspection requirements are reduced
•More-complex part geometries are possible
•Engineering changes can be accommodated more gracefully
•Simpler fixtures are needed
•Shorter manufacturing lead times
•Reduced parts inventory
•Less floor space required
•Operator skill-level requirements are reduced
 COMPONENTS OF NC SYSTEM

NC System consists of three basic components:

1. Part program
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3.Processing equipment
 PART PROGRAM
•The program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step commands that direct
the actions of the processing equipment
•In machine tool applications, the program of instructions is called a part
program
•The person who prepares the program is called a part programmer
•In these applications, the individual commands refer to positions of a cutting
tool relative to the worktable on which the work part is fixed
•Additional instructions are usually included, such as speed, feed rate , cutting
tool selection, and other functions
 MACHINE CONTROL UNIT (MCU)

•MCU consists or a microcomputer and related control hardware that stores

the program of instructions and executes it by converting each command into
mechanical actions of the processing equipment
•The related hardware of the MCU includes components to interface with the
processing equipment and feedback control elements.
•MCU also includes one or more reading devices for entering part programs
into memory
•MCU also includes control system software, calculation algorithms, and
translation software to convert the NC part program into a usable format for
the MCU
 MACHINE CONTROL UNIT (MCU)

•MCU consists of two main units: data processing unit (DPU) and control
loop unit (CLU)
•The function of DPU is to decode the information received from the tape,
process it, and provide data to CLU
•Data contains the new required position of each axis, its direction of motion
and velocity, and auxiliary control signals
•CLU provides a signal announcing that the previous segment is completed and
that DPU can read new block of part program
•CLU operates drives attached to the machine leadscrews and receives
feed back signals on the actual position and velocity of each one of the axes
 PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

The third basic component of an NC system that performs useful work

It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting workpiece into a
completed part
Its operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instruction,
contained in the part program
 BLU( BASIC LENGTH UNIT)

•Also known as increment size or bit weight

•The part dimensions are expressed in part program by integers
•Each unit corresponding to the position resolution of the axes of motion and is
referred to as the basic length unit (BLU)
 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEMS

Classification of NC machine tool systems can be done in four ways

1. According to the type of machine : Point-to-point and Contouring
(continuous path)
2. According to the structure of controller : hardware based NC and CNC
3. According to the programming method: Incremental and Absolute
4. According to the type of control: Open loop and Closed loop
POINT-TO-POINT AND CONTOURING
 POINT-TO-POINT(PTP) AND
CONTOURING
•Example of PTP NC m/c tool is a
drilling m/c
•The workpiece is moved with
respect to cutting tool until it
arrives at a numerically defined
position and then motion is stopped
•In PTP system, the path of cutting
tool and its feed rate are less
significant
•The system requires only position
counters for controlling the final
position of the tool upon reaching
the work to be accomplished
•Example of contouring NC m/c tool is
milling m/c
•The position of the cutting tool at the
end of each segment together with the
ratio between the axial velocities
determine the desired contour of the
part, and at the same time the resultant
feed affects the surface finish
•The system has to contain continuous
position control loops in addition to
position counters
•Dimensional information is given on
the tape separately for each axis and is
fed through the DPU to appropriate
position counter
 NC AND CNC

•Employs electronic hardware •Employs mini or micro computers to

based on digital circuit technology control the m/c tool
•Digital controllers in hardware- •Increase in system flexibility and
based NC system employs voltage improvement in possibility for
pulses correcting part programs
•Pulse= BLU •In CNC computer each bit (binary digit)
represents 1 BLU
•In NC the punched tape is moved
forward by one block and read •Bit= BLU
each time the cutting of a segment
is completed •In CNC tape is read one time only and
stored in the memory before machining
•During the production of each starts
part, the tape is read again
•Tape reading errors are eliminated in
CNC
INCREMENTAL AND ABSOLUTE
SYSTEMS
 INCREMENTAL AND ABSOLUTE
SYSTEMS

•Incremental systems is one in •In an absolute system all moving

which the reference pint to the commands are referred to one
next instruction is the endpoint reference point and is called zero
of the preceding operation point
E.g.: X+500 E.g.: X+500
X+200 X+700
X+600 X+1300
X- 300 X+1000
X- 700 X+300
X- 300 X 0
 ZERO POINT
•In an absolute system all moving commands are referred to one reference
point and is called zero point
•The position commands are given as absolute distance from that zero point
•Zero point may be defined as a point outside the workpiece or at a corner of
the part
•If a mounting fixture is used, it would be convenient to select a point on the
fixture as zero point
OPEN- LOOP AND CLOSED –LOOP
SYSTEMS
Open- Loop Digital Control

Closed Loop Digital Control

 OPEN- LOOP AND CLOSED –LOOP
SYSTEMS
•In open-loop system there is no
feed back
•Open- loop NC systems are of
digital type and use stepping motor
for driving the slides
•A stepping motor is a device whose
o/p shaft rotates trough a fixed
angle in response to an I/P pulse
•Since there is no feedback from the
slide position , the system accuracy
is solely a function of the motor’s
ability to step through the exact
number of steps which is provided
at its I/P
•The closed-loop control measures
the actual position and velocity of
the axis and compares them with
the desired references
•The difference between the actual
and the desired values is the error
•The control is designed in such a
way as to eliminate, or reduce, to
minimise, the error
•The digital comparator correlates
the two sequences and gives, by
means of DAC, a signal
representing position error of the
system, which is used to drive the
dc servo motor