DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATE OF A TWIN-CELL

REINFORCED CONCRETE CULVERT IN YAWIRI, OYO

STATE

BY

AFOLABI, ADEDAMOLA OLALEKAN (07/30GB020)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN
ILORIN, NIGERIA.

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

JULY 2012
ii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty God and to my lovely parent

Mr. and Mrs. Ademola Afolabi.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All adoration and appreciation goes to God Almighty for his endless mercy,
favour, provision, guidance and protection. I appreciate the financial, moral
and spiritual support of my parents and siblings; it is immeasurable. Special
thanks to all my friends especially Obafemi Ajayi, Wale Adekola, Uzor,
Tunde Ibiyemi, Fikayo Abogunrin, Babatunde Oni and Rotimi Lawal who
helped me in the course of this project. God will bless, keep, guide and
protect you all.

I am grateful to my supervisor Dr O.G. Okeola for influencing, impacting,

improving and mentoring me by his constant words of encouragement and
actions. He has truly shown that knowledge can only be reinforced by
cultivating an attitude of constant reading.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

Title Page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of Content v

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

Abstract x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem 2

1.2 Objective of Study 2

1.3 Scope of the Study 3

1.4 The Study Area 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Review 6

2.2 Types of Box Culverts 9

2.2.1 Full box 9

2.2.2 Portal and base 9

v
 2.2.3 Large duct and lid 10

2.2.4 Twin-cell structure 11

2.3 Culvert Geometry 11

2.3.1 Shape of drains 12

2.3.2 Best Hydraulic Section 13

2.3.3 Culvert Cells 13

2.3.4 Beveled Edge in Box Culvert Inlet 14

2.4 Screens 14

2.5 Concrete Box Girder Cell Determination 15

2.6 Flow Conditions 15

2.7 Appurtenant Structures 18

2.7.1 Circular to square transition 18

2.7.2 Headwalls and wingwalls 19
2.7.3 Apron slabs 19
2.8 Loads on Culverts 20

2.9 Bending Moments in Box Culverts 20

2.10 Design Procedures 21

2.10.1 Nomographs 21

2.11 Steps in Design Procedure 22

2.12 Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement 23
2.13 Preparation of the Bill of Quantities 23
2.13.1 Introduction 23
2.13.2 Preamble 24
2.13.3 Preliminaries 24

vi
 2.13.4 Coding and numbering 24
2.14 Project Cost Estimation 25
2.14.1 Preliminary estimates 25
2.14.2 Cost per function 25
2.14.3 Unit area cost 25
2.15 Market Survey 26

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Flood Estimation 27

3.1.1 Analysis of flow data 27

3.1.2 Runoff modeling 27

3.1.3 Regionalized flood formulae 22

3.2 Structural Analysis and Design 31

3.2.1 Loading 31

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Computation of Concrete Volume and Cost 48

4.2 Computation of Reinforcement Tonnage 48

4.3 Bar bending schedule 49

4.4 Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluation 50

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 51

5.2 Recommendation 51

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

3.1 Runoff coefficient for rational method 29

3.2 Rainfall intensity model developed for towns in Nigeria 30

3.3 Recommended design flood recurrence interval 30

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

1.1 Map of Nigeria showing the states 4

1.2 Map of Oyo state 4

1.3 Satellite imagery of the study area 5

1.4 The natural floodwater channel 5

2.1 A full box culvert 9

2.2 Portal and base box culvert 10

2.3 Large duct and lid box culvert 10

2.4 Twin cell structure 11

2.5 Inlet control types 16

2.6 Outlet control types 17

A-1 Top slab reinforcement detail 55

A-2 Bottom slab reinforcement detail 55
A-3 Section A-A 56
A-4 Three dimensional model of the culvert reinforcement 56
A-5 3-D view of the concrete culvert 57
A-6 View exposing the reinforcement in the concrete 57
A-7 Reinforcement arrangement in the culvert 58
A-8 Isometric view showing the culvert outline 58
A-9 Culvert front view 59
A-10 Culvert side view 59
A-11 Culvert top view showing concrete and reinforcement 59
A-12 Inlet control nomograph 60
ix
 ABSTRACT

This project was aimed at proposing a structural solution to the accessibility

problem between two communities. The provision of a lasting solution to the
problem of flooding that has been destroying the road facility and hindering
transportation in Yawiri village was accomplished using a twin cell
reinforced concrete box culvert.

The justification of this project is that a C-channel structural steel footbridge

used as an access between Tella and Yawiri communities is not adequate to
provide a link for the road between the two communities. The project entails
carrying out a Reconnaissance survey of the site conditions and
measurement of the channel geometry. Hydrological analysis to predict the
floodwater expectations using rational method was done. The proposed
culvert section was determined adequate using a culvert inlet and outlet
nomograph. The structural analysis and design was done in accordance to
relevant design codes and charts. Market survey for cost of materials was
used in preparing a priced Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
(BEME).

x
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

A roadway sometimes must span a small ditch, irrigation canal or other

small body of water. Often, a bridge is too large and costly a solution to
protect the road’s right of way. When this is true, a box culvert is an ideal
solution. Box culverts are constructed of reinforced concrete and are
either precast or cast-insitu. Box culverts are in effect large buried pipes.
They control water flow and drainage for irrigation and municipal
services, control storm water and perform many other services. They vary
in size and cross section. Box culverts are not all square; usually they
have the span length exceeding the opening height if they are not square.
Box culverts may have multiple or single cell openings.

Occasionally, the waterway opening for a highway stream crossing can be

provided for by either culvert or bridge. The hydraulics of the highway
stream crossing system is considered in choosing a preferred design from
the available alternatives. Estimates of life cycle costs and risks
associated with each alternative help indicate which structure to select.
Other things considered are construction cost, maintenance costs and
risks of future costs to repair flood damages. The advantage of using a
culvert is that grade rises and widening projects sometimes can be
accommodated by extending culvert ends. Also, it is easier and quicker to
build a culvert and minimum structural maintenance is required when
compared to a bridge.

1
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Yawiri is a community located in Lagelu Local Government Area of Oyo

state. The community is highly susceptible to flooding during heavy
rainfall. Drainage facilities in Yawiri are non-existent, non-functional or
blocked by debris due to improper waste disposal. A C-channel structural
steel is placed across the valley of the floodwater channel to connect Tella
community with Yawiri. The C-channel structural steel has a narrow
width and it cannot allow more than a pedestrian at a time. It is also very
difficult for pedestrians to use it at night and after heavy rainfall because
of the vulnerability of falling off into the channel. Motorists are unable to
use this route which is the fastest link between Yawiri and Tella.

The C-channel structural steel has been in use for over five years and it
will be most appropriate to completely replace it with a culvert. This will
provide a long lasting solution to the accessibility limitations been
experienced presently by the communities. A twin-cell reinforced
concrete box culvert with material able to withstand erosion and channel
the flow effectively is required. The box culvert will be made of
reinforced concrete. This will provide a structure that will stand the test
of time, improve accessibility of both vehicular and pedestrian traffic and
provide optimal conveyance of the channel flow.

