Chapter 1

Complex Numbers
The real number system. Primary and high school
arithmetic uses numbers that we call real. For
example, the numbers
1 √
0, 73, −2 , 2, π − e2, . . . .
5
and so on are real numbers. We will denote the real
number system by R. We visualize R as an infinitely
long line:

Within the set R we have

• Natural numbers, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
• Integers, Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }.
 
p
• Rational numbers, Q = q : p, q ∈ Z, q = 0 .
• Postive numbers, R+ = {x ∈ R : x > 0}.
• Irrational numbers, i.e. those that aren’t in Q.
and many other subsets of numbers.

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The real number system R has two basic operations.
These are addition and multiplication. The basic
rules which govern these operations (eg x + y = y + x)
are called the ‘usual rules of arithmetic’.
There are two very special real numbers:
• the number 0, which is neutral for addition. That is
x + 0 is always still x.
• the number 1, which is neutral for multiplication.
These numbers are called the additive and
multiplicative identities for R.

The operations of subtraction and division are a bit

different:
• x − y is usually not the same as y − x.
• x ÷ y is usually not the same as y ÷ x.
• x ÷ 0 isn’t even defined!
Subtraction is obviously related to addition:
• −x is the number which you can add to x to get the
additive identity 0.
Similarly, 1
x is the number you can multiply by x to get
the multiplicative identity 1.

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Algebraic number systems
Remember back to primary school? You started with
the natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }, with the
operations of addition and multiplication. But
subtraction and division were sometimes a problem, eg

3 apples − 7 apples =???

But some applications require sums like 5 ÷ 2 or 3 − 7,

so extended number systems, like Q+, and Z were
introduced.
When you get to geometry, you run into problems you
can’t solve in Q, so you extend to an even larger
system (R, +, ×). [Just what is a real number?]
4

Problem. Some polynomial equations, like x2 = −1 or

x4 + 3x2 + x + 1 = 0, have no solutions in R.
If you try to solve x2 + x + 1 = 0 using the quadratic
formula you get
√
−1 ± −3
x= .
2
√
What sense can you make of −3?

Question. Can you extend R to a bigger set of

‘numbers’ in which you can solve these equations?
And can you do it in more than one way??
5
Almost all of you will have seen that complex numbers
consist of the set C of expressions of the form

x + iy

where x and y are real, and the symbol i has the

property that i2 = −1. One applies the arithmetic
operations just as one does in algebra, except that
every time i2 appears, you replace it with −1:

(x + iy)(u + iv) = xu + iyu + xiv + iyiv

= xu + iyu + ixv + i2yv
= (xu − yv) + i(yu + xv).

Thus, the product of two complex numbers is another

complex number!
I’ll assume that you can all do complex arithmetic!
If you haven’t met complex numbers, it is pretty easy
but you’ll need to practice:
(2 + i) ÷ (4 + 5i) =

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 √
But is this really OK? Can you just invent i = −1?
To avoid the problem you can do the following:
A complex ‘number’ z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real
numbers x, y. For any two complex numbers
z1 = (x1, y1), z2 = (x2, y2), we define the sum z1 + z2
and the product z1 × z2 = z1z2 by setting

z1 + z2 := (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)

and

z1z2 := (x1x2 − y1y2, x1y2 + x2y1).

Let’s write (D, +, ×) for this system.

But are these (x, y) pairs ‘numbers’ ?

The ‘usual rules of arithmetic’ are encoded by the
axioms for a type of algebraic system called a field.
Loosely, a field is a system where you can add,
subtract, multiply and divide — and stay inside the
system.
Fields: R and Q.
Not fields: N and R+ (can’t always subtract);
Z (can’t always divide).

