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MAE 493N/593T
Dr. Konstantinos A. Sierros
West Virginia University
Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
ESB Annex 263
kostas.sierros@mail.wvu.edu
Project list
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Project title
Friction
Laws of friction
1. The friction force is proportional to the normal load
2. The friction force is independent of the apparent area of contact
3. The friction force is independent of the sliding velocity
Friction
Hard surface
Adhesion Deformation
Soft surface
Simple theory suggests that μ depends on
hardness and shear strength of the softer
material
Junction growth
• Islands of true contact can enlarge
• Generation of shear strength at these islands
Individual asperities deform under the combined
loading of normal and shear stresses
If local shear stress increases then the associated
normal pressure to maintain junction plasticity
reduces
If load stays the same, a reduction in pressure is
balanced by an increase in the true contact area
so that the junction must ‘grow’
Junction growth
• A single metallic asperity is loaded normally in contact
against a hard counterface with a mean pressure pm W
W
pm =
A
• At some value of pm plastic behaviour will be initiated
and this can be related to shear stress material flow h
Contact area A
pm = a2 h
Constant depending on contact geometry and yield criterion
(generally equal to around 30‐32)
W
• We can now suppose that a tangential force F is applied F
to the contact, producing a uniform shear stress τ at the
interface
Junction growth
• We can now suppose that a tangential force F is applied
to the contact, producing a uniform shear stress τ at the
W
interface
• From both experimental and theoretical observations F
the following condition describes continued plastic flow in
the material τ
p 2 + a1τ 2 = a 2 h 2
required value for
normal pressure Another constant
(maybe not equal to α2)
• Under these high frictional conditions, there is significant
junction growth and μ can increase to very large values
τ m m = τ/h (called friction factor and
μ= = represents the relative strength of the
p 1 − m 2 a1 / a 2 interface)
Therefore, as m increases (i.e. adhesion increases) the coefficient of friction μ
increases
Junction growth
De contaminating
surfaces by
heating them Re contaminating the junction –
oxide patches form in the
junction – reduce τ – lower μ
~0.4 for normal
atmospheric
condition
Junction growth – Friction pairs
Deformation
• Two surfaces slide against each other under dry conditions
• Scoring and surface damage is observed on at least one of them
• A force that initiates or maintains tangential motion and therefore contributes to
the frictional force and to the coefficient of friction (plastic work gone into
ploughing deformation)
• The above force is added to the adhesional effects in order to describe the
surface interactions
Polished surface of polycrystalline silver
• Modeling a surface asperity as a cone or as a sphere
• A groove will be formed on the surface (ploughing effort of the asperity)
F = A′ × p ′
Tangential force to Pressure needed to
create the groove Cross‐sectional displace material in
area of groove the surface
Deformation
w2
For a cone F= × p′
cot ϑ
⎧
⎪ w w w 2 ⎫⎪
For a sphere F = R ⎨arcsin − 1− ⎬ × p′
2
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
2
2 R 2 R 4 R
Deformation
πw 2
For a cone W= cot 2 ϑ × H
2
W is normal load
H is hardness of surface
πw 2
For a sphere W= ×H
4
Deformation – Coefficient of ploughing friction
F
• But we know that; μ=
W
2 p′
For a cone μ = tan ϑ ×
π H
⎧
2 ⎪⎛ 2 R ⎞
2
w ⎛ 2R ⎞
2 ⎫⎪ p ′
For a sphere μ = ⎨⎜ ⎟ arcsin − ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ ×
π ⎪⎝ w ⎠ 2R ⎝ w ⎠ ⎪ H
⎩ ⎭
Deformation – Coefficient of ploughing friction
• For a conical asperity and assuming p’= H, the coefficient of friction depends only
on θ
• For a spherical asperity, coefficient of friction depends on w/2R (i.e. it changes as
the asperity goes deeper in the surface)
For quite rough surfaces the angle is
less than 10o and the contribution of
the ploughing frictional component is
less than 0.1
For w/2R>0.2, the ploughing friction
component makes a significant
contribution to overall friction
Deformation – Coefficient of ploughing friction
⎧
2 ⎪⎛ 2 R ⎞
2
w ⎛ 2R ⎞
2 ⎫⎪ p ′
For a sphere μ = ⎨⎜ ⎟ arcsin − ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ ×
π ⎪⎝ w ⎠ 2R ⎝ w ⎠ ⎪ H
⎩ ⎭
If R>>w (track width)
4 W
μ≈
3πR πH
• Therefore, for a spherical asperity of a given size R carrying a fixed normal load
W, the contribution to the overall μ due to ploughing is proportional to 1/√H
• The above is important for softer materials
Friction of metals
• The friction of pure metals sliding against themselves in air is determined by the
presence of surface oxides
• If the surface oxide remains intact during sliding, surface damage is slight and μ is
determined by the oxide surface
• Coefficient of friction increases when oxide layer is removed at higher loads
• In general, μ for an alloy is less than that of its pure components
• Sliding friction of steels: μ varies with composition, microstructure and often
depends on load
0.4%C – At low loads the uppermost layer
Fe2O3 remains intact.