1.3 Objective of Study

The objective of this project is to improve the accessibility linkage

between two communities separated by a natural floodwater channel
through provision of a lasting solution to the problem of flooding that has
been destroying the road facility and hindering transportation in Yawiri
2
village. A properly planned and designed box culvert that will convey and
control the flow of the channel is the most feasible solution.

1.4 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study involved carrying out a reconnaissance survey of
the site and observation of the terrain and soil conditions. Measurement
of the roadway and channel width was also carried out. Hydrologic
analysis of the storm water runoff was done to size a culvert with
appropriate dimensions while structural analysis and design of the culvert
was done using BS5440 and BS8110 relevant charts and tables. Structural
detailing and bar bending schedule of the culvert was done from the
design results. Market survey was carried out to determine the price of
concrete and reinforcement materials which was used in preparing the
Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) for the twin
cell box culvert.

1.5 The Study Area

Yawiri is a relatively small community in Akobo-Ojurin suburb of Oyo
state. It is located in Lagelu Local Government Area of Oyo state
(Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Yawiri is a moderately populated settlement as
shown in (Fig. 1.3) but in recent times the population growth has been
increasing spontaneously. The increase in population has been due to an
influx of people especially workers in various newly developed
companies in the area. Government has also invested in developmental
projects such as the provision of earth roads, electricity and installation of
solar powered boreholes system. All these have caused an increase in the
population of the community. Fig. 1.3 shows the satellite imagery of the
area while Fig 1.4 shows the natural floodwater channel separating the
two communities.
3
Fig. 1.1 Map of Nigeria showing the states

Fig. 1.2 Map of Oyo state

4
Fig. 1.3 Satellite imagery of the study area

Fig. 1.4 The natural floodwater channel

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Review

A culvert is a short, closed conduit that conveys storm water runoff under
an embankment usually a roadway. The primary purpose of a culvert is to
convey surface water but if properly designed may also be used to restrict
flow and reduce downstream peak flows. In addition to the hydraulic
function, a culvert must also support the embankment and or roadway
and protect traffic and adjacent property from flood hazards.

Box culverts are reinforced concrete closed rigid frames which must
support vertical earth loads, truck loads and lateral earth pressure. They
may be either single or multi-cells. Culverts come in many shapes and
sizes: round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, pear-shaped and box. They vary
from the small drainage culverts found on highways and driveways to
large diameter structures on significant waterways or supporting large
water control works. The latter can comprise large engineering projects.

There are three primary materials that culverts are made out of. These are
steel, precast concrete and polymer. They can also be built as a hybrid
between steel and concrete. For example an open-bottom corrugated steel
structure on concrete footings or a corrugated steel structure with a
concrete "collar" around the ends. Precast circular concrete pipe culverts
are the most common in Nigeria. They differ in diameter but are usually
made to span a metre length. Grooves are incorporated at the ends to
allow for easy connection. Precast circular pipes are durable and it is
preferred to box culvert because of its ease of construction.

6
Culvert pipe is used in construction to guide drainage water. It is often
used in situations where water overflow need to be handled. By
definition, a culvert is a mechanism that directs water. For instance
municipal sewage systems in America use culvert pipe not only to deal
with sewage, but to direct overflow water when it is raining. The culvert
pipe directs the water to reservoirs that are used to hold the water until it
can evaporate, or be further drained into natural water reservoirs like
lakes. In Nigeria, culverts are mostly used to provide accessibility where
a road spans across a river channel.

Humans have been engineering water channels since the establishment of

agriculture via irrigation. Water is a major requirement for human
civilization and therefore where there are people there is water. In ancient
Egypt, water was channeled from the Nile with the use of culvert
channels that would supply farmland with water and sediment and
nutrients that the water brought from upstream. The Romans also built
massive aqueducts. These were large culverts that redirected water from
aquifers to nearby settlements.

In modern times, culverts are built out of pipe and hence referred to as
culvert pipe. The larger municipal culverts are created out of concrete
which allow for high mass flow, longevity and reduced cost. Segments of
concrete culvert pipe are seen in construction areas. The segments are
premade in a factory and are transported to the construction location.
Older culvert pipe whether it is corroded or that is not large enough is
often replaced and can be very expensive because it requires shutting
down the drainage, digging up the old pipe, and burying new pipe.
Because of this, new neighborhoods are planned to allow for expansion
and built with high quality concrete culvert pipe.
7
The material the culvert pipe is made of can differ depending on the
application. Ancient culverts were crafted out of earth or stone. The three
most common materials that culverts are made out of are steel, precast
concrete, and polymer. Culvert pipes made out of steel are either designed
for durability and longevity, or are used for pressurized water. Steel
piping can handle excess pressure and high mass flow rates better than
concrete. However it is also much more expensive and hard to transport.
PolyVinylChloride (PVC) is also a common choice for culvert piping. It
is fairly inexpensive and has a major advantage of being slightly
malleable. This means that as the earth settles, the pipe can give a little
bend before breaking.

Concrete pipe is brittle and will simply break if the surround earth moves
too much. PVC is more expensive than concrete and less than steel.
However large diameter PVC pipes are not feasible. The applications for
culvert piping are numerous. Any situation where water impedes
construction generally utilizes culvert piping. Without them our cities
would flood, or roads would wash away, and our water supply wouldn’t
exist. Culvert piping allows water to pass naturally under buildings,
bridges, and roads. These are easily recognizable as storm drains. Culvert
pipes are a staple of civil engineering and help humans build magnificent
cities by overcoming the obstacles of nature.

8
2.2 Types of Box Culverts
2.2.1 Full box
Full boxes consist of a complete box culvert cell integrally cast. This type
of unit provides maximum onsite construction savings by eliminating the
need to pour an insitu base. Moulds can be changed to make portals and
ducts.

Fig. 2.1 A full box culvert

2.2.2 Portal and base

This structural form is used to reduce transport and handling mass of a
full box, to permit the use of an insitu base, to give continuity over poor
foundations and to provide a shaped invert using insitu concrete. Portal
culvert bases, precast or insitu must have rebates to prevent the legs being
forced inwards by consolidation of the fill material beside the culvert.
The recommended rebate depth for spans over 1500mm is 25mm. In
determining width and location of rebates, adequate allowance must be
made for dimensional tolerances, particularly span and leg width
tolerances.

9
 Fig. 2.2 Portal and base box culvert

2.2.3 Large duct and lid

This type is the invert of the portal and base. It is normally used in sizes
of less than 1000mm x 1000 mm, but can be specified for large ducts
where future access by lid removal is required.

Fig. 2.3 Large duct and lid box culvert

10
2.2.4 Twin cell structure
This unit is commonly formed by installing two individual units side by
side. A twin cell installation for culverts provides additional flow capacity
which may be required for larger streams.

Fig. 2.4 Twin cell structure

2.3 Culvert Geometry

Basically, a culvert means a covered hydraulic structure which conveys
fluid. Therefore in a broad sense, pipe culverts in a small scale represent
normal pipes like precast concrete pipes.

