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Complex Numbers
The real number system. Primary and high school
arithmetic uses numbers that we call real. For
example, the numbers
1 √
0, 73, −2 , 2, π − e2, . . . .
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and so on are real numbers. We will denote the real
number system by R. We visualize R as an infinitely
long line:
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The real number system R has two basic operations.
These are addition and multiplication. The basic
rules which govern these operations (eg x + y = y + x)
are called the ‘usual rules of arithmetic’.
There are two very special real numbers:
• the number 0, which is neutral for addition. That is
x + 0 is always still x.
• the number 1, which is neutral for multiplication.
These numbers are called the additive and
multiplicative identities for R.
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Algebraic number systems
Remember back to primary school? You started with
the natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }, with the
operations of addition and multiplication. But
subtraction and division were sometimes a problem, eg
x + iy
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√
But is this really OK? Can you just invent i = −1?
To avoid the problem you can do the following:
A complex ‘number’ z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real
numbers x, y. For any two complex numbers
z1 = (x1, y1), z2 = (x2, y2), we define the sum z1 + z2
and the product z1 × z2 = z1z2 by setting
and
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Definition. Let F be a non-empty set of elements for which a rule
of addition and a rule of multiplication are defined. Then the
system is a field if the following twelve axioms are satisfied.
1. Closure under Addition. If x, y ∈ F then x + y ∈ F.
2. Associative Law of Addition. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) for all x, y, z ∈ F.
3. Commutative Law of Addition. x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ F.
4. Existence of a Zero. There exists an element of F (usually written as 0)
such that 0 + x = x + 0 = x for all x ∈ F.
5. Existence of a Negative. For each x ∈ F, there exists an element w ∈ F
(usually written as −x) such that x + w = w + x = 0.
6. Closure under Multiplication. If x, y ∈ F then xy ∈ F.
7. Associative Law of Multiplication. x(yz) = (xy)z for all x, y, z ∈ F.
8. Commutative Law of Multiplication. xy = yx for all x, y ∈ F.
9. Existence of a One. There exists a non-zero element of F (usually
written as 1) such that x1 = 1x = x for all x ∈ F.
10. Existence of an Inverse for Multiplication. For each non-zero x ∈ F,
there exists an element w of F (usually written as 1/x or x−1 ) such that
xw = wx = 1.
11. Distributive Law. x(y + z) = xy + xz for all x, y, z ∈ F.
12. Distributive Law. (x + y)z = xz + yz, for all x, y, z ∈ F.
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However, we now have
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Bottom line:
There is a field (C, +, ×) which contains a copy of R
and in which every real number has a square root.
This field is essentially unique!
As we’ll see, all elements of C have square roots, and
indeed every complex polynomial has a root, so there is
no need to look for any bigger field.
For now on we’ll almost always write z = x + iy rather
than z = (x, y), but thinking of complex numbers as
ordered pairs tells us how to geometrically visualize C.
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Every complex number z = (x, y) immediately can be
identified with a point with coordinates (x, y) in the
(Argand) plane. The rule for addition has a nice
geometric interpretation in terms of parallelograms.
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Properties of the Complex Conjugate. If z, w ∈ C:
1. z = z.
2. z + w = z + w and z − w = z − w.
z z
3. zw = z w and = .
w w
4. Re(z) = 1 1
2 (z + z) and Im(z) = 2i (z − z).
5. If z = x + iy, then zz = x2 + y 2, so zz ∈ R and zz ≥ 0.
Proof.
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Polar form
To specify a point in the plane we don’t always use
‘Cartesian’ x-y coordinates. You could also say that z
is r units from the origin in direction θ.
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ.
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Terminology: The distance r is known as the
modulus of z, and denoted |z|.
The angle θ is called the argument, but this is more
complicated. For z = i you could take θ = 3π/2 or
θ = −π/2 or . . . .
To be specific we shall define the principal argument
of z, denoted Arg(z), to be the unique value of θ which
satisfies −π < Arg(z) ≤ π.
z = reiθ .
For example
√
π π √
1+i= 2 cos + i sin = 2 eiπ/4.
4 4
??? What does e have to do with this ???