9
Definition. Let F be a non-empty set of elements for which a rule
of addition and a rule of multiplication are defined. Then the
system is a field if the following twelve axioms are satisfied.
1. Closure under Addition. If x, y ∈ F then x + y ∈ F.
2. Associative Law of Addition. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) for all x, y, z ∈ F.
3. Commutative Law of Addition. x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ F.
4. Existence of a Zero. There exists an element of F (usually written as 0)
such that 0 + x = x + 0 = x for all x ∈ F.
5. Existence of a Negative. For each x ∈ F, there exists an element w ∈ F
(usually written as −x) such that x + w = w + x = 0.
6. Closure under Multiplication. If x, y ∈ F then xy ∈ F.
7. Associative Law of Multiplication. x(yz) = (xy)z for all x, y, z ∈ F.
8. Commutative Law of Multiplication. xy = yx for all x, y ∈ F.
9. Existence of a One. There exists a non-zero element of F (usually
written as 1) such that x1 = 1x = x for all x ∈ F.
10. Existence of an Inverse for Multiplication. For each non-zero x ∈ F,
there exists an element w of F (usually written as 1/x or x−1 ) such that
xw = wx = 1.
11. Distributive Law. x(y + z) = xy + xz for all x, y, z ∈ F.
12. Distributive Law. (x + y)z = xz + yz, for all x, y, z ∈ F.

10

It is really tedious to check, but the system (D, +, ×)

we defined is a field.
The ‘zero element’ is (0, 0).
The ‘one element’ is (1, 0).
Note what happens when the second coordinate is zero:

(x1, 0) + (x2, 0) = (x1 + x2, 0)

(x1, 0)(x2, 0) = (x1x2, 0).

Thus if you identify any real number x with the ordered

pair (x, 0) ∈ D you see that you have a copy of R sitting
as a subset of D. In this setting (2, 0) and (−4, 0) are
identified with the real numbers 2 and −4.

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However, we now have

(0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) ‘=’ − 1

so there is an element of D whose square is −1.

Let’s call this element i.
If x = (x, 0) and y = (y, 0) are real numbers in D then

x + iy = (x, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = (x, y).

Indeed all the formulas for the operations match up

whether you deal with pairs (x, y) or expressions x + iy
with i2 = −1 (check!), so D and C are really the same!

12

Bottom line:
There is a field (C, +, ×) which contains a copy of R
and in which every real number has a square root.
This field is essentially unique!
As we’ll see, all elements of C have square roots, and
indeed every complex polynomial has a root, so there is
no need to look for any bigger field.
For now on we’ll almost always write z = x + iy rather
than z = (x, y), but thinking of complex numbers as
ordered pairs tells us how to geometrically visualize C.

13
Every complex number z = (x, y) immediately can be
identified with a point with coordinates (x, y) in the
(Argand) plane. The rule for addition has a nice
geometric interpretation in terms of parallelograms.

The rule for multiplication looks more complicated?

14

Rather than the ‘x and y coordinates’ of a complex

number z we talk about the real and imaginary parts.
Definition. Suppose that z = x + iy (with x, y ∈ R!).
Then
• The real part of z is Re(z) = x.
• the imaginary part of z is Im(z) = y.
Note: The imaginary part of z is real! eg Im(3 − 2i) = −2.
Definition. The complex conjugate of z = x + iy ∈ C
is z := x − iy.
Example. 3 − 2i =
z is the reflection of z in the x-axis.

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Properties of the Complex Conjugate. If z, w ∈ C:
1. z = z.
2. z + w = z + w and z − w = z − w.
 
z z
3. zw = z w and = .
w w
4. Re(z) = 1 1
2 (z + z) and Im(z) = 2i (z − z).
5. If z = x + iy, then zz = x2 + y 2, so zz ∈ R and zz ≥ 0.
Proof.

16

Polar form
To specify a point in the plane we don’t always use
‘Cartesian’ x-y coordinates. You could also say that z
is r units from the origin in direction θ.

We always specify the angle in radians, going

anticlockwise from the positive real axis!
17
If you know r and θ then it is easy to find x and y:

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ.

Example. Find the Cartesian coordinates of z if r = 2

and θ = 3π/4.