In terms of hydraulic performance circular section is the best geometrical

sections among all. Therefore, for relative small discharge precast
concrete pipes and ductile iron pipes are normally used which are circular
in shape. But for applications of very large flow, precast concrete pipes
and ductile iron pipes may not be available in current market. In this
connection, cast-in-situ construction has to be employed. It is beyond
doubt that the fabrication of formwork for circular shape is difficult when
compared with normal box culvert structures. However, circular shape is

11
the most hydraulic efficient structure which means for a given discharge,
the area of flow is minimal. Therefore, it helps to save the cost of extra
linings required for the choice of box culverts.

However, box culverts do possess some advantages. For example, they

can cope with large flow situation where headroom is limited because the
height of box culverts can be reduced while the size of pipe culverts is
fixed. Secondly, for some difficult site conditions, e.g. excavation of
structure in rock, for the same equivalent cross-sectional area, the width
of box culverts can be designed to be smaller than that of pipe culverts
and this enhances smaller amount of excavation and backfilling
(Engineeringcivil.com, 2012).

2.3.1 Shape of drains

Horizontal elliptical pipes are commonly used where vertical clearance is

hindered by some existing structures. Moreover, horizontal elliptical
pipes possess higher flow capacity for the same flow depth than most
other structures with equivalent full capacity.

For vertical elliptical pipes, it requires less excavation during trench

installation owing to its narrow span. Moreover, backfill loads on the pipe
is reduced when compared with circular pipes. Also, owing to its
geometric shape, it is mostly used where there is limitation of horizontal
clearance. From hydraulic point of view, vertical elliptical pipes allow
higher self-cleansing velocity under dry season.

12
2.3.2 Best hydraulic section

The best hydraulic section of an open channel is characterized by

provision of maximum discharge with a given cross sectional area. As
such, channels with circular shape is the best hydraulic sections while a
rectangular channel with channel width being equal to two times the
height of channel is the best hydraulic section among all rectangular
sections. In fact, the choice of best hydraulic section also possesses other
advantages than hydraulic performance. For instance, for a given
discharge rate the use of best hydraulic section could guarantee the least
cross sectional area of the channels. Substantial savings could be made
from the reduction in the amount of excavation and from the use of less
channel linings (Engineeringcivil.com, 2012).

2.3.3 Culvert cells

The use of double-cell box culverts is preferred to single-cell box culverts

for cross-sectional area larger than about 5m2 owing to the following
reasons (Engineeringcivil.com, 2012):

1. Where there is tight headroom requirement, the use of double-cell

box culvert can shorten the height of culverts by having a wider
base so that the same design flow can be accommodated.
2. The invert of one cell can be designed at a lower level to cater for
low flow condition so that it reduces the occurrence of sediment
deposition and avoid the presence of standing waters.
3. The provision of temporary flow diversion can be easily provided
for inspection and maintenance of each cell. During routine
maintenance operation, water flow can be diverted to one cell and
the other one is open for desilting.

13
If a choice has to be made between a single-cell box culvert and smaller
multiple pipes, it is better to select single-cell box culvert because of the
lower risk of blockage when compared with smaller size of multiple
pipes. In addition, the hydraulic performance of a single-cell box culvert
is better than multiple pipes system because of the larger hydraulic radius
associated with the box culvert for a given cross-sectional area.

2.3.4 Beveled edge in box culvert inlet

The bevel is sometimes introduced at the inlet of box culvert to decrease

the flow contraction at the inlet. In fact, the outlook of bevel is similar to
a chamfer except that a chamfer is smaller in size and it is mainly used to
prevent damage to sharp edges of concrete during construction. The
bevels can be designed as plane or round edges. The addition of bevels to
the inlet of box culverts could increase the capacity of box culvert by
about 5-10%. In fact, the socket end of precast concrete pipes serves the
same function as the bevels in the box culvert.

2.4 Screens

Screens are provided at culvert inlet owing to one of the following

reasons:

1. To trap trash or debris this might otherwise accumulate in the

culvert and block the flow subsequently.
2. To prevent access into the culvert by children.

However, screens are not always placed at culvert inlet and they should
be determined case by case. For trash or security screens installed in
place, it would inevitably trap floating debris and rubbish. Unless they are
14
regularly removed, it would eventually lead to rise in upstream water
level leading to local flooding. For new culvert, there is a trend that the
use of trash screens is declining. Trash screens are only placed in culvert
inlet where there is a high risk of blockage history. Instead the need of
trash screen can be eliminated by adopting the following design features:

1. To allow for fewer changes of cross section, fewer bends and

smooth transitions into the culvert. As such, it would provide fewer
locations to trap debris and trash.
2. Provision of good access to the culvert to facilitate regular
inspection.
3. The culvert length should not be designed too long to enhance easy
access to clear a blockage.

2.5 Concrete Box Girder Cell Determination

If the depth of a box girder bridge exceeds 1/6 or 1/5 of the bridge width,
then it is recommended to be designed as a single cell box girder bridge.
However, if the bridge depth is smaller than 1/6 of the bridge width, then
a twin-cell or multiple cell is a better choice. However, for wider bridges
with small depths, the number of cells should be minimized because there
is not much improvement in transverse load distribution when the number
of cells of box girder is increased to three or more.

2.6 Flow Conditions

There are two types of flow condition for culverts. These are based upon
the location of the control section and the critical flow depth. These flow
conditions are given in Knox County Water Management Manual (2004):

15
1. Inlet Control – Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is
capable of conveying more flow than the inlet will accept. This
typically happens when a culvert is operating on a steep slope. The
control section of a culvert is located just inside the entrance.
Critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow regime
immediately downstream is supercritical.

Fig. 2.5 Inlet control types

16
2. Outlet Control – Outlet control flow occurs when the culvert
section is not capable of conveying as much flow as the inlet
opening will accept. The control section for outlet control flow in a
culvert is located at the barrel exit or further downstream. Either
subcritical or pressure flow exists in the culvert barrel under these
conditions. Proper culvert design and analysis requires checking
for both inlet and outlet control to determine which will govern
particular culvert designs.

Fig. 2.6 Outlet control types

17
2.7 Appurtenant Structures
In order to integrate an improved inlet into a culvert system, several
appurtenant structures are required. These structures include circular to
square transition sections, wingwalls, headwalls and aprons.

2.7.1 Circular to square transition

In some instances it is desirable to use a cast-in-place box inlet with a
circular culvert barrel. This requires the use of a transition section that
meets the following criteria (FHWA, 1983):
1. The cross section must provide a smooth transition from a square
to a circular shape. The rise and span of the square end should be
equal to the diameter of the circular section.
2. The length of the transition section must be at least one half the
diameter of the circular section.
The outside of the transition section is not restricted by any hydraulic
requirement. Thus structural and construction considerations are used to
determine the shape. Typically for cast-in-place structures the simplest
method is to make the outside square and maintain the box section
reinforcing arrangement throughout the length of the section. This
simplifies the form work for the outside and allows the use of the same
reinforcing layout throughout the length of the section, avoiding the need
to bend each bar to a different shape.