As load increases, layer is removed and a
transition of μ is observed
I.M. Hutchings Tribology book
Effect of temperature of friction of metals
• When temperature increases during sliding of metals Cubic close‐packed
‐ Their mechanical properties change
‐ Their rate of oxidation increases
‐ Phase transformations may take place
Sliding in ultra high vacuum
Frictional behaviour is influenced
• Transitions are observed for ccp Body centered cubic
and bcc metals
• No transitions for hcp metals but
more ductile metals exhibit higher
friction (Ti, Zr)
Hexagonal close packed
Effect of temperature of friction of metals
• At high temperatures one of the surfaces may become molten
• Its shear strength decreases and the friction force drops to a low value
• This occurs in the sliding of metals at very high speeds (>100m/s)
• This same phenomenon is observed in the sliding of a ski over ice/snow
• In both cases the dissipation of frictional work generates local heat and raise the
temperature at the interface to the melting point
• Therefore, conditions of effective hydrodynamic lubrication are taking place
Friction of rubbers and elastomers
• When a rigid counterface with a smooth
surface and a large radius of curvature slides
against a rubber surface – Adhesion becomes
important
• Relative motion at the interface is due to
‘waves of detachment’ which flow across the
contact patch from the leading edge
• These waves are called Schallamach waves
• μ can be as high as 2
Friction of rubbers and elastomers
• When the radius of curvature of the
slider becomes small (needle like), the
asperity penetrate deeply into the rubber,
no cutting occurs because failure is
prevented by adhesional effects
• The rubber tears at right angles to the
direction of maximum stress (doted line)
• ASTM D‐2228 (fig 4.12b) – Rubber
Abrasion Resistance Test
Polymer friction
• Unlike metals, polymers exhibit low bulk moduli and increase their density
significantly under the action of hydrostatic pressure
Change in intermolecular spacing
h = ho + ap A ∝ W 2 / n ,2 < n < 3
F = h× A Mostly true
For n>2, as W increases we for thin
F should expect μ to decrease
μ = = hoW ( 2− n ) / n + a polymer
W layers
Polymer friction
Polymer friction‐effect of temperature
• At low temperatures polymers behave in a brittle manner (they posses some degree
of crystallinity)
• At higher temperatures they soften, they lose any crystallinity and become
amorphous and glassy (Θg is reached – glass transition temperature)
Friction of ceramics
• Ceramics are in general more stable (thermally, chemically) and harder than metals
• Ceramics of tribological interest include:
‐ Al2O3
‐ Si3N4
Made from powders
‐ SiC
‐ ZrO2
Friction of ceramics
Friction of ceramics
• Because of their brittle nature, various types of cracks are generated by friction in
the vicinity of the friction track
• Radial cracks and lateral cracks are formed during loading and unloading phases
Summary
• Adhesion component of friction
• Deformation component of friction
• Metals
• Elastomers and rubbers General discussion of
• Polymers Frictional behaviour
• Ceramics