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Finding r and θ from the Cartesian form is easy if you

draw a diagram and turn on your brain.

r= x2 + y 2
y
tan θ = .
x
The temptation is to write θ = tan−1(y/x), but if you
do that mindlessly you’ll end up in the wrong quadrant.
√
Example. Find r and θ for z = −1 − 3i. (or z = i)

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Terminology: The distance r is known as the
modulus of z, and denoted |z|.
The angle θ is called the argument, but this is more
complicated. For z = i you could take θ = 3π/2 or
θ = −π/2 or . . . .
To be specific we shall define the principal argument
of z, denoted Arg(z), to be the unique value of θ which
satisfies −π < Arg(z) ≤ π.

[z = 0 is a problem! Obviously |0| = 0, but Arg(0) is

undefined.]
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Specifying z using r and θ is known as the polar form

of z:

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

At school this is sometimes written as z = r cis(θ).

This is for children! At university we write this in the
neater polar form

z = reiθ .

For example
√ 
π π √
1+i= 2 cos + i sin = 2 eiπ/4.
4 4
??? What does e have to do with this ???

21
Aside
In second year we’ll see how to make sense of cos z,
sin z, ez , . . . for complex numbers z. One way of doing
this is via ‘infinite polynomials’:
z2 z4 z6
cos z =1− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
z3 z5 z7
sin z =z− + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
z2 z3 z4
ez =1+z+ + + + ...
2! 3! 4!
Plug z = iθ into the bottom formula and you get

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.

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That doesn’t prove anything, but is just to let you

know that the notation isn’t completely crazy!
Our first big theorem shows why it is good notation.

Theorem. eiθ1 eiθ2 = ei(θ1+θ2).

Translating this, we have to prove that

(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) × (cos θ2 + i sin θ2)

= (cos(θ1 + θ2) + i sin(θ1 + θ2)).

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Thus: r1eiθ1 r2eiθ2 = (r1r2)ei(θ1+θ2).
Geometrically, this says that when you multiply
complex numbers, you multiply the moduli and
add the angles.

|z1z2| = |z1| |z2| (Do a Cartesian proof)

Arg(z1z2) = Arg(z1) + Arg(z2) (nearly)

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There are some important special case:

ei0 = cos 0 + i sin 0 =

eiπ/2 = cos π/2 + i sin π/2 =
eiπ = cos π + i sin π = .

The last gives Euler’s beautiful identity

eiπ + 1 = 0

linking the 5 most important constants in mathematics!

C. F. Gauss said:

‘if this formula was not immediately apparent to a student upon

being told it, that student would never be a first-class

mathematician’ !
25

n
De Moivre’s Theorem. For n ∈ Z, e iθ = einθ .

Proof.

26

Example: Prove that cos(3θ) = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.

 
cos 3θ = Re ei3θ

=

= Re cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ +

= cos3 θ −

= cos3 θ −

= 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.

27
Since

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

e−iθ = cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)
= cos θ − i sin θ

we have
eiθ + e−iθ eiθ − e−iθ
cos θ = , and i sin θ = .
2 2

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1 1 3
Example: Prove that sin4 θ = cos 4θ − cos 2θ + .
8 2 8
⎛ ⎞4
4 ⎝
eiθ − e−iθ ⎠
sin θ =
2i

ei4θ − 4ei2θ + 6 − 4e−i2θ + e−i4θ

=
16

ei4θ + e−i4θ ei2θ + e−i2θ 6

= −4 +
16 16 16
1 1 3
= cos 4θ − cos 2θ + .
8 2 8

[Thus sin4 θ dθ =

29
Geometry
What we have covered so far shows that we can write
many of the standard transformations of the plane in
terms of complex arithmetic.
• T (z) = z + a
• T (z) = eiθ z
• T (z) = z
Exercise: Describe geometrically what the
transformation T (z) = i(z − i) does to points in the
plane.