Reinforcement for transition sections can be sized by designing for the

loads at the square end of the section and then using the reinforcement
throughout the length of the structure (FHWA, 1983). It is important that
the backfill be well compacted around both structures to preclude
significant longitudinal discontinuity stresses due to the differing stiffness
of the two structures.
18
2.7.2 Headwalls and wingwalls
At the opening of an improved inlet, headwall and wingwalls are used to
hold the toe of the embankment back from the entrance, protecting it
from erosion. The headwall is a retaining wall with an opening for the
culvert. It derives support from attachment to the culvert, and is subject to
less lateral soil pressure than a retaining wall of equal size since the
culvert replaces much of the backfill. The wingwalls are retaining walls
placed at either side of the headwall, usually at an angle. Wingwalls are
designed as retaining walls (FHWA, 1983).

Headwalls are similar in appearance to wingwalls but behave much

differently because of the culvert opening. The presence of the culvert
greatly reduces the lateral pressure on the wall. The headwall is normally
secured to the culvert top slab and the lateral forces do not normally need
to be carried to the foot of the wall. Thus, for this case only a small
amount of reinforcing is placed in the wall. If the headwall is not
anchored to the inlet, culvert or the wing walls then the headwall is
designed to span horizontally across the width of the inlet and vertical
edge is provided on each side of the inlet cantilevering from the
foundation. (FHWA, 1983)

2.7.3 Apron slabs

These are slabs usually made of in-situ concrete casted at the culvert inlet
and or outlet which serve as a covering over the soil to prevent erosion by
flowing water. Apron slabs are slabs on grade in front of the culvert face
section. They are primarily used to protect against erosion and to hold the
slope of fall sections. Apron slabs are treated as slabs on grade for design
purposes.

19
2.8 Loads on Culverts
The load on the top of a box or pipe culvert according to Reynolds and
Steedman, (1999) includes the weights of the earth and the top slab and
the imposed load. Where a trench has been excavated in firm ground for
the construction of a culvert and the depth from the surface of the ground
to the roof of the culvert exceeds, say, three times the width of the
culvert, it may be assumed that the maximum earth pressure on the
culvert is that due to a depth of earth equal to three times the width of the
culvert.

2.9 Bending Moments in Box Culverts

The bending moments can be calculated by considering the possible
incidence of the loads and pressures. Generally there are only two
conditions to consider:
 Culvert empty: full load and surcharge on the top slab, the weight
of the walls, and maximum earth pressure on the walls.
 Culvert full: minimum load on the top slab, minimum earth
pressure on the walls, weight of walls, maximum horizontal
pressure from water in the culvert, and possible upward pressure
on the top slab.
The loads on a box culvert can be conveniently divided as follows
(Reynolds and Steedman, 1999):
1. A uniformly distributed load on the top slab and an equal reaction
from the ground below the bottom slab.
2. A concentrated imposed load on the top slab and an equal reaction
from the ground below the bottom slab.
3. An upward pressure on the bottom slab due to the weight of the
walls.

20
 4. A triangularly distributed horizontal pressure on each wall due to
the increase in earth pressure in the height of the culvert.
5. A uniformly distributed horizontal pressure on each wall due to
pressure from the earth and any surcharge above the level of the
roof of the culvert.
6. The internal horizontal and possibly vertical pressures from water
in the culvert.

2.10 Design Procedures

According to the City of Griffin Storm Water Department Culvert Design
Manual (2010), there are two procedures for designing culverts. These
are:
1. The manual use of inlet and outlet control nomographs.
2. The use of a personal computer system such as HY8 Culvert
Analysis Microcomputer Program.
The personal computer system HYDRAIN, which includes HY8, uses the
theoretical basis for the nomographs to size a culvert. Other computer
programs can be used if approved by the code of practice. In addition,
this system can evaluate improved inlets, route hydrographs, consider
road overtopping, and evaluate outlet streambed scour. By using water
surface profiles, this procedure is more accurate in predicting backwater
effects and outlet scour. The following outline the design procedures for
use of the nomograph.

2.10.1 Nomographs
The use of nomographs requires a trial and error solution. The solution is
quite easy and provides reliable designs for many applications. It should
be remembered that velocity, hydrograph routing, roadway overtopping,

21
and outlet scour require additional and separate computations beyond
what can be obtained from the nomographs.

2.11 Steps in Design Procedure

From City of Griffin Storm Water Department Culvert Design Manual
(2010), the design procedure requires the use of inlet and outlet
nomographs. The steps include:
1. List design data:
Q = discharge (m3/s)
L = culvert length (m)
S = culvert slope (m/ m)
TW= tailwater depth (m)
HW= allowable headwater depth for the design storm (m)
V = velocity for trial diameter (m/ s)
Ke= inlet loss coefficient
2. Determine trial culvert size by assuming a trial velocity 0.92 to
1.52 m/ s and computing the culvert area, A = Q/ V. Determine the
culvert diameter (metres).
3. Find the actual headwater (HW) for the trial size culvert for both
inlet and outlet control.
 For inlet control, enter inlet control nomograph with D and
Q and find (HW/ D) for proper entrance type.
 Compute HW and, if too large or too small, try another
culvert size before computing HW for outlet control.
 For outlet control enter the outlet control nomograph with
the culvert length, entrance loss coefficient, and trial culvert
diameter.
 To compute HW, connect the length scale for the type of
entrance condition and culvert diameter scale with a straight
22
 line, pivot on the turning line, and draw a straight line from
the design discharge through the turning point to the head
loss scale H.
4. Compare the computed headwaters and the higher HW nomograph
is used to determine if the culvert is under inlet or outlet control. If
outlet control governs and the HW is unacceptable, a larger trial
size is selected and another HW is found from the outlet control
nomographs.
5. Calculate exit velocity and expected streambed scour to determine
if an energy dissipater is needed.

2.12 Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (CESMM)

The main purpose the Bill of Quantities is to assist the contractors to
produce an accurate tender figure efficiently and to enable post contract
administration be carried out in an efficient and cost-effective manner.
Estimation is the process of pricing based on the available information,
specification, and various drawings toward arriving at total sum known as
tender sum (Okeola, 2012).

2.13 Preparation of the Bill of Quantities

2.13.1 Introduction
The phrase ‘Bills of Quantities’ is more appropriate to a building contract
where the General Summary contains a list of individual Bills. In civil
engineering documents the equivalent Bills are called Parts so the overall
document is a Bill of Quantities. The pre-contract exercise of measuring
the work also applies to the post-contract task of measurement. The
correct term for this task is re-measurement where the work is physically

23
measured on site or admeasurement where the actual quantities are
calculated from records. There are five sections in the Bill of Quantities
(Okeola, 2012). These are:
 Preamble
 List of Principal Quantities
 Daywork Schedule
 Work Items (divided into parts)
 Grand Summary

2.13.2 Preamble
The Preamble is an extremely important section of the Bill of Quantities
and is the potentially vital source of information to the estimator. If any
other Methods of Measurement have been used in the preparation of the
Bill of Quantities, the fact should be recorded there.