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Aside
In second year we’ll see how to make sense of cos z,
sin z, ez , . . . for complex numbers z. One way of doing
this is via ‘infinite polynomials’:
z2 z4 z6
cos z =1− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
z3 z5 z7
sin z =z− + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
z2 z3 z4
ez =1+z+ + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
Plug z = iθ into the bottom formula and you get
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Thus: r1eiθ1 r2eiθ2 = (r1r2)ei(θ1+θ2).
Geometrically, this says that when you multiply
complex numbers, you multiply the moduli and
add the angles.
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eiπ + 1 = 0
C. F. Gauss said:
mathematician’ !
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n
De Moivre’s Theorem. For n ∈ Z, e iθ = einθ .
Proof.
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=
= Re cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ +
= cos3 θ −
= cos3 θ −
= 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.
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Since
we have
eiθ + e−iθ eiθ − e−iθ
cos θ = , and i sin θ = .
2 2
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1 1 3
Example: Prove that sin4 θ = cos 4θ − cos 2θ + .
8 2 8
⎛ ⎞4
4 ⎝
eiθ − e−iθ ⎠
sin θ =
2i
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Geometry
What we have covered so far shows that we can write
many of the standard transformations of the plane in
terms of complex arithmetic.
• T (z) = z + a
• T (z) = eiθ z
• T (z) = z
Exercise: Describe geometrically what the
transformation T (z) = i(z − i) does to points in the
plane.
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S = {z ∈ C : |z − i| ≤ 3}
T = {z ∈ C : 0 ≤ Arg(z − 1 + i) ≤ π/2}
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Typical exam question: Sketch the set
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Remember the main properties of |z| and z:
• zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y 2 = |z|2.
• z + z = 2Re(z).
• |z| = z .
• |zw| = |z||w|.
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Thus
|z + w|2 = (z + w)(z + w)
= (z + w)(z + w)
= zz + zw + wz + ww
= |z|2 + zw + zw + |w|2
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw) + |w|2
≤ |z|2 + 2|zw| + |w|2
= (|z| + |w|)2
and hence
|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|
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Example. Solve z 4 = i.
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Example. Solve z 2 − 2iz + 4 = 0.
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Example. Solve z 6 − 3z 5 + z 3 − 7z + 3 = 0.
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Complex functions
The last slide gives an example of a complex function,
that is, a function which takes a complex number as its
input and gives a complex number as its output. eg
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Complex polynomials
Definition. A function p : C → C of the form
z + c0 = 0
z 2 + c1 z + c0 = 0
where c0, c1 ∈ C.
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What about higher degree polynomials like
p(z) = z 4 − 2iz + 4?
Definition. A root of a polynomial p is any number
α ∈ C such that p(α) = 0.
eg The polynomial p(z) = z 4 − 1 has two real roots,
, and two complex roots,
• p(z) = z 2 + 1 has no real roots of course.
In the 16th century Ferro, Tartaglia, Cardano,. . . ,
discovered how to solve cubics. eg p(z) = z 3 + pz + q
has a root
2 2
3 −q
q
p3 3 −q
q
p3
z= + + + − + .
2 4 27 2 4 27
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Definition. Let p, q be complex polynomials of degree
at least 1. Then q is a factor of p if there is a
polynomial r such that p = qr.
eg. z − 1 is a factor of z 3 − 1 as
z 3 − 1 = (z − 1)(z 2 − z + 1).
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The terms (z − αj ) are called linear factors of p. So a
degree n polynomial has n, not necessarily distinct,
linear factors.
[Subtle point: This factorization is unique apart from
jumbling up the order of the terms. ]
In an example like
p(z) = (z − 3)4(z − i)2(z + 1)
we say that (z − 3) is a factor of multiplicity 4, and
that 3 is a root of multiplicity 4.
Thus p(z) =
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Notice that in this example, the complex roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs. This always happens when
the coefficient of p are real.
Theorem. Suppose that α is a root of a polynomial p
with real coefficients. Then α is also a root of p.
Proof.
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(z − α)(z − α) = z 2 − (α + α)z + αα
= z2 − z+ .
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Example. Let p(z) = z 4 + 1. We saw that this has
four complex linear factors
(z − e3iπ/4)(z − e−3iπ/4) =
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Problem. Where in the complex plane are the roots of
p(z) = z 5 − 3z + 1
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