30

If z and w are complex numbers then |z − w| is the

distance from w to z, and Arg(z − w) is the direction
from w to z. Thus

S = {z ∈ C : |z − i| ≤ 3}

is the disk centred at i = (0, 1) with radius 3. The set

T = {z ∈ C : 0 ≤ Arg(z − 1 + i) ≤ π/2}

is the set of all the points z for which the direction

from 1 − i lies between 0 and π/2.
[For the pedants: 1 − i ∈ T ]

31
Typical exam question: Sketch the set

S = {z ∈ C : Re(z) ≤ 2 and −π/4 ≤ Arg(z − 1) ≤ π/4}.

32

Suppose that z, w ∈ C. As we saw earlier, the points

0, z, w, z + w form a parallelogram.

The sides of the parallelogram have length |z| or |w|.

The diagonals have lengths |z + w| and |z − w|.

33
Remember the main properties of |z| and z:
• zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y 2 = |z|2.
• z + z = 2Re(z).
 
• |z| = z .
• |zw| = |z||w|.

[In polar form the first two are:

• reiθ re−iθ = r 2.
• reiθ + re−iθ = 2r cos θ.]

34

Thus

|z + w|2 = (z + w)(z + w)
= (z + w)(z + w)
= zz + zw + wz + ww
= |z|2 + zw + zw + |w|2
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw) + |w|2
≤ |z|2 + 2|zw| + |w|2
= (|z| + |w|)2

and hence

|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|

which is known as the Triangle Inequality.

35
Maple
The Computer Algebra System Maple works in the
complex field by default:
z:=3+4*I; (sets z = 3 + 4i)
z^120; (calculate z 120)
Re(z); (give Re(z))
Im(z); (give Im(z))
abs(z); (calculate |z|)
argument(z); (calculate Arg(z))
exp(I*Pi/2); (calculate eiπ/2)
evalc(3*exp(I*Pi/5)); (write 3eiπ/5 in Cartesian form)
polar(z); (write z in polar form)

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Powers and n-th roots

Polar form allows us to find n-th powers and n-th roots
of a complex number.
Example. Find w = (1 + i)8.
[Dumb way: multiply out (1 + i)(1 + i) . . . (1 + i)]

37
Example. Solve z 4 = i.

38

This example shows something that is true more

generally.
Suppose that 0 = z0 ∈ C is given and n ∈ Z+. Then the
equation z n = z0 has exactly n solutions. These all
lie equally spaced on the circle centred at the origin
with radius |z0|1/n.
Arg(z0)
One solution has argument , and from this you
n
can see where the remaining solutions lie.

39
Example. Solve z 2 − 2iz + 4 = 0.

40

Example. Solve z 6 − 3z 5 + z 3 − 7z + 3 = 0.

41
Complex functions
The last slide gives an example of a complex function,
that is, a function which takes a complex number as its
input and gives a complex number as its output. eg

f (x + iy) = cos(x) + iexy

g(z) = z 3 + z 2 + z + 1
h(z) = ln |z| + iArgz.

Conmplex functions have a very rich theory which is

quite different to that of real functions.

First issue: you can’t sketch the graph of f : C → C.

42

Complex polynomials
Definition. A function p : C → C of the form

p(z) = anz n + an−1z n−1 + · · · + a1z + a0

(with coefficients an, . . . , a0 ∈ C) is called a (complex)

polynomial.
The degree of p, written deg(p), is the highest power
with a non-zero coefficient.
We have seen, by example, that in C we can solve any
complex polynomial equation of the form

z + c0 = 0
z 2 + c1 z + c0 = 0

where c0, c1 ∈ C.
43
What about higher degree polynomials like
p(z) = z 4 − 2iz + 4?
Definition. A root of a polynomial p is any number
α ∈ C such that p(α) = 0.
eg The polynomial p(z) = z 4 − 1 has two real roots,
, and two complex roots,
• p(z) = z 2 + 1 has no real roots of course.
In the 16th century Ferro, Tartaglia, Cardano,. . . ,
discovered how to solve cubics. eg p(z) = z 3 + pz + q
has a root
   
  2   2
 
3 −q


q
 p3 3 −q


q
 p3
z= + + + − + .
2 4 27 2 4 27

44

Ferrari then worked out how to reduce a quartic, or

degree 4, equation to a cubic, and hence solve it.
In the 19th century, Ruffini, Abel, Galois,. . . showed
that no similar method of solving degree 5 or higher
polynomials is possible! Around the same time, Argand
(following Gauss), proved the following hard, and very
important theorem.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Every complex

polynomial of degree at least one has a root α ∈ C.