2.13.3 Preliminaries
The preliminaries section of the bill of quantities is the engineer or QS’s
introduction to the contract. The section provides information on the
location, size, and complexity of the project and gives details of the
conditions of contract under which the project is to be implemented. For
preliminaries an amount of N500,000 was allocated for site clearance,
provision of an alternate linkage, diversion of water and site preparation
for the culvert.

2.13.4 Coding and numbering

The aim of the coding is to produce a uniformity of presentation to assist
the needs of the estimator and the post-contract administration.

24
2.14 Project Cost Estimation
2.14.1 Preliminary estimates
There are many approaches to preliminary estimates of proposed projects.
They all use some measures of gross unit costs from recently completed
construction works which are updated by the use of factors which
recognizes cost differences as a result of time frame, location or any
peculiarities of the work that is being estimated. However in general the
estimating structure comprises:
1. Dividing the project into small elements so as to allow a single rate
or unit cost to be applied to each element
2. Extending the quantities and rates to determine a cost for each
element
3. Summing the resulting elemental costs and
4. Applying indirect costs to give a complete estimate.
30
2.14.2 Cost per function
The estimate is based on historic data per unit of use. For example the
cost per vehicle in a park or per 100 books in a library.

2.14.3 Unit area cost

This is the estimate per unit area. It is calculated by multiplying the
estimated gross floor area by the historic cost per area of particular
building and its location in for example Ilorin, Abuja or Sokoto. Unit area
estimates are often used in the preliminary stages of residential and other
building design.

2.14.4 Unit volume cost

This is based on the anticipated volume multiplied by a cost per unit
volume. The method is suitable for warehouses and industrial facilities.
25
2.15 Market Survey

Market survey was carried out in Ibadan, the project location to determine
the price of reinforcement and concrete materials. The price obtained
indicated that a tonne of 10mm, 16mm and 20mm high yield steel was
N165,000 and consist of 134pieces, 52pieces and 33pieces respectively of
11.5m length. Each bar of Y10 was N1250, Y16 was N3200 and Y20 was
N5000. Casting rate per cubic metre of 1:2:4 mix ratio was N30,000 and
1:3:6 mix ratio was N27,000 per cubic metre (YK consultants, 2012).

26
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Flood Estimation

Different methods for flood estimation have been developed. They may
be divided into three categories:
 Analysis of flow data
 Regionalized flood formulae
 Runoff modeling

3.1.1 Analysis of flow data

The most common form of stream-flow measurement comprises of the
water levels at a suitable cross-section. The relation between water level
and discharge at the location is established through a series of discharge
measurements. Extrapolations of this curve will give estimates of the
peak flood discharge given the flood water level. An extreme value
analysis of the annual maximum series will yield estimates of floods for
different recurrence intervals.

3.1.2 Regionalized flood formulae

The regionalized flood formulae take account only a few lumped
parameters from the catchment while regional empirical constants
describe the effects of all other significant factors.

3.1.3 Runoff modeling

The most widely used rainfall runoff relation for un-gauged areas is the
rational method. It is the most suitable for small catchments of a few

square kilometers.
The rational method assumes that:
27
 1. The design storm produces a uniform rainfall intensity over the
entire catchment
2. The relationship between rainfall intensity and rate of runoff is
constant for a particular catchment
3. The flood peak at the catchment exit occurs at the time when the
whole catchment contributes
4. The coefficient C is constant and independent of rainfall intensity.

The basic form of the rational equation is:

Q  0.278C I A (3.1)
where:
Q  flood peak at a catchment exit ( m3 s )
C  rational runoff coefficient

I average rainfall intensity over the whole

catchment ( mm h ) for a duration corresponding to
the time of concentration

A  catchment area ( km2 )

The runoff coefficient (C) is an integrated value representing many

factors influencing the rainfall runoff relationship such as topography,
soil permeability, vegetation cover and land use. It is estimated from
Table 3.1 using

C = CT + CS + CV
(3.2)
where:
CT = coefficient of topography
CS = coefficient of soil permeability
CV = vegetation type

28
Table 3.1 Runoff coefficient for rational method
Runoff coefficient C = CT + CS + CV

CT (topography) CS (soils) CV (vegetation)

Very flat (<10%) 0.03 Sand and gravel 0.04 Forest 0.04
Undulating (1-10%) 0.16 Sandy clays 0.08 Farmland 0.11
Hilly (10-20%) 0.16 Clay and loam 0.16 Grassland 0.21
Mountainous(>20%) 0.26 Sheet rock 0.26 No vegetation 0.28
Source: Bent (1996)

Rainfall intensity (I) modeled by Salami and Sule (2009) indicate that
very intense storms are of short duration and are rare and of low
probability. Storms of long duration tend to be less intense and extremely
long storms, supplying large amounts of rains are also rare. This is the
reason why we need to quantify the relationships between intensity,
duration and frequency. Three parameters of interest in connection with
rainfall are intensity, duration and frequency. A formula expressing the
relationship between rainfall intensity, duration and frequency takes the
form given in equation 3.3 (Salami and Sule, 2009).
b
i  aT (3.3)
tc

where:
i = the intensity (mm/hr)
T = frequency or recurrence interval (years)
t = duration (hr),
a, b, c = locality constants.

Rainfall intensity model equation developed by Salami and Sule (2009)

for twelve towns in Nigeria results are presented in Table 3.2

29
 Table 3.2 Rainfall intensity model developed for towns in Nigeria
Town Intensity Town Intensity
T 0.70 T 0.44
Maiduguri i  11.17 Osogbo i  19.97
t 0.34 t 0.42
Sokoto i  11.95 T 0.60 Ibadan i  28.61 T 0.19
t
t0.45 0.62

T 0.51 T 0.46
Makurdi i  16.43 Ilorin i  22.00
t 0.62 t 0.40
Yola i  8.37 T 1.05 Ikeja i  18.50 T 0.66
t
t 0.10 0.19

Minna i  11.97 T 0.67 Enugu i  31.94 T 0.48

t 0.52 t
0.51

Kaduna i  3.96 T 1.41 Calabar i  16.26 T 0.44

t1.3
t 0.22 8

Source: Salami and Sule (2009)

The recurrence interval (T) recommended by (Bent, 1996) is presented in

Table 3.3

Table 3.3 Recommended design flood recurrence interval

Road class Recurrence interval (years)
Expressways 100
Arterial roads 50
Collector roads 50
Access roads 25
Source: Bent (1996)

Duration (t) is the time of concentration. Time of concentration is defined

as the time required for the surface runoff from the remotest part of the
30
drainage basin to reach the point considered. The time of concentration can be calculated by the
Kirpich formula given by Bent (1996)
 2 0.385
0.87  L  (3.4)
TC  

 1000 S 
where:
T 
c time of concentration in hours
L
length of main stream (km)
mm
S  average slope of main stream ( )

3.2 Structural Analysis and Design

The culvert is analyzed for maximum shear and bending moment that
may be experienced as a result of wheel load, water and the Earth
pressure. This was done in accordance to:
1. BS 5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges
Part 1: 1988: General Statement
Part 2: 1978: Specifications for Loads
Part 4: 1990: Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges
2. BS 8110: Structural Use of Concrete
Part 1: 1997: Code of Practice for Design & Construction

3.2.1 Loading
As for the bridges, dead and imposed loads are considered. The imposed
load considered are 30-units of HB loading. Water, hydrostatic and earth
pressures are also considered. The dead loads include the self weight of
the structures and the surcharge loads from the fill materials.

31
HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS

32
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Rainfall intensity
Using rational method of flood estimation,
CIA
Q 
Equation 3.1
p 3.6
Bent (1996)
Qp  0.278C I A
where C = coefficient of runof
I = intensity of rainfall
A = catchment area

Equation 3.4 Time of concentration:


0.87l 0.385
2
Bent (1996) 

T 
 
C
 1000S = time of concentration (hours)
= length of mainstream (m)
= angle slope of main stream (m/m)

S elevationof catchment (m)

longestlengthof catchmentarea(m)

S  1280  960 
 
 3500 
= 0.0914
= 9.14%

 0.8735002 0.385
Equation 3.2 T 
TC  2hrs
Bent (1996) 
C 10000.0914 
TC 89.27 1hr 30min
Table 3.1
Runof coefficient
C CT CS  CV
CT  0.08
where CS  0.08 C  0.37

CV  0.21
C  0.37

33
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
Equation 3.1 From rational method, Qp  0.278C I A
for Ibadan is of the form
Table 3.2 T 0.19

Salami and I  28.61

t 0.62
Sule (2009)
For a recurrence period 0f T = 50 yrs
and t = 1hour duration,
50 0.19
I  28.61 ; = 60.16 mm/h
10.62

QP1  0.2780.3760.163.25
QP1  20.11m3 s
 20.11m3 s

For t = 2hour duration,

50 0.19
I  28.61 ; = 39.15 mm/h
20.62

QP2  0.2780.3739.153.25
13.09m3 s QP2 13.09m3 s

For t = 3hour duration,

50 0.19
I  28.61 ; = 30.44 mm/h
30.62

QP3  0.2780.3730.443.25
10.18m3 s
QP3 10.18 m3 s

For t = 4hour duration,

500.19
I  28.61 ; = 25.47 mm/h
40.62

QP 4  0.2780.3725.473.25
QP 4  8.52 m3 s
 8.52 m3 s

For t = 5hour duration,

500.19
I  28.61 ; = 22.18 mm/h
50.62

QP5  0.2780.3722.183.25
QP 5  7.42 m3 s
 7.42m3 s

34
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
Utilizing the discharge Qp for 2hr period as the
Salami worst flood
(2012)
Q p  13.09 m3 s

To convert Q m3 s to cfs , 1m3 s 35.31cfs

QP  13.0935.31
QP  462.26cfs

Note : 1 ft  0.3048 m

Channel width  4m
Channel height  2m
Q 462.26
Ratio of discharge to width :W  13.12
Hw
W  35.23
From the inlet control nomograph (Fig. A-12)
Hw
D  0.88
Chart 8 Hw = 1.75m
Therefore, Hw = 0.88 x 6.56f = 5.77 f

1ft = 0.3048m; Hw = 5.77 x 0.3048 = 1.75m

35
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

36
DESIGN INFORMATION

Engineer:
Client:Lagelu Local Government, Oyo state. Afolabi, A. O.
1. BS8110 The structural use of concrete, part 1&3
2. BS 5440 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges.
3. Reinforced concrete designer’s handbook by Relevant building and
Reynolds and Steedman. design codes
4. Steel designers manual.
30units of HB loading at 2.5KN/wheel = General loading
2
75KN Slab imposed load = 4.8KN/ m conditions
Exposure condition
Severe (external and internal)
Characteristic strength
2
– Main bars fy=460N/mm
2
– Distribution bars = fy=460N/mm Material data
Characteristic strength of Concrete fcu = 25
2
N/mm Concrete cover = 40mm
2
Self weight of concrete = 24KN/mm Other relevant
All dimensions shown in the drawings are in (mm) informations

37
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Assume slab thickness as 200mm

d
Oyenuga eff  overall depth  cov er  ( 2)
d
(2008) eff  200  40  (16 2)
deff 152mm
deff 152mm

A B C
200

2000 mm
200

1900 mm 1900 mm
200mm 200mm 200mm

CASE 1 (EMPTY CULVERT)

From HB loading each unit is 2.5KN.
BS 5400
Therefore , for 30units of HB loading = 30 x 2.5 =
Part 2 (1978)
75KN

Top slab live load = 2 75 150 KN m QK 150 KN m

Dead load :
slab own weight = 0.2 24  4.8 KN m GK  4.8 KN m

Total load Q  1.4GK 1.6Qk

Q  1.4 4.8 1.6150 Q  246.72 KN m
Q  246.72 KN m

Assumption
w = 246.72KN/m

RA 2100 mm RB 2100 mm RC

38
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

FEM
Oyenuga  wl 2
(2008) M AB  12
2
M   246.722.1
AB 12
M AB  90.67KNm

wl 2
M   90.67KNm
BA 12
 wl 2
M BC  12  90.67KNm
wl 2
M   90.67KNm
CB 12
2.1
2.1R 246.722.1
A 2

Shf R AL    )
(M  M
B

AB

90.67  0
ShA  259.06   302.24KN
2.1 ShB  215.88KN
0  90.67
Sh  259.06 
B  215.88KN
2.1 ShC 
ShC  302.24KN 302.24KN
BS 8002 1  sin
Clause 2.2.4 Active pressure (k) 
1  sin
  30, and k  0.33
Pr essure against wall A
P2.4  18  0.33 2.4  14.26 KN m
Wall weight  0.20  24  4.8 KN m
2.1PA  246.72  2.11.05 
90.67 PA  302.23KN

1.4(4.8 14.26)
Total load on wall A  302.23  2
5
A  304.90KN

39
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
2
wl
Oyenuga moment 
12
(2008) w  weight from top slab  wall weight
w  246.72  26.68  273.40KN / m
273.4  22
M
12
M  91.14KNm M  91.14KNm

Middle wall B

moment about the middle wall B

M  246.72  2.11.05
b
2.1
M b  259.06 KN m2
1.4(4.8  0)
Load on wall  259.06 
25

Axial Load at B  259.73KN

MOMENT
M  wl 2
12
w  weight of top slab(wall weight  pressure)
w  259.73 1.4(4.8 
0) w  266.45 KNm
M  266.45 22
12
M  88.82 KNm

Bottom Slab

Top slab load  246.72KN

wall weight  3(1.4  24  0.2)  20.16
bottom slab self weight  (24  0.20 1.4) 
6.72 Total weight on bottom slab  273.6KNm

40
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

2
FEM  wl
Oyenuga 12
(2008) 273.6  2.12  100.55KNm
12
reaction at ABC
2.1
2.10A  273.6  2.1 2
A  287.28KN
Shearforce at A
M M
SFA  R  AB L BA
AB SFA  329.58KN
88.82  0
 287.38   329.58KN
2.1
M M
SFB  R  BCL CB
BC
0  88.82
 287.38   244.99KN
2.1 SFB  244.99KN