Actually, it a bit better than this sounds.

45
Definition. Let p, q be complex polynomials of degree
at least 1. Then q is a factor of p if there is a
polynomial r such that p = qr.

eg. z − 1 is a factor of z 3 − 1 as
z 3 − 1 = (z − 1)(z 2 − z + 1).

Factor Theorem. Let p be a complex polynomial of

degree at least one. Then z − α is a factor of p(z) if
and only if α is a root of p.

[First you need to show that you can always write

p(z) = (z − α)g(z) + p(α) where g is a polynomial of degree one

less than p.]

46

Putting the Factor Theorem and the Fundamental

Theorem of Algebra together says that if p is a
polynomial of degree n, then there exists α1 ∈ C such
that
p(z) = (z − α1)g1(z), where g1(z) has degree n − 1.
If n − 1 ≥ 1 then there exists α2 ∈ C such that
p(z) = (z − α1)(z − α2)g2(z)
where g1(z) has degree n − 2. Continuing, you get
p(z) = (z − α1)(z − α2) . . . (z − αn)c, with c ∈ C.
This almost says that that p has n roots — but some
of the αj might be the same.
[If z doesn’t equal some αj then RHS = 0.]

47
The terms (z − αj ) are called linear factors of p. So a
degree n polynomial has n, not necessarily distinct,
linear factors.
[Subtle point: This factorization is unique apart from
jumbling up the order of the terms. ]
In an example like
p(z) = (z − 3)4(z − i)2(z + 1)
we say that (z − 3) is a factor of multiplicity 4, and
that 3 is a root of multiplicity 4.

Theorem. If p is a complex polynomial of degree n,

then it has exactly n roots if they are counted
according to their multiplicity.
48

OK. So how do you find the roots?

In general this is hard — even numerically. There are
some things we can do.
Example. Write p(z) = z 4 + 1 as a product of linear
factors.
We need to find the roots of p. That is solve

p(z) = 0, ie, z 4 = −1.

The 4th roots of −1 lie equally spaced on the circle of

radius and one has argument , so the roots
are

Thus p(z) =
49
Notice that in this example, the complex roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs. This always happens when
the coefficient of p are real.
Theorem. Suppose that α is a root of a polynomial p
with real coefficients. Then α is also a root of p.
Proof.

50

Note that in such a case (z − α) and (z − α) are both

factors. If we multiply these together we get

(z − α)(z − α) = z 2 − (α + α)z + αα
= z2 − z+ .

which is a quadratic with real coefficients.

What we have essentially proven is:
Theorem. If p is a polynomial with real coeffients,
then it can be factorized as a product of real linear and
real quadratic terms.

51
Example. Let p(z) = z 4 + 1. We saw that this has
four complex linear factors

which come as two complex conjugate pairs.

Multiplying these pairs:

(z − eiπ/4)(z − e−iπ/4) = z 2 − (eiπ/4 + e−iπ/4)z + 1

(z − e3iπ/4)(z − e−3iπ/4) =

and so p has real factorization

p(z) =

52

Warning. Let p(z) = z 4 − 1. This factorizes as

p(z) = (z 2 − 1)(z 2 + 1).

but this isn’t the ‘full real factorization’ as the first

term has real roots rather than a pair of complex
conjugate roots. We say that the first term is
reducible, as it factors as z 2 − 1 = (z − 1)(z + 1), while
the second term is irreducible over the real numbers
as it doesn’t factor into real linear terms.
Typical wording: Factorize p(z) = . . . into real linear
and irreducible real quadratic factors.

53
Problem. Where in the complex plane are the roots of
p(z) = z 5 − 3z + 1

54