CASE TWO
Assuming the culvert is full and flowing at
maximum of 2m, worst loading condition becomes:

Top Slab
water load  2101.6  32 KN m
lessthan slab weight 5.38 KN m
Total load  26.62 KN m
2
FEM  wl
Oyenuga 12
(2008) 26.62  2.12
FEM   9.78 KN
m 12
reaction
2.1
2.1R 26.622.1
A 2
RA  27.95KN
RA  RC
RC  27.95KN
Rc  27.95KN

41
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
M M
SFA  R  AB L BA

AB
9.78  0 SFA  32.61KN
 27.95   32.61KN
2.1
0  9.78 SFB  23.29KN
SFB  27.95   23.29KN 2.1

WALL
Consider wall due to water pressure only
At top of top slab = 2101.6  32
At bottom of bottom slab= 2.4 10 1.6  38.4 KN m
wl 2
Moment on wall =
12
Oyenuga 38.4 2.42
(2008) M 
18.43KNm 12

Bottom slab load due to top slab and wall

Load  weight of top slab  length of culvert
 18.43 5 92.15KN
Wall own weight  3(38.14  32)  0.5  2.4
 252.50 KN m
Wall weight  3 5.38  2.2  35.51KN
m Total  195.86 KN m
loading 
195.86 KN m
 44.51KN m 2

4.4m
 wl 2
FEM   
AB 12
2
 44.51 2.1 16.36KNm
12
wl 2
FEM  
BA 12 M BA  16.36KNm
44.51 2.12  16.36KNm
12
 wl 2
FEM BC  12

 44.51 2.12 16.36KNm

12

42
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT
wl 2
FEM  
CB 12
44.51 2.12  16.36KNm
12
Midspan moment AB  BC M CB  8.18 KNm
 16.36  (16.36  0)
2
 8.18 KNm

VA  VB  VC
VA  46.74KN
2 .1
VA  47.51 2  46.74KN

M M
SFA  V  AB L BA

AB
16.36  0 SFA  54.53KN
46.74   54.53KN
2.1
00
SFB  46.74   46.74KN
SFB  46.74KN
2.1
16.36  0
SFC  46.74   54.53KN SFC  54.53KN
2.1

DESIGN SUMMARY FOR CASE 1

Case 1 analysis will be used for design because the
condition gives a higher value of bending moment
and shear force
Top slab
Support moment = 90.67 KNm
Max shear force = 302.24 KN

Wall A = Wall C
Maximum shear force = 304.90 KN
Maximum moment = 91.14 KNm

Wall B
Maximum shear force = 259.73 KN
Maximum moment = 88.82 KNm

Bottom Slab
Support moment = 100.55 KNm
Max shear force = 329.58 KN

43
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

BS 5440 Design of Structural Members

Part 4 f y  460 N mm2 overalldepth  200mm
(1990)
f
Clause  25 N mm2
cu cover  40mm
5.1.4.2 Design of top slab
Table 5,6,13 d 
eff  overall depth  cov er 
2
200  40  16  152mm
2
BS 8110
M
Part 1
k  fcu bd 2
(1985) 90.67 106
clause 
k 25 1000
3.4.4.4
1522 k  0.1570

k
leverarm factor (la )  0.5  0.25  0 .9
l
a  0.5  0.25  0.1612

0.9
la  0.7663
M
Area of steel required ( ASR ) 
0.95 f y la d
A 90.67 106
SR 
0.95  460  0.7663152
A  1761.54mm2
SR

from steel table, area of steel provided

ASP  1800 mm2
Provide Y20 @ 175mm c/c spacing.
Mosley & 0.13bh
Distribution bar 
Bungey
(1987) 100
0.131000  200  260mm2
100
from steel table, area of steel provided
ASP  262 mm2
Provide Y10 @ 300mm c/c spacing

44
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Deflection check
BS 8110 477  fs 2
M f  0.55   M 
(1997) 120 0.9  
2
Table 3.1.1  bd 
A
fs  2 SR
fy
3 ASP
fs  2  1761.54  460
3 1800
fs  300.11
477  300.11
M f  0.55  6
 90.67 10 
120  0.9  
 2
 1000 152 
M f  0.86
Limiting value  M f  sdf
0.86  26  22.24
span
Actual value 
effective depth
2100
152  13.82
Since Limit value  actualvalue,
Deflection is satisfied

Design Of Wall
Wall A = Wall C
Moment = 91.14 KNm
Shear force = 304.90 KN
BS 8110
M
Part 1
k  fcu bh2
(1985)
clause 91.14 106
3.4.4.4 k  251000 2002  0.091
N 304.90 103
  0.6098
fcu bh 251000  200
From graph,
d  152  0.76
H 200
Area of steel  0.0026 fcu bh
From the graph of d/H = 0.8
  2.0
chart between 0.4 – 0.5 curve

45
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Asc (mild steel bars)  0.0042 fcubh

From steel table, ASP  1340mm2
ASP  1340mm2
Provide Y16 bars @ 150mm spacing Provide Y16 bars
@150mm
BS 5440 Part Check for shear on member design spacing
4 (1990) V
v
clause bd
5.4.4.1
304.9
1000 150  0.00203
100A
BS 5440
V  SP
C
bd
Part 4
100 1340  0.893
(1990) VC  0.893
1000 150
Shear reinforcement is not required since VC  v

Design of bottom slab

BS 8110 M
Part 1 k  fcu bd 2
(1985) 100.55 106
k
Clause 25 1000 1522
3.4.4.4 k  0.1741
k
leverarm factor (la )  0.5  0.25 
0.9
la  0.5  0.25  0.1741
0.9
l
a  0.7378

M
Area of steel required (ASR ) 
0.95 f y la d
6
A 100.55 10
SR  0.95  460  0.7267 152
A  2051.72mm2
SR

from steel table, area of steel provided

ASP  2090 mm2

Provide Y20 bars
Provide Y20 @ 150mm c/c spacing. @150mm c/c
spacing

46
REFERENCES CALCULATION OUTPUT

Distribution bar  0.13bh

Mosley & 100
Bungey 0.131000  200
(1987) 100  260mm2 ASR = 260mm2
from steel table, area of steel provided
ASP  262 mm2 ASP = 262mm 2
Provide Y10 @ 300mm c/c spacing

Deflection check
BS 8110 477  fs
(1997) M f  0.55   M  2
120 0.9  
Table 3.1.1  bd 2 
A
2 SR
fs  fy
3 ASP
fs  2  2051.72  460  301.05
3 2090
477  301.05 M f  0.829
M f  0.55   100.55 10 3 
120 0.9  2
 

 1000 150 
M f  0.829
Limiting value  M f  sdf
0.829 26  21.56
span
Actual value  effective depth
2100
152  13.82
Since Limit value  actual value,
Deflection is satisfied

SUMMARY
Top Slab
Main bar = Y20 @ 175mm c/c spacing,
distribution bar = Y10 @ 300mm c/c spacing
Wall
Y16 bars @ 150mm spacing
distribution bar = Y10 @ 300mm c/c spacing
Bottom Slab
Main bar = Y20 @ 150mm c/c spacing,
distribution bar = Y10 @ 300mm c/c spacing

47
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Computation of Concrete Volume and Cost

Top slab
Volume = b  h  l
= 4.4  0.2  5  4.4m 3
Walls (3nos)

Volume = b  h  l

= 0.2  2  5  2m3
Volume = 3  2  6m3
Bottom slab

Volume = b  h  l

= 4.4  0.2  5  4.4m 3

Headwall (2nos)
Volume = b  h  l
= 4.4  0.15 0.15  2  0.198m3

Concrete cost = total volume × cost per m3

4.2 Computation of Reinforcement Tonnage

 
Number of bars =  length  1
 

 spacing of bars

Bar length = actual length – 2(cover) + 2(return length)

Total length = Number of bars × Bar length

 total
length 
Cost of bar =  1   amount per piece of Ymm bar
 11.5m 

48
4.3 Bar Bending Schedule

No. in Total Cut Length

Location Mark Size Shape
each No (mm)
4400
Bottom slab 01 Y20 1 34 4300

Bottom slab 01 Y20 1 34 4100 4100

Top slab
02 Y20 1 30 4300
4300

Top slab
02 Y20 1 30 4100
4100

50

Wall 03 Y16 2 68 2400 2300

50

Wall 03 Y16 4 136 2100 2100

Distribution
Y10 1 108 4950 4950
Bars

49
4.4 Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluation (BEME)

S/N DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT RATE AMOUNT

A Preliminaries 500,000
B CONCRETE

1 Provide, mix and place concrete

grade 25 (1:2:4) in box culvert
Provide, mix and place concrete 14.998 m³ 30,000 449,940
2 grade 15 (1:3:6) as
blinding, 50mm thick
SUB TOTAL
1.5 m³ 27,000 40,500
490,440
C REINFORCEMENT

1 20mm dia. high yield steel for top 666.67 kg 165 110,000
slab
20mm dia. high yield steel for
2
757.58 kg 165 125,000
bottom slab
3 16mm dia. high yield steel for
788.46 kg 165 131,200
walls
4 10mm dia. high yield steel for
373.13 kg 165 62,500
distribution.
D SUB TOTAL 431,700
EXCAVATION AND FORMWORK
1 Excavate for culvert base not
10 m 2,200 22,200
2 exceeding 0.75m depth
Sawn formwork for culvert 56 m2 850 40,800
SUB TOTAL 63,000
Add 5% contigency 49,257

GRAND TOTAL 1,534,397

50
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the analysis and the design of the culvert, it can be deduced that
a culvert is a suitable and feasible solution to the accessibility problem of
Yawiri community. This is in terms of minimum cost of construction,
ease of maintenance and durability. Also, based on this designed culvert,
efficient conveyance of the storm-water runoff will be achieved which
will eliminate the occurrence of flooding especially during rainfall.

5.2 Recommendation

The following are recommended based on the findings in the course of

this project:

1. Aprons should be provided at the culvert inlet and outlet ends

to minimize scouring.
2. Stone pitching should be provided at the edges to prevent
bank erosion.
3. Headwalls and wingwalls should be provided for the culvert to
give improved flow conditions.
4. Regular maintenance checks should be carried out o the culvert
to increase its durability.
5. Screen should be provided at the culvert inlet to trap debris and
prevent blockage.

51
REFERENCES
Bent T. (1998) Highway and Traffic Engineering in developing countries.
E & FN Spon, London, UK.

Bloomquist, D. G. and Gutz A. J. (2002) Evaluation of Precast Box

Culvert Systems: Design Live Loads on Box Culverts. Final Project
Report. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florida.
Sponsored by Research Management Center, Florida Department of
Transportation, USA.

BS5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges.

Part 1: (1988) General Statement.
Part 2: (1978) Specification for Loads.
Part 4: (1990) Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges.
BS8110: (1997) Structural Use of Concrete.

City of Griffin Storm Water Department, Design Manual, Georgia, USA

(2010) Culvert design manual (http://www.griffinstorm.com: accessed on
12th March, 2012).

Engineeringcivil.com (2012) (http://www.engineeringcivil.com: accessed

on 12th March, 2012).

Federal Highway Authority (FHWA) USA (1983) Structural Design

Manual for Improved Inlets & Culverts. IP-83-6. June 1983.

Iowa Department of Transportation, Office of bridge and Structures,

Iowa, USA (2005) Bridge Design Manual (http://www.iowadot.gov:
accessed on 12th March, 2012).

52
Knox County Storm Water Management Manual, Tennessee, USA
Volume 2 Technical Guidance (http://www.knoxcounty.org: accessed on
12th March, 2012).

Miura, N., Sakai, A., Fujikawa, K. and Shivashankar, R. (1995) Technical

Paper on Reinforced Gravel Foundation for Box Culvert Construction on
Soft and Subsiding Ground. Geosynthetics International Vol. 2, no. 2.

Okeola, O. (2012) Civil Engineering Practices. A monograph of basic

Civil Engineering Practice. Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Ilorin, Nigeria.

Oyenuga, V.O. (2001) Reinforced Concrete Design. Second Edition.

Asros limited, Lagos, Nigeria.

Reynolds, C. E. and Steedman, J. C. (1999) Reinforced Concrete

Designer’s Handbook, 10th edition. E & FN Spon, Taylor & Francis
Group 11 New Fetter Lane, London. UK.

Salami, A.W and Sule, B.F. (2009) Establishment of rainfall intensity

model for selected towns in Nigeria based on Sherman equation. 1st
Annual Civil Engineering Conference. Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

Mosley, W. H. and Bungey, J. H. (1987) Reinforced Concrete Design, 3 rd

edition. Macmillan Education Limited, London. UK.

YK consultants (2012) Personal communication. 17b, Awolowo road,

Bodija, Ibadan.
53
APPENDIX

54
Slab Detailing
5000 mm

A A

4400 mm

30Y20 02 - 175B

16Y10 02 - 300B
Fig. A-1 Top slab reinforcement detail

5000 mm

A A

4400 mm

34Y20 01 - 150B

16Y10 01 - 300B
Fig. A-2 Bottom slab reinforcement detail

55
Reinforcement Detailing

Main bars Y-20 @ 175mm c/c spacing Distribution bars Y-10 @ 300mm c/c spacing
A B C

Main bars Y-20 @ 150mm c/c spacing

Distribution bars Y-10 @ 300mm c/c spacing

Fig. A-3 Section A-A

Fig. A-4 Three dimensional model of the culvert reinforcement

56
 Fig. A-5 3-D view of the twin-cell concrete box culvert

Fig. A-6 View exposing the reinforcement in the concrete

57
Fig. A-7 Reinforcement arrangement in the culvert

Fig. A-8 Isometric view showing the culvert outline

58
 Fig. A-9 Culvert front view

Fig. A-10 Culvert side view

Fig. A-11 Culvert top view showing concrete and reinforcement

59
Fig. A-12 Inlet control nomograph

60